Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.

Unit 1- Fundamentals of Computer Organization

& Digital Electronics

Basic Organization of Computers

● Any computer can perform the four basic operations of Input, Processing,
Output, and Storage (IPOS). These operations constitute the IPOS cycle.
● The internal design or structure of a computer may differ from one system
to another though the basic operations remain the same.
● Figure provides a block diagram of a computer. The figure displays all the
functional units of a computer which carry out the basic computer
operations.
● The lines in the figure indicate the flow of instructions and data, while the
Control Unit and the Arithmetic/Logical Unit together direct the flow of
control in the central processing unit.

Input Unit
● Data and instructions are entered into the computer through the input
unit to get processed into information.
● Input devices like the keyboard, the mouse, or the microphone are used to
enter the data.
● The data is entered in various forms depending on the type of input
devices. For instance, a keyboard can be used to input characters,
numbers, and certain symbols; a mouse is a device that has an on-screen
pointer that enables the users to select items and choose options; a
microphone can be used if the user wishes to enter instructions by making
a voice entry.
● Regardless of the ways in which the input devices receive the inputs, the
input interfaces convert them into binary codes, i.e., 0s and 1s, as the

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 1

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

primary memory of the computer is designed to accept data only in this

format.
● Several advancements can be seen in input devices with devices like
cordless keyboards, optical mouse, laser mouse, cordless mouse, etc.,
being introduced in the market.
Central Processing Unit
● The actual processing of the data is carried out in the Central Processing
Unit (CPU), which is the brain of computer.
● The CPU stores the data and instructions in the primary memory of the
computer, called the Random Access Memory (RAM) and processes them
from this location.
● The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU) are the two
subcomponents of the CPU. The ALU carries out the arithmetic and logical
operations while the CU retrieves the information from the storage unit
and interprets this information.
● The CPU also consists of circuitry devices called cache and registers.
Arithmetic logic unit
● The data and instructions stored in the RAM are transferred to the ALU for
processing. The ALU performs the logical and the arithmetic operations on
the data and the results are temporarily stored in the RAM.
● After the processing, the final results are stored in the secondary memory,
i.e., the storage unit, and are released through an output device.
Control unit
● The CU obtains the program instructions stored in the primary memory of
the computer, interprets them, and issues signals that result in their
execution.
● It helps in maintaining order and directs the operations of the entire
system. It selects, interprets, and ensures the proper execution of the
program instructions.

Processors
Some computers use more than one processor for processing in order to reduce
the load on a single processor.
Output Unit
● The output unit passes on the final results of computation to the users
through the output devices like the monitor, printer, etc.
● A monitor displays the final results of the processed data on the screen
while a printer can be used for obtaining the output in a printed format.
● These output devices link the computer with the users. The output
interfaces convert the binary code produced by the computer into the
human-readable form.
Storage Unit
● Before the actual processing takes place, the data and instructions that
enter the computer system have to be stored internally. Also, the final

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 2

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

results generated by the computer after processing has to be stored before

being sent to the output unit.
● The storage unit of a computer system is designed to store the data
generated at various stages of processing. Storage media like hard disks,
floppy disks, etc., aid in storing the data in various forms. The hard disk is
an integral part of the computer system.
● It is also referred to as hard drive, disk drive, or hard disk drive. The hard
disk provides a large amount of storage space for the programs and data.
Computers these days feature a hard disk that has several gigabytes of
storage capacity.
● The floppy disk drives, CD-ROM/CD-RW drives, DVD drives, and USB ports
enable the user to store and exchange data with others using storage
media like floppy disks, compact discs (CDs), digital video discs (DVDs), and
pen drives.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 3

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

Micro , MINI, Mainframe, And Super Computer

Different Types of Computers are covered in this Blog

1. Micro Computers:

The smallest among them are micro computers. They are small in physical size
(most of them are desktop system; however, notebook micro computers that can
fit into a briefcase are also available). They are economical in terms of costs and
are friendly in use. Personal com­puters (PCs) fall into this category.
These computers can be used for small data processing jobs of bigger
companies or serve as complete computer systems for small firms. PC can also
be connected with bigger computers and be used as an intelligent terminal to a
bigger computer. The details regarding their applications in business are
included in the last section of this topic.

2. Mini computers:

Mini computers are very popular among medium sized compa­nies. Mini
computers offer facilities for faster processing of volumi­nous information. Mini
computers, of course, are bigger than micro­computers but smaller than most of
their elders called mainframes.

They cost somewhere between Rs. 5 to 15 lac depending upon the configuration.
However, these prices are only indicative and are sub­ject to substantial changes
over time. The mini computers like VAX 8000 series from Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) and AS/400 series from IBM have been quite popular in
computer aided manu­facturing, as well as departmental computers.
They have also been used extensively as gateways between mainframe networks
and as main servers for local area networks of microcomputers.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 4

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

Micro , MINI, Mainframe, and Super computer

3. Mainframes:

Mainframes are bigger computers, capable of handling data processing needs of,
say, head office of a bank, or a big multinational company or may be a public
utility office. Mainframe computer sys­tems have larger storage and the speed of
processing is also very high.
They also offer the advantage of wider choice with regard to up-gradation of the
system in future. They offer features such as par­allel processing. The parallel
processing involves combining a large number of processors that break down an
application into many sepa­rate parts in order to enhance processing speed.
The speed of process­ing is expressed in terms of 10 to 100 millions of instructions
per second (MIPS), and cost somewhere between 1 to 5 million dollars depending
upon the configuration. IBM still holds almost 80 per cent of mainframe market
with its popular mainframe series IBM Sys­tem 390.
The mainframe popularity has fallen due to emergence of micro computers and
popularity of client server technology. How­ever, they still find niche markets in
large volume data processing requirements such as central database servers.
Super computers are on the higher end of mainframe comput­ers. They offer
tremendous computing power and are being used primarily in scientific research
and forecasting. For example, Cray T3E-900 series of computers are packed with
computing powers that are incomparable to any big mainframe.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 5

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

4. Supercomputers:

Supercomputers have a speed of between 100 to 900 MIPS. They are quite
expensive and cost somewhere around 10-30 million dollars depending upon the
configuration. The other competitors of Cray supercomputers are machines from
NEC of Japan.

The above differences are primarily on the basis of three basic factors, namely,
1. The primary storage capacity,
2. Speed of processing data, and
3. Ability to support different input, output and mass storage de­vices
such as printers, tape drives, etc.
These features are inter-dependent and faster computers will or­dinarily have
large memory sizes and shall have facility to use a large number of sophisticated
input-output devices. The speed of a computer system depends, partly, on the
memory size, and the number and type of input-output devices connected to it.
The lines of demar­cation between these categories of computers are very thin.

Micro , MINI, Mainframe, and Super computer

As may be noticed from Fig, there are common areas between two adjoining
rectangles. These areas represent the fact that the higher end of smaller
computer system may have the capacities equivalent to lower end of bigger
computer system.

For example, a highly configured micro computer may be as good as smaller

minicomputer. The same is true for a mini computer and the mainframe. Only a
few years ago, computers could be distinguished on the ba­sis of amount of
primary memory or speed of processing. These bases are no longer valid for
classification.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 6

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

The distinctions are changing and some of them are fast .dying out as a result of
advancements in hardware technologies. In each category, the buyer has many
configuration options. With increas­ing competition, sellers are falling on one
another trying to sell con­figurations as high as possible to push up their
revenues.

The innovations like parallel processing using cheaper PC platforms are cut­ting
into the mainframe market. Such parallel processing involves combining of
hundreds of processors that break down an application into many parts in order
to enhance the processing speed.

Micro , MINI, Mainframe, and Super computer

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 7

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

BUS INTERCONNECTION

● A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices. A

key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium.
● Multiple devices connect to the bus, and a signal transmitted by any
one device is available for reception by all other devices attached to the
bus.
● If two devices transmit during the same time period, their signals will
overlap and become garbled. Thus, only one device at a time can
successfully transmit.
● Typically, a bus consists of multiple communication pathways, or lines.
Each line is capable of transmitting signals representing binary 1 and
binary 0.
● An 8-bit unit of data can be transmitted over eight bus lines. A bus that
connects major computer components (processor, memory, I/O) is
called a system bus.

BUS STRUCTURE

● Each line is assigned a particular meaning or function.

● The lines can be classified into 3 functional groups

1. Data line
2.Address line
3.Control line

1. DATA LINE

● Provide a path for moving data between system modules.

● These lines, collectively, are called the data bus
● Data bus may consist of from 32 to 100 separated line
● Each line can carry only one bit at a time

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 8

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

● Number of line in the bus determine the data rate and overall the
system performance

2. ADDRESS LINE

● Used to designate the source or destination of the data on the data bus
● The width of the address bus determines the maximum possible
memory capacity of the system.

3. Control line

● Used to control the access to and the use of the data and address lines
● Since the data and the address line shared by all the components, there
must be a means of controlling their use
● Control signal transmit both commands and timing information
between the modules
● Typical control lines include

1. Memory write
2. Memory read
3. I/O write
4. I/O read
5. Clock
6. Reset
7. Bus request
8. Bus grant
9. Interrupt request
10. Interrupt ACK
11. Transfer ACK

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

● It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect. PCI Bus Architecture
is based on ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) Bus.
● PCI is a local computer bus for attaching hardware devices to a
computer. The PCI bus connects the processor memory subsystem to
the fast devices and an expansion bus that connects relatively slow
devices such as a keyboard and serial and parallel ports. In the upper
right position of the figure: Three devices are connected on a SCSI bus
that is plugged into a SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
controller.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 9

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

● A controller is a collection of electronics that can operate a port, a bus,

or a device. A serial port controller is an example of a single device
controller. It is a single chip in a computer that controls the signals on
the wires of a serial port.
● The controller has one or more registers for data and control signals.
The processor communicates with the controller by reading and writing
bit patterns in those registers

Function of PCI :
● PCI slots are utilized to install sound cards, Ethernet and remote cards
and presently strong state drives utilizing NVMe innovation to supply
SSD drive speeds that are numerous times speedier than SATA SSD
speeds. PCI openings too permit discrete design cards to be included to
a computer as well.
● PCI openings (and their variations) permit you to include expansion
cards to a motherboard. The extension cards increment the machines
capabilities past what the motherboard may create alone, such as:
upgraded illustrations, extended sound, expanded USB and difficult
drive controller, and extra arrange interface options, to title a couple of.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 10

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

Advantage of PCI :

● You’ll interface a greatest of five components to the PCI and you’ll be

able moreover supplant each of them by settled gadgets on the
motherboard.
● You have different PCI buses on the same computer.
● The PCI transport will improve the speed of the exchanges from 33MHz
to 133 MHz with a transfer rate of 1 gigabyte per second.
● The PCI can handle gadgets employing a greatest of 5 volts and the
pins utilized can exchange more that one flag through one stick.

Instruction Cycle
A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence
of instructions. These instructions are executed by the processor by going
through a cycle for each instruction.
In a basic computer, each instruction cycle consists of the following phases:
1. Fetch instruction from memory.
2. Decode the instruction.
3. Read the effective address from memory.
4. Execute the instruction.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 11

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

Interrupts

The interrupt is a signal emitted by hardware or software when a

process or an event needs immediate attention. It alerts the processor to a
high-priority process requiring interruption of the current working process. In
I/O devices one of the bus control lines is dedicated for this purpose and is
called the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).

When a device raises an interrupt at let’s say process i, the processor

first completes the execution of instruction i. Then it loads the Program
Counter (PC) with the address of the first instruction of the ISR. Before
loading the Program Counter with the address, the address of the
interrupted instruction is moved to a temporary location. Therefore, after
handling the interrupt the processor can continue with process i+1.

While the processor is handling the interrupts, it must inform the

device that its request has been recognized so that it stops sending the
interrupt request signal. Also, saving the registers so that the interrupted
process can be restored in the future, increases the delay between the time
an interrupt is received and the start of the execution of the ISR. This is called
Interrupt Latency.

Hardware Interrupts:
In a hardware interrupt, all the devices are connected to the Interrupt
Request Line. A single request line is used for all the n devices. To request an
interrupt, a device closes its associated switch. When a device requests an
interrupt, the value of INTR is the logical OR of the requests from individual
devices.

The sequence of events involved in handling an IRQ:

1. Devices raise an IRQ.
2. The processor interrupts the program currently being executed.
3. The device is informed that its request has been recognized and the
device deactivates the request signal.
4. The requested action is performed.
5. An interrupt is enabled and the interrupted program is resumed.

Handling Multiple Devices:

When more than one device raises an interrupt request signal, then
additional information is needed to decide which device to be considered
first. The following methods are used to decide which device to select:

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 12

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

Polling, Vectored Interrupts, and Interrupt Nesting. These are explained as

following below.

● Polling: In polling, the first device encountered with the IRQ bit set is
the device that is to be serviced first. Appropriate ISR is called to service
the same. It is easy to implement but a lot of time is wasted by
interrogating the IRQ bit of all devices.
● Vectored Interrupts: In vectored interrupts, a device requesting an
interrupt identifies itself directly by sending a special code to the
processor over the bus. This enables the processor to identify the device
that generated the interrupt. The special code can be the starting
address of the ISR or where the ISR is located in memory and is called
the interrupt vector.
● Interrupt Nesting: In this method, the I/O device is organized in a
priority structure. Therefore, an interrupt request from a higher priority
device is recognized whereas a request from a lower priority device is
not. The processor accepts interrupts only from devices/processes
having priority.

Processors’ priority is encoded in a few bits of PS (Process Status

register). It can be changed by program instructions that write into the PS.
The processor is in supervised mode only while executing OS routines. It
switches to user mode before executing application programs.

Types of Interrupts:

Although interrupts have highest priority than other signals, there are many
type of interrupts but basic type of interrupts are

1. Hardware Interrupts: If the signal for the processor is from external

device or hardware is called hardware interrupts. Example: from
keyboard we will press the key to do some action this pressing of key in
keyboard will generate a signal which is given to the processor to do
action, such interrupts are called hardware interrupts. Hardware
interrupts can be classified into two types they are
○ Maskable Interrupt: The hardware interrupts which can be
delayed when a much highest priority interrupt has occurred to
the processor.
○ Non Maskable Interrupt: The hardware which cannot be delayed
and should process by the processor immediately.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 13

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain C.O.E

2. Software Interrupts: Software interrupt can also divided in to two

types. They are
○ Normal Interrupts: the interrupts which are caused by the
software instructions are called software instructions.
○ Exception: unplanned interrupts while executing a program is
called Exception. For example: while executing a program if we
got a value which should be divided by zero is called a exception.

Prepared by: Prof. D. J. Pawar 14