Chapter #3

Language and Definitions

Language : In logic, the term "language" typically refers to a formal system of
symbols and rules used to represent and manipulate information. More specifically,
in the context of formal logic, a language consists of:
1. Alphabet
2. Syntax
3. Semantics 4. proof Theory:
5. Model Theory
From book

We may say that language has three major functions:

1. Informative

2. Expressive

3. Directive

To these we may add less common types of use:

4. Ceremonial language (as when we say, “How do you do?” upon being

Introduced to a stranger), in which words may combine expressive and other

functions; and

4. Performative language (as when we say, “I apologize for my foolish

remark”), in which words themselves serve, when spoken or written, to perform
the function they announce. Other examples are “I congratulate you, . . .” “I accept
your offer, . . .” and “I promise you that. . . .
1. Informative: This is when we use language to give information or share facts.
For example, telling someone about the weather or explaining how something
works.

2. Expressive: This is when we use language to express our feelings, emotions,

or opinions. It's how we show happiness, sadness, excitement, or anger through
words.

3. Directive: This is when we use language to give commands, make requests, or

ask for things. It's how we tell someone to do something, ask for help, or give
instructions.
Uses of language:
1.neutral use
2.emotive use Neutral Use:

Definition: Neutral use of language involves the straightforward communication of

information without the influence of emotion, bias, or personal opinion. It aims to
convey facts, descriptions, or statements in a dispassionate and objective manner.
Characteristics:
Clarity: Neutral language strives for clarity and precision in conveying information.
Objectivity: It presents information without personal bias or emotional influence.
Focus on Facts: Neutral language emphasizes factual accuracy and avoids subjective
interpretation or judgment.
Example: "The population of the city increased by 10% last year."

Emotive Use:

Definition: Emotive use of language involves the intentional infusion of emotion, bias,
or personal opinion into communication. It aims to evoke specific feelings or reactions
in the audience, often to persuade or manipulate their attitudes or beliefs.
Characteristics:
Emotional Tone: Emotive language carries an emotional tone or conveys subjective
feelings.
Persuasion: It seeks to influence the audience's emotions, attitudes, or behavior.
Subjectivity: Emotive language may express personal opinions, preferences, or biases.
Example: "The breathtaking beauty of the sunset filled our hearts with joy and awe."
In practical terms, neutral use of language is often preferred in formal contexts such as
academic writing, scientific research, legal documents, and technical reports, where
objectivity and factual accuracy are paramount. On the other hand, emotive use of
language is commonly found in persuasive writing, advertising, political speeches,
literature, and creative expression, where the goal is to elicit an emotional response or
convey subjective experiences.

Understanding the distinction between neutral and emotive use of language is

important for effective communication and critical analysis, as it allows individuals to
recognize when language is being employed to convey information objectively versus
when it is being used to persuade or manipulate through emotional appeal.

What is dispute?
In logic, a dispute is when people disagree about something and argue their points.
Logic helps us understand and analyze these arguments to figure out who is making
sense and who isn't. It's about finding the truth by examining the evidence and the
reasons people give for their beliefs.

In logic, there are two types of disputes:

1. Verbal Dispute: This happens when people argue over the meaning of words
or how they're used, rather than disagreeing about the actual issue.

2. Genuine Dispute: This occurs when there's a real difference in opinions or

beliefs about an issue, and it's not just about the way words are defined or used.

Definition : In logic, a definition is a statement that explains the meaning of a term or

concept. Definitions are crucial in logical reasoning because they establish precise
meanings for the terms used in arguments and discussions, helping to avoid ambiguity
and ensuring clear communication.

5 The Structure of Definitions:

Extension and Intension
Structure of definition:
1. Extension:
• The extension of a term refers to the set of all individual entities or members
that the term applies to.
• It represents the actual objects, individuals, or instances that fall under the
definition of the term.
• The extension is sometimes called the "extensional meaning" of the term.
• Example: The extension of the term "cat" includes all specific cats in the
world.

Extension (book definition )

The collection of all the objects to which a term may correctly be applied.
 A. Extension and Denotative Definitions
Denotative definition
A definition that identifies the extension of a term, by (for example)
listing the members of the class of objects to which the term refers. An
extensional definition.
Ostensive definition
A kind of denotative definition in which the objects denoted by the term being
defined are referred to by means of pointing, or with some other gesture;
sometimes called a demonstrative definition. Quasi-ostensive definition
A variety of denotative definition that relies upon gesture, in conjunction with a
descriptive phrase.
2. Intension:
• The intension of a term refers to the set of attributes, qualities, or
characteristics that define or describe the term.
• It represents the essential properties or features that are shared by all
members of the term's extension.
• The intension is sometimes called the "intentional meaning" or "connotation"
of the term.
• Example: The intension of the term "cat" includes attributes like being a
mammal, having fur, whiskers, and being carnivorous.
Intension
The attributes shared by all and only the objects in the class that a given term denotes;
the connotation of the term

B. Intension and Intensional Definitions

Subjective intension
The set of all attributes that the speaker believes to be possessed by objects
denoted by a given term.

Objective intension
The total set of attributes shared by all the objects in the extension of a term.
Conventional intension
 The commonly accepted intension of a term; the criteria generally agreed upon for
deciding, with respect to any object, whether it is part of the extension of that term.
Synonymous definition
A kind of connotative definition in which a word, phrase or symbol is defined in
terms of another word, phrase or symbol that has the same meaning and is
already understood.
Operational definition
A kind of connotative definition that states that the term to be defined is correctly
applied to a given case if and only if the performance of specified operations in
that case yields a specified result.
Definition by genus and difference
A type of connotative definition of a term that first identifies the larger class
(“genus”) of which the definiendum is a species or subclass, and then identifies
the attribute (“difference”) that distinguishes the members of that species from
members of all other species in that genus.

In appraising proposed definitions by genus and difference, especially when they are
intended as lexical, there are five good rules that have b
Rule 1: A definition should state the essential attributes of the species.
Rule 2: A definition must not be circular.
Rule 3: A definition must be neither too broad nor too narrow.
Rule 4: Ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language must not be used in a definition.
Rule 5: A definition should not be negative when it can be affirmative.

1. Definitions and Their Uses:

Definiendum
In any definition, the word or symbol being defined.
Definiendum: "Triangle"
Definition: "A triangle is a polygon with three sides." In this
example:
• "Triangle" is the definiendum, as it is the term being defined.
• The definition clarifies the meaning of "triangle" by describing its essential
characteristic: having three sides.

Definiens
In any definition, a symbol or group of symbols that is said to have the same
meaning as the definiendum.
Definiendum: "Rectangle" Definiens: "A quadrilateral with four right angles."
In this example:
• "Rectangle" is the definiendum, the term being defined.
• "A quadrilateral with four right angles" is the definiens, providing the necessary
information to understand what a rectangle is.

Types of definition :
(1) stipulative (2) lexical, (3) précising,(4) theoretical,(5) persuasive.

Detail:
1. Stipulative Definition: This type of definition assigns a specific meaning to a term
for the purposes of a particular discussion or context. It is often used when
introducing new terms or when existing terms are given a specific meaning within
a specialized field. Stipulative definitions do not necessarily reflect common usage
or dictionary definitions but are defined for specific purposes.
2. Lexical Definition: Also known as a dictionary definition, this type of definition
explains the meaning of a term as it is commonly understood in everyday
 language. Lexical definitions aim to capture the commonly accepted usage and
understanding of a word, providing a reference point for communication.
3. Precision Definition: Precision definitions are used to eliminate ambiguity or
vagueness from a term by providing a more precise explanation. These definitions
are necessary when terms have multiple interpretations or when their meaning is
unclear in a given context. Precision definitions aim to provide clarity and
specificity in the understanding of a term.
4. Theoretical Definition: A theoretical definition provides the meaning of a term
within the framework of a particular theory or conceptual framework. These
definitions are used in theoretical discussions and scientific contexts to establish
the meaning of terms within a specific theoretical framework. Theoretical
definitions are often more specialized and may differ from common usage.
5. Persuasive Definition: This type of definition is used to influence attitudes or
beliefs by framing a term in a way that evokes a particular emotional response or
connotation. Persuasive definitions aim to persuade or manipulate rather than to
provide an objective description. They often involve using loaded language or
biased framing to shape perception.