ASSESSING THE ONLINE SEXUAL HARASSMENT EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE

STUDENTS AT A SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTION OF HIGHER LEARNING.

by

Thambo Sehlule

17015784

Dissertation submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of

Arts in the Subject Sociology

At the

University of Venda

Supervisor : Dr Tshifhumulo R

Co-supervisor : Ms Mabale D

Submitted on

2018
 ABSTRACT

The use of social media has in the last decade become popular among students in
Institutions of Higher Learning (IHL). Social relationships and communications among
students mostly take place on social networks. However, because of their growing
popularity abuse is also increasing on these social media platforms. Female students
are particularly vulnerable to sexual harassment and other forms of abuse on these
platforms. This study explored the experiences of online sexual harassment among
female students at a selected Institution of Higher Learning (IHL) in South Africa. This
was to gain insights into the extent to which female students in institutions of Higher
Learning are affected by this phenomenon. In particular, the study sought to find out
the different forms of online sexual harassment experienced by female students in
IHL, the specific types of online platforms where this sexual harassment take place,
and the coping strategies employed by these students to cope with online
sexual harassment. To address these objectives, the study adopted a qualitative
exploratory design which allowed understanding of these experiences through the
eyes of the victims. Twenty female participants were used for the study, while
semi structured interviews were employed to collect data from these individuals.
Purposive and critical case sampling technique was used to identify female students
who had experienced sexual harassment online in the IHL. Findings reveal that
sexual harassment at the IHL has occurred mostly in the form soliciting and sending
of inappropriate pictures and videos to the victims. The study also revealed that the
two main platforms on which sexual harassment of female students took place
were WhatsApp and Facebook. While the main strategies of coping with online
sexual harassment were blocking of harassers and complete disregard of the
harassers.

Key Words: Biological; coping strategies. Dominance; Online disinhibition;

online sexual solicitation; Power; Social media; Victims

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 DECLARATION

I, Sehlule Thambo, declare that the dissertation for the Master of Arts in Sociology
degree at the University of Venda, hereby submitted by me, has not previously been
submitted for a degree at this or any other university, and that it is my own work in
design and execution and that all reference material contained herein has been duly
acknowledged.
Signature Date

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 ...
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank and acknowledge the presence of the Almighty God in my life.
Had it not been for His mercies that l witness morning by morning l would not have
made it thus far. Hence, l say Ebenezer Nkosi Yami ngokungithungamela
kwaze kwalapha’ (Ebenezer thus far you have led me my Lord) and l completed my
thesis.

To my Supervisor Dr R. Tshifhumulo, I reserve special gratitude for you. In

our conversations, you have taught me the importance of prayers and hard work. I
have learned that every battle should be fought in the spiritual realm with prayer.
Thank you for this and all your assistance. This research wouldn’t have been
possible to complete without your assistance.

To Ms Mabale my co-supervisor, I reserve special gratitude for you. It has been such
an honour to work with a dedicated woman of your caliber. Thank you for all your
support.

To Kingsley Amaechi, I am equally grateful to you. Your acute workmanship is a

quality l will forever admire. I am indebted to you, for the time you took to guide me
step by step in the research.

I am also grateful to Fred, Gift and Maropene. You guys have been a big source of
motivation for me. The best way l can express my heartfelt gratitude towards you is in
the words of the great Shakespeare when he said “Some men are born great, some
achieve greatness and some simply have greatness thrust on them”. To you
gentlemen, l credit all those to you. The very act of seeing a fellow human being
drown and being able to reach out with your hand to save them when there is nothing
to be gained for yourselves is one of the greatest virtues ever. Only God can thank
you enough for me. You believed in me sometimes when l doubted my capabilities.

To my Gym Squad, where my motivation to work on my schoolwork started

every morning when we jogged, I say a big thank you. Dimpho, Dakalo, Kelly,
Nhlamulo and Daisy, Keep up the vigor . You will always be in my memories.

To my family, l know the essence of the statement ‘charity begins at home’ because
of you. May you forever shine. Given a chance to choose a family l will still choose
you
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— much love.

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To my friends Talent, Thandeka, Jenny; zintshantshayi zami’, your drive for academic
excellence has pulled me to aspire not to be comfortable with meager attainments.
Ngyalithanda thandii.

To my school friends and colleagues, Dudu, Faith, Charity, this journey would not
have been the same without you. For your acquaintances and assistance, l am
grateful.

To my most sincere anonymous participants, thank you for taking your precious time
to participate in this sensitive topic. I wish you all the best in all your good endeavors
in the future.

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 DEDICATIONS

Each day as l look at how far l have come and where l hope to reach, l am reminded
of the old adage ‘Çharity begins at home’. It is with this that l dedicate this entire work
to my family. Dad, Mum, Give, Similo, Sane, Samu, Barra, Sene, Simphiwe and
Bahle.

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Virus

BPFA Beijing Platform for Action

CC International Criminal Court

CCR Coordinated Community Response for Domestic Violence

CDC Center for Disease Control and Prevention

CSVR Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation

DoJ&CD Department of Justice and Community Development

GBV Gender-Based Violence

HEAIDS Higher Education

HIV Human Immuno Deficiency Virus

IHL Institution(s) of Higher Learning

NPA National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa

RPE Rules of Procedure and Evidence

SABC South African Broadcasting Commission

SADC Southern African Development Committee

SAPS South Africa Police Service

STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections

TB Tuberculosis

TCC Thulamela Care Centers

TVeT Technical and Vocational Education and Training colleges

UN United Nations

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

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UNIVEN University of Venda

VAW Violence Against Women

WHO World Health Organization

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 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. i
Key Words ............................................................................................................... i
DECLARATION...........................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..........................................................................................iii
DEDICATIONS........................................................................................................... v
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ......................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................... 3
1.3 Significance of the Study................................................................................... 4
1.4 Aim of the Study................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Objectives of the Study ..................................................................................... 5
1.6 Research Questions.......................................................................................... 5
1.7 Definition of Operational Terms ........................................................................ 5
1.7.1 Online Harassment ..................................................................................... 6
1.5.2 Online Sexual Harassment ......................................................................... 6
1.5.3 Social Media ............................................................................................... 7
1.5.4 Female Student .......................................................................................... 7
1.5.5 Institution of Higher Learning...................................................................... 8
1.5.6 Victims ........................................................................................................ 8
1.5.7 Dominance.................................................................................................. 9
1.5.8 Online Disinhibition..................................................................................... 9
1.5.9 Online Sexual Solicitation ......................................................................... 10
1.5.11 Coping strategies.................................................................................... 10
1.6 Structure of the Thesis.................................................................................... 10
1.8 Summary......................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................. 13
LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................ 13
2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Sexual Harassment......................................................................................... 13
2.3 Online Sexual Harassment ............................................................................. 19

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 2.4.1 Unwanted Sexual Attention...................................................................... 21
2.4.2 Gender Harassment ................................................................................. 21
2.5 Platforms Where Online Sexual Harassment Takes Place ............................. 24
2.5.1 Facebook.................................................................................................. 24
2.5.2 WhatsApp ................................................................................................. 25
2.6 Coping Strategies for Victims of Online Sexual Harassment .......................... 26
2.7 Advocacy seeking (Reporting the Harasser)................................................... 27
2.8 Denial (Victim Ignoring the Harasser) ............................................................. 29
2.9 Social Support................................................................................................. 31
2.10 Confrontation/ Negotiation (Victim Blocking the Harasser) ........................... 32
2.13 Victims of Sexual Harassment ...................................................................... 32
2.11 Online Sexual Harassment Studies in Institutions of Higher Learning .......... 34
2.12 Online Sexual Harassment in Colleges......................................................... 37
2.12 Studies on Online Sexual Harassment in Institutions of Higher Learning ..... 40
2.14 Sexual Harassment Policies in Institutions of Higher Learning ..................... 41
2.15 Sexual Harassment Laws in South Africa ..................................................... 43
2.15 Policies against Sexual Harassment in South African Institutions of Higher
Learning................................................................................................................ 44
2.16.1 Power and Dominance theory................................................................. 47
2.16.2 Biological Model...................................................................................... 49
2.16.3 Online Disinhibition Effect Model ............................................................ 51
2.16.4 Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects ..................................... 53
2.17 Summary....................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................. 56
MATERIAL AND DATA ............................................................................................ 56
3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 56
3.2 Research Approach ........................................................................................ 56
3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................ 57
3.4 Study Area ...................................................................................................... 58
3.5 Entry into the Study Area ................................................................................ 60
3.6 Population of the Study................................................................................... 60
3.7.1 Age ........................................................................................................... 63
3.7.2 Level of Study........................................................................................... 63
3.7.3 Sexual Orientation .................................................................................... 63
3.7.4 Access to Internet Services ...................................................................... 63

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 3.8 Sampling Technique ....................................................................................... 63
3.8.1 Purposive Sampling.................................................................................. 64
3.8.2 Critical Case Sampling ............................................................................. 65
3.9 Data Collection................................................................................................ 66
3.10 Data Recording Procedure............................................................................ 68
3.11 Data Analysis................................................................................................ 69
3.12 Reliability and Validity of the Measuring Instrument...................................... 70
3.13 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................. 70
3.13.1. Informed Consent .................................................................................. 72
3.13.2. Right to Confidentiality........................................................................... 72
3.13.3. Right to Self-determination or Autonomy ............................................... 73
3.13.4 Anonymity............................................................................................... 73
3.13.5 Privacy.................................................................................................... 74
3.14 Summary....................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF DATA AND RESULTS..................................... 77
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 77
4.2 Diagrammatic Representation of the Themes and Sub-themes..................... 78
4.3 Theme 1: Forms of Online Sexual Harassment .............................................. 80
4.3.1 Sending and Reception of Explicit Images and Videos............................. 80
4.2.2 Sending and Direct Requesting of Nude Images or Sex from the Victims 81
4.2.3 Sending and Requesting of Unwanted Sexually Charged Jokes to the
Victims ............................................................................................................... 82
4.3 Online Platforms Where Sexual Harassment Occurs...................................... 83
4.3.1 WhatsApp ................................................................................................. 83
4.3.2 Facebook................................................................................................. 86
4.5 Theme 3: Coping Strategies for Victims of Online Sexual Harassment .......... 88
4.5.1 Immediate Coping Strategies.................................................................... 88
4.5.2 Gradual Coping Strategies........................................................................ 91
4.6 Summary......................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ..... 97
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 97
5.2 Forms of Online Sexual Harassment experienced by female students at the
Institutions of Higher Learning .............................................................................. 97
5.2.1 Sending of Explicit Random Images and Videos to the Victims................ 98
5.2.2 Sending and Requesting of Nude Images of the Victims........................ 100

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 5.2.3 Sending of Sexually Explicit Jokes/ Texts............................................... 102
5.3 The Social Network Platforms Under Which Students Experience Sexual
Harassment......................................................................................................... 103
5.3.1 WhatsApp ............................................................................................... 104
5.3.2 Facebook................................................................................................ 106
5.4 Coping Strategies used to Deal with Online Sexual Harassment.................. 108
5.4.1 Immediate Coping Strategies.................................................................. 108
5.4.2 Gradual Coping Strategies...................................................................... 112
5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 115
5.6 Limitations of the Study................................................................................. 116
5.7 Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................. 117
5.8 Recommendations ........................................................................................ 117
REFERENCES............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Background of the Study

Sexual harassment is a problem that has continued to occur in the different facets of
the human society: religious institutions, military barracks, business, and
corporate offices, and academic institutions including, Institutions of Higher Learning
(Paludi & Paludi, 2003; Sbraga & O’Donohue, 2000; Barak, 2015). Cases of Catholic
Priests’ abuse of women and children in churches all over the world (Sands, 2003); the
case of Harvey Weinstein, the alleged US disgraced filmmaker who used his influence
to harass numerous women in Hollywood (Hemel and Lund, 2018); and Bill
O'Reilly, another American top journalist, who used his TV position to harass several
women (Hemel and Lund, 2018) are prominent examples. Using their influences, the
actors in these cases have either tried or have abused their victims. In the age of the
#Me Too Movement, more women have begun to come out to testify to how they have
been harassed and abused in different segments of our society. Given the power
structure of our society, there are much more likely to be victims of sexual harassment
because, they more often than not women lack the power, and are often in more
vulnerable and insecure positions, than men (Barak, 2015; Gruber, 1997; Paludi
& Paludi, 2003; Sbraga & O’Donohue, 2000).

However, sexual harassment is not limited to physical structures. Sue Scheff, author of
the recently released book Shame Nation: The Global Epidemic of Online Hate, which
includes a foreword by Monica Lewinsky (the (in)famous girl in the Bill Clinton sexual
harassment scandal in 1999), says that in the digital age, sexual harassment is
prevalent online (Scheff,2017). According to her, people are just as emotionally
abused and are in pain in online abuse as they are, when they are harassed or abused
outside the Internet. With the advent of the Internet and the corresponding different
social media platforms, where people can receive and send messages to virtual and
real friends, sexual harassment does not have to occur in a face-to-face confrontation
anymore but can occur on these mediums in the different environments; giving room
for the possibility
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of this phenomenon to increase.

When it comes to online sexual harassment, interestingly, women have been on the
receiving end. A survey conducted by the Pew Research Center (2014) found that of
the Internet users that exist, 40% reported having experienced harassment, and these
were mostly females in a particular age range. The survey found out that overall
women are more likely to be sexually harassed on the Internet than men. The
prevalence of sexual harassment and stalking was higher for women of a young age
than men. The results also indicated that young women between the ages of 18-24
years were twice likely to experience sexual harassment online more than women
between 25-29 years of age (25%vs. 10%). They also were thrice likely to not only to
be harassed but also stalked online compared to their counterpart age range
(26%vs.8%). These women also reported their harassment experienced online to have
been extremely or very upsetting more than men. A later follow up study also reported
that even though men might most likely suffer more incidents of online harassment of
any kind, it is women that report to experience emotional stress of higher levels from
this and towards the causes that are underlying to these incidences their attitudes vary
(Pew Research Center,2018).

These recent research findings are corroborated by earlier research which shows that
not only have the bulk of the population facing online sexual harassment been women
but that the number has increased over the years (Martellozzo & Jane, 2017; Wihbey
& Kille, 2015; Goldman & Hatch, 2000). Studies carried out in Europe by Golbeck
(2018) also show growing evidence of female students being sexually coerced and
abused over the Internet in their different IHL. Broad et al. (2018) also found a similar
result in a comparative study conducted in Africa and Europe. According to
these scholars, sexual and abusive messages over the Internet have increased
among young people across the two continents (Broad et al., 2018). Even though more
cases were under- reported, there was a significant increase. This occurred, not
necessarily because of the physical attractions, but because of the anonymity that the
Internet provides for the harassers. With the increasing use and popularity of the
Internet, it is unlikely that this will start reducing soon.

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It is with this background that the current study examines the sexual
harassment

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experiences of female students in a South African IHL. Drawing from the
analytic paradigms from four main theories: the power and dominance model, the
biological model, online disinhibition effect model and the SIDE model, the study
investigates the different platforms on which this phenomenon occurs, the forms it
takes when it occurs and the main coping strategies developed by victims to deal
with it when it occurs. Utilizing a synthesized form of these models, the Biological
Model, the study is able to understand not only why this phenomenon has increased
over the years, but also how the Internet has provided conducive platforms for sexual
harassment to occur in an IHL. In line with the biological model, for example, the study
understands that men often have sexual drives and urges that are often more
compelling than women. Thus, being in a position of power, and having the appropriate
platform in the form of the Internet men are able to act out their sexual tendencies.
Women, on the other hand, are often more vulnerable than men because of the
societies’ social settings. Often they are more active on the Internet, but this
activeness comes with a price - an opportunity to become prey to the harasser acting
out of his whims and caprices in the social networks.

The study will fill the gap in research about online sexual harassment research in
South Africa where most have largely dwelt on intimate partner violence and physical
or verbal sexual harassment. Not much research has dwelt specifically online sexual
harassment of female students at an IHL.

Data were drawn from interviews with 20 female students, who had been victims of
online sexual harassment at the selected institution of learning. This data-set contains
detailed information which locates online sexual harassment within the IHL to
the experiences of the female participants.

1.2 Problem Statement

The popularity of social media means that social interactions are now more common
on social media than in the physical world.People now spend more time interacting
with their “friends” on social media than they spend with their friends and colleagues in

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real life (Nie & Erbring,2002). Unfortunately, this means that they are also more
exposed to

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abuse on such platforms than they do in real life (Griffiths, 2003). According to Saleh
(2018), most of such abuse comes in the form of sexual harassment.
Pornographic pictures, nude pictures of ones’ genitals and other similar materials or
sexually charged words are constantly sent to others, often with the intent to harass or
solicit for sex. This is likely to be more rampant in IHL, where easy accessibility to the
internet and youthful exuberance have increased the use of social media as a means
for social interaction. In such institutions, it is likely that different social media have
become a “conducive” platform for sexual harassment. Unfortunately, there is no real
documentation of how and why these forms of abuse happen. Using a South African
Institution of Learning, this research profiles this phenomenon, with a view to exploring
the various students can deal with it in the IHL environment.

1.3 Significance of the Study

The significance of this research is twofold: theoretical and empirical. Theoretically, it

aims to fulfill the gap in the literature on sexual harassment on girls in the institution of
higher learning. Although a number of studies on sexual harassment have
been conducted at institutions of higher learning, most of them have only focused on
intimate partner violence, physical and verbal sexual harassment and rape. Previous
studies have not really articulated the sexual harassment experiences of female
students on the internet. By exploring the sexual harassment experiences of these
kinds of actors, the current study fills this gap. This will improve and contribute to
existing knowledge on sexual harassment of students, specifically on the online
platforms.

Empirically, conducting this study is important because of its practical implications on

policy in South Africa higher and tertiary education landscape. By providing details on
the different forms of sexual harassment and factors that contribute to sexual
harassment on these online platforms, the research would help policy-makers
and stakeholders both in the society and at the different institutions in
formulating new policies or improving existing ones in order to deal effectively
with cases of sexual harassment online.

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1.4 Aim of the Study
The study’s aim was to assess the prevalence of online sexual harassment
experiences of female students at a South African institution of higher learning.

1.5 Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by three main objectives thus:

1. To identify the specific forms of online sexual harassment experienced by

female students at the institution of higher learning.
2. To identify specific platforms on which this sexual harassment occurs at the
institution of higher learning.
3. To explore the coping strategies employed by female students to deal with
online sexual harassment at the institution of higher learning.

1.6 Research Questions

For the above aim to be achieved, the following objectives were adopted.

The study formulates three main research questions, thus:

1) What forms of online sexual harassment do female students experience at
the selected South African IHL?
2) What specific online platforms does sexual harassment take place at
the selected institution of higher learning?
3) What coping strategies do female students at the selected institution of
higher
learning employ to deal with online sexual harassment?

1.7 Definition of Operational Terms

For more clarity, few key terms (female student, online harassment, institution of
higher learning, social media, victims, power, dominance, biological, online
disinhibition, online sexual solicitation) used in the thesis are explained below:

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1.7.1 Online Harassment
Online harassment refers to the use of the Internet to solicit, threaten, harass,
or malignantly embarrass another person (Canadian Centre for Occupational Health
and Safety,2017). Throughout the thesis, the term is used interchangeably with
cyber harassment or Internet harassment. Some of the most common behaviors
include unsolicited sending of threatening emails, encouragement of others to send a
victim unwanted and threatening email messages that are intended to overwhelm the
receiver, an electric sabotage where a harasser sends viruses to a victim, posting
messages that are rumors or untrue about a victim, sending of defamatory comments
to a victim online, sending of negative messages to a victim, the online
impersonating of a victim by sending either controversial, inflammatory or
enticing messages which influences negative responses being sent to the victim,
harassment of a victim in a live chat, abusive messages being left online for a
victim in particular on social media platforms, the sending of unwanted graphic or
pornographic material to the victim to intentionally offend them or creating online
content that negatively depicts a victim.

Within this definition actions such as “receiving unsolicited explicit sexual messages,
text online or emails, offensive and improper advances on chat rooms and social
media websites, threats of sexual or bodily violence online by texts or emails, hateful
speech, insults, demeaning and derogatory language or threats made to a victim
based on either their gender, disability or sexual orientation” What is important is that
such acts of abuse are administered over the Internet and on an online form.
Online harassment has various forms and categories, depending on the author and
their preferences in the administration of their actions.

1.5.2 Online Sexual Harassment

Online sexual harassment is one form of online harassment. Also referred to as cyber
sexual harassment or Internet sexual harassment, it simply means “sexual conduct
that is unwantedly occurring on digital platforms,” (Project deShame, 2017). As
Project deShame, (2017) explains, this type of harassment includes a variety of

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behaviours that utilize digital content that may be either messages, videos, images,
pages or posts in a

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multitude of online platforms which are either public or private. Sexual
online harassment causes an individual to feel humiliated, upset, discriminated
against, coerced and or threatened. Ahmed, Rasha, Nahed & Ahmed (2017) state that
online sexual harassment is a form of Internet abuse, and it may undermine the
mental wellness of the youth because of its consequences that have a negative impact
on their emotions. In this study, online sexual harassment refers to unwanted sexual
material that the victims, who are female students receive on the Internet from a
harasser either in the form of pictures, videos or sexual jokes.

1.5.3 Social Media

According to Ward (2018), social media is a form of media which is online, and
facilitates conversation. This is different from previous types of media which only
conveyed content without providing the receiver the opportunity to actively relay
messages back. Thus, Jones (2009) further explains that social media it is a category
of online media where people get to talk, participate, network, share and bookmark
online. Orenstein (2012), Oxford Internet Institute (2018), Berry et al., (2017)
argue that these social networking platforms describe any form of social interaction
using technology with some combination of words, photographs, video, or audios.
These series of applications and websites accessed on smartphones, tablets, and
computers are designed to allow for quick and efficient information sharing among
people. It is against this background that the phrase social media is also used in this
study. There are different kinds of social media platforms, but this study will dwell
more on those kinds of platforms that are mainly used for social networking like
Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, and YouTube. The phrase ‘online platforms’ has been
used interchangeably with social media platforms in this study.

1.5.4 Female Student

This term has been drawn from Hornby (2010)’s definition which conceptualizes
female students as any female studying in a place of higher education. This is
not to be confused with the female pupil, which is used to refer to individuals who are
female and
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attending high school. These students study at an institution of the highest level
of education where one can study for a degree or conduct research. The biological
make- up of the individual is the one that is used to determine whether they are female
or not, this then explains the exclusion of persons that define themselves as female but
are not physically made up as women.

1.5.5 Institution of Higher Learning

This term simply refers to universities or colleges. The IGI Global (1988-2018),
U.S Legal (1997-2016) defines an institution of higher education as an institution
of education in any country that enrolls people to be regular students who already have
graduated and hold a certificate from a school which provides secondary education
and is constitutionally and lawfully permitted within the country to provide an
educational program after secondary education. Such an institution awards a degree
which gives the individual leeway to be admitted for a postgraduate program, and this
is reviewed and approved by the Secretary (IGI Global (1988-2018).

The South Africa Higher Education Act, article 101 of 1997 which was amended by the
Higher Education Laws, Article 26 of the 2010 Amendment concurs with the
above definition by explaining that an institution of higher learning is also referred to as
a higher education institution and is an institution that either on a part-time, full-time
or even distance basis issues higher education certification lawfully.

1.5.6 Victims
In this current study, the term ‘victim’ has been used as prescribed by the Declaration
of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power which serves as
a guideline for provision under the ICC. This means individuals, who either as
an individual or collectively have been subjected to harm. This harm includes
physical, injury to the mental faculties, emotional suffering, loss of economic
value or basic fundamental human rights impairment through certain misdeeds, acts
or omissions or intentional or unintentional breaking of the law (Khan,2007). Brouwer
(2005) explains that a victim, as defined by rule 85 of the ICC RPE is a natural
person who has
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experienced or been subject to harm as a result of this above-mentioned undertaking.
These definitions are wholesome and all-encompassing in defining a victim. The
current study does not take into consideration the repetition of an offense, but
rather, the description and feelings of the individuals that a certain crime has been
committed to defining their victimhood.

1.5.7 Dominance
Understanding and use of the term dominance in this study has been drawn
from definitions of various scholars whose conceptions can be summed up thus:
Fedigan (1982) defines dominance as the ruling or controlling of others by influence or
superior power. He explains that the ability to control, influence and rule others
is widely considered as dominance. Jacobson (2013) argues that dominance is
behavior acted with the intention to subordinate another individual, thereby giving
higher status to the dominant individual than the subordinate. This means that
dominance occurs where one individual has the power to manipulate another
individual in a way they may not be comfortable with. Because of the perceived
power they possess, the subordinate has little power to disagree.

1.5.8 Online Disinhibition

In this study, the term ‘online disinhibition’ is used in accordance to Wittkower (2010)’s
explanation, which he took from Psychologist John Suler’s words that, it is the inability
to restrain oneself when conversing with others on the Internet compared to the face
to- face form of communication. There is, however, a tendency in this virtual
space for people to loosen up and express themselves more freely with less restraint
than they would have when chatting with others face-to-face. This motivates some
individuals to say or do things that are unwelcome to others while online because the
Internet provides the freedom to express oneself in ways that are socially inappropriate
in a face to face conversations. Stohr (2012) concurs that people tend to expose things
while online than they would face to face. Neff (2003) also agrees, arguing that
while online a phenomenon widely known as the ‘online disinhibition’ may occur.
Simply put, people’s
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behavior because of the Internet environment tend to change either to become less
inhibitive or they can be more extreme or become more revealing than they
most probably could do be face to face.

1.5.9 Online Sexual Solicitation

In this study, the term online sexual solicitation is used to refer to all kinds of behaviors
that entail unwelcome requests and discussions about sex or sexual activity in an
online format (Mitchell et al., 2008). In some cases, such requests could either
be on a personal or group level. What is important is that in communication,
the harasser actively requests or makes an effort to coax the other person to be
engaged in unwanted sexual conduct (Mitchell et al., 2008).

1.5.11 Coping strategies

In this study ‘coping strategies’ basically explains how we think and what we do with
the emotions we feel in dealing with stress. Folkman (2011) argues that coping is an
important aspect of humans as a mechanism to protect both the physical and mental
health from the harmful effects of stress. Coping strategies can, therefore, be classified
into two approaches. Namely, the problem focused and emotion-focused coping.
According to Folkman and Lazarus’s (1980) conceptualization of coping
strategies, problem-focused coping is fixed on changing the source where the stress
emanated from while emotion-focused coping aims at managing the emotions that
go with the perception of the stress (Brannon& Feist, 2009). In this study, coping
strategies will be taken collectively and not separately in explaining how female
students cope with online sexual harassment.

1.6 Structure of the Dissertation

This dissertation comprises of five chapters. Chapter one presents the background of
the study, the problem statement, rationale/significance of the study, the
research objectives and its related questions, and definitions of concepts and
operational terms.

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Chapter two focuses on the literature review; here the thesis presents a
detailed literature review of online sexual harassment. It will present this in terms of the
gaps in the previous studies and how the present study aims to address such
gaps. It alsopresents the theoretical frameworks that underpin the study. It is
here that the researcher expands on various theories that all contribute to explaining
the aspect of online sexual harassment since there is a lot that contributes to it.

The Power and Dominance Model, Biological Model, Online Disinhibition Model and
the Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE) Model are discussed
in this chapter. These theories give an analytical background that provides a
backdrop to which the study was conducted.

Chapter three is the methodology chapter, where the different research components
and philosophical assumptions made in the study are explained. Some of the
most important components explained here are: the research approach, research
design, sampling techniques, the study area, study population, data collection
procedure, ethical considerations and, also the analysis of data.

The fourth chapter is the presentation of the data, its analysis, and interpretation and
explicates how the themes and subthemes relate to theory. Themes and subthemes
that emerged from the data are presented.

Chapter five,is the very last chapter of the study, presents the themes and subthemes
giving a detail of the implications of the research on previous research in table formats
and summaries of these themes are provided where the final comments are made of
the arguments put forward by the study and then lastly, suggestions for future research
and recommendations are made. Except chapter 5, each of the chapters end with a
summary of what was discussed in the chapters.

1.8 Summary
This chapter has presented a general over-view of the dissertation. An introduction
was given which encompasses the general background upon which the study
was conducted. The statement of the problem explains the situation where there no

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studies at the institution of higher learning that has documented the online sexual
harassment

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of students and in the context of this study, female students. A motivation for
conducting the study is also given in the chapter. The objectives and research
questions were set in line with the study aim in order to guide the researcher. Finally,
some of the key terms used in the study were defined in order to provide clarity on the
focus of the study.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction
This literature review chapter provides a theoretical justification for conducting
the present study. The chapter discusses significant literature on online sexual
harassment in IHL. The literature is discussed in an inverted pyramid format. First, it
starts with a conceptualization of sexual harassment in general and the various forms it
takes. The literature then narrows down and discusses online sexual harassment;
the different forms such phenomenon takes also. The platforms on which online
sexual harassment mostly occurs and the types of coping strategies that victims of
such abuse adopt, in the IHL, and lastly, policies governing against sexual harassment
in South Africa, other selected IHLs and at the IHL where the study is conducted are
discussed in this chapter. Through these discussions, the chapter identifies some of
the research gaps in relation to online sexual harassment in IHL in the previous
literature. This being that most studies have neglected the experiences of female
students of online sexual harassment rather they focused on perpetrators. In
conclusion, the chapter introduces and discusses four main theories namely, power
and dominance model, biological model, online disinhibition effect model and social
identity model of deindividuation effects as the theoretical framework with which
underpins the study.

2.2 Sexual Harassment

In the literature, the term sexual harassment is often conceptualised as a behavior or
the act of making unwelcome and inappropriate sexual remarks or physical advances
towards another person, in either private or social institutions (Anju, 2015). Such acts
do not only infringe on the dignity, the right to equality and social security of the other
individuals, but also infringe on their right to peaceful existence and life (Anju, 2015).

Along this understanding, studies such as the UN Women (2010) Report and
the

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American Association of University Women (AAUW,2001) have defined
sexual

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harassment as the behavior of a sexual nature which is viewed as unwelcome. It can
also be sexual suggestions, which are uninvited or demands made for sexual favors
which may either physical or verbal and are sexual in nature. Based on such
understanding, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and the Commonwealth Act of 1989 state
that sexual harassment occurs when a sexual advance, which is not welcome is done
by an individual, or when such individuals make requests for sexual favors, which are
also not welcome, and the individual to whom these acts are being done to has reason
to believe that a rejection to these may be grounds for being disadvantaged in terms of
their job or gaining employment (CISACA, 2017). These definitions have in the past
decades dominated the understanding of sexual harassment. In general, their value is
hinged on their ability to narrate how an individual’s rights are denied when
such unwanted acts or abuse occurs.

The subject of sexual harassment basically was documented first in the year
1908 (Fitzgerald, Weitzman, Godd & Omenold ,1988 in Siduna ,2017). It was not
however, until the 1970s that it was legally recognised and labeled as a problem after
significant research had been undertaken (Farley,1978). It is noteworthy to
acknowledge that research was now done after feminists had aired their concerns
about unfair treatment of women in the workplace when they coined coined the
specific term “sexual harassment” in the 1960s. They did this after observing that
there was a general lack of sympathetic understanding when a woman experienced
sexual harassment at the workplace because the legal set-up of most organisations
was mostly comprised of men (Oswald & Wyatt,2007). Siegel (2004) concurs that
the term came because of a dialogue session by a feminist movement on women
and work in 1974 at the Cornell University, facilitated by Lin Farley. However, the term
was finally acknowledged by the legal system in the United States after a lot of ground
work had been conducted by the feminist movement in 1979.

Catherine Mackinnon, an academic in the legal circles and feminist, in her book on the
sexual harassment of working women also proposed the term sexual harassment as
she battled to explain the discriminatory nature of sexual harassment when she

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advocated that an employer would have violated the 1964 Civil Rights Act
when a female employee was continuously exposed to sexual behavior that was
unwelcome (The Schuster Institute of Investigative Journalism in Kabaya,2016). Thus,
the sexual harassment term was finally accepted as the legal term to describe sexual
advances that are unwelcome (Kabaya, 2016).

2.2.1 Sexual Harassment Categories

The United States Supreme Court in 1986 defined sexual harassment in two
categories, namely hostile environment and quid pro quo (US Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission, 1993).

2.2.1.1 Quid pro quo

Derived from the Latin language the word pro quo is a Latin word which means ‘this
for that’ (Stop violence against women, 2010). This normally happens when an
individual who has high authority, for instance, a lecturer can disadvantage a
student’s marks depending on whether or not he/ she consents to their sexual
advances (Fineran & Bennett, 1999; Joslyn, 2011). Quid pro quo is basically sexual
bribery where promises of some kind are made for benefits, however, if the one
receiving these does not consent then the use of threats or harm is used. If this
behavior is severe, then it does not need to be repetitive for it to be considered sexual
harassment. In an IHL, this basically tends to happen between lecturers and a person
with lesser power, in this case, students who may have consequences to their
education when their willingness to partake in sexual activity will be a determining
factor for their educational achievement (Conroy, 2013; Kabaya, 2016).

This type of sexual harassment can best be understood as sexual bribery

whereby sexual activity or any other form of sex-linked conduct is solicited for
with a reward promise being made either in a subtle or overt form. However, this
proposition may be

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either overt or subtle. Adrian (2016) highlights that some teachers threaten to fail girls
or give them bad marks.

This means that teachers or school personnel will either explicitly or implicitly
make sexual requests or advances in exchange for some desired results such as good
grades, class positions or recognition. Willness (2007) argues that quid-pro-quo
harassment is as much a crime whether the learner resists and falls victim to
the threatened consequence or chose to submit to escape victimization. In a research
conducted at a public University in Ghana, male students complained that quid pro
quo harassment was rampant at their campus as most female students excelled
academically as a result of such fraudulent practices (Morley, 2011).

Another study on sexual violence at a college of education in Nigeria exposed

high levels of quid pro quo. Solicitation for sex is found to be high by lectures to
female students with an approximated 45 to 65%. Findings of the study also revealed
that it is considered as normal when a female student faces sexual harassment
from their lecturer and is forced to either consent or drop their studies. This is
because the repercussions of declining the sexual requests are severe as the lecturer
will lower the students’ marks drastically or either make sure that this deters the
student from passing or something like that (Bakari & Leach, 2008; Kabaya, 2016).

Findings from a study by Kabaya (2016) concur with this observation in that, female
students face quid pro quo not only from lecturers but from senior students and SRC
male members who violate them because they hold high positions, utilize their
perceived status and power because they approach these individuals for
assistance to attain funding for their studies because of their economically
disadvantaged backgrounds. These males promise to assist these female students in
exchange for sexual favours, and especially first-year female students.

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2.2.1.1 Hostile Environment

According to the University of Michigan Sexual Assault Prevention Awareness

Program (2015), hostile environment is either the threatening, abusing or intimidating
or learning environment which is abusive and is created by the pervasively severe
sexual behavior that a student is subjected to, thus their involvement and gaining
maximumly from an educational program. Fineran and Bennett (1999) and Kabaya
(2016) concur that a hostile behavior is fostered when a harasser makes an
educational setting to be aggressive and hostile in a way that negatively affects a
student’s work or that of an employee by either a fellow student, a lecturer or third
party (Fineran & Bennett, 1999). Gruber and Fineran (2007) further explain that the
hostile environment is perpetuated by the severity of the persistent behavior of the
harasser that ends up compromising the students’ capacity in benefiting from an
educational activity or programme. Generally, hostile environment harassment alludes
to the regular subjection of female workers to offensive, sexual or gender-related
comments, unrequited sexually related conduct which may not be related to the job
outcomes (Pina and Gannon, 2012).

Unlike the previous category of sexual harassment which is clear and agreed upon by
scholars across the board, hostile environment, on the other hand, has a bit of
controversy surrounding it. Ekore (2012) explains that because of the subjectivity of
the term ‘hostile environment’, individuals find it difficult to understand as there are
varying views on what constitutes a hostile educational setting. For instance, some
individuals may find jokes of a sexual nature sexually harassing yet others view it
lightly as part of the normal ways of socializing in a learning or working environment.
A study by the American Association of University Women (AAUW) on sexual
harassment in the US found that as many as 80% of students are affected by the
hostile environment while
5% to 10% are affected by quid pro quo (Conroy, 2013).

2.2.1.1 Contra power Harassment

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Contra power is a form of harassment which is a complete divergence from the
mainstream traditional harassment which involves the perpetrator holding a position of
higher authority over the victim. In this case there is a kind of reversal of roles where

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the victim of sexual harassment is the one who holds a position of higher authority, and
the perpetrator possesses lesser organizational power (Renzetti et al., 2012).
This category of sexual harassment has not been widely researched on
(Munyuki and Vincent, 2017). Munyuki and Vincent, (2017) state that this happens
when a lecturer is harassed sexually by a student. Although there is minimal research
on contra-power harassment in South African institutions, the considerable
cases have been documented in the global North. Contra power sexual harassment
may vary, ranging from forms that are mild and nonthreatening to extreme and
hostile behaviour. Examples of this form of sexual harassment are disrespect, stalking
on social media and graffiti (Munyuki and Vincent,2017).

Buluma (2009) concurs noting that by further explaining that teachers may be sexually
harassed as a result of different factors which may be either their
personal characteristics or the environment’s conduciveness for such behavior.
These may include their age, gender, marital status or if the teacher is ignorant
of the school’s sexual safety measures. Other factors may be school related and
may include poor disciplinary measures or the school lacking standards that clearly
define moral relations.

2.3.1 Forms of Sexual Harassment

Following this understanding of the broader categories of sexual harassment, it

is noteworthy that there are forms under these categories in which sexual harassment
can further happen. These can be categorized into three main forms, namely:
sexual coercion, unwanted sexual attention and gender harassment (Fitzgerald et al.,
1995).

2.3.1.1 Unwanted Sexual Harassment

Unwanted sexual attention occurs when explicit sexual intentions or desire is directed
towards another person, who obviously does not welcome it. Such actions include long
staring, inappropriate touching, inappropriate and sexually charged comments towards
another person about the person's body parts (e.g. the breast, the ass, the face or the

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legs). In such cases, such comments are meant to insinuate or coax sexual activities
or proposal for sexual behaviours.

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2.3.1.2 Gender Harassment
Gender harassment similarly refers to either visual or verbal remarks and comments of
an insulting nature made to a person as a result of their gender in order to
invoke negative emotions (Cantor et al ,2015). Examples of these include the
posting of pictures pornographic nature in public which are intended to insult. Other
examples of gender harassment may include degrading remarks which are gender
related and jokes that have chauvinistic connotations. In an academic setting, sexist
remarks and jokes that are outrageous are common if the victims have gender roles
that are perceived to be transgressed.

2.3.1.2 Sexual Coersion

Sexual coercion is the exerting of either psychological or physical pressure on
an individual to get sexual cooperation from them. This includes, either offering bribes
in exchange for sexual favors, threatening an individual in order to get sexual
cooperation from them, or physically touching of an individual which is unwanted in
order to get sexual cooperation (Fitzgerald et al., 1995; Paludi & Paludi, 2003).

2.3 Online Sexual Harassment

As the Internet has in the last decade become popular, it has become one of the
biggest platforms upon which sexual harassment occurs (William &Julien,2015).
With the frequency of its utilisation and ever-growing number of new users every day,
it has continued to provide a platform for abuse and sexual harassment. This form of
sexual harassment is simply categorised as online sexual harassment.

Since the current study seeks to explore sexual harassment, which mainly occurs on
the Internet, several authors have defined it in various ways. Arafa et al (2018) defines
it as harassment of a sexual nature that takes place over the internet. This definition
however fails to address specifics about the kind of sexual material that is harassive

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that is being disseminated through over the Internet. This is an area that has been
missing in previous scholarship and has been addressed by the Project
deShame (2018) which conceives sexual harassment online as sexual conduct which
is unwanted occurring on any of the various digital platforms and is legally
acknowledged as a sexual violence form. Thus, online sexual harassment
encompasses behaviours of a broad range that utilize digital content which may be
videos, images, pages or posts on a multitude of various platforms which are
either public or private (Project deShame,
2018).

In the same vein, Wise geek (2018) defines online sexual harassment as
sexual harassment which basically takes place on the Internet, and is mostly through
online messaging programs, Internet forums or via email. Barrios & Sosa (2010) also
define online sexual harassment as sexual harassment on the Internet such as
when a harasser sends over the Internet, unwanted, obscene, threatening, or
messages of an abusive nature to a victim either via instant messages, blogs,
internet forums or discussion boards.

From the above definitions it become clear that online sexual harassment happens on
the various platforms of the Internet and is of a sexual nature. This can be
through receiving unwanted sexual material which can be either images, videos,
unsolicited sexual jokes or threats. This is the preferred definition of online sexual
harassment is unwanted sexual material which a victim receives on social networking
sites or popularly named social media and these materials being unwanted
pornographic videos and images, jokes of a sexual nature and sexual solicitation.

With this in mind, we understand that there could be many forms of online
sexual harassment. As a result of the virtual nature of the Internet most types
of sexual harassment can be classified into three distinct categories. These are
unwanted sexual attention, gender harassment and sexual solicitation. However,
sexual solicitation happens the least online (Barak, 2005). Within these broader

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categories, however are types that feed back to these broad ones in explaining the
concept of online sexual harassment in its various forms.

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2.4.1 Unwanted Sexual Attention
This type of online sexual harassment, also termed ‘sexual imposition’ refers to
unwanted and unwelcome sexual attention communicated directly via the Internet to a
victim by a harasser. Usually the harasser utilises personal communication to directly
convey messages relating to either sex or the sexuality of the victim. These messages
may include: the harasser referring to the victim’s sex organs, referring to the sex life
of the victim, mentioning of intimate subjects, insinuating or offering sex related
activities, imposing sex related sounds or images. A harasser who utilizes unwelcome
sexual attention to a victim online usually tends to try and ask for the victim’s
cooperation either in person or on the Internet. This study concurs with this
definition as female students were subjected to this form of sexual harassment
online. A study by Finn (2004) confirms that 15% of students from college
reported having been sent pornographic material by harassers that they had not
asked for.

Arafa et al., (2018) posits that sadly, the tracking of sexual harassment is very hard
because more often than not the harasser may be anonymous. Unlike the mainstream
harassment that may be mostly verbal and physical, in online harassment the harasser
can easily access the victim no matter where they are. In this study, however, none of
the harassers had an anonymous status, its either the victim knew them very well,
even in person or they had a close relationship prior to the harassment.

2.4.2 Gender Harassment

Gender harassment in cyberspace generally involves unwanted visual or verbal
degrading remarks made because of an individual’s gender. Typical examples include
posting of pornographic pictures in either public or private online places; or posting of
sexually charged jokes about another person based on his/her gender. These can be
targeted at a particular individual level or they can be directed towards multiple people
(Maass et al , 2003). As Cantor et al. (2015) put it, this form of harassment is basically
discrimination and more sensitive because it speaks directly on someone’s

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sexual orientation. In an academic setting, sexist jokes or remarks could be
considered more

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outrageous if the victims have gender roles that are perceived to be transgressive. For
example, the abuse of female students in science subject settings. Given that these
settings are mostly male-dominated, the female students who excel in these settings
are likely to be sexually harassed and may end up facing cynicism from their
male counterparts (Hill & Silva,2005). This resentment ends up being sexual
harassment as a way of belittling the outshining female students (Cantor et al.,2015).
In patriarchal societies, men are mostly expected to basically take up the lead roles in
all aspects of life, including the academic side, hence when male students prefer to
take up feminine career paths like cookery courses or fashion and design it is more
often than not looked down upon and derogatory sexual comments are made towards
them (El Sayed, 2012).

The results of the study show that men are equally vulnerable, just as women to email
harassment as noted by the findings of Rutgers’s study whose reports from
various campuses indicated that 42% of the victims were men, clearly meaning that
gender is not a factor in the incidences of stalking (Brownstein, 2000). In the absence
of more research to assess how affected the victims were, it is difficult to know
whether the experiences that were discussed by the female and male respondents
were the same (Brownstein, 2000). Additional research is further needed to
validate the impact of gender differences in online harassment and stalking
incidences on campuses. Thus, as the name entails, this type of sexual
harassment is done based on the gender expectations that society has
bestowed, hence when an individual tends to take a different route from the
‘normally expected’ they may end up being victimized because of this. Discussed
below are two subtypes of gender harassment which are verbal gender
harassment and graphic gender harassment

2.4. 1.1 Verbal gender harassment

This type of harassment is communicated verbally through words. Often, it is remarked
that degrade and insult individuals as a result of their gender or unwelcome visual or
verbal comments (Barak,2005). This type of harassment alludes to humiliating sexual

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messages sent by a harasser towards a victim. These may include gender derogatory
messages, threats of rape, unwelcome sexual remarks or sexually connotative

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messages said by a harasser to a victim with the aim to offend. Such manner
of messages are offensive and include gender-humiliating comments, rape threats,
and non-consensual and uninvited. This type of verbal harassment can either be
targeted towards potential passive receivers or an active specific victim. In the context
of this study, these are messages sent to an active specific victim by a harasser.
These can be audio messages or video messages describing sex-related
issues that are unsolicited. In this study, however, the victims were not
subjected to this type of harassment as none confirmed that voice messages were
sent to them even on the WhatsApp platforms that is popular with the use of voice
notes.

2.4.1.2 Graphic gender harassment

This form of harassment refers to the sending of offensive graphic messages via
instant messaging, email or links and pop-ups by a harasser to a victim (Schenk,2008).
Poland (2016) notes that researchers such as Barbara Ritter have discussed these
harassment types as emanating from offline behaviors and beliefs. Active verbal
gender harassment encompasses unwanted messages of an offensive disposition that
are sent on purpose. This description also partly describes active graphic gender
harassment, but on that aspect, pictures are included. Passive verbal gender
harassment involves the intentional posting of messages to various potential
receivers. Examples of this may be a harasser creating a username which includes
slur which is offensive or a user photographic with offensive graphic content.

Active verbal harassment is a form of online sexual harassment that is more common
than other forms as it may be purposefully sent to victims. This definition is in line with
forms of harassment that victims revealed they had been exposed to, as active
harassment involves harassment targeted to a specific person, while
passive harassment is visible to multiple potential targets. Active verbal
harassment is the common form of harassment on social media platforms like
Twitter and Facebook because the participants have defined identities and
names that are used to send comments and that is where the abuse largely takes
place (Poland, 2016).

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2.4.1.3 Sexual solicitation
This form of harassment refers to unwelcome sexual attention basically entailing
uninvited behaviors that communicate sexual desires or intentions (Ybarra & Mitchell,
2008). Within sexual solicitation can be the extreme end which may be termed sexual
coercion. This is rarely encountered on the Internet; what harassers usually do online
is to put pressure on the victim to try to solicit for their sexual cooperation. This
pressure is often achieved by utilizing threats of harm that are explicitly directed
towards the victim or friends and relatives of the victim. Cyber stalking is where sexual
coercion is largely seen more.

2.5 Platforms Where Online Sexual Harassment Takes Place

Social network sites are an integral part of the lives of the youth in managing their
social lives and in formulating their identities (Boyd & Ellison, 2007; Livingstone,
2008; Valkenburg, Peter, & Schouten, 2006). They are also an excellent a tool to
connect with peers and to display one’s connections (Livingstone, 2008). For as
much as these platforms foster effective and efficient communication among
individuals, the downside is that they can also perpetuate aggressive behavior
when others send unpleasant material to others, such as sexual harassment and
electronic forms of bullying (Kite, Gable, & Filippelli, 2010; Livingstone, 2008; Ybarra &
Mitchell, 2008). There are different types of social media platforms that exist today.
These may include but not limited to Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Flicker,
WhatsApp, Skype and Badoo (Anderson in Wilson, 2016). In this study, the main
platforms of online communication where sexual harassment takes place are
Facebook and WhatsApp.

2.5.1 Facebook
Facebook was created by Mark Zuckerberg in the comfort of his Harvard University
room (Dicker,2017). Mark Zuckerberg officially announced the creation of Facebook on
February 4, 2004, and since then it has spread. Powers (2011) argues that by January
in 2011, Facebook was rated the largest social networking in the world of its
kind. Goldman (2009) notes that Facebook is more of an operating system just like

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It has a

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provision of technologies to enable what is termed a social graph, this, in
essence, describing a social network. A social graph represents all connections
making up a social network. Each member of this network possesses their own social
graph which is a representation of users’ set of connections which is unique to other
members, also linked to the same network. Facebook users are able to create
personal profiles where they can not only add other friends and exchange messages
but can also share photos, include links, blog posts, read news stories and so
much more (Powers,2011). Facebook has become some kind of mirror to our social
existence (Wittkower,2010). It has both sides of the coin where there is the good and
the bad co-existing.

The study indicates that even though female students have access to Facebook
to connect and communicate with their friends and loved ones, thereby fostering
positive humanistic features, they, however, have experienced sexual harassment on
the same platform. The same further argues that since people have been socialized in
this era to communicate on these social networks, these have been seen to give
leeway to undesirable behavior by some individuals towards others (Powers,2011).
Results from a study by Wegge et al (2015) indicated that both male and female
students received nude pictures on Facebook, some described these as ‘naughty’
pictures from harassers. A study by Henry and Powell (2015) notes that there is an
increase in the use of social media to facilitate sexual harassment where harassers
post videos and other material that are sexually harassive to the receivers.

2.5.2 WhatsApp
WhatsApp has been described as a servicing App for smart phones (Banerjee, 2011).
It was started in 2009 by Brain Acton and Jan Koum. Its main use was to make
efficient and fast distribution of multimedia messages and communication. A
majority of WhatsApp users thus, utilize it for messaging, calling and sharing of
videos. It aims to connect its users with family and friends, thereby providing an
excellent way for an individual to be connected with their contacts. The study
established that female students who were sexually harassed on WhatsApp revealed

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that they had a close face to face relationship with the harasser before the
harassment.

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2.6 Coping Strategies for Victims of Online Sexual Harassment
Experiencing sexual harassment has various psychological repercussions that range
from distress, sorrow, loneliness, emotional distress up to depressive symptoms. It can
also cripple an individual’s career, school activities and even activities that an
individual regularly does as they may be restrained (Gradinger et al.,2009; Houle et
al.,2011). The same also applies to the nature of sexual harassment on social media
platforms, be it in private inbox chats or chat groups. Female students may be affected
by harassment which over the years has become very rampant. Victims of sexual
harassment, including those of online sexual harassment, thus need to employ
strategies to assist them in coping with these traumatic experiences that they have
encountered.

Coping means the responses on how we think, what we do to the emotions we feel in
dealing with stress, as this stress can leave emotional and psychological
imprints, distress, anger, sorrow, loneliness, up to depressive symptoms (Gradinger et
al., 2009; Houle et al., 2011). (Folkman,2011) argues that coping is an important
aspect of humans as a mechanism to protect both the physical and mental health from
the harmful effects of stress.

Butler & Chang-Yan (2011) argue that in trying to explain females’ responses to sexual
harassment, vast coping mechanisms have been proposed that come in the form of
models or frameworks. These vary in their complexity but have all been formulated to
explain women’s responses when they have encountered sexual harassment
(Bingham
& Scherer, 1993; Cortina & Wasti, 2005; Knapp, Faley, Ekeberg, & DuBois, 1997). It is
noted that when they have been subjected to the same type of sexual
harassment women still choose varying coping ways. This disparity may be a
result of chronic stressors which may involve sexual behaviours that have been
happening over time, gender disparities, age, to mention but a few (Gutek, 1985).
Reactions and coping may be as a result of enduring other similar situations which
may not necessarily have been a one-time event, but have re-occurred overtime, thus

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females then tend to utilize a trial and error approach where over time they learn which
coping strategies best work for

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them in other similar situations and they put those to use (Gottlieb, 1997). Among the
numerous frameworks discussed to explain coping strategies, Cortina & Wasti (2005:
187) therefore proposed five categories as a framework that explains coping
mechanisms. These include denial, advocacy seeking, social support, confrontational/
negotiation, and avoidance.

2.7 Advocacy seeking (Reporting the Harasser)

Vohlidalora (2011) explains that advocacy seeking basically entails employing the
open resistance strategy where the victim resolves to seek support from a formal
institution and its formal representatives to put into action a direct confrontation with
the alleged harasser. Thus, in dialogue, females usually highlight advocacy seeking as
the best in some harassment experiences. It has however been observed that when it
has actually happened very few opt for this option.

Of most victims who experienced sexual harassment, a minimal percentage only

actually took the time and courage to seek formal help using formal institutional
procedures (Gruber 1990; Rubin & Borgers 1990; Fitzgerald et al. 1995; Rabinowitz
1996; Kelley & Parsons 2000; Hill & Silva 2005). According to Fitzgerald et al. (1995),
this coping strategy is usually taken as the last resort when all other options have
either been exhausted or may not assist. The National Sexual Violence
Resource Centre (2004) concurs that victims may fear that if the punishment systems
of the institution are weak then this may exacerbate, and in a way condone sexual
harassment and other forms of sexual violence.

In a qualitative study that examined the experiences of sexual harassment of

junior female student nurses and female senior managers in two hospitals in Sindh,
Pakistan revealed that female nurses were being harassed especially mostly during
night duties by junior male doctors, the male patients and the relatives of the patients
(Qureshi et al., 2008) These harassments mostly took place in the wards and nearby
places that surrounded the hospital (Qureshi et al, 2008). Moreover, there was clear
evidence that there is a culture that generally accepts harassing behaviors at the
hospitals, this being

3
combined with the lack of knowledge on how to effectively manage it. The overall study
results revealed that the high possibility of under-reporting of sexual harassment
is because of lack of policies with clear guidelines to reporting. Advocacy seeking is
next to none due to lack of observance of anti-harassment national laws, the
policies available at the local level and also the lack of their practice in hospitals.

Reporting (advocacy seeking) responses encompass trying to seek formal

organizational support such as reporting or filing a formal complaint of the harassment.
Confrontation, however, means that the victim insists directly to the perpetrator that
they stop the harassive behavior immediately (Butler & Chung-Yan,2011).
According to Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) model of stress, when concentrating both
on reporting or confrontation both these responses are a problem- focused
responses (Butler & Chung-Yan, 2011).

Vohlidalova (2011)’s study on coping strategies for sexual harassment in Higher

Education revealed that either students generally lack trust in the school management,
feared secondary victimization and being blamed for making false allegations. The
study being of a qualitative nature employed participant auto selection by
advertising for interviews and snowballing to conduct 18 in-depth semi-structured
interviews built on the socio-cultural model perspective which explains sexual
harassment as a product of society maintaining the socio-gender order where gender
inequalities are the order of the day. From this point of view sexual, harassment is as a
result of patriarchy, and its aims to subordinate women and keep them in lower
positions. This explains why females do not report harassment as a result of this
social order that does not cater for that. This perspective is also in line with one of this
study’s main perspective, which is the Power and Dominance Model, which explains
that women are sexually harassed because of the subordinate positions they hold, and
these, therefore, do not give them room enough and confidence in the system to report
sexual harassment.

Cairns (1997) and Wood (1994) concur that when students decide to report
their experiences, they need the reassurance that their cases will be taken seriously

2
and will not be suspected of lying. Students also fear the reported lecturer may
retaliate if they

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report them for sexual harassment, this may have serious repercussions whereby they
end up being subjected to hurt which goes beyond the sexual harassment (Dziech –
Weiner 1984; Fitzgerald et al. 1995; Rabinowitz, 1996). A study by Robertson et al.
(1988) confirmed that there are some instances where students report lecturers
for sexual harassment simply on revenge basis because the lecturer would have
failed them in a particular course or module examination. A general distrust in the legal
system and how complaints of sexual harassment are dealt with is generally
prevalent. Dissatisfaction among the students who complained that the IHL
management prioritises defending the members of staff and employees than the
student’s rights. This is also coupled with the fact that students lack the knowledge on
where to get help on campus if the student needed to take assertive action against an
experience of sexual harassment. The study further revealed that there is a
general ‘taboo’ or myth surrounding sexual harassment issues as no one at the
institution had ever discussed it openly with them, thus when such harassment
befell them they generally did not possess the knowledge on where to go for
assistance or who to turn to for help.

2.8 Denial (Victim Ignoring the Harasser)

Quina (1996) postulates that most victims of any form of sexual violence, be it sexual
harassment or rape typically prefer to remain silent about traumatic incidences that
they experience. This does not only refer to non- reporting to authorities, but
also the unwillingness to talk about it even with other people around them. Rabinowitz
(1996) concurs that the choice to ignore both the harasser and the experience has
been found to be a solution by most, even though this behavior may perpetuate the
reproduction of harassment as the feelings of impunity may be fostered among
harassers. Silence as a result of denial and hence choosing to ignore the harasser is
one of the worst decisions in dealing with sexual harassment as silence does not
possess the ability to curb or eradicate harassment (Rabinowitz, 1996). Cairns (1997)
claims that the choice to ignore the harasser may also come after a thorough weighing
of pros and cons by the victim and then finally choosing to be silent about it may
be the best way to deal with it according to them, as it may have way fewer
consequences to deal with than risking to speak up about it.

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In a study that explored the prevalence of sexual harassment, harassment
consequences and the reasons why Swedish female students do not report their
sexual harassment experiences it was found that a whopping 98.5% of the females did
not report their sexual harassment experiences. (Mellgren et al., 2018). The study
utilized a sample size of 264 in a quantitative study approach and questionnaires were
used to collect data. Basing on other studies conducted results, this was not shocking
but a conformation (Lenton et al., 1999; Pina & Gannon, 2012). Most women,
when questioned about their coping strategies, revealed denial as they felt that the
crime was not serious enough to warrant reporting as they felt it wouldn’t make sense
to go to the police. Other reasons given for not reporting were that they felt that it did
not help the victim in healing even if the matter was reported to the police. They also
gave an excuse for the behavior of the harasser that they did not mean any harm.

Dhlomo et al. (2012) conducted a quantitative study to analyze perceived

sexual harassment among female students at a Zimbabwean institution of higher
learning. A sexual harassment questionnaire was administered to 136 female
students aged between 19-40 years. The data were analysed using descriptive
statistics. 31% of the respondents revealed that they had reported harassment
incidents, a bigger fraction with 69% of these female students seemed not to be
able to identify if sexual harassment had happened to them. A minority (7%)
however, reason that they reported because they felt angry and hurt. This is
contradictory to this study where the female students, even though hurt or angry
did not report still. These results indicate what Shumba et al. (2006) termed as the
‘culture and conspiracy of silence.’ This contributes towards the problem because the
institutions do not educate students on issues of sexual harassment; hence those
who experience it are intimidated and discouraged from reporting or even talking
about it. Thus, as a way of trying to cope with sexual harassment the female students
try to ignore it.

The reluctance to report sexual harassment by female students can be discussed and
explained using one of the main theories backing this study. This is the Natural

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 ...
or Biological Model of harassment (Barak et al., 1995; Browne,1997; Studd &
Gattiker,

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1991; Tangri & Hayes, 1997). This theory argues that it is not sexual harassment but a
natural relationship between men and women since men are the initiators of courtship,
they merely would be expressing their biological urges towards females to perpetuate
the human race through offspring (Synnevag, 1997). In African culture, sexual
harassment seems to be nonexistent. Although sexual harassment may not be
regarded as a grave crime in such situations, it however, has traumatic
consequences for its victims (Cortina & Wasti, 2005).

2.9 Social Support

As a way of coping with experiencing sexual harassment women look to friends and
family for comfort and support. This coping strategy is based on finding better
psychological ways to deal with sexual harassment as it is an unpleasant
situation (Vahlidalora, 2011). Fisher et al. (2003) concur with this as they explain that
generally, females who are sexually harassed prefer to tell someone else and mostly
friends rather than reporting to officials in their IHL or the police. According to
Fitzgerald et al. (1995), this strategy to seek mental support from family members, and
friends is one of the mostly chosen ways for coping by females to cope. Compared to
directly confronting the harasser or reporting, this particular strategy mostly emanates
from the desire not to stir or cause trouble but with the little resources that the victim
has to seek help.

Findings of a study by Vohlidalora (2011) indicate that females preferred to talk

to someone than make an official complaint as fear is one of the reasons that
downplays this on what will happen when the harasser has found out that the student
reported them.

Another research conducted by the Management Association Information Resources

(2019) found that there is an impact on victims of sexual violence. When asked
questions related to coping strategies some said they miss classes, most respondents
said they ignore the harasser. Very few of the respondents believed in directly

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confronting the harasser. Most students reported lacking social comfort and
support

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when they had gone through a traumatic experience. Those that chose to remain silent
became isolated, but those who revealed their ordeals to their family and friends either
were not given social support. Sometimes when students are far away from home,
they may feel isolated from their support systems which are family and friends.

2.10 Confrontation/ Negotiation (Victim Blocking the Harasser)

Coping strategies can be classified into two approaches; this being problem focused
and emotion-focused. According to Folkman and Lazarus’ (1980) conceptualization of
coping strategies, problem-focused coping basically is fixed on changing the source of
the stress while emotion-focused coping aims at managing the emotions that go with
the perception of the stress (Brannon& Feist,2009). Vohlidalora (2011) argues
that results from a study he conducted indicated that some female students dare to
choose to take control of a situation and chose to ward off a harasser. This ability to
cope and deal with the situation empowers and gives confidence to the female to
either, blocks the harasser or cut off possibilities of future harassment (Rabinowitz
1996; Cairns 1997; Vohlídalová 2015).

2.13 Victims of Sexual Harassment

Historically, women have been the most likely victims of sexual harassment than men.
Numerous studies confirm that men are most likely to be sexual harassers (Cortina,
2002; Osborne, 1992). Studies indicate that it is women that are largely affected by
sexual harassment. Arnett and Hughes (2012) reveal that women are most often than
not abused by men that they can identify and know well. Results from a study
conducted in Nigeria indicated that it is mostly lecturers and senior students who are
perpetrators of sexual violence (Baraki and Leach, 2008)

A study at the University of Venda found that there were numerous incidents which
took place at the IHL of sexual harassment of female students studying under
various departments and schools between 2000 and 2004 (Dastile, 2004). A female
respondent in the study revealed how a lecturer had not only touched but hugged and
kissed her

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in his office bringing feelings of disgust and trauma as she was reminded of a previous
rape by a close family member in her earlier years (Dastile in Kheswa, 2014:2848).

Studies conducted in US college campuses also indicate the pervasiveness of sexual

harassment where it is estimated that about 20 to 25% female students in IHL
will experience sexual harassment at some point during their study period (Cantor et
al.,
2015; Conley et al., 2017; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; Krebs, Lindquist, Warner,
Fisher, & Martin, 2007; Decker & Littleton, 2017). Another study conducted on female
students at a college campus indicates that female students’ online harassment has
increased over the years (Arafa et al., 2018). 79.8%. Of female students who took part
in the study revealed that they had experienced sexual harassment on the internet at
least one time in the past six months.

However, some studies show that it is not only women who suffer sexual harassment
but, also men also experience it, largely by other men even though women are also
perpetrators. (Narcia, 2014) asserts that both men and women can become victims of
sexual harassment just as perpetrators can be both genders.
Studies indicate that sexual harassment is still prevalent in Canadian Schools among
adolescents of both sexes. This indicates that there is no gender difference in
victimization cases (Peterson & Hyde, 2009). Another study by Gruber and Fineran
(2007) concurs with the fact that even in high schools sexual harassment of both male
and females is indeed rampant, with 79% of males and 81% of females reporting
having experienced it. Another study finding conducted by Omred,
Collinworth, and Perry(2009) indicates the victimization of boys with 88.4%.

Another group within the male species category that is more prone to sexual
harassment is the LGBTI + Q community. Barker and Ricardo (2005) note that men too
fall prey to sexual harassment. Petersen and Hyde (2013) state that apart from being
victims of sexual harassment, homosexual men or racial or ethnic minorities fall victim
to sexual harassment or even those who work in women-dominated environments
(Jones, Boocock & Under-hill, 2013). A study on high school going males in Canada

3
revealed that some of these young men got more comments related to their
homosexual

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orientation and felt very harassed (Chiodo, Wolfe, Crooks, Hughes & Jaffe, 2009). This
study, however, largely focuses on the sexual harassment of female students.

2.11 Online Sexual Harassment Studies in Institutions of Higher Learning

Empirical studies indicate that online sexual harassment is a problem that is
increasing, especially among youths at universities or colleges (Lindsay&Krysik,2012).
There are, however, not many studies especially focusing on online sexual
harassment. This study discusses the issue of online sexual harassment within the
context of IHL or colleges. Most studies on online sexual harassment have mainly
dealt with it focusing on adolescents and children (Bossler, Holt, & May 2012;
Ybarra, Espelage, & Mitchell,
2007).
However, there is very little data on the prevalence of online sexual harassment
among adults. A study of New Hampshire college student’s sexual harassments
through receiving pornographic images found that a greater majority had received
these pictures (Finn, 2004).

A study conducted on the attitudes and behavior of Internet users when they search for
sexually explicit material online found that some undergraduate students felt sexually
harassed in chat rooms they were part of, or felt sexually harassed by men in the
gaming world if they know she was a female (Goodson et al., 2001). Women were
found out to report sexual harassment on chatrooms. Staude-Muller, Hansen, and
Voss (2012)’s study on online victimization showed that 68.3% of respondents aged
between 10 and
50 reported having received sexually harassing material online. The study
further revealed that women were more vulnerable to online sexual harassment than
men.

Baumgartner, Valkenburg & Peter (2010) focused on online solicitation in their study.
They found that most male and female participants had been sexually solicited in the
past six months. The working definition of sexual solicitation in the study
included receiving unsolicited requests to either do something sexual or talk about sex.

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The study generally revealed that there was a high victimization rate of female youths.
A study by the Pew Research (2014) concurs with findings from Baumgartner,
Valkenburg & Peter

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(2010)’s study as surveyed adult Internet users revealed that they had
experienced online sexual harassment.

However qualitative studies cannot be generalized as they do not investigate

the prevalence and the working definitions of what and what does not constitute
online sexual harassment may be different. However, what is certain is that evidence
shows women are affected by sexual harassment more than men and the impact is
also greater on females. A study by Lindsay, Booth, Messing, & Thaller (2015) found
out female students reported having been sexually harassed by someone they
knew, and the sexual harassment had a psychological impact on the victims. A
lower percentage reported having been harassed by someone they did not know
while a higher percentage reported being harassed by a significant other, and 31%
reported having been sexually harassed after they had asked the person to stop.
Female students from a US University also reported fear from the sexual harassment
that took place online while a study by Bossler, Holt, & May (2012) reveals that a 44%
female respondents reported having experienced online sexual harassment in the
previous year compared to males.

Online sexual harassment often occurs anonymously, often by someone who may not
know the victim but is instead simply harassing people randomly. It can also be
targeted at a particular victim by someone the victim does not know, which can occur
when the victim is a celebrity or other famous individual. Online sexual harassment can
also take place between two people who know each other, in which case the assailant
chooses the Internet as a medium for harassment rather than direct contact. Sexual
harassment of any kind, including sexual harassment online, typically consists of
words, images, and actions that are sexually explicit or provocative and make
the receiver feel threatened or strongly distressed. While physical actions may not be
possible with online sexual harassment, there is still a great deal of potential for
harassment through words and images that can be sent through the Internet.
The methods for delivering such harassment can vary a great deal but may include
the use of e-mail, online forums and groups, services, online computer and video
games, and comments on blogs.

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Infomania (2018) argues that over the years’ aggressive online sexual harassment has
become more disturbing as Pew Researchers have established that 25% of
young women reported having been sexually harassed online while 26% having been
stalked on the Internet. This figure is way over the one that was reported by men which
is 9%.
53% reported having received images of an explicit nature that were unwanted, 11% of
these women had been harassed specifically because of their gender in comparison to
men whose percentage is 5%.

Siduna (2017) notes research surveys conducted by Saunders, Skye and

Easteal (2003) divulge that there is a vital role that sexual harassment has in a
homogenous role in a largely masculine society that basically sets out that masculinity
entails the concept of women being lesser than men and thus men can exercise
power over women. This accounts for the vulnerability that women have suffered as
they have been sexual harassment victims. Wilson (2016) argues that in the American
education sector, sexual harassment has become a big problem even though the
country has laws against it. The tertiary level has focused in the ensuring of not only
the economic development of youths but their security too. However, these institutions
are seemingly biased in their dealings towards students’ harassment issues even
when this has an impact on the students’ learning (Siduna, 2017). Many students
experience sexual harassment in its varied forms. This impacts negatively on the
holistic educational development of these students, especially the females
(UNESCO,2003)

However contrary to many studies that that focus mostly on individuals of

higher authority sexually harassing those they have authority over there few scholars
have focused on holders of authority who are victims of the less powerful.
Munyuki and Vincent (2016) argue that in IHL the world over, sexual harassment is
ubiquitous. They note that women are the major victims of sexual harassment,
be they students or academics who become victims of their supervisors, peers or
their students.

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2.12 Online Sexual Harassment in Colleges
On college campuses, sexual aggression remains a predicament (Walsh,
Banyard, Moynihan, Ward &Cohn (2010). In a nationwide survey conducted in the
USA, it was estimated that in any particular year, an estimated 5% of women that are
in college were sexually exploited (Fisher et al., 2000). The advent of the Internet has
enabled easy communication thereby making communication online to be
pervasive (Finn, 2004) observes that.

A Harris (2001) Interactive survey on college students discovered that basically,

all senior students utilize Internet services. Over the years, school advises that
every student should have their personal computer, with Wi-Fi services that are
efficient in colleges everywhere including library computers, computer labs, university
residence halls has made it easy to access the Internet for students even for those that
do not own personal computers.

College learners frequently e-mail their lecturers, fellow students, family, and friends,
using social networking sites that send instant messages that give efficient and
immediate feedback. Usage of the Internet has advantages for students as they can
benefit academically and socially as they access a lot of knowledge in
libraries, websites, online data bases that have many scholarly journals, newsgroups
to mention but a few. However, there is proof that Internet usage can also result in a
multitude of abuse. Such abuse includes addiction to the Internet, termed cyber
addiction, theft of one’s identity, being exposed to unwelcome content which may
be pornographic or violence, harassment via emails and cyber stalking (Finn &
Banach, 2000); Kandell,
1998); Leibs, 1995; Waldron et. al., 2000). However, there are hardly any studies that
specifically focus on how to deal with these problems in the universities (Fisher et al.,
2000).

Cyber stalking is defined as used to define behavior that involves the use of
harassment and or threats using any form of communication-based on the computer
and sending of emails in such a way that the receiver of such information intimidates

3
the receiver and makes them afraid of their safety. Kennedy (2000) and Lamberg
(2002) postulate that

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the effects of cyber stalking can be as real to the victim as the actual effects that an
individual feels when they are stalked physically. This can result in physical
harm, psychological effects like depression, stress or mental anguish, anxiety
and even murder of the victim by the perpetrator.

On the Internet sexual harassment occurs in various ways and many avenues. In a
social media survey conducted by the Nielson Company (2017), it was indicated that
people spend most of their time chatting on social networking sites compared to other
platforms of the Internet, thereby allocating to their mobile phones 30 percent of their
time social media chatting while the rest of 20 percent will be spent their
personal computer. Sexual harassment on the Internet can happen in a number of
ways; mostly this is when a harasser sends unwanted, abusive obscene or threatening
messages using instant messaging or email, forums, discussion boards.

Kennedy and Taylor (2010) argue that among college students, the use of
social networking sites is widespread. In a study conducted in the Southwest United
States University, it was found out that over 80% of the study participants were utilizing
some form of social network or had used a social network in their lifetime, of which
between
8.7% - 75.1% of that time they were using Myspace and Facebook. Most of
the participants reported that they provided their personal information on social
network sites.

Most students posted many pictures of them online, and they shared some personal
and private information. For example, they stated their present school, their town or
city where they reside and place of employment. The students also stayed in touch
with their old friends and made new friends with individuals they had met online.
Among these students, only 15.1% reported ever having fears about their safety using
social media sites. This courage to protect themselves came as a result of knowing
how to protect themselves. 29% stated that they blocked those individuals they did not
wish to chat with anymore while 2.9% said they changed the information they gave on

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their sites. For example, changing addresses, or phone numbers to avoid being
harassed by the harassers they met online (Kennedy and Taylor, 2010).

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The pervasive nature of Internet use by college students means that colleges have to
come up with ways of addressing online sexual harassment as this has
become a platform that has brought about new forms of sexual harassment problems
that were previously none existent. In a study conducted by Finn (2004) results
indicate that an estimated 1 in 10 students at the University of New Hampshire has
been through the experience of being threatened repeatedly, insulted or harassed via
email or instant messaging. The perpetrators were largely from strangers,
acquaintances, and partners.

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2.12 Studies on Online Sexual Harassment in Institutions of Higher Learning

Although some studies on sexual harassment in South African IHL have been
conducted few if any have focused on sexual harassment directed at the youth online.
A study by Growing up with media Survey in a national cross-sectional online survey of
1588 youth indicated that Fifteen percent of all of the youth reported an unwanted
sexual solicitation online in the last year; 4% reported an incident on a social
networking site specifically. Thirty-three percent reported online harassment in the
last year; 9% reported an incident on a social networking site specifically.
Among targeted youth, solicitations were more commonly reported via instant
messaging (43%) and in chat rooms (32%), and harassment was more commonly
reported in instant messaging (55%) than through social networking sites (27% and
28%, respectively) (Ybarra and Mitchell, 2008).

A study investigating the nature and the extent of adolescences’ experience of

cyberbullying, a survey of 177 students in an urban city was, and the results showed
that almost 54% of the students were victims of traditional bullying and over a quarter
of them had been cyber-bullied. Almost one in three students had bullied others in the
traditional form, while almost 15% had bullied others using electronic communication
tools. Almost 60% of the cyber victims are females, while over 52% of cyber-bullies are
males. The majority of the cyber-bully victims and bystanders did not report the
incidents (Qing, 2007).

A survey conducted in New Hampshire in 2000 found that about 6% of youths had the
experience of being harassed online Thorp (2004). A survey conducted in
Canada shows that one-quarter of young Canadian Internet users reported that they
had the experience of getting messages telling hateful things about others (Mnet,
2001).

Katz (2002) found that many adolescents experienced sexual harassment over
the Internet. Other researchers reported that one-third of undergraduate students
reported being stalked over the Internet (Spitzberg & Hoobler, 2002). Text-based name

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calling, use of coarse language, profanity, and personal attacks have been
discovered in

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computer-mediated communication environments (Kiesler & Sproull, 1992; Thompsen,
1994). Fin (2004) ‘s study indicated that many students are harassed via emails, and
those particular students who also view themselves as the LGBTI seemed to be more
likely to be harassed twice as much as normal heterosexual students. So far there
exists a gulf in the literature on LGBTI ’s online sexual harassment experiences.

2.14 Sexual Harassment Policies in Institutions of Higher Learning

Frederich as cited in Gustama (2013) defines a policy as a wide guide which is utilized
in the presentation and furthering of decisions that are carefully chosen from certain
conditions which emanate from various alternatives, the confirmed action plan(s)
assigned to implement or carry out the desired action (s) or an estimated
program comprising of desired goals (objectives). It is with these definitions in mind
that this section in the study discusses policies enacted by other selected IHLs
worldwide, in South Africa and lastly the specific IHL where the study is conducted to
assess how the sexual harassment policy in place has curbed sexual
harassment. Buluma (2009) asserts that for sexual harassment a transparent policy
framework is needed which not only defines it but also prevents perpetration by
anybody. When this is done, there is a risk that any other efforts that may be made are
just insignificant as there will be more problems in preventing this pernicious problem.
Without a law to prevent a predicament from taking place the chances of sexual
harassment taking place are very high.

Omale (2000) posits that developing countries lack either adequate policies or
the existing ones are not enough to be effectively reinforced in school set-ups
and the workplace. Omale (2000) argues that there remains a gap when it comes to
plausible sexual harassment policies in schools.

Institutions have made suggestions on what is to be done in terms of preventing online

sexual harassment. Strategies have been put in place to tackle it through educating
students and staff on online sexual harassment, social support, teaching on

4
privacy tools on social media for youths to protect themselves to mention but a few.
Hatcher

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(2000; WHOA,2002) argue that quite some guidelines have been provided by some
organizations to assist in the prevention and stopping of cybercrimes which
include sexual harassment. However, these are not available in South Africa. Scholars
have noted that it is only a handful of IHLs that have put in place solid measures to
prevent cyberstalking and sexual harassment.(Finn, 2004; George Mason
University, (GMU)
1999; Olsen, 2001; Wellesley, 2017).

2.15. 1. George Mason University and University of Maryland-College Park

Cyberstalking and Harassment Policy
Finn (2004) and Carlson (2002) argue that IHLs like the University of Maryland-College
Park have invented a way to intervene in campus computer cybercrimes. The
Wellesley College and George Mason University have put policies that are specific to
addressing harassment and stalking. The GMU policy defines stalking as any
behavior or activity that occurs more than once and ends up instilling fear in the victim,
either threatening their safety and health whether mentally or physical (Finn, 2004;
Carlson, 2002). These behaviors may include unwanted communication, be it face
to face, calls on the telephone, emails, voice messages to mention but a few. It can
be noted that the policy includes online sexual harassment and it further clearly states
the consequences for those who are to be found guilty of such crimes. As these affect
the operations of the IHL and its learning environment (Finn, 2004; Carlson, 2002).

2.15. 2. University of South Australia (UniSA) Sexual Assault and Harassment Policy
and Procedures
The University of South Australia’s 2004 policy clearly states its purpose to promote a
safe, respectful and inclusive environment at the IHL, which is free of sexual
harassment and sexual assault. It also endeavors to foster and protect the rights of
complainants in its decision-making process to meet the requirement of upholding fair
procedures in the handling of reported sexual harassment cases of one university
member against another or a third party at the IHL. The policy specifically identifies
who applies to and in what circumstances and the relevant authorities to handle the

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complaints assessment Team (CAT) with the Students at Risk Committee (SARC) to
assist. It also discusses at

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length the general principles, which include that sexual harassment information will be
held with outmost confidentiality in accordance with the IGL’s policies and procedures
in accordance with the requirements of the law. The response when a complaint
of sexual harassment or assault has been made is discussed, clearly stating this
process and its outcomes. The staff that has a role to respond to reported cases are
also named in the policy and contact details are also provided. The process of
disclosure and reporting supported with flowchart diagrams is provided showing the
structure of where and how students can report are attached in the policy. Issues
dealing with the provision of reporting the matter to the police or seeking a 3 rd party
provider, the withdrawal of a reported case are also clearly discussed and what
manner they should follow.

2.15 Sexual Harassment Laws in South Africa

South Africa also legislated several laws in an endeavor to curb sexual harassment in
work places. In 2011, the Protection from Harassment Act was passed and became
the
1st legislation to address sexual harassment in the whole of Southern Africa (Gender
Links for equity and justice (2012). This legislation gives provision for an individual to
seek a protection order against a perpetrator or harasser from the Magistrate’s court,
that is nearby to their place of residence. Commission for Conciliation Mediation and
Arbitration (2015) and the 1995 Labour Relations Act are other legislative pieces
in South Africa that focus on the eradication of workplace sexual harassment. Section
203 in the Code of good practice provides measures suitable for dealing with
sexual harassment and its prevention and its reoccurrence also. It also supports and
urges the developing of procedures and policies that build sexual harassment-free
workplaces (Kabaya, 2016). These pieces of legislation also apply to the protection of
students in schools and universities to be protected against sexual harassment in their
educational environments. The institutions also have a responsibility to enact
institution based policies to protect students and members of staff against sexual
harassment deriving from the nationwide legislations.

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2.15 Policies against Sexual Harassment in South African Institutions of Higher
Learning
Williams et al. (1992) note that a substantial body of knowledge has been amassed by
researchers on the topic of sexual harassment. As a result, Universities and colleges
have taken heed of this research on sexual harassment and have enacted policies to
prohibit it, developed grievance procedures, victim support services and programs that
are educational. A number of laws were enacted in South Africa to protect the people
against sexual harassment in workplaces (Kabaya,2016). The Labour Relations Act of
1995 is the main Act that tackles the issue of sexual harassment in the workplace. It
provides for a Code of Good Practice on Sexual Harassment that recommends ways
to deal with sexual harassment complaints. Commission for Conciliation Mediation and
Arbitration (2015), Kabaya (2016) notes that section 203 of the code of good practice
supports and urges the development and creation of procedures that make the
workplace sexual harassment free. The Protection from Harassment Act of 2011 came
after the Labour Relations Act of 1995, but it is recognized as the first legislation in
Southern Africa to tackle sexual harassment (Gender links for Equity and Justice
(2012).

However, these sexual harassment measures do not specifically discuss how sexual
harassment which happens in a school set up should be tackled if it happens. The
same also applies to sexual harassment that takes place over online or social media
platforms. Deriving from these national laws, universities and collections went on to
enact their laws to address the problem of sexual harassment to their
constituencies. Singh, Mudaly, and Singh-Pillay(2015) concur that the duty of
university campuses is not only to provide but also maintain a conducive and safe
environment for all and sundry’s schooling and working on campus. Despite this
sexual violence has remained rampant worldwide (Singh et al., 2015, Kabaya, 2016).
Buluma (2009) argue that there is a need for a sexual harassment policy framework
that is clear and not only defines but prevents and specifies explicitly the penalties for
the perpetration of such acts. Problems arise when this is not done as all other
efforts become fruitless (Buluma, 2009). Unlike developed countries, developing
countries may not have clear specific and reinforced sexual harassment guidelines in

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places of work and especially schools (Omale 2000; & Buluma, 2009). While in the
workplace, sexual harassment has successfully been

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recognized; there still is a void in terms of specific policies in the education
sector
(Omale 2000; & Buluma, 2009).

2.15. 1. University of Cape Town Sexual Harassment Policy on Sexual Harassment

The University of Cape Town’s 2008 Sexual Harassment policy defines sexual
harassment as is unwelcome non-verbal conduct which encompasses indecent display
and exposure through the electronically sending of pictures which are sexually explicit
and or objects. The policy emphasizes that they should be responsible for ensuring
that awareness is raised among students and the rest of the IHL community in
order to eradicate sexual harassment. These managers are the Vice-Chancellor,
Deans, HODs, Executive Director and Students Affairs. The policy addresses issues
on education and training of the university community in its implementation and thus
preventing sexual harassment. It also addresses the IHL ‘s response to sexual
harassment complaints when it is made, who specifically handles it and how the formal
and informal procedures.

2.15. 2. University of Johannesburg Sexual Harassment Policy on Sexual Harassment

The University of Johannesburg (UJ) Policy on sexual harassment of 2015, is guided
by the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa which promotes the upholding of
everyone’s rights. Borrowing from the Employment Equity Act, it prescribes that any
environment of work should be free from any forms of sexual harassment and
practices that are discriminatory. It states the university’s stance on non-tolerance to all
forms of discrimination and clearly defines as sexual harassment. Among other forms
of sexual harassment, the policy acknowledges and includes sexual harassment that
takes place within and without the IHL ‘s campus on various platforms, including in
technologically facilitated sexual harassment on digital platforms of social media.

2.15. 2. University of Venda Policy on Sexual Harassment

At the University of Venda, which is the location of this study, the Department of
Human Resources Management, in 2009 put in place a policy in line with the
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requirement for institutions to enact policies to protect their members of staff and
students against

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sexual harassment. This policy defines sexual harassment as ‘unwanted, persistent
and unwelcome sexual approaches, be it verbal or gestures which are non-verbal,
visual or physically made with the promise of rewards, favours or unacceptable
requests in the conditions of a working environment.’ The policy was put in place to
provide guidelines on the handling of sexual harassment cases perpetrated at the
University. It addresses various sexual misconducts but does not to include Internet
sexual harassment. The procedures of reporting encompass informal and formal
procedures.

The informal gives provision for a victim, be it a member of staff or student to informally
discuss the incident with the perpetrator. If an understanding is not reached then the
victim may seek a third party to mediate, this individual then is required to assist within
ten working days. If this is not successfully done or if mediator fails to provide a
solution, it is then that the case may be formally lodged as a written complaint to the
Department of Human Resources. The Department will require the mediator to provide
a report, and the harasser is required to submit a written response to the allegations
leveled against him or her. A review of the policy revealed that although the
policy may sound straightforward at face value it has loopholes. For instance, it
does not specifically mention online sexual harassment considering the fact that the
world we live in is now dominated by the Internet. Specifics for students to report are
also not included in the policy that is clear cut as to where exactly at the HR
department and to whom, in which office exactly they can lodge their complaints. This
is definitely needed because of the sensitivity of such cases which demand
confidentiality and reassurance when a student has been harassed. Against this
backdrop, the policy is lacking in specifics to the extent that students may end up
failing to report online sexual harassment at the institution.

2.16 Theoretical Framework for the Study

This study has drawn from four main sociological theories to study the online sexual
harassment experiences of students in a South African IHL. While the first two theories
(Power and Dominance Model and the Biological model) provide explanations on why
sexual harassment happens from the traditional point of view; the last two

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(Online disinhibition effect model and Social identity model of deindividuation effects)
would help understand how the Internet provides the “appropriate” platforms for this
abuse to occur.

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In general, these theories would also help provide explanations why such
victims (female students) are able to assimilate, internalize and develop coping
strategies to deal with such experiences. They would also sufficiently capture all the
nuances and the different perspectives around online sexual harassment experiences
as formulated in the research problem.

2.16.1 Power and Dominance theory

This theory was first propounded by Fitzgerald et al. (1994) when they connected the
existence of sexual harassment in work places with the impact of the power structure
in the human society’s organizational social systems. In their view, sexual
harassment occurs directly as a result of two antecedents. Firstly, the fact that
work is primarily dominated by co-workers and supervisors that are largely male.
This, in essence, means that the environment of the organization is dominated by the
job-gender context (Gutek & Cohen, 1987). Secondly, the climate of the organization
largely has a tolerance for sexual harassment experiences. Incidences of sexual
harassment are lower in organizations that discourage and are non-tolerant
towards it as they have policies, rules, and procedures to curb it (Fitzgerald et
al.,1997; Fitzgerald et al., 1999, Drasgow and Magley, 1999; Burker & Cooper,2010).

Furthermore sexual harassment that takes place negatively influences

the psychological well-being of employees, their health and also other attitudes that
are job- related. Fitzgerald (1994) explains that harassment has consequences that
are deep reaching as it is not only frightening to its victims, but also degrading,
sometimes even physically violent and frequently when it's extended over a long period
of time its results can also be health or job related, and psychological. Lastly,
Fitzgerald et al. (1994) proposed that there generally are two classes of moderators
that in general influence sexual harassment behaviors, namely: the victim’s
personally vulnerability characteristics and the coping mechanisms or style or
response to sexual harassment. Given that employers feel a sense of power and
dominance, they always feel empowered to take advantage of their vulnerable
employees. Even in organisations

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such as the military, the academia and in corporate businesses, where you would
expect the employers to comport themselves better, these still happen (O’Leary-Kelly,
2009).

In the last decade, many scholars have begun to use this model to study online sexual
harassment. In a study of sexual harassment between university staff and students in
the US, Chantal (2014) particularly postulates that the Power and Dominance Model
gives a background on how victims get to be sexually harassed online by perpetrators.
Since online sexual harassment is a form a cyber-crime and to a certain extent, a level
of bullying, the model explains that in the context of a University, there is the existence
of power imbalances between students and faculty staff (Pence & Paymar,
1993; Thomson & Morrison, 2013). The model employs a Power and Control wheel
which discusses the different elements that makeup abuse. These elements include
threats and intimidation, social standing, harmful language, exclusion,
harassment, and technology to forward unwanted messages; these all take place
within a relationship over which a perpetrator has control to a certain extent over a
victim. Since online sexual harassment is classified under cyber bullying when
there is manipulation by an individual of power over a victim, thus cyberbullying best
explains this behaviour at the University level (Bauman et al ., 2013; Englander; 2008,
Cowie et al ,2013 ;Zalaquett & Chatters ,2014 ; Akbulut & Eristi ,2011; Minor et
al ;2013).

The most common forms of cyber bullying in the university environment may include
sexual coercion, threatening, harassing, degrading and intimidating behaviors that are
technology based. The sending of sexual material to a student from a lecturer or a
senior student as the results of the study indicated is best explained by the
Power and Dominance Model as these individuals who hold positions of power
intimidate students into submission.

This model may explain that in an environment where female students have an inferior
status to their harasser the harasser has opportunities to take advantage of that and
misuse their power. Even though this model has strengths in explaining how
the relationship that exists between the victim and the harasser may perpetuate
sexual harassment and this can be inferred even to online environments. Its
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weakness, however, is that, although it explains why some individuals in positions of
power may

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decide to sexually harass mainly from the job-gender context in a work environment it
does not discuss characteristics of the personality of the harasser. This gap is then
explained by the Biological model.

2.16.2 Biological Model

The biological model explains that the sexual attraction between people that
comes naturally may be what others interpret as sexual harassment. The main point
of this model is that men biologically have more sexual drive than women, and as such
are less able to put their sexual appetites in check than women. That being the case,
they are prone to sexually harass their co-workers, their students, and subordinates.

In the last decades, this idea has increasingly been supported by those who
study sexual harassment. Stock & Becker (1994) in Tangri et al (1982)
propounds that because of the naturally greater sex drive that men have more than
women, it is this biological motivation that drives them to pursue women.
Therefore, the behavior interpreted as harassing is not necessarily meant to
discriminate or offend women but is resultant from biological urges. The model has a
basic premise that there exists a natural mutual attraction between men and women
and since men possess the stronger sex drive then women their role is to be the
sexual initiators. Since men have a physiologically strong makeup in sexual urges,
they may tend to exert pressure and coerce women to fulfill their sexual needs.
Another standpoint is that both men and women have a mutual sex attraction and are
thus both responsible for their sexual acts in the workplace. This simply infers that an
individual may not have the intention to harass sexually but because of the naturally
attributed sexual attraction they still would engage in the act. Thus this behavior
may not be interpreted necessarily as discriminatory or offensive. This, therefore,
means that as per the biological model the notion of sexual harassment based on
the availability of interactions between both sexes which may be viewed as
courtship is, therefore, a mistaken one.

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A crucial strength of the biological perspective is that it embraces the fact that inborn
human instincts are the ones that potentially drive behavior that is sexually aggressive
(Tangri et al., 1982; Kapila 2017). It is on this understanding too that the study utilizes

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this model to support the fact that harassers who are mostly men are pushed by their
strong sexual urges to send unsolicited material online to female students because
they are attracted to them and hope for a positive response, however this
results in the female students feeling uncomfortable and traumatized. However, it is
also noteworthy that this model has been greatly criticized because of its basic
assumptions that have lack depth in the exploratory sense of research as it may be
nearly impossible to have studies that test these core assumptions of the theory
(Kapila, 2017) argues. This has then caused the framework to have very limited
influence on sexual harassment mainstream thinking.

Following the understanding within the biological model, it is interesting to point out
that there has been a drawn-out debate on whether sexual harassment
behaviors are influenced by personality traits or the environment. Within this context,
Lewin’s socio- psychological equation and Person X Situation model of sexual
harassment make perfect sense. Lewin’s (1951) equation B = ƒ(P, E) in the last
decade has become a reference point. The argument in his equation is that what
determines human behavior (B) is not just their personal traits (P) but also the situation
or environment (E) within which the human behaviour takes place. He thus rejects the
‘either-or’ binary approach of both the personality traits advocates and situationists and
give these two factors equal weight as they interact and affect behavior in a dynamic
manner. Using Lewin’s model as its theoretical basis Pryor, Giedde and Williams
(1995) then developed the Person X situation model of sexual harassment which, as in
the case of Lewin above, explained how social factors [equated to Lewin’s E] and
personal characteristics [same as Lewin’s P] are a predictor of sexually harassing
behaviour. The key thesis here was that “when individuals with a proclivity for sexual
harassment are placed in social situations that permit or accept this sort of behavior,
the behavior is most likely to occur” (Pryor, Giedde and Williams, 1995).

Obviously, the power dominant model and the biological model are very useful
for understanding why sexual harassment occurs in online platforms, and how its
victims can internalize and develop coping strategies to deal with such. Adopting the
theoretical paradigms within these models, the researcher would not easily

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comprehend the peculiar context upon which phenomenon happens; she would
also be able to

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understand the inherent attributes that motivate aggressors to harass their
victims. Providing the socio-psychological factors that drive human behavior, this
model is also able to connect human behavior as not only as a social factor but
also as a socio- psychological factor.

2.16.3 Online Disinhibition Effect Model

Online disinhibition model simply refers to the belief that people often feel a lack of
limitations or restraints when they are communicating in an online platform, as
opposed to when they are communicating in-person. This idea was first used in the
literature of online sexual harassment by John Suler, in an article in 2004, where he
argued that Internet provides people with the opportunity to self-disclose or act out
more frequently or intensely than they would in person (Suler, 2004). Although Suler
was not the first to have used the term “disinhibition”, as the term was already in
existence before Suler (2004) came up with his model, it was him who popularised it
by developing a well- accepted framework of how it applies to online behaviors. To
explain this, Suler (2004) explores six factors that interact with each other in
creating this online disinhibition effect: dissociative anonymity, invisibility,
asynchronicity, dissociative imagination, solipsistic introjection, and minimization of
authority. For the purposes of this discussion, we will focus the first four
characteristics, because of their specific relevance and direct relevance to this current
study’s research questions.

2.16.3.1 Dissociative anonymity

This is a key factor that explains the online disinhibition effect describing how being
anonymous online provides a feeling of protection from the consequences of behaving
in an antisocial or harmful manner. One thus easily disassociate from their identity
when online, ascribing how they behave there to an online identity that has no
link or relationship to their offline identity.

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2.16.3.2 Invisibility

Even in cases where one is no anonymous person to whom they are communicating
with, the fact that they are not visible physically lowers their inhibitions, as they do not
have to worry about both verbal and other bodily cues. They may thus still say or do
things they would not have the guts to say or do if they were in a face-to-face situation.
Of course this may be different in instances of video communication.

2.16.4.3 Asynchronicity

Some communication online does not happen in real time but happens at different
times between the sender and the receiver, say in the case of emails or chat platforms
such as WhatsApp or Facebook Messenger. Here one can just send an email or leave
a message on the chat platform even though the receiver may be unavailable to
respond at that same time. This brings in disinhibition in the sense that one can
communicate things they would not communicate if this were a real-time
communication event where one’s persona is being drawn into the communication with
real time discomforts and or consequences. Rather, one just drops a message or chat
and has no pressure at all emotionally or psychologically because a response will
come only later and they will still have a chance to deal with it as and when they want;
at their own time.

2.16.4.4 Dissociative Imagination

The non-physical nature of online spaces leads some people to think that the normal
social etiquette rules that apply in face-to-face everyday life do not apply in this virtual
space. Online environments, therefore, become places where one can escape into to
act out that which they would not dare do in the physical environment as governed by
the rules thereof. Therefore, if one has some personal traits that are toward sexually
harassing they may then log in to act this out as they cannot do so when logged off.
The availability of an online platform, therefore, becomes a vehicle that facilitates
sexual harassment.

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Other scholars have also supported this view. In analyzing the effect of the Internet on
sexual harassment, Wendie & Carmody (2016) for example, describe the technological
attributes of online environments that distinguish them from face-to-face physical
environments. Such attributes are access, affordability, anonymity, acceptability, and
aloneness. Having affordable and easy access to a pool of people, one can connect
with increases the potential number of perpetrators and victims. The ability to
anonymize one’s identity means that deviant behavior may be engaged in
without fear of repercussions. Acceptability describes how by nature, online
environments are places where any behavior is and can be acceptable to various
groupings no matter how offensive the behaviour may be. The attribute of aloneness
describes how the absence of negative social cues such as eye contact or facial
expressions, present in face to face interactions, allows people to do things they
wouldn’t do in settings where there is a physical presence. This is different from the
traditional forms of sexual harassment where the victim and harasser must be in the
same physical space, time and location for harassment to take place.

2.16.4 Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects

Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE) is a technology theory

that describes the social effects of computer-mediated communication focusing
particularly on the effects of anonymity and identifiability on group behavior. This
model was first introduced by Reicher, Spears, and Postmes (1995:174) in their paper
titled ‘A social identity model of deindividuation phenomena.’ In the paper, the scholars
postulate that the theory straddles the fields of social psychology and communication
studies. The case made by these scholars is that online environments suppress
personal identity while amplifying social identities. This is because as one assumes
social identities and standards, they dump or trade their own identity and standards for
those of the group (Barak, 2005). Deindividuation, in this case, implies the loss of
self-awareness that happens as one is immersed in the culture and behavior of a
larger social entity in a given environment. Thus, in environments that are male-
dominated such as online platforms, the usual toxic, male social tendencies or norms

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of behaviors become more apparent and either subjugate personal proclivities or if
similar to the group’s, highlight

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them. Barak (2005) succinctly describes how SIDE explains online sexual harassment
stating that people “while in cyberspace might follow typical male-dominating, power-
based, masculine attitudes, and behaviors toward women.”

SIDE was found to be relevant in this study as it was assumed that in universities,
there is prevalence in the adoption of social identities of the various groupings or social
circles that students belong to. Moreover, because these institutions are male-
dominated spaces, the existence, and expression of deviant male norms of behaviors
are likely to be high. The same is assumed to be also the case with the various
online social groupings that may exist within such communities. Because harmful
behaviors are apparent and acceptable in the online communities that students are
exposed to those students whose personal identity would not have led them to
sexually harass anyone, become potential harassers. Aided by online individual
anonymity and merging self with the social group one feels not responsible as an
individual for their behavior assigning accountability to the group as the entity
responsible for dictating and setting norms. Thus, if one takes away the technological
or online attribute of anonymity and the social factor of group identity the individual
concerned is less likely to engage in sexual harassment or act out their personal
proclivity to sexually harass.

2.17 Summary
This chapter has set out to provide a theoretical justification for understanding the
sexual harassment experiences of female students in an online platform. It
discussed significant literature about sexual harassment, both in general and in an on-
line platform in the different IHL around the world. First, it starts with a
conceptualization of sexual harassment in general followed by a discussion of online
sexual harassment, its different forms, as well as the different platforms (Facebook,
Whatsapp, and Twitter) they occur online. The chapter also addressed the different
coping strategies that victims of such abuse adopt, in the IHL where they occur.
Through these discussions, the chapter identified literature on sexual harassment

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that has mostly neglected the experiences of female students in IHL. Some of the
studies have not really focused on the victim; rather,

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they have concentrated on the perpetrators. To address this gap, the chapter
introduced and discussed four main theories as for the theoretical framework with
which to better address the sexual harassment experiences of female students in a
South African IHL. Within such models, it is easier for the researcher to identify
not only why such phenomenon occurs or why the Internet provides the “appropriate”
platforms for it, but also how such victims can assimilate, internalize and develop
coping strategies to deal with such experiences.

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction
This chapter outlines the methodology and technique(s) employed for the gathering of
the research data utilised in this study. A research methodology provides a description
of the precise techniques that were used, the measuring instruments, as well as the
sequence of activities that were involved in carrying out the research. It provides an
explanation for both the research components and the specific steps employed
in conducting the study. Some of such components include but not limited to: the
research approach, the research design, the sampling techniques, methods of data
collection, the procedures used, the population of the study, the ethical considerations
involved; and the description of the methods used in the analysis of the data.
The chapter discusses these components in terms of how they are used to address
the problem in the research. This chapter concludes with, a diagrammatic
representation of the discussed important concepts of the methodology is provided.

3.2 Research Approach

Since the main objective of the study is to explore the online sexual
harassment experiences of female students at a South African Institution of
Higher learning, a qualitative research approach was employed. Gay and
Airasian (2000: 627) define qualitative research as the collection of data in a
‘naturalistic setting, in order to gain insights not possible using other types of research’
The approach seeks to understand a wide array of realities on a particular subject of
inquiry; particularly, its peculiarities and nuances within the contexts such realities
exist. Using this approach, it is easier for the researcher to draw an in-depth data set,
which may be unique and most relevant for exploring online sexual harassment
experiences of female students in the institution of learning. Rather than merely
logical and statistical procedures (as most quantitative researchers would do),
qualitative researchers can use multiple systems of inquiry for such study of human
phenomena.

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Another objective of qualitative research is to safeguard the reliability of narrative data
while also attempting to utilize the data to exhibit core themes that are not usual in
contexts. De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport (2013) define it as a method involving
the interpretive and natural ways in approaching the matters of respondents.
This approach gave leeway for the researcher to conduct an inquiry of situations in
their natural settings and also study underlying motivations together with
opinions. The researcher was able to communicate with the participants and
view their facial expressions as they talked, capturing body language that
showed akwardness and sadness and confusion as they responded to various
questions about the topic under study.

Qualitative research focuses on presenting information in a narrative, descriptive way

whereby words rather than statistics are utilized in this social inquiry form of research
where the focus is on the way people make sense of the world they live in and their
experiences. Such is the importance for this study. As the sexual harassment
experiences of female students is a very sensitive subject and often personal to the
individuals involved, the study used this approach to explore this as it is
tailored to understand harassment issues of female students because the harassment
type which is of a sexual kind is a highly sensitive topic. Green and Thorogood
(2018:6) explain that the qualitative research utilises naturalistic approach
because it is focused on únderstanding a phenomenon, rather than measuring it’.
The materials used namely are case studies, life story interviews, personal
experiences, observations, visual texts and interactional texts that describe meanings
and experiences in individuals’ lives (Setsiba,
2012). As a previously unexplored topic at the institution of higher learning, the choice
of a qualitative research approach emanated from the need to acquire in-depth
understanding of this unexplored phenomenon which is loaded with value.

3.3 Research Design

Following the research objectives, this study has adopted an exploratory
research design that goes beyond a simple description of the correlation
between variables. Exploratory research, as the name implies, does not aim to

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provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but rather to
explore the research topic

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with varying levels of depth. It is often conducted in order to determine the nature of
the problem, while also getting a better understanding of it also. (De Vos et al, 2013).

In general, research design is a set of logical arrangements from which prospective

researchers can select one which is suitable for their specific research goals (De Vos
et al., 2013). In this sense, a good research design incorporates practical and
theoretical components, which help the researcher to achieve his research aims. In
choosing the research design the research takes into consideration, the objectives of
the research, the population, samples and the other elements that are vital for
achieving good results for the research.

Creswell et al (2016:72) also concurs that a research design “is a plan or strategy that
moves from the underlying philosophical assumptions to specifying the particular
selection of participants, also the data gathering methods to be used and the
data analysis to be done.” Thus, research design basically stretches from
incorporating merely the description of the population, to the sample and the sampling
technique used in conducting the study.

Given that this study aims to explore the online sexual harassment experiences
of female students at an Institution of Higher learning, it has adopted an
exploratory research design. Since there are not many studies on this area in the
literature, the study aims to help provide more insights into the experiences of sexual
harassment in the South African IHL. In conducting the research, the researcher aimed
not to provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but merely
to explore the research topic with varying levels of depth (Eugene and Christine, 2017)

3.4 Study Area

This study was conducted at the University of Venda, which is located in the Limpopo
region of South Africa. The University is in Thohoyandou which is in Vhembe District,
under Thulamela Municipality in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The University
of Venda (Univen) was established in 1981 as a branch of the University of North
currently known as the University of Limpopo (Turfloop). The branch became

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independent in November 1981 when the University of Venda Act (Act 19 of 1981)
was passed by the

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then Venda Parliament. Univen is situated in the fast-growing town of Thohoyandou in
the Limpopo province on the Southern Side of Soutpansberg Mountains. It is based in
a remote rural area and recruits its students mainly from historically disadvantaged
rural backgrounds where schooling is poor.

Figure 3.4.1 Indication of the exact study location of the University of Venda

As per the Ranking Web of Universities (2018), the University of Venda is ranked 3348
in the world and 18 in South Africa. The university consists of eight schools
which

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include a foundation center for matric students with low marks to enrich their grades.
The schools offer a range of under- and postgraduate academic programmes in
various classifications of educational subject matter. As a comprehensive
institution, the University of Venda offers a variety of undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes in various fields of study. These programmes lead to qualifications
in undergraduate certificates diplomas, first and professional bachelor degrees,
postgraduate diplomas, honors, masters (both by coursework and research) and
doctoral degrees.

Currently, the University has one campus which is based in Thohoyandou indicating
that Univen is predominantly an undergraduate higher education institution.

3.5 Entry into the Study Area

Owing to the fact that the study required the participation of female students,
the researcher sought permission to undertake the study from the Registrar of
the Insititution and permission was granted. The Institution’s Higher Degrees
Committee gave ethical clearance for the study.

3.6 Population of the Study

The main population of the study is female students from the University of
Venda. Population here has a much broader meaning than everyday use, where it is
used to designate a country's or the community's head count. As Silverman (2013)
explains that population means the number in total of specific class or individuals,
places, objects, and events which are selected because they are pertinent to the
pending research question. A population is perceived as a sampling frame and
the totality of events, persons, case records and other sampling units which the
specific research problem is concerned with (Mc Burney, 2001). Lapan et al (2012)
concur that the population of the study are what the study is basically focusing on.So
examples of these can be primary school learners, aged people in a community etc. In
order to define a research target population, a researcher specifies the unit being

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experimented, the exact geographical location, and the temporal boundaries of the
population. Furthermore, a population

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refers to a group of people with common features that a researcher is interested
in (Salaria, 2012). It can also be individuals in a particular group or restricted aspect of
the group. Mertens (2015) the population is the group of individuals to whom the
researcher wants to apply the research information and results

Thus, from the Institution of Higher Learning, the population that was utilized for the
study is students from the University of Venda. Using this population, the study was
able to explore the online sexual harassment experiences of female students at the
IHL.

3.7 Respondents’ Demographic Information

This section presents the demographical information of the respondents related to age,
sexual orientation, level of study and access to Internet services of the respondents
that were interviewed.

Participant Age Access to internet Level of Study Sexual

number services orientation
1 35 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Ph.D. student Heterosexual
nd
2 year

2 20 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

student 2nd
Year

3 23 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Undergraduate Lesbian

rd
student 3 Year

4 20 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

st
student 1 Year

5 21 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Lesbian

student 3rd Year

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6 27 Cellphone, Data use Masters student Heterosexual
1st Year

7 29 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Masters 2 nd Heterosexual

Year

8 19 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

1st Year

9 30 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Ph.D. student Heterosexual

1st year

10 22 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

rd
student 3 Year

11 23 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Undergraduate Heterosexual

student 3rd Year

12 20 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

student 1st Year

13 26 Cellphone, Data use Postgraduate Lesbian

Honours
student 1st
Year

14 32 Cellphone, Data use Masters student Heterosexual

1st Year

15 30 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Masters 2 nd Heterosexual

Year

16 25 Cellphone, Data use Postgraduate Heterosexual

Honours 1st
Year

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 17 33 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Ph.D. student Heterosexual
2nd year

18 31 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

student 4th
Year

19 28 Cellphone, Wi-Fi mostly Postgraduate Lesbian

Ph.D. student
rd
3 Year

20 19 Cellphone, Data use Undergraduate Heterosexual

st
student 1 Year

3.7.1 Age
The researcher interviewed 20 respondents, all of them female students between the
ages of 19 to 35 years.

3.7.2 Level of Study

While 10 participants were undergraduates, 10 were postgraduate students.

3.7.3 Sexual Orientation

Of the 20 students, 16 identified themselves as heterosexual, while four said they are
lesbian/gay.

3.7.4 Access to Internet Services

In this study, all the female students possessed personal smart phones, had access to
Internet services and they were all active social media users. Three accessed
the Internet on Wi-fi while the rest accessed it while using mobile data.

3.8 Sampling Technique

A sample is a “subgroup of the population that a researcher is interested in”
(Kurmar;2014: 230). Having identified the population, the qualitative researcher
can hardly study the entire population. To do this, he/she had to select some
participants from the set of the population chosen. In other words, he/she has to select
a (sample),

6
which is a smaller set of the population. This sample is chosen also depending on what
the researcher wants to know, the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be
useful” and so on. (Creswell et al ,2016:84). Thus, this was the case in this study.
Having identified the female students from the University of Venda as the
population of the study, the study was able to select 20 registered female students for
the 2018 academic year. I selected these individuals using purposive sampling and
critical case;

3.8.1 Purposive Sampling

Crossman (2017) defines a purposive sample as a non-probability sample that
is selected based on the characteristics of a population and the objective of the study.
Laerd (2012) explains that this type of sampling is a different kind of non-probability
sampling technique which is not like other types, as the selection of units to be studied
basically relies solely on the researcher’s judgment. Purposive sampling is also known
as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling. This type of sampling can be
very useful in situations when you need to reach a targeted sample quickly,
and where sampling for proportionality is not the main concern Crossman (2017).
Laerd (2012) further explains that usually, the sample size under investigation for this
technique is relatively quite small compared to other probability sampling
techniques. Hence the respondents that were particularly selected for this study have
the relevant information. Paxton (2002) in De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport
(2005) agrees with this view stating that there are no rules for sample size in
qualitative studies. Polit and Beck (2004), Mason (2010) purport that the sample
size is determined by the quality of data collected, its richness, detail and complexity
than just the mere statistical logic.

This is necessitated by the need in qualitative research to build an analytical narrative

which is convincing based on these qualities. It is with this background in mind that the
researcher chose to utilize this technique.

The main objective of purposive sampling, as explained by Laerd (2012) is that

it focuses on a population of interest’s characteristics that enable a researcher to

6
 ...
answer the questions of the study. The sample under study may not necessarily
be a representation of the whole population, though, in a qualitative study, this
may not

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.
necessarily be a weakness to the study. There are however weaknesses to this type of
sampling, and one of them is that irrespective of the type of purposive sampling used it
is highly prone to researcher bias. The idea that a purposive sample has been selected
based on the judgment of the researcher is not a good defense when it comes
to alleviating possible researcher biases, especially when compared with
probability sampling techniques that are designed to reduce such biases.
However, this judgmental, subjective component of purpose sampling is only a major
disadvantage when such judgments are ill-conceived or poorly considered; that is,
where judgments have not been based on clear criteria, whether a theoretical
framework, expert elicitation, or some other accepted criteria. The subjectivity and
non-probability based nature of unit selection (i.e., selecting people, cases
/organizations, etc.) in purposive sampling mean that it can be difficult to defend the
representativeness of the sample.

The total number of respondents for the study was determined by data
saturation. According to Elmusharaf (2012), the general rule in qualitative
research is that you continue to sample until you are not getting any new information
or you are no longer gaining new insights, and this is termed ‘saturation.’ Hence the
researcher interviewed respondents until data saturation was reached.

3.8.2 Critical Case Sampling

This type of sampling is a special type under purposive sampling where critical cases
are used. A critical case is one that allows for analytical generalizations to be made
(Laerd, 2012). Simply put, this explains that under the conditions of a critical case, if a
theory can work, then it most probably may work anywhere else.
Critical case sampling can be utilized particularly in exploratory qualitative research,
where a small number of cases can be decisively used to explain a certain
phenomenon of interest. This quality of critical case sampling is its most important
aspect (Laerd,
2012). These cases can only be utilized to help make logical generalizations and not
statistical ones (Laerd ,2012). These logical generalizations should, however, be made
with much care.

6
It is with this in mind that the researcher chose female students with the
desirable characteristics which were critical for the study. These are part of student
female support organizations operating at the Institution of Higher Learning, namely,
She Reigns, and She Conquers. It is noteworthy that this is not a case study of these
organizations or the students but merely the experiences these students have had,
and they took time to seek counseling and support from these organizations. These
students sought help after having experienced other forms of gender-based violence,
ie sexual assault, rape, physical violence, and physical, sexual harassment at first.
Thus the researcher having this background knowledge, approached them to find out if
they had also experienced sexual harassment on the internet and they consented. It is
this that makes them the desired candidates to participate in the study. The
Researcher initially met the leaders of these organizations at a Gender-Based
Violence Workshop hosted by the Institution in the 2 nd semester in 2017 during the first
year of her Master’s Degree and engaged them in a dialogue about their objectives
and later sought permission to interview participants who are part of these
organizations.

Laerd (2012) supports this view by stating that the researcher may use their judgment
to sample units for the study, these may be people, organizations/ cases, pieces of
data or events that are not merely selected with the intent to make statistical
inferences or generalizations. Hence, in this study, the researcher chose to select
respondents who were survivours of other forms of gender-based violence. Since they
were sampled from the student-led support organizations, the researcher first
asked them if they had experienced sexual harassment on the Internet too, when
they consented to this, it is then that they were chosen to be part of the respondents
for the current study as they possessed this rich information for the study.

3.9 Data Collection

In collecting the data, the study largely used one-on-one semi-structured interviews.
This method of data collection, in general, entails an administration of a series
of questions to the participants, in the form of interaction. As Rabin in Kerstin (2011)

6
and Wyse (2014) rightly observed, this method of data collection also had a leeway to
help

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the researcher get clarification and in-depth information on issues which ordinarily
would be difficult to be accessed. This is mainly because, being in such
settings, the researcher can display connectivity with the respondents (through body
language, eye contact and other non-verbal communication techniques), which makes
it easier for the respondents to be more relaxed to answer difficult questions.
Connecting with the respondents in this manner, he/she also has the possibility to
vary the sequence of questions, to probe for specific answers. This is very significant
on the quality of data. Wimpenny and Gass (2000), further confirm that open,
unstructured interviews in a phenomenological study are intended to be in-depth.
Leedy and Ormrod (2010) argue that ‘in a semi-structured interview, the research may
follow the standard questions with one or more individually tailored questions to
get clarification or probe a person’s reason.

Furthermore, face to face interviews have the distinct advantage of enabling the
researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore, gain their co-
operation. Thus such interviews yield the highest response rates (Leedy and Ormrod,
2010). The researcher asked open-ended questions to the interviewees to allow free
expression of the interviewees’ feelings, experiences, and ideas without
limitations. Open-unstructured interviews employ an informal style to gain knowledge
concerning the respondents’personal experiences, their values and decisions
including their knowldegde in terms of their culture among other things (Johnson,
2002). Babbie (2014) concurs that with these interviews the researcher can better
be able to relate and understand the participants’ thoughts and feelings on the topic
under study. Check, and Schutte (2012) argue that semi-structured interviews are an
advantage in research as they assist in minimizing the interviewer bias and effects.

The unstructured method is advantageous to the current study because it allowed the
researcher to ask follow-up questions in case of misunderstandings to the questions by
the interviewee or emerging new information beneficial to the investigation. Using this
method, the researcher approached the respondents with the hope of understanding
their online sexual harassment experiences. Often, the researcher started by stating
the aim of the study and went on to ask specific questions about their respective online

6
sexual harassment experiences, as it relates to the objectives of the study. The
respondents were also asked about what they thought the university authority could do
to help victims of online sexual harassment, and what they thought was the best way
to educate and handle issues of online sexual harassment. By doing this, the
researcher was able to access in-depth information, both on online sexual harassment
in general, as well as on the particular case of Univen female students.

All interviews were conducted in the English language. This is because this is
the language that the researcher and participants were familiar with. Given that
all the participants understood and were familiar with the language, the interview
process came quite natural. Using a questionnaire guide (the interview guide is
attached as Appendix 1 and two at the end of this document), the interviews were
conducted in a private and comfortable environment.

3.10 Data Recording Procedure

Data recording was conducted by the researcher in the in-depth individual interviews.
Greeff (2005) stated that interviews allow the researcher to understand the world from
the participants’ point of view and uncover lived experiences. Before the data
were collected, the researcher met with participants separately and made
appointments and obtained permission to conduct the study. Appointments
were made with the participants and arrangements were done to meet with the
participants at conducive times for data collection. The researcher arranged before the
interview times that they would take for roughly 20 to 30 minutes with the
respondents. The researcher also managed to create a good rapport with the
respondents. Even though the topic under study is extremely sensitive the respondents
gave their consent to participate and share their experiences. Conducting these
interviews while also recording was essentials as it gave the participants reassurance
that the topic under study is important and that their responses were being taken
seriously. (Blanche et al., 2009).

6
“Sociology has become the science of the interview” (Hughes 1971:507). The interview
had become the favored digging tool for mining into people’s lives and the
tape-

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.
recorders in the sociologist’s bag evidence of a vocational disposition akin to the place
of the stethoscope in the professional persona of a medical doctor (Rice 2010, 2008).
It is against this background that the researcher used a digital recorder during
the interview process. The recording method allowed the researcher to concentrate on
the non-verbal actions of the respondents and allowed the researcher to have eye
contact with the respondents during the process of the interview. According to Blaxter,
Hughes
& Tight (2006), collecting data using a digital recorder allows the researcher to
concentrate on the process of the interview and be able to give necessary eye contact.
Wagner (2005), notes that recording may be done to support audio transcription to
text, recording interviews, conversations and meetings to listen to later, log or
transcribe, annotate or code, in order to achieve the correct, unaltered responses
given by the respondents. Digital recording was done, and the researcher sought prior
permission to record the dialogue. Creswell et al. (2016:94) note that a researcher
needs to ‘make a written record (transcript) of what was said for the purposes of data-
analysis.’

3.11 Data Analysis

The data were analysed using thematic content analysis. Thematic content analysis is
the process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data (Maguire
and Delahunt, 2017). Here, the goal is to identify themes, i.e., patterns in the data that
are important or interesting, and use them to address the research or say something
about the research problem under study. This is much more than simply summarising
the data. A good thematic analysis interprets and makes sense of the data in a way
that provides answers to the research questions.

Using this method of data analysis, I started by a thorough examination of the

literature, blending it with ideas and concepts from the theory. First, the data were
transcribed and coded. To avoid situations whereby data collected becomes
chaotic and disorganized, I arranged the codes and quotes systematically, along the
main themes of the research questions. From here, matrices were created. All
transcripts were read and re-read to identify common words, phrases, and
6
perceptions that were coded. These codes produced patterns, which were
categorized accordingly under themes. In

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the end, these themes were further relayed back to the literature, to establish what
they meant in the previous literature.

3.12 Reliability and Validity of the Measuring Instrument

Although the terms reliability and validity are used for testing or evaluating quantitative
research, the idea is most often used in all kinds of research (Galofshani, 2003). To
ensure reliability in qualitative research, an examination of trustworthiness is crucial.
Seale (1999:266) asserts that while establishing good quality studies through reliability
and validity in qualitative research, the “trustworthiness of a research report lies at the
heart of issues conventionally discussed as validity and reliability.” Lincoln and Guba
(1985) highlighted that there can be no validity without reliability; a demonstration of
the former [validity] is sufficient to establish the latter [reliability]. Healy and Perry
(2000) assert that the quality of a study in each paradigm should be judged by
its own paradigm’s terms. Lincon and Guba (1985) stressed that in qualitative
paradigms the terms credibility, neutrality or confirmability, consistency or
dependability and applicability or transferability are the essential criteria for quality.

3.13 Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations were adhered to in this study. Ethical issues are the concerns
and dilemmas that arise over the proper way to execute research, more specifically not
to create harmful conditions for the subjects of inquiry which are humans in the
research process (Van Deventer, 2009). The researcher sought to protect
participants from physical and psychological harm during the research process and
took steps to protect her own physical and psychological well-being during the
research process (Resnik,
2011). Ethics are a set of principles that are suggested by an individual or a group.
These principles serve as rules and behavioral expectations about the correct conduct
towards experimental subject or respondents, employees, sponsors and
other researchers, assistants, and students (De Vos et al. 2013).

7
Participation was strictly voluntary, which, implied that participants who wanted
to discontinue for any reason would be allowed to do so. All information provided by
the participants for this study is treated in strict confidence and for academic purposes
only. The identities of the participants were not recorded as part of the findings to be
reported. No one, including the researcher, should be able to identify any respondent
after data collection (De Vos et al 2013). Anonymity is the guarantee that the
identity of the research participants will remain discreet (Bless et al., 2006).
Babbie and Mouton (2010) add that a respondent may be considered anonymous
when the researcher does not match a given response with a given respondent. The
data collected should always be confidential with the respondent’s knowledge or
without, and the responsibility towards the success of this principle lies strictly with
only the researcher. Confidentiality is an agreement between people that limits others
to access private information (De Vos et al, 2013). The researchers identified violation
of privacy as part of the ethics to be considered in this study, cautious that every
individual has a right to privacy and to decide, where, when, with whom and to what
extent his/her beliefs will be exposed (De Laat, 2008).

Permission to conduct the study from the Department of African Studies, the Human
Resources, and the Higher Degrees Committee of the Institution of Higher Learning
was sought before engaging with respondents at the University. Participation was
purely voluntarily and this being purely academic research, no incentives were
given to respondents. The presentation of the study was done at the School of Human
and Social Sciences and Higher Degree Committee. Thus Ethical clearance was
requested from the Department and the University of Venda Higher Degree
Committee. Furthermore, permission to conduct the study was requested from the
Head of Department of Education Limpopo Province as well as the mentioned
participants. The following aspects were also applied to ensure adherence to ethical
considerations:

7
3.13.1. Informed Consent
Gray (2009) states that informed consent is the obtaining of voluntary participation in a
research project based on a full understanding of the likely benefits and risks
of participating in the study. Monette et al. (2008) concur, adding that informed consent
refers to telling the potential research participants about all features of the research
that might practically influence the decision of participating. Informed consent is
a statement, usually written, that explains aspects of a study to participants and asks
for their voluntary agreement to participate before the study commences (Neuman,
2010). The researcher explained to the respondents about the study or what the
research is about and asked them to freely participate in the study. The respondents
were given consent forms to sign before the interview was conducted. The researcher
ensured that the signed consent forms were treated with the utmost discretion and
stored away in an appropriate manner. The researcher did not coerce participants into
participating in the research project. Participation was purely voluntary (Nueman,
2011). The researcher also provided adequate time for participants to ask
questions before the interviews commenced. Informed consent was applicable in
this study because the researcher agreed with the potential participants in the study.
The researcher observed this ethic, by informing the potential participants about the
background and goals of the study, and the benefits that could accrue during the
study.

3.13.2. Right to Confidentiality

Confidentiality was maintained by not disclosing names or by avoiding reporting long
quotes from participants on responses to questions. Information was not shared with
others without authorization from participants. All the raw data were kept confidentially
in a secure place.

The respondents were assured of strict confidentiality in their responses and interviews
were carried out in a confidential manner to eliminate biases and other confounding
variables. Argyris & David (1989) argues that the right to freely choose belongs to the
participant in research whther to subject themselves to the scrutinizing eye of research
or not to. Wiles et al ,2006) contend that a researcher has the duty to make sure that a

7
respondents’s identity is protected by all means, this can be achieved when particular
processes that anonymise them are followed.
Thus, the researcher did not use the participant’s names in an endeavor to keep the
identities of the respondents unknown but, assigned numbers to the respondents.

3.13.3. Right to Self-determination or Autonomy

In this study, the researcher provided participants with all the information about
the purpose of study without any external control. Participants were given the right to
decide whether to participate in the study or not. They also maintained the right to
withdraw from the study without the risk of penalty. Hence in this study, the
participants’ identity is not linked to their responses (Burns & Grove, 1997) and
participation was strictly voluntary, which, implied that participants who wanted to
discontinue for any reason would be allowed to do so. All information provided by the
participants for this study is treated in strict confidence and for academic purposes
only. The identities of the participants were not recorded as part of the findings to be
reported. No one, including the researcher, could identify any respondent after data
collection (De Vos et al. 2013). Anonymity is the guarantee that the identity of the
research participants will remain discreet (Bless et al., 2006). Babbie & Mouton
(2010) add that a respondent may be considered anonymous when the researcher
does not match a given response with a given respondent. The data collected
should always be confidential with the respondent’s knowledge or without, and
the responsibility towards the success of this principle lies strictly with only the
researcher. Confidentiality is an agreement between people that limits others to
access private information (De Vos et al., 2013). The researcher lastly identified a
violation of privacy as part of the ethics to be considered in this study and was cautious
that every individual had a right to privacy and to decide, where, when, with whom and
to what extend his/her beliefs will be exposed (De Laat,
2008).

3.13.4 Anonymity

7
The researcher kept the participants’ identities secret. According to Brink, Vander Walt
and Rensburg (2012) even the researcher should not be able to link a participant with
his or her data. In this study, participants’ identities have been hidden through the use

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of numbers assigned to them. The participants’ names were not written down
anywhere or recorded, and that is why voice recordings were done and not
videos of the participants to ensure that the anonymity of the participants was
safeguarded since the topic under study is very sensitive.

3.13.5 Privacy
The researcher has maintained the ethical consideration of respecting the right
of privacy of the participants. The participants maintained the right to determine the
extent to which, and the general circumstances under which his/her private information
was being shared with others. In this study, the researcher protected the privacy
of the participants by not using hidden apparatus such as video cameras without their
consent. Participants were informed of the use of the voice-recorder by the researcher,
and they gave permission.

3.14 Diagrammatic Repression of the Research Study Methodology

7
 Chapter 3: Research Study
Methodology

Approach to the Study: Qualitative

Approach

Research Design: Exploratory Design

Sampling Procedure:
Purposive

Critical Case Sampling

Population:
Female
Students

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3.14 Summary
This chapter has discussed the research methodology employed in this the study. It
explained that the research was based on a qualitative method that was largely
oriented in an inductive, interpretive and constructive approach. It explained that the
study used mainly one-on-one semi-structured interviews to collect primary data for the
study. It also explained that female students of the University of Venda were the main
population for the study. Sampling techniques such as purposive sampling and critical
case were adopted to identify the 20 participants used in the study. The chapter also
justified why these procedures were employed in the study. Through discussions about
reliability, validity and ethical considerations, it also justified the kinds of data and the
steps taken in the research to collect and analyze the data for the study. It
concludes with a discussion of what specific steps were taken in the analysis of the
data.

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 CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION OF DATA AND RESULTS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents and discusses the research findings. The chapter is prefaced
with a diagrammatic representation of the findings, arranged along the study’s three
main themes:

 forms of online sexual harassment

 social media platforms upon which sexual harassment occurs
 coping strategies used by the female students to deal with online sexual
harassment.

This is followed by a systematic analysis of the data. Here, a conscious effort is made
to support the findings (as represented by the themes and subthemes), with
direct quotes from the study participants. This concept is supported by Cohen et al.,
(2011), Blanche et al., (2009) and Kabaya (2016) that the analysis of qualitative data
basically involves arranging and giving enlightening reasons for the collected data. In
this sense, how the respondents define and conceptualize the variables in the
research is very important. However, in order to protect the identity of the participants,
l have assigned numbers to their responses. The idea is to try as much as possible to
make the findings reflect the experiences of the participants without much
adulteration. Another importance of the direct quotes is that they give the responses
of the participants an added emotional value. Aligning such values to the analytic
lenses from the already mentioned theories in chapter 2, the findings are further
interpreted in relation to what was already known within the field.

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4.2 Diagrammatic Representation of the Themes and Sub-themes

Below is a diagrammatic representation of the themes and the sub-themes, in

accordance with the three main research questions. The relationships between
the themes and the sub-themes are further discussed below in the preceding sections.

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 Theme 1
FORMS OF ONLINE SEXUAL
HARASSMENT
Online Sexual
Harrasment

Theme 2
PLATFORMS WHERE ONLINE SEXUAL
HARASSMENT TAKES PLACE

Theme 3
COPING STRATEGIES FOR VICTIMS

Figure 4.2 Diagrammatic presentation of Themes and Sub-themes

79
 4.3 Theme 1: Forms of Online Sexual
In discussing with the participants, it was found that sexual harassment online at the
South African IHL has mostly occurred in three main forms:

1. Sending and reception of explicit random images and videos to the victims
2. Sending and requesting of nude images from the victims, and
3. Sending of sexually charged jokes to the victims

4.3.1 Sending and Reception of Explicit Images and Videos

Data revealed that most cases of online sexual harassment on the participants have
mostly occurred in the form of reception of unwanted sexually explicit images
and videos. Most of the participants expressed that this was the most common
form of sexual harassment they received. Using this form, the harassers in some
cases sent pictures of their genitals or abdominal muscles (six-pack). Their hope with
this is that such images and videos would in the long run either impress the victim or
arouse them to want to have sex with them (the harassers). This is how some of the
respondents expressed it:

“One guy kept on sending me disturbing and embarrassing pictures... He sent

me pictures of his penis, and when l saw it, l was so shocked, and l immediately
deleted them. He probably thought I would fall
for it”
……………………………………………………………………………….
…..…………………………………………………………………………Participant 2

It was also the same situation for Participant 4 who stated that. “The guy kept sending
pornographic videos of himself, l don’t know what he wanted me to say or think when
he sent them”……………………………………………………………….Participant 4

A third participant also expressed a similar disgust. However, instead of pictures of his
genitals, the harasser sent disturbing pictures and videos, including that of a teenage
girl masturbating.

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 ...
4.3 Theme 1: Forms of Online Sexual
“It was different videos, a one of them was a video on WhatsApp. Remember that time
when some teenage girl took a video of herself masturbating? It was trending last
year.

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Yes, he first sent that video to our class group and again to my inbox. I was so
disgusted”
…………………………………………….Participant 3

The fact that some of these images are readily available and shared in different social
media groups makes them easily accessible. Hence having such videos in their
different social media groups, the harassers could easily use them to intimidate
or sexually harass their victims in other social media groups. Given that such
images were unsolicited, it often leaves the victim with serious feelings of surprise,
shock, and in most cases complete disgust.

In looking at these responses, it was obvious that the act of sending such images and
pictures are cases of sexual harassment. By sending pornographic images and videos
over the Internet to these female students, with the intent to entice or induce sex, the
harassers, without doubt, put the victims in a sexually uncomfortable position.
Even though the victims in most cases do not respond or reciprocate the gestures, the
act of sending such images and videos have already violated and disrespected the
victim.

This form of online sexual harassment is in line with Henry & Powell (2015) and
Griffiths (2000)’s findings of the forms of sexual harassment that women are subjected
to on the Internet. In Griffiths (2000) study 41% of female Internet users reported that
they had been sexually harassed through pornographic material, which was normally
unsolicited or unwanted. Some of the women were also sent sexually explicit
comments, images, text messages or emails. Some reported receiving “upsetting
unwanted dick pics and repeated sexual requests.” More than any other form, the act
of sending pornographic and inappropriate materials are more rampant when it comes
to sexual harassment on the Internet than any other form. Using this means, harassers
(mostly men) can hide behind the anonymity that the Internet provides to act out their
sexual tendencies, and in an environment where there are no adequate punitive
measures against this, they continue to harass women with impunity.

4.2.2 Sending and Direct Requesting of Nude Images or Sex from the Victims

8
The study also found out that the harassers requested the respondents to send them
nude pictures of themselves, to strip for them or the harasser out rightly requested sex.
Two respondents said:

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“He was sending pornographic videos, and he would request that l should show him
my
breasts and to strip for
him”…………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………..Participant 12

The harasser’s requests for such material over the Internet shows that the cyberspace
provides a platform where an individual can boldly engage in deviant behavior as the
Internet somehow hides a person’s identity. Participant 5 also reported being solicited
for sex on the Internet by a person who not only was communicating with her
on Facebook, but had also seen her online.

Then he said, “l want sex from you, lv seen you on campus and on Facebook and all
that, ‘uya’understander moos?”………………………………………………………….
Participant 5

In their 1999 Youth Internet Safety Survey Mitchell, Finkelhor and Wolak (2001) found
that most youths chat to strangers while they are online and are solicited for sex by
these harassers or have discussed sex when it was unwanted by the youth.

In line with the online disinhibition, effect Model says that the Internet is a ‘safe haven’
for deviant behavior to be performed. (Jewkes, 2002) concurs that the
anonymity provided by virtual reality is the cause of many users feeling ‘safe’
performing ‘private’ behaviour (even if its semi-public or public spaces afforded by the
internet) they may never attempt in ‘real life.’ Axelrod (2009) argues that the
Internet environment encourages diversity and freedom. He further argues that on the
Internet the one type of sexual behavior that has been found to be harassing for both
adults and children is a sexual solicitation.

4.2.3 Sending and Requesting of Unwanted Sexually Charged Jokes to the Victims
The study established that the respondents were also sent unwanted sexually explicit
jokes and messages that one respondent in particular termed as ‘naughty’. This
depicts the explicit nature of the message and the respondent’s state of being
uncomfortable in receiving that particular material. One respondent stated that:

8
“It was jokes about sex, l remember when he sent one about a man that was having
sex with a donkey and a man that was passing by got jealous…blah…blah… it was
just irritating” …………………………………………Participant 6

Another respondent who experienced a similar incident said:

“At first l thought that maybe it’s a mistake, l..l…l.. (stammering) took it with a good
approach, a moral approach to say, listen you’ve sent me a video before, you
are sending me messages, naughty messages, are you really texting me, or you are
texting another person, you just mistakenly texted me? Then he responded by saying
No, lm texting you. Then l was like, fine...you are texting me such messages why?
What do l do with this?” …………………………………………………Participant 17

The above extracts indicate that the forms of harassing sexual material that was sent
to female students were unwelcome jokes of a sexual nature that were not
welcome Sproull and Kiesler (1986) conducted a research which found out that there
is more profanity in messages sent online together with negative content compared to
in-person communication where individuals are face to face. In a study conducted by
Biber et al. (2002) it was found that women who had been sent sexual jokes
and other sexual material online found these to be sexually harassing. This,
therefore, concurs with the results of this study. One way which constantly emerged as
the form through which female students were sexually harassed online was the
reception of explicit images and videos. I categorized this as sub-theme 1.

4.3 Online Platforms Where Sexual Harassment Occurs

Two main social media Apps were identified as the platforms where sexual
harassment occurs and these being: WhatsApp and Facebook.

4.3.1 WhatsApp
WhatsApp was identified as the platform where sexually harassing content was sent
the most. While twelve out of the twenty participants for the study, indicated
harassment towards them occurred on WhatsApp, eight described said that they had
been mostly harassed on Facebook.

8
“He sent the videos to my WhatsApp inbox”………………………….Participant 3

“We had exchanged contacts, so we were chatting on WhatsApp”…….Participant 6

WhatsApp was mostly used by perpetrators who had a face to face relationship with
the victim as most of the material shared with the individuals should have each
other’s contact details or at least the sender should have the phone number of the
receiver, which in this instance is the victim. This subtheme thus indicates the close
relationship between the harasser and the victim and how this creates a space
that allows for inappropriate or sexually “harassing” messages or communication
to be conveyed. Probed further on how the harasser had access to send the victim
WhatsApp messages the participants responded in the following manner;

“ Mmmh! The guy was a student last year, but he has since graduated, We
were friends……………………………………………………………………….Participant
14

“Person is a lecturer and a colleague here at the University, we are in the

same department, he is a bit close because we would say ‘hie’ ‘hie’ to each other, and
we would share other problems, not particularly sexual
problems”
…………………………………………Participant 1

“We do a module together, and we know each other through a WhatsApp group
at school for a module that we do
together”………………………………………..Participant
3

“Okay, the friend that I met this guy through, was just finishing here at UNIVEN,
meaning she couldn’t now be the one to help me to process my application, and I have
a sister who was here, she was not yet here, the first week. So she introduced me to
this guy, saying this guy can help you process your application and even to check your
forms when they have been submitted, if they have been accepted and
processed and everything, so I met the guy through a friend, and he actually was very

8
helpful from the beginning, so it was then that we got
used to each other”…………………………….Participant 19

8
.
.
.
The above extracts indicate that the harassers were either close companions or men
they considered as friends or colleagues. The responses from the
interviews demonstrate that the relationship between some of the perpetrators
and victims of online sexual harassment is that of friendship. Some of these
harassers also have a face to face relationship with their victims besides
communicating online also. An example is students attending the same classes,
or though not attending the same classes they attend school on the same campus.
This use of social media by students to communicate with their colleagues and friends
is a widespread one. Kennedy and Taylor, in their 2010 study also indicate that the use
of social media platforms to the network is not a new phenomenon among college
students. Their study indicated that
80% of the college students who participated were currently using one platform of
online communication or another to communicate and this is where they mostly
experienced sexual harassment.

Qin (2015) concurs with this view in that some individuals tend to act in ways that they
would normally not because they believe the Internet affords them the benefit
of anonymity. This is also perpetuated by a belief that the victims will not consider this
behavior as sexually harassing because it did not happen face to face and the
perpetrator’s identity is not clear and specific.

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4.3.2 Facebook
The study established that the respondents actually had prior chats with the harasser
up to the time when they started receiving harassing messages from these individuals.
Participants indicated this from their responses described below;

“We chatted normally via Facebook Messenger” ……………………………Participant

5

“At first we were chatting just fine and on a normal level but then he started sending all
these horrible things to my Facebook inbox” ……………………………………
……………………………………….…Participant 8

Powell & Henry (2015) assert that both the mainstream and academic research have
dedicated progressive attention to what they term ‘online invisibility.’ Which in essence
is a concept where people tend to do or say things under the anonymity and distance
that the Internet provides that they would never have said or done in person. This is
explained by the Online disinhibition Effect model which says that the absence of a
face to face interaction between individuals makes the Internet a safe haven for
someone to say or send something that they normally would not if they were facing the
receiver face to face. The Internet thus provides a fertile platform for abuse when
there is no personal relationship between two people who are mere online friends
particularly on platforms such as Facebook as the study results established. When
asked about their relationship to the harassers on Facebook, participants responded
thus:

“We don’t have a relationship, we are just Facebook friends, and since l’m a public
figure, l would just make conversation with him on Facebook after l accepted his friend
request, and since you can send me a messenger while we Facebook friends, have its
allowed, not knowing that the person is coming with another approach, a silly
approach to say l want to… you know…”………………………………………Participant
20

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The response from participant 5 indicates clearly that the harasser was a stranger who
just befriended them under the auspices of an online friend but with the intent to solicit
the victim for sex. Another respondent said:

8
.
.
.
“There was this other guy from Libya, or somewhere in East Africa, he sent a lot of
stuff, like almost every day, he would send like 2 pictures of some sexual materials in
a day and at first l said nothing until it got to be too much for me, and l blocked him, so
now l blocked him”
………………………………………………………………….Participant 6

“Aaah, it was just a guy that l really did not know but he claimed that he used to stay
near my home and he saw me growing up when l would pass outside his home going
to school, so then the guy got to know my name, added me on Facebook, when we
were Facebook friends that’s when he started all these things.” Participant 8

The results of the study therefore clearly indicate that harassers use online platforms
to perpetuate criminal acts taking cover from the online invisibility nature of the Internet
to harass females that they do not know face to face and have never met. Other
studies concur with the results of this study. For example, a study conducted by
Schouten et al. (2007), and another by Qin (2015) revealed that adolescents preferred
to talk more on online platforms about sex and love issues than in face to face
communication. Sulen (2004)’s study also indicates that because of the online
disinhibition effect harassers may tend to think that sexual harassment that happens
online is less severe than that in person or face to face communication.

The study also revealed that while in some instances the victim knows the harasser
there are some instances where the harasser, even if they may be a Facebook friend
with the female student, they initially have never met face to face. A study by Francis &
Taylor(2015) concurs with the results of this study in that Facebook friendships
encompass a vast category of social relationships; these may include school, friends,
colleagues, family, and classmates (Vitak, Ellison, & Steinfield, 2011; Zhang & Leung,
2014). Thus, being online friends on Facebook does not not necessarily mean that it is
a friendship with a strong bond as friendship ties are defined in everyday means (Boyd
& Ellison, 2007). Youths connect with diverse people they may be friends with
on
Facebook friends, but they classify them from ‘friends’ to ‘’no friends’ (Van Cleemput,
2010).

8
4.5 Theme 3: Coping Strategies for Victims of Online Sexual Harassment
Having understood the forms of online sexual harassment and the platforms upon
which they occur, the study investigated the different coping strategies that have
been developed by the female students who undergo this abuse. How do they manage
to deal with this? How do they deal with the frustrations and debasement that come
with such online abuse?

Several themes emerged. I have divided these themes into two categories,
namely: Immediate coping strategies and gradual coping strategies. What follows is a
discussion of these subthemes along the two categories, but basically the
difference between immediate and gradual coping strategies is that when the victims
were harassed, either reacted to the harassment immediately by either confronting,
block, or deleting the material sent or after a harassing act had reoccurred by the
same harasser they chose to ignore the harassment but later gradually confided in a
close person the ordeal they had gone through.

4.5.1 Immediate Coping Strategies

At the event of sexual harassment, three main strategies were used by the students to
deal with the harassment as a way of immediately coping. The first was that they either
completely ignored the harassment out of either shock or comforting oneself that
online harassment was better than experiencing physical, sexual harassment.

The second reaction was to block the harasser so that the harassment does
not continue further or take the third route which was to at first take a passive stance
and try to ignore the harassment, but when they felt that it was getting out of hand they
finally confronted the harasser.

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4.5.1.1 Completely Ignore the harasser (Passive Attitude towards the Harasser)
The research indicates that more often than not, after a harassment incident that
clearly leaves the victim disturbed as they feel helpless and either just take a passive
decision to try and ignore the harassment or do not know how to respond. One
respondent compared traditional sexual harassment with the online harassment
that she was exper,iencing and chose to ignore the harasser because although it was
uncomfortable, it was better than being physically harassed. Four respondents’ replied
in the following manner:

“I was shocked, cause at first l honestly didn’t think he was sending to me, l thought
maybe it was a mistake, he was intending to send to maybe the girlfriend, so l ignored
it, l thought it was a mistake and then he typed my name, that’s when l saw that he is
serious but after that l chose to keep quiet and ignore the messages because l did not
know how to respond to them ”…………………………………………
……………………………………………………Participant 3

“l didn’t respond l didn’t say anything l think he just calculated that l don’t like it and he
stopped sending when he sent me a message a greeting again l just kept quiet for him
to see that l didn’t like it and he just stopped like that”………………..Participant 7

“No, l just kept quiet coz l honestly didn’t know what to say, and before that, we used
to chat well on Facebook………………………………………………….Participant 8

“Well at least he doesn’t touch me, WhatsApp videos are not as bad as
physical
harassment” ………………………………………………..Participant 4

These responses indicate that after they had received sexually harassing material
most victims did not know how to respond. This was mainly because of the shock
because of the change in the communication that had dramatically changed from
normal chats to receiving unsolicited sexual material. Other respondents chose to
ignore the harasser because they took comfort in the fact that the sexual harassment
was at least not as bad as if it had been done physically. A study by Qin (2015)

8
 ...
concurs with the findings of this study in that the, nature of the Internet when
communicating using it is bound to

9
.
.
.
have a result of people thinking that the harassment that takes place there is
less severe.

4.5.1.2 Blocking Harasser from the Victim’s social network Account

There is only so much abuse that any individual can take, thus after having been
patient with the harassers the respondents revealed that after they felt they
couldn’t take it anymore, they decided to block the harasser that was sending the
unwanted material as a way to end the sexual harassment. Two respondents said:

“And I asked him why? he did not respond, but later that day he sent another
pornographic video. It was then that l decided just to block him because he clearly did
not want to act civil. So I ended up blocking him”
………………………………………………………………..Participant 2

“After l realized that the situation was getting worse l just got disgusted, l
never responded to him, what l just did was just block him, because l didn’t
want the communication to continue like that” …………………..Participant 16

These participants’ responses indicate that some victims had the courage to
finally regain their power back and block the harasser as a coping mechanism when
they see that the harasser is continuing to send unsolicited sexually harassing
material. Rosen (2006)’s study findings on the prevalence of sexual harassment on
social networking sites are in line with this study results in the observation that a great
number of Internet users who had reported having been solicited for sex and harassed
ended up blocking the harasser as a way to end this harassing communication.

4.5.1.3 Victim confronting perpetrators

The study established that some respondents after having tried to endure the
harassment finally stood up and had the courage to stand up to the harassers
and confront them face to face to enquire why they were sending the unwanted
sexual material to them. Some harassers defended themselves by indicating that
they had been joking with the victim, others, when confronted, did not give any
reason.
9
Furthermore, some victims threatened to report the incidents as a way to stop
the harasser sending material of that nature. Some of the responses illustrating the
above are stated below:

“After trying to ignore him, l saw that he was clearly not going to stop even with no
response from me so l asked him to stop and he stopped
instantly”
……………………………………………………………….Participant 1

“I physically approached the person and asked him why he was sending such
material? And he responded by saying, no l was just playing, that’s how l play with
some of my friends, and l told him strictly that l don’t really entertain such kind of
behavior and lm not comfortable with such, l had tried to be patient but he clearly was
getting out of hand by the day”………………………………………………………..
……………………………
………………………………………………………………Participant 3

“l thought it was actually disgusting and l told the guy that lm gonna send him to legal
affairs because it’s against the school’s code of conduct to be forwarding each other
pornography especially in this setting so when he saw that this was a serious issue
then he started apologizing” ………………………………………….Participant 18

These results indicate that some victims of sexual harassment online end up choosing
to stand up for themselves and not suffer in silence. Thus they confront the harassers
and ask them why they sent such material that they had not asked for and were clearly
uncomfortable to receive such. Furthermore, they told the harasser to stop sending
such sexually offensive material.

4.5.2 Gradual Coping Strategies

The participants identified two main strategies here, namely: reporting the sexual
harassment or seeking social support. In essence, the reporting was discussed as an
ideal measure that could have been an option but because of a clear lack of trust in the
system of reporting this prevented the victims from taking this route. Thus, the results
9
clearly indicated that most found solace and social support from close relations such
as friends. This was the main coping strategy that they were gradually taken by the
victims.

4.5.2.1 Reporting harassment

The study established that students do not report online sexual harassment due
to various reasons. Project de Shame (2017) asserts that there are a number of
things that victims of online sexual harassment may go through that leads them to
react in a certain manner after harassment incidences. In order to cope with the
trauma some may not report, especially among marginalized groups. This may be a
result of the lack of knowledge on where to report, general lack of sensitivity by
authorities where one can report (this may also lead to re-victimization of the sexually
harassed victim), concerns for confidentiality, accessibility and isolation and also
fear of further victimization because the harasser will be in a position of power. This
study established that victims just chose to share the incidents with friends, to remain
silent, or merely threaten to report the incident without necessarily following through
on their threats even in the cases where it continued after the initial threats.

This was illustrated by responses such as;

“No l just shared with some of my friends, l wanted to find out if they also were
receiving such videos from other people because l was really surprised that how can a
person send such information or material to me? And l really wanted to find out from
my other friends that do they ever receive such material from this lecturers too and
how do they respond to them if ever you do? And also how do they treat such if ever
they receive them?” …………………Participant 1

“l didn’t think of reporting him, even if l wanted to, l mean where would l report? I feel it
useless anyway… but l was afraid to meet him on campus when l was alone so l
would avoid places where l would see him, so that was that, then the next time l saw
pictures of his graduation and l have never seen him or heard from him
since”
…………………………………Participant 2

9
“I did tell my friends if there was somewhere trustworthy to report l would have
because after I told him to stop sending he still kept on sending, that was very
harassing to me”
…………………………………………………………….Participant 13

“Yes, if they can’t really help someone being beaten up literally if l were to report that
someone is sending me uncomfortable videos on WhatsApp won't they tell me that l
am crazy? It’s just not useful to report from what l am
seeing”
…………………………………Participant 8

“I just need to study in peace, get my degree and go in peace, anyways even if you
report these things; there is never anything tangible that ever comes out. I know of a
friend who had an abusive boyfriend that she stayed with here on campus who would
beat her up, and the security man who would come and intervene when he would be
beating her would advise her to go and report at maintenance, at first she would report
until she stopped because when she would go there, they would start making her feel
like it’s her fault and sometimes they would ask her why she didn’t leave the guy, but
it’s not simple just to leave l understand her, so l feel reporting is useless somehow”
…………………………………………………Participant 20

It was clear, therefore, that a general lack of trust in the system is the major reason
why victims of online sexual harassment do not to report harassment incidences rather
than them lacking either the courage to do so or knowledge of where to report. It
stands to logic to understand this victims’ disenchantment with the system because if
they have knowledge of perpetrators of physical violence, which is assumed to be a
more grievous offense, going scot-free then surely they cannot imagine there is any
chance of them getting any justice on a lesser evil of “mere” online harassment.

Another reason why victims do not report sexual harassment is that of fear. Victims of
online sexual harassment, because of the nature of this crime are sometimes afraid to

9
report, especially if the harasser is in a position of power, the fear may also be
because

9
.
.
.
they are not sure if they will be believed or taken seriously if ever they were to report
the harassment and also afraid to strain relations with the harasser as it may turn out
sour for them as students. Some of the respondents alluded to this thus:

“My friends, who know him were shocked that he can do that, but then one of them
asked me uri did it get to me nah so that we can get to report him to his superiors? I
said no it didn’t get to me even though l didn’t like it but then l only said that because l
was afraid what would happen if l report and since he is a lecturer what if no one
believed me, also on the other hand l also didn’t want him to lose his job at the
same time”
…………………………………Participant 4

Jewkes’s (2002) study also concurs with the findings that victims of sexual violence
may not report because they fear that they may not be believed. This is because of
claims that mostly women lie about sexual assault, especially rape. Torronen &
Roumeliotis (2013) argue that s,ome victims may not report incidences of sexual
harassment because they empathize with the harasser and fear he may lose his job.
This is line with the study findings. Furthermore, the same argue that this is a result of
the relation of femininity with empathy, passivity, nurturance and emotionality. This
then causes females that are victimized not to report such experiences.

Respondent 7 replied in the following manner when asked why she did not report
these incidences of sexual harassment;

“What made me keep quiet was honestly l was afraid that l didn’t want to make him
feel ashamed and at the same time l didn’t want him to feel like he has power over me,
so l kept quiet so he keeps wondering what am l
thinking?”
………………………….Participant 7

The victim’s response clearly indicates that fear was the reason why they kept quiet
when they clearly did not like being sent such material by the harasser. This may also
show that they did not want to have trouble with the harasser who was in a position of

9
 ...
authority. Bell et all (2014) concurs with these results that the feeling of not wanting to
cause trouble made them not to report.

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.
.
Even when this route of reporting wasn’t taken by any of the respondents, some
victims actually knew where to report online sexual harassment and had knowledge
about the Institution’s code of conduct that restricts students from sending
pornographic content to others. Only one respondent out of 8 in the study
expressed herself after being sexually harassed online by a fellow student.

“At first he was laughing and saying, man this video is all over South Africa, everyone
has seen it , she took the video knowing what would happen to it , and l said No l don’t
think that the little girl took the video knowing that it would reach Univen for you guys
to laugh at it, it might be funny for you but it’s not funny for everyone else, then l told
the guy that lm gonna send him to legal affairs because it’s against the school’s code
of conduct to be forwarding each other pornography especially in this setting so when
he saw that l was offended and it was a serious issue then he started
apologizing’”
………………………………………….Participant 3

4.5.2.2 Seeking Social Support

The study established that victims find it easy to confide in close relation, either a
family member or a friend about a harassment incident and whatever advice or
reaction that they get from the confidant is the route of action that they are bound to
follow as there is a relationship of trust with that individual. If that person takes the
issue lightly, then the respondent most likely will not pursue it further, but if the
confidant takes the matter seriously, then it was dealt with as such. The respondents
gave the following replies:

“Sharing yes, but reporting it, was not in my mind. The only thing that l did was just to
share with my sister, and she took it as a joke and she actually laughed about this”
……………………..……………………….Participant 4

“I did share with my friend to say, look at this, this person is doing this, and this and
this… and for me, according to my culture, it’s a taboo for a person you are not
involved with to be sending their naked pictures to you and pornographic videos too

9
 ...
when you are not their girl or boyfriend” ……………………………………. Participant
11

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.
.
“Yah! The advice that l got was you need to stop the guy immediately because he may
spoil your relationship as well because ‘what if your man finds out that such
information is shared to you? And l really had to say no, so l had to finally approach
the guy after he had sent such material several times to say, ‘please
don’t do this
again”…………………………………………………………………..Participant 1

“I shared it with my Mum; then she is the one who advised me to block the
guy”
………………………………………….Participant 2

Fisher et al. (2003) concur that most times, when women are sexually harassed they
do not report, either to their campus officials or police but tend to seek social support
by telling other people and in most instances, friends and close family members that
they trust. The individuals that they choose to confide in are most often than not the
ones that give advice, which greatly determines a victim’s final course of action as a
way to gradually cope with the trauma of the harassment for the victim.

4.6 Summary
The chapter has provided a comprehensive presentation of the data used in the study.
It starts by providing a diagrammatic representation of the data. These data
were arranged according to themes, along with the three main research questions. It
was highlighted and discussed under different themes, using mostly direct quotations
of the participants’ to buttress it. Influenced by the need to protect the identity
of the participants, no name of the participant was mentioned. Instead, the study
assigned numbers to the different direct quotes of the participants. Although full
discussions are done on the themes of the study, the researcher deemed it important
to link the quotes to the theories that underlie the study and, also to what is already
known in the field about the topic of online sexual harassment.

9
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Introduction
This study sought to investigate the online sexual experiences of female students from
a South African IHL (University of Venda), in order to develop coping strategies to help
students deal with online sexual harassment. On that basis, it formulated three main
research questions; thus:

 What forms of online sexual harassment do female students experience at the

IHL?
 On which social network platforms do such students experience
sexual harassment?
 What coping strategies do victims of such abuse used to deal with the abuse
when it occurs?

To answer these questions, the study draws mainly from the analytic paradigms of four
main theories, namely, power and dominance model, the biological model, the online
disinhibition effect model, and the SIDE model. Within these models, it is easy
to understand this phenomenon not only from the perspective of the abuser but also
from that of the victim.

Below is a summary of the findings in the form of tables where results from the study
are compared and contrasted with previous studies.

5.2 Forms of Online Sexual Harassment experienced by female students at the

Institutions of Higher Learning
The study identifies three forms in which sexual harassment occurs in the IHL. These
include:

1. Sending of explicit random images and videos to the victims

2. Sending and Requesting of nude images from the victims, and

3.Sending of sexually charged jokes to the victims

1
 ...
5.2.1 Sending of Explicit Random Images and Videos to the Victims
Previous Studies Results of the Study Interpretations derived
from the Study
such materials, they are
Evidence in the Of all the different
really disturbed by
literature consulted reveals forms of online sexual
that regular female users of harassment, the study
the Internet have reported finds sending and
being sent unwanted reception of random
pornographic materials, pornographic images
being stalked and harassed as the most
in general (Schenk, common ways by
2008), (Griffiths ;2000) The which victims at the
forms of online sexual IHL were harassed.
harassment these female Here, the victims,
users experience range which are mostly
from comments about their girls receive
bodies, offer to watch the unwanted sexual
harasser masturbating on materials which are
webcam, offers to have not only embarrassing
cyber-sex and offers to see but also gross. Such
the harasser’s genitals unsolicited and
(Sifferlin, 2018; Schronk unwanted sexual
& Boyd (2015). Powell materials range from
(2015) and
Griffiths (2000) upsetting pictures of
further termed these sexual organs to
unsolicited pictures that are unsettling
sent to victims by pornographic videos.
the harassers as The participants
‘upsetting unwanted dick explained that after
pics.’ they had received

1
.
.
.
These findings are very
similar to the findings from
previous literature. Like in
the previous literature, the
reception of sexual
materials from strangers or
“friends” on line is one-way
girls get sexually harassed on
line. This is often very
inappropriate and
upsetting. The female
victims in the current study not
only attested to this; they
also explained how
unpleasant receiving such
materials could be. These
materials came in the form of
videos that are
pornographic, random
sexually charged
materials, and pictures of the
harassers’ own sexual organs
or that of another individual
known by the victims.
When this happens, it
often results in dismay, shock,
disgust and most importantly,
extreme

1
them. While some embarrassment. The fact
of the that the victims do not ask
participants explained for these materials often
asking the harassers makes it even more
to stop in such upsetting. Given that the
situations, others Internet provides the
said that they did harassers with the
not have the “conducive” virtual
courage to ask the platform, they are able
harasser to stop, in to perpetrate such
such cases. Hence activities, which in a
the harassment normal situation, they may
often continued. In find difficult to do.
such situations, the
next action had
always been to
stop responding to
the harassers
while others
completely ignored
the harassers or
blocked them from the
social network
pages.

1
5.2.2 Sending and Requesting of Nude Images of the Victims
Previous Studies Results of the Interpretations derived from
Study the Study
complete nude
Literature has revealed that Other than sending explicit
pictures of
female students have been random images and videos to
solicited for sexual images. the victims, the study also
Mitchel et al., in Barak finds requesting and
(2005) conducted a solicitation of nude pictures
study on teenagers in from the victims as another
America and the results way students are sexually
indicated that mostly, females harassed online. The study
had at least been participants recounted
requested for sex online at being asked to send their
least once in the previous year. nude pictures as a way of
soliciting sex from them.
Other studies also indicate that Most harassers were not
besides youths being sent ashamed to send nude
nude pictures, they may pictures of
be pressured into sending themselves or outrightly
nude pictures to their requesting for sexual
partner of themselves (Li, conduct with them.
2005). Also, students who Basically,
take up time to engage in
the viewing of pornography,
sexual solicitation and
sexual messages texting
become victims of online
sexual harassment
themselves too (Kamaku
and Mberia, 2014). The same
further argue that these
students send partial or
10
 ...
There is a similarity between
some previous literature and
some of the findings of the
study whereby students are
solicited for sex and or
asked by harassers to send
pictures of themselves when
they are completely naked or
where victims are
requested to send pictures of
their breasts. However, there
is a difference between
the study results and
some available literature in
that; previous literature
reveals that students who
end up getting harassed online
may have been the initiators
of the abuse in a way.
This happens when a
female sends nude pictures
of herself to a partner, but
unfortunately, somehow
those pictures end up being
sent to other people on
social media without their
consent. This was not part of

10
.
.
.
themselves or sex messages to harassers send the study findings, mainly
a girl or boyfriend, This messages because the
backfired up when soliciting for the operating definition of
these pictures or sex students to send sexual harassment online
messages get publicly sent to nude pictures of the study did not entail
other people on social media of themselves or material that the victims
without their consent. That is the harassers themselves had sent but
another form of online requesting for sex only unwanted sexual
sexual harassment (Project from the victims. material they received
De Shame, 2018). The findings from the harassers.
revealed that none
of the victims felt
pressured to
comply or actually
complied, but these
requests from the
harassers were
unwanted and they
reported to be
harassing to them.

10
5.2.3 Sending of Sexually Explicit Jokes/ Texts
Previous Studies Results of the Study Interpretations derived from
the Study
Literature from scholars The current study The literature from other
such as Okeke (2011) findings reveal that studies and the findings of
reports that sexual female students the current one are
harassment takes many experience online similar as they reveal that
dimensions, ranging from sexual harassment in another form that
sexual comments, jokes, the form of receiving online sexual
gestures, being touched unsolicited harassing harassment is through
or pinched in a messages of a females receiving unwanted
sexual way. A Growing sexual nature and sexual jokes or comments
Up With media survey jokes by harassers that are unwanted
indicates that many on social media that and unsolicited. Females
youths reported having they did not want and of a homosexual nature
received sexually had neither asked reported that they felt
harassive messages via for. Some female victimized because of
instant messaging (Ybarra students’ respondents their sexual orientation.
and Mitchell, 2008). Fin who identified However, the results of
(2004) further reveals that themselves as the present study indicate
some students are lesbians revealed that fewer forms of text- based
harassed via emails. they felt victimized online sexual
Some of the students who further because they harassment or sexual
reported having felt that the messages than previous
experienced this were of a harassers were literature as the literature
homosexual orientation. sending such reveals that students are sent
material to them as sexually embarrassing
a way of spiting messages via email or
their homosexual cruel comments on their
sexual orientation. Facebook pages These were
not part of the research
findings.
10
In sum, the study identified three forms of online sexual harassment used by harassers
against victims in the IHL. These include: sending and reception of explicit images and
videos, direct sending and requesting of nude images of self or that of the victims and
finally, sending of sexually infused jokes and comments to victims. The data revealed
that the harassers sent this material in ways that try to raise sexual interest in
the victims. The harassers did this because of the online disinhibition effect which
explains that harassers who are mostly men send material on the Internet that
they would ordinarily send or say face to face. This is because the Internet provides
an environment that in a way makes the harasser feel anonymous and hide behind this
anonymity to act out their sexual tendencies. Since this environment does not
necessarily provide adequate punitive measures, these criminals continue to
harass women. This is supported by Axelrod (2009) who argues that the Internet
provides a free and diverse environment for harassers to express themselves by
divulging private behavior in a public space like the cyber-space.

The implication of these findings is that online sexual harassment is as much rampant
on campus, as it is in other social environments. The use of the Internet has made it
even easier to occur (Henry and Powell, 2015). Because of the anonymity of the
Internet and the efficiency of its technology, the posting of sexual materials, images
and videos have become easier. The three main forms of online sexual
harassment that are rampant at the IHL are not unique to such institutions. Given the
same opportunity and a conducive environment, harassers can exploit such forms in
other social settings to carry out such heinous activities on their innocent victims.

5.3 Social Network Platforms Under Which Students Experience Sexual

Harassment
Two main social network platforms were identified, namely, WhatsApp and Facebook.

10
5.3.1 WhatsApp
Previous Studies Results of the Interpretations derived from
Study the Study
Evidence in the literature reveals Findings from There is a very
that places that are most common the study huge difference between
for female students to get sexually revealed that some literature findings
harassed are in restaurants or the most and findings from the
clubs. This is probably because of common form present study in that
the lifestyles of female students of online whereas previous literature
who attend universities and sexual identifies restaurants and
colleges harassment clubs as the most common
(Hart, 2001; Krebs, Lindquist, among female places for harassment
Warner, Fisher, & Martin, 2009; students was of female students,
Mellgren et al., 2017). This WhatsApp. primarily because of their
literature is, however, not specific This is lifestyles, the students are
about places or platforms most probably found in these places.
that female students get because it is Contrary to previous
harassed online but in general. the most literature, the present study
common social revealed that the most
Since the advent of social media media platform common place of online
and youths being able to in South sexual harassment was
access platforms like Twitter, Africa that WhatsApp. While previous
Facebook, Emails, YouTube most students literature focused on the
and others (Kamaku and can easily traditional form of sexual
Mberia, 2014) sexual access to harassment, the present
harassment has been found to chat with study dwelt more on online
take place on these, and the rate other sexual harassment.
of increase in the sexual individuals, be Furthermore, the difference in
harassment is alarming. it family the study results is also
members, that WhatsApp is the most
friends, used, unlike previous
colleagues or

10
 ...
literature which indicates
platforms

10
.
.
.
complete such as Facebook, Twitter,
strangers. YouTube and others as the
platforms where female
students get sexually
harassed.

10
5.3.2 Facebook
Previous Studies Results of the Study Interpretations derived
from the Study
networking (Lenhart et
Evidence in the The most common social
al. ,2010).
literature consulted media platforms used by
indicates that studies on females students which is
online sexual harassment also where the highest
confirm that the most percentage of sexual
popular social media harassment took place
sites that youths use was WhatsApp with
are Twitter, Facebook as the second
Facebook, and YouTube, most used media platform.
and this is where sexual The nature of Facebook
harassment has shifted gives leeway for even
from the traditional face- strangers to have access
to-face or verbal and chat with the female
communication which students even strangers
takes place within physical have access to
space to this virtual form communicating with a
( Lindsay and Krysik, female. This platform
2012; Kamaku and affords individuals who
Mberia, are strangers in the real
2014) world but are friends in the
virtual world to chat and
Other literature because of the online
reveals that Facebook, disinhibition effect, which
Twitter, and My Space is is one of the theoretical
were the leading frameworks grounding this
online social media work, that harassers,
platforms that young solicit the victims for sex or
people use for social send sexual material that

10
 ...
The study findings concur
with the available literature
in that Facebook is one of
the most used social
media platforms by
youths. Hence this is
where sexual harassment
also takes place where
female students are either
solicited for sex,
requested for nude
pictures or sent
pornographic videos and
pictures by harassers.
These harassers may be
strangers to the victims
but just ‘online’ friends
which does not
necessarily embody a
close relationship
between them.

10
.
.
.
 A Pew American is not welcome to the
Internet and Life Project victim because of
revealed that most the
youths have access to ‘invisibility’’ that the
social media Internet offers to the
(Lenhart et al. 2010). perpetrators.

Study findings revealed that two main social media platforms are mostly used
by harassers in the identified IHL, namely WhatsApp and Facebook. However, the
study does not conclude that the forms of sexual harassment rampant in this
IHL do not happen in other social media platforms. The conclusion rather is that in
this particular IHL, these two social media applications are the main platforms on
which female students experienced sexual harassment. My take is that sexual
harassment happened in these platforms mainly because they are the most popular
platforms used by students within the institution.

The two platforms are readily available and often used by almost, if not all the students
of the IHL. The harassers understand this and often use them as avenues to haunt for
victims. They go to WhatsApp, for example as this platform is most popular
among students of the IHL. Using this platform, they send unwanted sexual materials
to victims (female students), something which they would find difficult in face-to-face
situations. The study found that although a harasser may have had a victim’s
phone contacts before this, they hide behind the guise of WhatsApp which makes it
easier for them to express such extreme sexual appetite. Despite their victims being
someone they know (close colleagues, senior students, and students), they find it
much more convenient and opportune to express their pathetic sexual appetite to
female students.

Similarly, Facebook provides a similar opportunity. Here, the female students are often
harassed by strangers who did not necessarily have a close relationship with them. In
some cases, they are mere “Facebook friends,” which does not necessarily indicate
closeness or real friendship in the ‘real world’ (Van Cleemput, 2010). Hence,
the anonymity the platform accords the harassers makes it easier for them to

10
 ...
use this platform. Not necessarily knowing the victims, the harassers could send
explicit nude

11
.
.
.
and embarrassing materials, with the hope that they may entice the victim and make
them want to engage in sexual activity with them.

5.4 Coping Strategies used to Deal with Online Sexual Harassment

The study identified several coping strategies used by female students in the identified
IHL. These were divided into two namely; Immediate coping strategies and
gradual coping strategies:

5.4.1 Immediate Coping Strategies

There are three main immediate coping strategies used by the victims to deal with
online sexual harassment, namely, total disregard of the harassers (Victims
ignoring the harassers), active social network blocking of the harassers or
confrontation of the harassers.

5.4.1.1 Victim Ignoring Harasser

Previous Studies Results of the Study Interpretations derived
from the Study
chat rooms
Evidence from previous The results from the study
where a
literature by Magley revealed that after having
(2000), Schenk (2008) experienced sexual
indicates thatavoidance harassment, some victims
of some Internet sites or chose to ignore the harasser
activities as a coping as a coping strategy. This
strategy are employed by was a deliberate
victims. Victims described passive reaction that a
having to stop using victim made as a result of
some sites to avoid simply being shocked and not
“freaks” and “perverts.” This knowing how to respond or
was mostly done on social what to do
media platforms that have

11
 ...
The literature contrasts
with the findings of
the study which
established that instead
of victims completely
avoiding the social
media platforms where
they had experienced
sexual harassment the
study indicated that the
victims preferred to
ignore the harasser as
a coping strategy. This
is because

11
.
.
.
 harasser can simply make a after receiving of shock and not knowing
comment which leaves the disturbing material from how to react to this form of
receiver of the comment a harasser. According online sexual
feeling vulnerable, to the results, victims harassment or that they
awkward or victimized such chose to ignore the comforted themselves
as ‘you are hot’ or a harasser even after that at least this
harasser instant messaging reception of unwanted harassment is less
a victim and asking them sexual material from a severe unlike other
if they wanted to have harasser as they forms of traditional
cyber-sex. Thus victims compared physical harassment that take
then engage in harassment with place face to face.
avoidance behavior as a this
coping strategy. online harassment.

5.4.1.2 The Blocking of the Harasser from the Victim’s Social Network Page
Previous Research Results of the Study Interpretations derived from
the Study
Shopeju, 2004). Schenk
Literature indicates that The study results indicate that
(2008) suggests that
when facing sexual after reception of some
harassment victims unsolicited material of a
either choose to utilize sexual content victims simply
direct, indirect, assertive chose to block the harasser
or non- assertive after having been patient
ways to cope with and hoping the harasser
the harassment. would stop or after asking
These either include the them to desist from such
victim ignoring or behavior but the request not
avoiding the harasser or been adhered to.
approaching them
(Ladebo and

11
 ...
Literature findings and
the results of the
study are similar in that
some victims after
having to bear
harassment finally
took matters into their
hands and made a
courageous decision
to stop the
harassment from
continuing by blocking
the harasser.

11
.
.
.
 after victims
had experienced
unwanted sexual
attention on social
media platforms like
AIM and Facebook,
were at first tolerant, but
as the messages got
worse, they eventually
blocked the harasser .

5.4.1.3 Victim confronting Harasser

Previous Research Results of the Study Interpretations derived
from the Study
instances, the harassers
Literature on students’ The results of the study
when they were
coping strategies found out that after
indicates that students receiving unwanted
who have experienced sexual material from a
sexual harassment most harasser on social
often than not do not media some female
submit formal complaints students at first did not
or report to the IHL, but take any action, but
rather choose to when this action was
personally deal with the repeated by the
matter. In such harasser they had
instances the decision courage and chose to
chosen can be to have be assertive enough
courage and confront the to approach the
harasser and ask them harasser and asked them
to stop such to stop. In some

11
 ...
The previous literature
sexual harassment of
females concurs with the
findings from the current
research in that they both
show that some students
confront harassers after
the reception of
unsolicited sexual material
and asked them to stop. In
some cases, the
harassers stopped
immediately but in other
instances did not, thus the
victims took further action
to block the harasser, thus

11
.
.
.
 behaviour (Ladebo and approached they putting an end to the
Shopeju, 2004). stopped the harassive harassment.
Other literature findings behavior immediately but
indicate that after having in some instances the
experienced sexual harassers did not stop
harassment in places of until the victims took
work some victims further action by blocking
withdrew from the the harasser.
organisation (Pinna, 2010;
Gruber, 2003; Magley,
Hulin, Fitzgerald &
DeNardo 1999; Schneider
et al., 1997) either interms
of completely withdrawing
from the job or avoiding
work tasks or being late or
neglectful (Hanisch &
Hulin, 1990, 1991; Pinna,
2010).

Having understood both the different forms of online sexual harassment and the
different platforms within which this phenomenon occurs at the IHL, the study further
investigated the various coping strategies that are developed and utilized by
female students who experience this form of abuse. These strategies were either
implement immediately or gradually. On the immediate strategies, the data
reveals that after receiving disturbing material from a harasser that makes them
uncomfortable the victims chose a passive attitude towards the harasser whereby they
completely ignored them. This mostly occurred when the victims considered such
harassment as less severe. In such cases, the victims had always thought that they
could handle the situations by either confronting, blocking or totally ignoring the
harassers. Even though, the victims in most cases indicated that they were shocked or
embarrassed at first, most of them in
11
such situations felt that they could handle the situation through the above
named strategies. They explained that they felt a feeling a regaining their power back
from the harassers. In other words, these strategies were very empowering to the
victims.

5.4.2 Gradual Coping Strategies

Apart from the immediate coping strategies, the research identified two more
strategies, namely, reporting harassment and seeking social support. The
researcher refers to these as gradual because such strategies involve more
active and systematic structures. It mostly happens in cases where the victims felt
powerless in dealing with the problem on their own.

5.4.2.1 Reporting Harassment

Consulted Previous Results of the Study Interpretations derived
Literature from the Study
Literature indicates that According to findings from There are similarities and
largely cases of sexual this study the respondents differences between the
harassment do not get chose not to report the literature that was
reported (Swedish harassment experiences consulted and the
Council, 2008; National they had gone through results of the study.
Academies Press, 2018). because of various Students in the literature
USMSPB, 1995; reasons, ranging from lack and the respondents of
Charney of trust in the reporting the study both indicated
& Russell, 1994; system currently being that they did not
Pinna,2010) concur that implemented at the IHL, report their harassment
grievance report filing and fearing to report, experiences. However,
reporting remain relatively comparing online the reasons for not
low). sexual harassment with reporting differed
other forms of traditional slightly between the
Most reports if made are sexual harassment and literature and the study
handled within a particular seeing results. This is because
11
organisation and online sexual literature reports that
the cases do not go harassment as less students do not know the
public (McDonald, 2012; aggressive thus not grievance procedures for
Rubin & Rodgers 1990). warranting reporting or dealing with sexual
Reporting can however that if they report the harassment in the IHL in.
be made easier for authorities would not take The results of the study
victims, for instance them seriously. indicate that the
by directly involving Furthermore, the results students know where to
external organisations indicate a difference in report but they lack
outside the institution. the literature because trust in the grievance
Literature from other the literature implies that procedures because of
studies showed that one the lack of involvement previous experiences on
of the reasons why of external forces how other forms of
students do not report deters students from harassment or abuse like
sexual harassment is lack reporting as the matter is physical abuse had been
of knowledge of the IHL’s only dealt with dealt with.
grievance procedures in internally. The present
dealing with sexual study, however, revealed
harassment. The literature that empathetic feelings
suggests that aggrieved of female students in
students should report not wanting a lecturer to
at the student Affairs lose their job is one of
Office if their claims are the reasons they chose
strong enough to not to report even after
warrant an investigation the lecturer had
(Ladebo and Shopeju, sexually harassed them
2004). online.

11
5.4.2.2 Seeking Social Support
Consulted Previous Results of the Study Interpretations derived
Literature from the Study
Evidence in the The results of the study The available literature of
literature consulted revealed that all the on sexual harassment
indicates that female respondents chose not to experiences is similar to
victims find it better to report. However some findings from the
confide or report to chose to confide in present study in that
another woman than close family members or females are most likely
to formally report friends about their to seek social support
(Rubin experiences. These friends’ family, friends
&Rodgers, 1990; Swedish confidants are the ones or co-workers because
Research Council, that mostly gave advice they feel close to the
2018). The seeking of on what the victim should confidants, and get
social support from do, and in most cases, support and comfort
close persons like the victims took this from these people.
coworkers or friends advice and
seems to be a implemented it.
commonest coping
strategy (Livingston, 1982;
Bingham & Scherer, 1993;
Pinna,2010)

Gradual coping strategies are often used by victims in extreme cases. In most cases,
victims are reluctant to use any of these two approaches. The data reveal that victims
only use these when online sexual harassment appears too difficult to handle. Often,
the students tend to deal with these situations on their own through other
afore- mentioned strategies.

11
 ...
Another important factor that hinders students from using this strategy is the lack of
trust that characterizes the student’s relation with the authorities. Many of the
victims

11
.
.
.
explained that they did not report cases of online cases of online sexual harassment
because of a general lack of trust in the system of reporting. This lack of trust deterred
the victims from going and reporting, because of their past experiences with the
institution failing to properly handle other forms of abuse cases or fear of victimization
that no one would believe them if they reported lecturers prevented reporting (Jewkes,
2002). This is because since lecturers are in positions of power, the victims fear that
reporting them will strain relations which will later have negative repercussions for the
students. Another reason for not reporting harassment as the study findings revealed
is because of sympathy whereby the victim feared that the harasser might lose his job
if she reports the harassment. In this study, this mostly applied to the non-reporting of
sexual harassment by lecturers. Torronen and Roumeliotis (2013) concur with
the finding that females usually have empathy towards perpetrators resulting in them
failing to report online sexual harassment.

Essentially, the victims of sexual harassment find it easy to seek social support from
their families or close friends because of trust. Such confidants are mostly the ones
who help advise victims of the final course of action to take in ultimately dealing with
the sexual harassment experience.

Even though the current study findings cannot be generalized, they can, however, be
inferred to other IHsL. The logical reasoning is that if female students are experiencing
online sexual harassment chances are that other female students may be experiencing
the same phenomenon given that the environment in which these IHL operate are the
same.

5.5 Summary
This study investigated the online sexual harassment experiences of female students
at a South African IHL. It sought to identify the different forms in which online sexual
harassment occurs, the different platforms upon which it occurs and the coping
strategies employed by the female students to deal with it in the IHL. The study found
that online sexual harassment is now a major problem for female students since the
advent of social media and online communication. The forms of sexual harassment
that female students experienced at the institution of higher learning came mostly
through
11
the reception of unsolicited pornographic materials, unwanted pictures of the
male private anatomy, sexual solicitation and receiving unwanted jokes of a sexual
nature. These forms of online sexual harassment occurred mostly on the two
most popular social network platforms, namely WhatsApp and Facebook. Through
their virtual and anonymous character, these platforms provide perpetrators with the
conducive platform to act out their embarrassing sexual appetites. However, given that
this phenomenon negatively affects students, they have always found certain
immediate and gradual coping strategies that have assisted them in dealing with the
situation.

5.6 Limitations of the Study

There were three main limitations of the study. First, the inability to deal with the
different dynamics of online sexual harassment. Given the broad nature of the subject
of sexual harassment, it was difficult to incorporate the different aspects of this
phenomenon into the current study. However, to limit the scope of the study , the
study had from its definition of online sexual harassment automatically excluded
other forms of sexual harassment which were not part of the current study. Such
aspects are simply not within the scope of this study.

Secondly, the inability to access more varied data owing to the sensitivity of the topic
meant that most female students were not comfortable to express their views on the
issue. For instance, respondents who had been sexually harassed by their lecturers,
when asked how they reacted they claimed that they did not do anything and yet their
body language conveyed contrary messages that they were uncomfortable. The other
limitation was that the critical sampling strategy used in the study implied that
the researcher only targeted students who were known to have been victim to other
forms of sexual harassment by either fellow students or their lecturers, but when they
were approached and requested to participate in the study some denied indicating that
they had never gone through online sexual harassment. This was a clear indication of
fear to participate in the study even after they were given assurance on the
confidentiality of their participation and the information they would give.

11
Thirdly, the non-availability of fresh sources, particularly recent publications on online
sexual harassment of female students, prompted for the study to utilize old sources on
sexual harassment of female students in general. Also, the qualitative nature of this
study meant that a small sample of students from one Institution of higher learning was
used. This means that generalization of the results is not possible as the sample is not
meant for representation. Future studies could consider widening the scope of the
study and could focus on the aspects discussed below.

5.7 Suggestions for Future Research

 The study dwelt more on emotional and physically actionable coping strategies; it
may be of interest for future research to explore specific online based sexual
harassment coping strategies that students may undertake since the
harassment would have occurred on the Internet, Internet-based coping
strategies may then be explored for future research.
 An in-depth study to investigate other forms of online sexual harassment
is required. Such a study could include aspects like revenge pornography
and others among students at the IHL and how it impacts students
emotional, psychological and academic life may be explored for future research.

 Another aspect that may be considered for future study is a thorough

assessment of the current policy framework and the current implementing
authorities at the Department of Human Resources that deal with reported
cases of sexual harassment. The specific help procedures and protocol
currently utilized to assist students who report sexual harassment since the
existing one is not specific may be subjected to future research.

5.8 Recommendations
Based on the findings, there are a number of recommendations that are relevant for
considerations in the South African IHL.

11
 IHL should have specific policies that address online student harassment
in detail, including where and how victims of abuse could report and seek
assistance.
 IHL should have legislations and possibilities to adopt specific policies to protect
students from online sexual harassment on campus.
 IHL should have specific framework programs designed to assist students with
online sexual harassment
 IHL should have a clear definition of what constitutes online sexual harassment
included in the definitions of sexual harassment and educate both students and
members of staff so that reporting of this offense should be taken seriously.
 IHL should have more campaigns that are constantly that advocate for the
eradication and fight against sexual harassment, and these should be
accessible to students with peer friendly staff too.

11
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 Appendix 1: Interview Schedule

1. In your case, what type of unwanted sexual material were you sent?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….......................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
..........................

2. Explain the details of the content you received?

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
............................

3. To which online platform were these material sent?

15
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.......

4. What relationship do you have with the person who sent you this
unwanted material?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
................................................................................

5. How did you react when the person sent you this?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.......................................

6. Did you report or tell anyone about this?

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

15
 .......................................................................................................................................
.......................................

7. In your case, since you did not report this incident what coping strategies did you
use to deal with this traumatic experience?

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.......................................

THANK YOU VERY MUCH

Appendix 2: Informed Consent School

of Human and Social Sciences

Department of African Studies-Sociology

Date: 2 August 2018

Statement of Agreement to Participate in the Research Study:

15
  I hereby confirm that I have been informed by the researcher,
Sehlule Thambo, about the nature, conduct, benefits and risks of
this
study - Research Ethics Clearance Number: _,
 I have also received, read and understood the above-written information
(Participant Letter of
Information) regarding the study.

 I am aware that the results of the study, including personal details regarding my
sex, age, date of birth, initials, and diagnosis will be anonymously processed
into a study report.
 In view of the requirements of research, I agree that the data collected during
this study can be processed in a computerized system by the researcher.
 I may, at any stage, without prejudice, withdraw my consent and participation in
the study.
 I have had sufficient opportunity to ask questions and (of my own free
will)
declare myself prepared to participate in the study.
 I understand that significant new findings developed during the course of this
research which may relate to my participation will be made available to me.

Full Name of Participant Date Time Signature

I, ……………………. …………… …………

…………………..

Sehlule Thambo herewith confirm that the above participant has been fully

15
 ...
Informed about the nature, conduct and risks of the above study.

15
.
.
.
Full Name of Researcher

Sehlule Thambo Date………………. Signature…………………

Full Name of Witness (If applicable)

……………………. Date ……………….

Signature…………………..

Full Name of Legal Guardian (If applicable)

………………… Date………………
Signature…………………….

15
Appendix 3: Letter of Information

School of Human and Social Sciences

Department of African Studies-Sociology

Date: 2 August 2018

Dear participant

LETTER OF INFORMATION

Title of the Research Study: Assessing the online sexual harassment experiences of
Female Students at a South African Institution of
Higher Learning.

Principal Investigator/s/researcher: Sehlule Thambo, MA

Co-Investigator/s/supervisor/s : Dr R Tshifhumulo

15
Brief Introduction and Purpose of the Study:

Thank you very much for your time. My name is Sehlule Thambo. I am a Master of
Sociology student (17015784) at the University of Venda, South Africa and I
am conducting this research for academic purposes. This document serves to provide
you with all the relevant information that you might need in order for you to make an
informed decision on whether you would want to participate in the study or not. The
aim of this research is to assess the online sexual harassment experiences of Female
Students at a South African Institution of Higher Learning.

Outline of the Procedures:

The researcher will make use of a Semi-structured Interview guide for data collection.
The questionnaires shall comprise of open-ended questions as this will give you the
flexibility to give open-ended responses and therefore provide in-depth and exhaustive
experiences of the participants on their experiences of sexual harassment. The
researcher shall make use of face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an
interviewer presents the items orally to the interviewees. The aim of this research is to
assess the online sexual harassment experiences of Female Students at a
South African Institution of Higher Learning. As a result of your relevant
experiences as a female student in an institution of higher learning, you have been
purposively selected to provide an in-depth experience of this phenomenon being
studied.

Risks or Discomforts to the Participant:

There are no evident underlying risks to you which may be occasioned by your direct
participation in the study. Regardless, the researcher undertakes to not put you
in situations where you might be at risk of harm, physical or psychological.

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Benefits: The subjects shall benefit from this research in the sense that their
shared experiences will contribute to literature and evidence that the institution lacks a
specific policy to address sexual harassment issues specifically for students
hence it will contribute to policy formulation by the institution.

Reason/s why the Participant May Be Withdrawn from the Study: While your full
participation is highly valuable and appreciated, please note that you need not provide
any information that you do not want to and you should feel free to withdraw
your participation at any point in the interview without any adverse consequences.
Also, note that you will not be required to furnish reasons for your withdrawal.

Remuneration: The research is being undertaken for academic purposes, for the
fulfillment of a Master’s degree and therefore there will be no compensation
and/or incentive for your participation in this research. Your participation in this
study is however greatly appreciated as it will help offer a better understanding
of the experiences of social media sexual harassment of female students at an
institution of higher learning.

Costs of the Study: Participants will not be required at any stage to cover any
costs towards study.

Confidentiality : All data and confidential

communications between us will be protected. To that end, you will be allocated either
a coded name or a number to ensure your anonymity. If ever there is a need to reveal
identifying information, such information will not be made available to anyone
not directly involved in the study.

Research-related Injury: In the unlikely event that the participant suffers a research-
related injury or adverse reaction there be compensation for such injury.

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Persons to Contact in the Event of Any Problems or Queries:

Should you have any questions or problems, you can contact me by phone on 060 663
9300, or e-mail sehlisehlu@gmail.com. You can also contact my supervisor, Dr.
R Tshifhumulo by phone 078 458 95987 or by email
at rendani.tshifhumulo2@univen.ac.za or the University Research Ethics
Committee Secretariat on 015 962 9058. Complaints can be reported to the Director:
Research and Innovation, Prof GE Ekosse on 015 962 8313 or Georges
Ivo.Ekosse@univen.ac.za

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