Functions 1

In many practical situations, the value of one quantity x may depend on the value
of a second y. For example,
• the consumer demand for beef may depend on the current market
price;
• the amount of air pollution in a metropolitan area may depend on the
number of cars on the road;
Such relationships can often be represented mathematically as functions.
Loosely speaking, a function consists of two sets and a rule that associates
elements in one set with elements in the other.

Functions

A function f from A to B is a rule of correspondence that assigns

each element x ∈ A to a unique element y ∈ B .
Notation
y = 𝑓 (x) y is a function of x

• The above modern definition of a function was given by Nikolai Labachevsky

and Peter Dirichlet independently around 1837. Prior to this, there was no clear

definition of a function .

Independent and Dependent Variables

This equation y = 𝑓 (x) expresses y as a function of x .

• the variable x is called the independent variable (or argument) of f , and

• the variable y is called the dependent variable of f

 2

A function f may be thought of as a machine which yields

a unique output y for every input value of x

𝒇
A → B

Important Features of definition :

• The set A ( input values ) is called the domain of the function .

• The set B ( output values ) is called the range of the function .
• y is called the image of x under f
• x is called a preimage of y
Representation of Functions 3

A function may be represented by

(i) A set of ordered pairs ,
(ii) A table ,
(iii) An arrow diagram ,
(iv) A graph
(v) A formula

Example : Let A = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } and B = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 } be two sets. Let f : A → B be a

function given by a formula f (x) = 2 x + 1. Represent this function as

(i) a set of ordered pairs (ii) a table (iii) an arrow diagram (iv) a graph.

Solution : A = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } , B = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 } and f (x) = 2x + 1

f (0) = 2(0) + 1 = 1 ,

f (1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3 ,

f (2) = 2(2) + 1 = 5 ,

f (3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7

(i) By set of ordered pairs

f = { (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7) }

(ii) By a table
x 0 1 2 3
f (x) 1 3 5 7

(iii) Arrow Diagram

(iv) Graph 4
If f is a function with domain D , then its graph is the set of ordered pairs

{(𝒙, 𝒇(𝒙)): 𝒙 ∈ 𝑫}

So, the graph will be

Exercise : The accompanying figure shows the complete graph of y = f(x)

(a) The domain of f is -----------.

(b) The range of f is --------------.
(c) f (−3) = ------------.
(d) f(1/2) = ---------------.
(e) The two solutions to f(x)= -1
are x = ---------- and x = ----------- .
 5
Remark : For many functions we can obtain its graph. But not every graph will
represent a function. Following test helps us in determining whether the given
graph is function or not .

Reason : If a line x = a intersects the curve twice, at (a ,b) and (a ,c), then the curve can’t
represent a function because a function can’t assign two
different values b , c to a .

For example,
(i) The Circle does not represent a function .

(ii) The given graph represents a function as the

graph satisfies the vertical line test.

Exercise: Line segments in an xy-plane form “letters” as depicted.

(a) If the y-axis is parallel to the letter I, which of the letters represent the graph
of y = f(x) for some function f ?

(b) If the y-axis is perpendicular to the letter I, which of the letters represent the
graph of y = f(x) for some function f.
Important Functions and Their Graphs 6

(1) Constant Function

𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = c

Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞)
Range = { c }

(2) Identity Function

𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥

Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞)

Range = R = (− ∞ , + ∞)

(3) Linear Functions

𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 , 𝑚 ≠ 0

Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞)
Range = R = (− ∞ , + ∞) Graph always a straight
line
(4) Power Functions 7

(i) The family 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , n is an positive integer

(− ∞ , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞) , Range = {
[ 0 , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

➢ The 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , n is even positive integer have the characteristics:

• They are even functions, so their graphs are symmetric about the y-axis.

• The graphs all have the general shape of the graph of

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2
• Each graph passes through the points (−1, 1), (0, 0),
and (1, 1).
• As n increases, the graphs become flatter over the
interval −1 < x < 1 and steeper over the intervals
x > 1 and x < −1.
➢ The 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , n is odd positive integer have the characteristics: 8

• They are odd functions, so their graphs are symmetric about the origin.

• The graphs all have the general shape of the graph of

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3
• Each graph passes through the points (−1, −1), (0, 0),
and (1, 1).
• As n increases, the graphs become flatter over the
interval −1 < x < 1 and steeper over the intervals
x > 1 and x < −1.

1
(
(ii) The family 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑛 , n is positive integer or 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥𝑛
)

(− ∞ , + ∞) \ {0} , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
Domain = R \ { 0 } , Range = {
(0 , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
 1
➢ The 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛 , n is even integer have the characteristics: 9
𝑥

• They are even functions, so their graphs are symmetric

about the y-axis.

• The graphs all have the general shape of the graph of

1
𝑓 (𝑥) = 2
𝑥
• Each graph passes through the points (−1, 1) and (1, 1).
• As n increases, the graphs become steeper over the
interval −1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1. The graph become
flatter over the intervals x > 1 and x < −1.
• Have a break at origin as function is not defined at 0.

1
➢ The 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛 , n is odd integer have the characteristics:
𝑥

• They are even functions, so their graphs are symmetric

about the origin.
1
• The graphs all have the general shape of the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥

• Each graph passes through the points (1, 1) and (−1, −1).
• As n increases, the graphs become steeper over the interval −1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1.
The graph become flatter over the intervals x > 1 and x < −1.
• Have a break at origin as function is not defined at 0.
(5) nth Root Function 10

𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥) = √𝑥

(− ∞ , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 (− ∞ , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
Domain = { , Range = {
[ 0 , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 [ 0 , + ∞) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

(i) Square root Function 𝑓 (𝑥) = √𝑥

Domain = [ 0, ∞ )
Range = [ 0, ∞ )

𝑛
For other even values of n , the graph of √𝑥 is similar
to graph of √𝑥

3
(ii) Cube root Function 𝑓 (𝑥) = √𝑥

Domain = [0 , + ∞ )

Range = [0 , + ∞ )

𝑛 3
For other odd values of n , the graph of √𝑥 is similar to graph of √𝑥 .

(6) Polynomial Functions

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + … + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎0

(i) Polynomial of degree ‘1’ 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

So, it is a linear function and its graph is a straight line
(ii) Polynomial of degree ‘2’ 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
So, it is a quadratic function and its graph is a Parabola.
(iii) Polynomial of degree ‘3’ 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 11

So, it is a Cubic function and its graph is similar to cubic function.

(7) Rational Functions

𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = Where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials
𝑄(𝑥)
Domain = R \ {𝑥 ∶ 𝑄(𝑥) = 0}

(i) Simple example of rational function is reciprocal function

1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , whose domain is R \ {0} .
𝑥
(i) Another example of rational function is the function
2𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , whose domain is R \ { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 = 2, −2 } .
𝑥 2 −4
(8) Greatest integer function 12

𝑓 (𝑥) = ⟦𝑥⟧ = the largest integer that is less than or equal to 𝑥

( For instance ⟦4⟧ = 4 , ⟦4.8⟧ = 4 , ⟦−1.5⟧ = −1 )

Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞) ,

Range = Z

(9) Trigonometric Functions

(i) Sin(𝑥)
Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞)
Range = [ − 1 , 1 ]
Period = 2 𝜋

Sin x = 0 when x = n 𝜋 , n is an integer ( i.e, x = 0, ± 𝜋 , ± 2𝜋, ± 3𝜋, …)

(ii) Cos(𝑥)
Domain = ℝ = (− ∞ , + ∞)
Range = [ − 1 , 1 ]
Period = 2 𝜋

𝜋
Cos x = 0 when x = ( 2 n + 1) , n is an integer ( i.e; x = ± 𝜋/2 , ± 3𝜋/2 , …)
2
 13

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥
(iii) Tan 𝑥 =
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝜋
Domain = ℝ \ {(2𝑛
⏟ + 1) 2 ∶ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 }
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥

Range = ℝ = (− ∞ , + ∞)
Period = 𝜋

(10) Piecewise defined Function

Functions are often defined using more than one formula, where each individual
formula describes the function on a subset of the domain.
A function defined in this way is sometimes called a piecewise-defined function.
Here are some examples of such functions.
(i) The Absolute Value Function
𝒙 , 𝒙≥𝟎
f (x) = |𝒙| = {
−𝒙 , 𝒙 < 0
Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞) ,

Range = [0 , + ∞ )

The graph can be obtained by graphing the two parts of the equation
𝑥 ,𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑦={
−𝑥 , 𝑥 < 0
Point to be noted : 14

Care must be exercised in simplifying expressions of the form √𝑥 2 since it is

not always true that √𝑥 2 = 𝑥 .
• This equation is correct if x is nonnegative, but it is false if x is negative.
For example, if x = −4, then
√𝑥 2 = √(−4)2 = √16 = 4 ≠ 𝑥 .
• A statement that is correct for all real values of x is √𝑥 2 = |𝑥|.

(ii) The Signum Function

|𝑥|/𝑥 , 𝑥 ≠ 0
f (x) = 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥) = {
0 , 𝑥=0

Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞) ,

Range = {−1, 0, 1}

The graph of the function f(x) = sgn(x) can be obtained by graphing the three
parts of the equation

1 , 𝑥>0
𝑦={ 0 , 𝑥=0
−1 , 𝑥 < 0

(iii)

Solution: The graph of the function f (x) can be obtained by graphing the three
parts of the equation 15
y=0 , for 𝑥 ≤ −1

y = √1 − 𝑥 2 ⇔ 𝑦2 = 1 − 𝑥2 ⇔ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 , for 1 < 𝑥 ≤ −1
y=x , for 𝑥 < 0

(iv)
11) Exponential Functions 16

➢ Note That

Domain = R = (− ∞ , + ∞)

Range = (0 , + ∞)
17