Networking I Lecture Notes

Unit 3: Transmission Basics and

Networking Media

MAGU Faculty of Commerce

Goals of This Unit

• Explain basic data transmission concepts, including

full duplexing, attenuation, latency, and noise
• Describe the physical characteristics of coaxial cable,
STP, UTP, and fiber-optic media
• Compare the benefits and limitations of different
networking media
• Explain the principles behind and uses for serial
cables
• Identify wiring standards and the best practices for
cabling buildings and work areas
Transmission Basics

• Transmit
− Issue signals along network medium
• Transmission
− Process of transmitting
− Signal progress after transmitting
• Transceiver
− Transmits and receives signals

3
Analog and Digital Signaling

• One important data transmission

characteristic
− Signaling type: analog or digital
• Volt
− Electrical current pressure
• Electrical signal strength
− Directly proportional to voltage
− Signal voltage
• Once signals leave the computer
− Current, light pulses, electromagnetic waves
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Analog and Digital Signaling
(cont’d.)
• Analog data signals
− Voltage varies continuously
• Fundamental properties of analog signals
− Amplitude
• Measure of strength at given point in time
− Frequency
• Number of times amplitude cycles over fixed time
− Wavelength
• Distance between one peak and the next
− Phase
• Progress of wave over time compared to a fixed point
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Figure 3-1 An example of an analog signal
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Figure 3-2 Waves with a 90 degree phase difference
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Analog and Digital Signaling
(cont’d.)
• Analog signal benefit over digital
− More variable
• Convey greater subtleties with less energy
• Drawback of analog signals
− Varied and imprecise voltage
• Susceptible to transmission flaws
• Digital signals are:
− Pulses of voltages
• Positive voltage represents a 1
• Zero voltage represents a 0
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Figure 3-3 An example of a digital signal
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Figure 3-4 Components of a byte

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Analog and Digital Signaling
(cont’d.)
• Convert byte to decimal number
− Determine value represented by each bit
− Add values
• Convert decimal number to a byte
− Reverse the process
• Convert between binary and decimal
− By hand or calculator

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Analog and Digital Signaling
(cont’d.)
• Digital signal benefit over analog signal
− More reliable
− Less severe noise interference
• Digital signal drawback
− Many pulses required to transmit same information
• Overhead
− Nondata information accompanying data
− Required for proper signal routing and
interpretation
− Example: network layer addressing information

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Data Modulation

• Data relies on digital transmission

• Network connection may handle only analog
signals
• Modem
− Accomplishes translation
− Modulator/demodulator
• Data modulation
− Technology modifying analog signals
− Make data suitable for carrying over
communication path
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Data Modulation (cont’d.)

• Carrier wave
− Combined with another analog signal
− Produces unique signal
• Transmitted from one node to another
− Preset properties
− Purpose: convey information
• Information wave (data wave)
− Added to carrier wave
− Modifies one carrier wave property

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Data Modulation (cont’d.)

• Frequency modulation
− Carrier frequency modified by application of
data signal
• Amplitude modulation
− Carrier signal amplitude modified by
application of data signal
• Digital subscriber line (DSL)
− Also makes use of modulation (later in the
course)

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Figure 3-5 A carrier wave modified through frequency modulation
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Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Duplex

• Simplex
− Signals travel in one direction
• Half-duplex transmission
− Signals travel in both directions
• One at a time
− Shared communication channel
• Full-duplex
− Signals travel in both directions simultaneously
− Used on data networks

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Figure 3-6 Simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex transmission
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Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Duplex
(cont’d.)
• Ethernet networks achieve full-duplex transmission
using multiple channels on the same medium.
• Channel
− Distinct communication path between nodes
− Separated physically or logically
• Full duplex advantage
− Increases speed of data travel
• Some modems and NICs allow specifying half- or
full-duplex communication
− Modern NICs use full duplex by default

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Multiplexing

• Multiplexing
− Multiple signals
− Travel simultaneously over one medium
• Subchannels
− Logical multiple smaller channels
• Multiplexer (mux)
− Combines many channel signals
• Demultiplexer (demux)
− Separates combined signals
− Regenerates them
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 Multiplexing (cont’d.)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)
− Divides channel into multiple time intervals

Figure 3-7 Time division multiplexing

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 Multiplexing (cont’d.)
• Statistical multiplexing
− Transmitter assigns slots to nodes
• According to priority, need
− More efficient than TDM

Figure 3-8 Statistical multiplexing

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 Multiplexing (cont’d.)
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
− Unique frequency band for each communications
subchannel
− Cellular telephone transmission
− DSL Internet access

Figure 3-9 Frequency division multiplexing

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 Multiplexing (cont’d.)
• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
− One fiber-optic connection
− Carries multiple light signals simultaneously

Figure 3-10 Wavelength division multiplexing

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 Multiplexing (cont’d.)
• Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)
− Used on most modern fiber-optic networks
− Extraordinary capacity

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Relationships Between Nodes

• Point-to-point transmission
− One transmitter and one receiver
• Point-to-multipoint transmission (Divided into two)
− One transmitter and multiple receivers
• Broadcast transmission
− One transmitter and multiple, undefined receivers
− Used on wired and wireless networks
− Simple and quick
• Nonbroadcast
− One transmitter and multiple, defined recipients
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 Figure 3-11 Point-to-point versus broadcast transmission
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Throughput and Bandwidth

• Throughput
− Amount of data transmitted during given time
period
− Also called capacity or bandwidth
− Expressed as bits transmitted per second
• Bandwidth (strict definition)
− Difference between highest and lowest
frequencies medium can transmit
− Range of frequencies
− Measured in hertz (Hz)
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 Table 3-1 Throughput measures
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Baseband and Broadband

• Baseband transmission
− Digital signals sent through direct current (DC)
pulses applied to wire
− Requires exclusive use of wire’s capacity
− Transmit one signal (channel) at a time
− Example: Ethernet
• Broadband transmission
− Signals modulated as radio frequency (RF)
analog waves
− Uses different frequency ranges
− Does not encode information as digital pulses
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Transmission Flaws

• Noise
− Any undesirable influence degrading or
distorting signal
• Types of noise
− EMI (electromagnetic interference)
• Example: radio frequency interference
− Cross talk
• Signal on one wire infringes on adjacent wire
signal
• Near end cross talk (NEXT) occurs near source

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 Figure 3-12 Cross talk between wires in a cable
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Transmission Flaws (cont’d.)

• Attenuation
− Loss of signal’s strength as it travels away
from source
• Signal boosting technology
− Analog signals pass through amplifier
• Noise also amplified
− Regeneration
• Digital signals retransmitted in original form
• Repeater: device regenerating digital signals
− Amplifiers and repeaters
• OSI model Physical layer
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 Figure 3-13 An analog signal distorted by noise and then amplified
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Figure 3-14 A digital signal distorted by noise and then repeated

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Transmission Flaws (cont’d.)

• Latency
− Delay between signal transmission and receipt
− May cause network transmission errors
• Latency causes
− Cable length
− Intervening connectivity device
• Round trip time (RTT)
− Time for packet to go from sender to receiver,
then back from receiver to sender
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Common Media Characteristics

• Selecting transmission media

− Match networking needs with media
characteristics
• Physical media characteristics
− Throughput
− Cost
− Noise immunity
− Size and scalability
− Connectors and media converters
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Throughput

• Most significant factor in choosing

transmission method
• Causes of throughput limitations
− Laws of physics
− Signaling and multiplexing techniques
− Noise
− Devices connected to transmission medium
• Fiber-optic cables allow faster throughput
− Compared to copper or wireless connections
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Cost

• Precise costs difficult to pinpoint

• Media cost dependencies
− Existing hardware, network size, labor costs
• Variables influencing final cost
− Installation cost
− New infrastructure cost versus reuse
− Maintenance and support costs
− Cost of lower transmission rate affecting productivity
− Cost of downtime
− Cost of obsolescence

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Noise Immunity

• Noise distorts data signals

− Distortion rate dependent upon transmission
media
• Fiber-optic: least susceptible to noise
• Limit noise impact on network
− Cable installation
• Far away from powerful electromagnetic forces
− Select media protecting signal from noise
− Antinoise algorithms

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Size and Scalability

• Three specifications
− Maximum nodes per segment
− Maximum segment length
− Maximum network length
• Maximum nodes per segment depends on:
− Attenuation and latency
• Maximum segment length depends on:
− Attenuation and latency plus segment type

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Size and Scalability (cont’d.)

• Segment types
− Populated: contains end nodes
− Unpopulated: no end nodes
• Also called link segment
• Segment length limitation
− After certain distance, signal loses strength
• Cannot be accurately interpreted

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Connectors and Media Converters

• Connectors
− Hardware connecting wire to network device
− Specific to particular media type
− Affect costs
• Installing and maintaining network
• Ease of adding new segments or nodes
• Technical expertise required to maintain network
• Media converter
− Hardware enabling networks or segments running
on different media to interconnect and exchange
signals
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 Figure 3-15 Copper wire-to-fiber media converter
Courtesy of Omnitron Systems
Technology

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 Coaxial Cable

• Central metal core (often copper) surrounded

by:
− Insulator
− Braided metal shielding (braiding or shield)
− Outer cover (sheath or jacket)
Figure 3-16 Coaxial cable
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Coaxial Cable (cont’d.)

• High noise resistance

• Advantage over twisted pair cabling
− Carry signals farther before amplifier required
• Disadvantage over twisted pair cabling
− More expensive
• Hundreds of specifications
− RG specification number
− Differences: shielding and conducting cores
• Transmission characteristics
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Coaxial Cable (cont’d.)

• Conducting core
− American Wire Gauge (AWG) size
− Larger AWG size, smaller wire diameter
• Data networks usage
− RG-6
− RG-8
− RG-58
− RG-59

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Figure 3-17 F-Type connector Figure 3-18 BNC connector
Courtesy of MCM © Igor
Electronics, Inc. Smichkov/Shutterstock.com

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 Twisted Pair Cable

• Color-coded insulated copper wire pairs

− 0.4 to 0.8 mm diameter
− Encased in a plastic sheath

Figure 3-19 Twisted pair cable

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Twisted Pair Cable (cont’d.)

• More wire pair twists per foot

− More resistance to cross talk
− Higher-quality
− More expensive
• Twist ratio
− Twists per meter or foot
• High twist ratio
− Greater attenuation

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Twisted Pair Cable (cont’d.)

• Hundreds of different designs

− Twist ratio, number of wire pairs, copper
grade, shielding type, shielding materials
− 1 to 4200 wire pairs possible
• Wiring standard specification
− TIA/EIA 568
• Most common twisted pair types
− Category (cat) 3, 5, 5e, 6, 6a, 7
− CAT 5 or higher used in modern LANs
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Twisted Pair Cable (cont’d.)

• Advantages
− Relatively inexpensive
− Flexible
− Easy installation
− Spans significant distance before requiring
repeater
− Accommodates several different topologies
• Two categories
− Shielded twisted pair (STP)
− Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
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 STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

• Individually insulated
• Surrounded by metallic substance shielding
(foil)
− Barrier to external electromagnetic forces
− Contains electrical energy of signals inside
− May
Figure 3-20 be grounded
STP cable
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UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

• One or more insulated wire pairs

− Encased in plastic sheath
− No additional shielding
• Less expensive, less noise resistance

Figure 3-21 UTP cable

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Comparing STP and UTP

• Throughput
− STP and UTP can transmit the same rates
• Cost
− STP and UTP vary
• Connector
− STP and UTP use Registered Jack 45
− Telephone connections use Registered Jack
11

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Comparing STP and UTP (cont’d.)

• Noise immunity
− STP more noise resistant
• Size and scalability
− Maximum segment length for both: 100 meters

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Terminating Twisted Pair Cable

• Patch cable
− Relatively short cable
− Connectors at both ends
• Proper cable termination techniques
− Basic requirement for two nodes to
communicate
• Poor terminations:
− Lead to loss or noise
• TIA/EIA standards
− TIA/EIA 568A
− TIA/EIA 568B
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Figure 3-24 TIA/EIA 568A standard Figure 3-25 TIA/EIA 568B standard
terminations terminations
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 Terminating Twisted Pair Cable
(cont’d.)
• Straight-through cable
− Terminate RJ-45 plugs at both ends identically
• Crossover cable
− Transmit and receive wires on one end
reversed
Figure 3-26 RJ-45 terminations
on a crossover cable
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Terminating Twisted Pair Cable
(cont’d.)
• Termination tools
− Wire cutter
− Wire stripper
− Crimping tool
• After making cables:
− Verify data transmit and receive

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Fiber-Optic Cable

• Fiber-optic cable (fiber)

− One or more glass or plastic fibers at its center
(core)
• Data transmission
− Pulsing light sent from laser or light-emitting
diode (LED) through central fibers
• Cladding
− Layer of glass or plastic surrounding fibers
− Different density from glass or plastic in
strands
− Reflects light back to core
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− Allows fiber to bend

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Fiber-Optic Cable (cont’d.)

• Plastic buffer outside cladding

− Protects cladding and core
− Opaque to absorb escaping light
− Surrounded by Kevlar (polymeric fiber) strands
• Plastic sheath covers Kevlar strands

Figure 3-30 A fiber-optic cable

Courtesy of Optical Cable Corporation
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Fiber-Optic Cable (cont’d.)

• Different varieties
− Based on intended use and manufacturer

Figure 3-31 Zipcord fiber-optic patch cable

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Fiber-Optic Cable (cont’d.)

• Benefits over copper cabling

− Extremely high throughput
− Very high noise resistance
− Able to carry signals for longer distances
− Industry standard for high-speed networking
• Drawbacks
− More expensive than twisted pair cable
− Requires special equipment to splice

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SMF (Single-Mode Fiber)

• Consists of narrow core (8-10 microns in

diameter)
− Laser-generated light travels over one path
• Little reflection
− Light does not disperse as signal travels
• Can carry signals many miles:
− Before repeating required
• Rarely used for shorter connections
− Due to cost
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MMF (Multimode Fiber)

• Contains core with larger diameter than

single-mode fiber
− Common sizes: 50 or 62.5 microns
• Laser or LED generated light pulses travel at
different angles
• Greater attenuation than single-mode fiber
• Common uses
− Cables connecting router to a switch
− Cables connecting server on network
backbone
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 Fiber-Optic Converters

• Required to connect multimode fiber networks

to single-mode fiber networks
− Also fiber- and copper-based parts of a
network

Figure 3-38 Single-mode to multimode

converter
Courtesy Omnitron Systems
Technology

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Serial Cables

• Data transmission style

− Pulses issued sequentially, not simultaneously
• Serial transmission method
− RS-232
• Uses DB-9, DB-25, and RJ-45 connectors

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Structured Cabling

• Cable plant
− Hardware that makes up the enterprise cabling
system
• Cabling standard
− TIA/EIA’s joint 568 Commercial Building
Wiring Standard
• Also known as structured cabling
• Based on hierarchical design

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 Figure 3-42 TIA/EIA structured cabling in an enterprise
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Structured Cabling (cont’d.)

• Components
− Entrance facilities
− MDF (main distribution frame)
− Cross-connect facilities
− IDF (intermediate distribution frame)
− Backbone wiring
− Telecommunications closet
− Horizontal wiring
− Work area
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Structured Cabling (cont’d.)

Table 3-2 TIA/EIA specifications for backbone cabling

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Best Practices for Cable
Installation and Management
• Choosing correct cabling
− Follow manufacturers’ installation guidelines
− Follow TIA/EIA standards
• Network problems
− Often traced to poor cable installation
techniques
• Installation tips to prevent Physical layer
failures

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Summary

• Information transmission methods

− Analog
− Digital
• Multiplexing allows multiple signals to travel
simultaneously over one medium
• Full and half-duplex specifies whether signals can
travel in both directions or one direction at a time
• Noise distorts both analog and digital signals
• Attenuation
− Loss of signal as it travels
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Summary (cont’d.)

• Coaxial cable composed of core, insulator,

shielding, sheath
• Types of twisted pair cable
− Shielded and unshielded
• Fiber-optic cable transmits data through light
passing through the central fibers

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Summary (cont’d.)

• Fiber-optic cable categories

− Single and multimode fiber
• Serial communication often used for short
connections between devices
• Structured cabling standard provides wiring
guidelines

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