FRANCIS XAVIER SCHOOL (CBSE) XI CHEMISTRY

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

1)Explain the formation of a chemical bond.

A chemical bond is defined as an attractive force that holds the constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together in
a chemical species.
According to Kossel and Lewis, atoms combine together in order to complete their respective octets
so as to acquire the stable inert gas configuration. This can occur in two ways; by transfer of one or more
electrons from one atom to other or by sharing of electrons between two or more atoms.
Various theories have been suggested for the formation of chemical bonds such as the electronic
theory, valence shell electron pair repulsion theory, valence bond theory, and molecular orbital theory.
2)Write Lewis dot symbols for atoms of the following elements: Mg, Na, B, O, N, Br.

3)Write Lewis symbols for the following atoms and ions: S and S2–; Al and Al3+; H and H–

(i) S and S2–

The number of valence electrons in sulphur is 6.The Lewis dot symbol of sulphur (S) is.
The dinegative charge infers that there will be two electrons more in addition to the sixvalence electrons.

Hence, the Lewis dot symbol of S2– is .

(ii) Al and Al3+

The number of valence electrons in aluminium is 3.The Lewis dot symbol of aluminium (Al) is.
The tripositive charge on a species infers that it has donated its three electrons. Hence,the Lewis dot

symbol is .

(iii) H and H–

The number of valence electrons in hydrogen is 1.The Lewis dot symbol of hydrogen (H) is .

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The uninegative charge infers that there will be one electron more in addition to the onevalence electron.

Hence, the Lewis dot symbol is .

4)Draw the Lewis structures for the following molecules and ions:H2S, SiCl4, BeF2, CO32-, HCOOH

5)Define octet rule. Write its significance and limitations.

Octet rule: Atoms of elements combine with each other in order to complete their respective octets so as to
acquire the stable gas configuration.
Significance: It helps to explain why different atoms combine with each other to form ionic compounds or
covalent compounds.
Limitations of Octet rule:
 According to Octet rule, atoms take part in chemical combination to achieve the configuration of nearest
noble gas elements. However, some of noble gas elements like Xenon have formed compounds with
fluorine and oxygen. For example: XeF2, XeF4 etc.
Therefore, validity of the octet rule has been challenged.
 This theory does not account for shape of molecules.
6)Write the favourable factors for the formation of ionic bond.
 Low ionization enthalpy of metal atom.
 High electron gain enthalpy of a non-metal atom.

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 High lattice energy of the compound formed.

7)Discuss the shape of the following molecules using the VSEPR model:BeCl2, BCl3, SiCl4, AsF5, H2S,
PH3
BeCl2:

The central atom has no lone pair and there are two bond pairs. i.e., BeCl2 is of the typeAB2. Hence,
it has a linear shape.
BCl3:

The central atom has no lone pair and there are three bond pairs. Hence, it is of the typeAB3. Hence, it is
trigonal planar.
SiCl4:

The central atom has no lone pair and there are four bond pairs. Hence, the shape of SiCl4 is tetrahedral
being the AB4 type molecule.
AsF5:

The central atom has no lone pair and there are five bond pairs. Hence, AsF5 is of the type AB5. Therefore,
the shape is trigonal bipyramidal.

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H2S:

The central atom has one lone pair and there are two bond pairs. Hence, H2S is of the typeAB2E2. The shape
is Bent.
PH3:

The central atom has one lone pair and there are three bond pairs. Hence, PH3 is of theAB3E type.
Therefore, the shape is trigonal bipyramidal.
8) Although geometries of NH3 and H2O molecules are distorted tetrahedral, bond angle inwater is
less than that of ammonia. Discuss.
The molecular geometry of NH3 and H2O can be shown as:

Because of two lone pairs of electrons on O-atom, repulsion on bond pairs is greater in H2O in
comparison to NH3. Thus, the bond angle is less in H2O molecules.
9)How do you express the bond strength in terms of bond order?
Bond strength is directly proportional to the bond order. Greater the bond order, more is the bond
strength.
10)Define the bond length.
Bond length is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded atomsin a molecule.
Bond-lengths are measured by spectroscopic methods.

11) Explain the important aspects of resonance with reference to the ion.
Resonance in C032-, I, II and III represent the three canonical forms.
 In these structures, the position of nuclei are same.
 All three forms have almost equal energy.
 Same number of paired and impaired electrons, they differ only in their position

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12) H3PO3 can be represented by structures 1 and 2 shown below. Can these two structures be
taken as the canonical forms of the resonance hybrid representing H3PO3? If not, give reasons
for the same.

The given structures cannot be taken as the canonical forms of the resonance hybrid of H3PO3
because the positions of the atoms have changed.
13)Write the resonance structures for SO3, NO2 and NO3- .

14)Use Lewis symbols to show electron transfer between the following atoms to form cations and
anions: (a) K and S (b) Ca and O (c) Al and N.

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15)Although both CO2 and H2O are triatomic molecules, the shape of H2O molecule is bent,
while that of CO2 is linear. Explain this on the basis of dipole moment.
In CO2, there are two C=O bonds. Each C=O bond is a polar bond. The net dipole moment of
CO2 molecule is zero. This is possible only if CO2 is a linear molecule. (O=C=O). The bond dipoles of
two C=O bonds cancel the moment of each other. Whereas, H2O molecule has a net dipole moment
(1.84 D). H2O molecule has a bent structure because here the O—H bonds are oriented at an angle of
104.5° and do not cancel the bond moments of each other.
16)Write the significance/applications of dipole moment.
 In predicting the nature of the molecules: Molecules with specific dipole moments are polar in nature and
those of zero dipole moments are non-polar in nature.
 In the determination of shapes of molecules.
 In calculating the percentage ionic character.
17)Define electronegativity. How does it differ from electron gain enthalpy?
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract shared pair of electrons. It is the property of
bonded atom.
Electron gain enthalpy is the tendency of an atom to attract outside electron. It is the property of an
isolated atom.
18)Explain with the help of suitable example polar covalent bond.
When two atoms with different electronegativity are linked to each other by covalent bond, the shared
electron pair will not in the center because of the difference in electronegativity.
Example, HF molecule,
Fluoride has greater electronegativity than hydrogen. Thus, the shared electron pair is displaced more towards
fluorine atom, the later will acquire a partial negative charge (∂–). At the same time hydrogen atom will have a
partial positive charge (∂+). Such a covalent bond is known as polar covalent bond or simply polar bond. It is
represented as

19)Arrange the bonds in order of increasing ionic character in the molecules: LiF, K2O, N2,SO2
and ClF3.
The ionic character in a molecule is dependent upon the electronegativity difference between the
constituting atoms.
N2 < SO2 < ClF3 < K2O < LiF.

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20)The skeletal structure of CH3COOH as shown below is correct, but some of the bonds are
shown incorrectly. Write the correct Lewis structure for acetic acid.

The correct Lewis structure for acetic acid is as follows:

21)Apart from tetrahedral geometry, another possible geometry for CH4 is square planar withthe
four H atoms at the corners of the square and the C atom at its center. Explain why CH4 is not
square planar?
Electronic configuration of carbon atom: 6C: 1s2 2s2 2p2
In the excited state, the orbital picture of carbon can be represented as:

Hence, carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridization in CH4 molecule and takes a tetrahedral shape.

For a square planar shape, the hybridization of the central atom has to be dsp2. However, an atom of

carbon does not have d-orbitals to undergo dsp2 hybridization. Hence,the structure of CH4 cannot be
square planar. Moreover, with a bond angle of 90° in square planar, the stability of CH4 will be very
less because of the repulsion existing between the bond pairs. Hence, VSEPR theory also supports a
tetrahedral structure for CH4.
22)Explain why BeH2 molecule has a zero dipole moment although the Be–H bonds are polar.
BeH2 is a linear molecular (H—Be—H), the bond angle = 180°.
Be—H bonds are polar due to difference in their electronegativity but the bond polarities cancel each
other. Thus, molecule has resultant dipole moment of zero.
23)Which out of NH3 and NF3 has higher dipole moment and why?
In both molecules i.e., NH3 and NF3, the central atom (N) has a lone pair electron and there are

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three bond pairs. Hence, both molecules have a pyramidal shape. Since fluorine is more electronegative
than hydrogen, it is expected that the net dipole moment of NF3 is greater than NH3. However, the net
dipole moment of NH3 (1.46 D) is greater than thatof NF3 (0.24 D).
This can be explained on the basis of the directions of the dipole moments of each individual bond in
NF3 and NH3. These directions can be shown as:

Thus, the resultant moment of the N–H bonds add up to the bond moment of the lone pair(the two being
in the same direction), whereas that of the three N – F bonds partly cancelsthe moment of the lone pair.
Hence, the net dipole moment of NF3 is less than that of NH3.

24)What is meant by hybridisation of atomic orbitals? Describe the shapes of sp, sp2, sp3
hybrid orbitals.
Hybridisation is defined as the process of intermixing of atomic oribitals of slightly different
energies to give rise to new hybridized orbitals having equivalent energy and identical shapes.
Shape of sp hybrid orbitals: sp hybrid orbitals have a linear shape. They are formed bythe intermixing
of s and p orbitals as:

Shape of sp2 hybrid orbitals: sp2 hybrid orbitals are formed as a result of the intermixing of one s-orbital
and two 2porbitals. The hybrid orbitals are oriented in a trigonal planar arrangement as:

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Shape of sp3 hybrid orbitals:

Four sp3 hybrid orbitals are formed by intermixing one s-orbital with three p-orbitals.The four sp3
hybrid orbitals are arranged in the form of a tetrahedron as:

25)Describe the change in hybridisation (if any) of the Al atom in the following reaction.

The valence orbital picture of aluminium in the ground state can be represented as:
The orbital picture of aluminium in the excited state can be represented as:

Hence, it undergoes sp2 hybridization to give a trigonal planar arrangement (in AlCl3). To form AlCl –,

the empty 3pz orbital

4 also gets involved and the hybridization changes from sp2 to sp3. As a result, the
shape gets changed to tetrahedral.
26)Is there any change in the hybridisation of B and N atoms as a result of the following
reaction? BF3 + NH3 → F3B.NH3
Boron atom in BF3 is sp2 hybridized. The orbital picture of boron in the excited state canbe shown as:

Nitrogen atom in NH3 is sp3 hybridized. The orbital picture of nitrogen can be representedas:

After the reaction has occurred, an adduct F3B.NH3 is formed as hybridization of ‘B’ changes to sp3.
However, the hybridization of ‘N’ remains intact.

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27)Draw diagrams showing the formation of a double bond and a triple bond between carbon
atoms in C2H4 and C2H2 molecules.
C2H4:
The electronic configuration of C-atom in the excited state is:

In the formation of an ethane molecule (C2H4), one sp2 hybrid orbital of carbon overlaps a

sp2 hybridized orbital of another carbon atom, thereby forming a C-C sigma bond.

The remaining two sp2 orbitals of each carbon atom form a sp2-s sigma bond with two hydrogen
atoms. The unhybridized orbital of one carbon atom undergoes sidewise overlap with the orbital of a
similar kind present on another carbon atom to form a weak π-bond.
C2H2:
In the formation of C2H2 molecule, each C–atom is sp hybridized with two 2p-orbitals in an
unhybridized state.
One sp orbital of each carbon atom overlaps with the other along the internuclear axis forming a C–C
sigma bond. The second sp orbital of each C–atom overlaps a half-filled 1s-orbital to form a σ bond.
The two unhybridized 2p-orbitals of the first carbon undergo sidewise overlap with the 2p orbital of
another carbon atom, thereby forming two pi (π) bonds between carbon atoms. Hence, the triple bond
between two carbon atoms is made up of one sigma and two π- bonds.

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28)What is the total number of sigma and pi bonds in the following molecules?(a) C2H2 (b) C2H4
Structure of C2H2 can be represented as:

Hence, there are three sigma and two pi-bonds in C2H2.

Structure of C2H4 can be represented as:

Hence, there are five sigma bonds and one pi-bond in C2H4.
29)Considering x-axis as the internuclear axis which out of the following will not form a sigma bond
and why?
(a) 1s and 1s (b) 1s and 2px (c) 2py and 2py (d) 1s and 2s.
Reason:2py and 2py orbitals will not a form a sigma bond. Taking x-axis as the internuclear axis,2py
and 2py orbitals will undergo lateral overlapping, thereby forming a pi (π) bond
30)Which hybrid orbitals are used by carbon atoms in the following molecules?
(a)CH3CH3; (b) CH3–CH=CH2; (c) CH3-CH2-OH; (d) CH3-CHO (e) CH3COOH
(a)

Both C1 and C2 are sp3 hybridized.

(b)

C1 is sp3 hybridized, while C2 and C3 are sp2 hybridized.

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(c)

Both C1 and C2 are sp3 hybridized.

(d)

C1 is sp3 hybridized and C2 is sp2 hybridized.

(e)

C1 is sp3 hybridized and C2 is sp2 hybridized.

31)What do you understand by bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons? Illustrate by giving one
example of each type.
When two atoms combine by sharing their one or more valence electrons, a covalent bond is formed
between them.
The shared pairs of electrons present between the bonded atoms are called bond pairs. The electron
pairs that do not participate in bonding are called lone pairs of electrons.
For example,
In H2O, there are two bond pairs and two lone pairs on the central atom (oxygen).

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32) Distinguish between a sigma and a pi bond.

Sigma (σ) Bond Pi (π) Bond

(a) It is formed by the end to endoverlap of It is formed by the lateral overlap of

orbitals. orbitals.
(b) The orbitals involved in the These bonds are formed by the overlap of
overlapping are s–s, s–p, or p–p. p–p orbitals only.
(c) It is a strong bond. It is weak bond.

(d) The electron cloud is symmetricalabout The electron cloud is not symmetrical.
the line joining the two nuclei.
(e) It consists of one electron cloud, which is There are two electron clouds lying above
symmetrical about the internuclear axis. and below the plane of the atomic nuclei.
(f) Free rotation about σ bonds is Rotation is restricted in case of pi-bonds.
possible.
33)Explain the formation of H2 molecule on the basis of valence bond theory.
Let us consider the combination between atoms of hydrogen HA and HB and eA and eB be their
respective electrons.
As they tend to come closer, two different forces operate between the nucleus and the electron of the
other and vice versa. The nuclei of the atoms as well as their electrons repel each other. Energy is needed to
overcome the force of repulsion. Although the number of new attractive and repulsive forces is the same,
but the magnitude of the attractive forces is more. Thus, when two hydrogen atoms approach each other,
the overall potential energy of the system decreases. Thus, a stable molecule of hydrogen is formed.

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34)Write the important conditions required for the linear combination of atomic orbitals toform
molecular orbitals.
(a)The combining atomic orbitals should have comparable energies.
For example, Is orbital of one atom can combine with Is atomic orbital of another atom, 2s can
combine with 2s.
(b) The combining atomic orbitals must have proper orientations to ensure that the overlapis maximum.
(c) The extent of overlapping should be large.
35)Use molecular orbital theory to explain why the Be2 molecule does not exist.

36) Compare the relative stability of the following species and indicate their magnetic
properties: O2, O2+, O2– (Superoxide), O22- (peroxide)
O2 is Bond order = 2, paramagnetic
O2+ is Bond order = 2.5, paramagnetic
O2– is Bond order = 1.5, paramagnetic
O22- is Bond order = 1, diamagnetic
Order of relative stability is
O2+ > O2 > O2– > O22-
(2.5) (2.0) (1.5) (1.0)
37)Write the significance of a plus and a minus sign shown in representing the orbitals.
Molecular orbitals are represented by wave functions. A plus sign in an orbital indicates a positive
wave function while a minus sign in an orbital represents a negative wave function.
38)Describe the hybridisation in case of PCl5. Why are the axial bonds longer as compared to
equatorial bonds?
The ground state and excited state outer electronic configurations of phosphorus (Z = 15)are:

Ground state:

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Excited state:

Phosphorus atom is sp3d hybridized in the excited state. These orbitals are filled by theelectron pairs
donated by five Cl atoms as: PCl5

The five sp3d hybrid orbitals are directed towards the five corners of the trigonalbipyramidals. Hence, the
geometry of PCl5 can be represented as:

There are five P–Cl sigma bonds in PCl5. Three P–Cl bonds lie in one plane and make anangle of 120°
with each other. These bonds are called equatorial bonds.
The remaining two P–Cl bonds lie above and below the equatorial plane and make an angleof 90° with
the plane. These bonds are called axial bonds.
As the axial bond pairs suffer more repulsion from the equatorial bond pairs, axial bondsare slightly
longer than equatorial bonds
39)Define hydrogen bond. Is it weaker or stronger than the van der Waals forces?
When hydrogen is attached with highly electronegative element in a covalent bonding
the electrons of the covalent bond are shifted towards the more electronegative atom. Thus, a
partially positively charged hydrogen atom forms a bond with the other more electronegative
atom. This bond is known as a hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bond is stronger than the van der
Waals forces.
40) What is meant by the term bond order? Calculate the bond order of N2, O2,O2+,O2–
Bond order is defined as the half of the difference between the number of electrons present in
bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals.

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