A Concise Introduction to Logic, Thirteenth Edition

Patrick J. Hurley and Lori Watson

Guide to Important Rules & Argument Forms

Traditional Square of Opposition Logically Equivalent Statement Forms

Contrary Conversion Given statement Converse
A E
T E: No S are P. No P are S.
T
Co I: Some S are P. Some P are S.
nt ry
ra icto
d
Obversion Given statement Obverse
Subalternation ra dicto Subalternation
nt
Co ry A: All S are P. No S are non-P.
F E: No S are P. All S are non-P.
F
I: Some S are P. Some S are not non-P.
I O
Subcontrary O: Some S are not P. Some S are non-P.
Contraposition Given statement Contrapositive
A: All S are P. All non-P are non-S.
O: Some S are not P. Some non-P are not non-S.
Valid Syllogistic Forms
Unconditionally Valid Forms
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4
AAA EAE IAI AEE
EAE AEE AII IAI
AII EIO OAO EIO
EIO AOO EIO

Conditionally Valid Forms

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Required condition

AAI AEO AEO S exist

EAO EAO

Rules and Argument Forms Card for A Concise Introduction to Logic, by Patrick Hurley and Lori Watson.
AAI EAO M exist
EAO

AAI P exist

Rules for Categorical Syllogisms

Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed at least once.
Fallacy: Undistributed middle
Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it must be distributed in a premise. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Fallacy: Illicit major; illicit minor
Rule 3: Two negative premises are not allowed.
Fallacy: Exclusive premises
Rule 4: A negative premise requires a negative conclusion, and a negative conclusion requires a negative premise.
Fallacy: Drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise; drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative
premises
Rule 5: If both premises are universal, the conclusion cannot be particular.
Fallacy: Existential fallacy

NOTE: If only Rule 5 is broken, the syllogism is valid from the Aristotelian standpoint if the
critical term denotes actually existing things.

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 Rules of Implication Rules of Replacement
1. Modus ponens (MP) 2. Modus tollens (MT) 9. De Morgan’s rule (DM) ∼( p ● q) :: (∼p ¡ ∼q)
p ⊃ q   p ⊃ q ∼( p ¡ q) :: (∼p ● ∼q)
p    ∼q
q   ∼p 10. Commutativity (Com) ( p ¡ q) :: (q ¡ p)
( p ● q) :: (q ● p)
3. Pure hypothetical syllogism (HS) 4. Disjunctive syllogism (DS)
p ⊃ q p¡q 11. Associativity (Assoc) [ p ¡ (q ¡ r)] :: [( p ¡ q) ¡ r]
q ⊃ r ∼p [ p ● (q ● r)] :: [( p ● q) ● r]
p ⊃ r q
12. Distribution (Dist) [ p ● (q ¡ r)] :: [( p ● q) ¡ ( p ● r)]
5. Constructive dilemma (CD) 6. Simplification (Simp) [ p ¡ (q ● r)] :: [( p ¡ q) ● ( p ¡ r)]
(p ⊃ q) ● (r ⊃ s)   p ● q
p ¡ r   p 13. Double negation (DN) p :: ∼∼p
q¡s 14. Transposition (Trans) ( p ⊃ q) :: (∼q ⊃ ∼p)
7. Conjunction (Conj) 8. Addition (Add)
15. Material implication (Impl) ( p ⊃ q) :: (∼p ¡ q)
p   p
q     p ¡ q 16. Material equivalence (Equiv) ( p ≡ q) :: [( p ⊃ q) ● (q ⊃ p)]
p●q ( p ≡ q) :: [( p ● q) ¡ (∼p ● ∼q)]
17. Exportation (Exp) [( p ● q) ⊃ r] :: [ p ⊃ (q ⊃ r)]
18. Tautology (Taut) p :: ( p ¡ p)
p :: ( p ● p)

Truth Tables for the Propositional Conditional Proof

Operators —
—
p q ∼p p●q p¡q p⊃q p≡q — /__
T T F T T T T p ACP
—
T F F F T F F
—
F T T F T T F —
q
F F T F F T T
p⊃q CP

Rules for Removing and Introducing

Indirect Proof
Quantifiers —
—
Rules and Argument Forms Card for A Concise Introduction to Logic, by Patrick Hurley and Lori Watson.

(a, b, c, . . . u, v, w are individual constants; x, y, z are individual variables)

— /__
1. Universal instantiation (UI) (x)ℱx (x)ℱx p AIP
ℱy ℱa —
—
2. Universal generalization (UG) ℱy  
ℱa
—
(x)ℱx not allowed: (x)ℱx
q ● ∼q
Restrictions: (conditional (1) UG must not be used within the scope of an ∼p IP
and indirect proof) indented sequence if the instantial variable y
is free in the first line of that sequence.
(overlapping quantifiers) (2) UG must not be used if the instantial variable y
is free in any preceding line obtained by EI.
Rules for the Probability Calculus
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

1. P(A or not A) = 1
3. Existential instantiation (EI) (∃x)ℱx (∃x)ℱx 2. P(A and not A) = 0
ℱa   not allowed: ℱy 3. P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) (when A and B are independent)
 Restriction: The existential name a must be a new name that does not 4. P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B given A)
appear in any previous line (including the conclusion line). 5. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) (when A and B are mutually exclusive)
6. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) 2 P(A and B)
4. Existential generalization (EG) ℱa ℱy 7. P(A) = 1 2 P(not A)
(∃x)ℱx (∃x)ℱx

Quantifier Negation Rule Identity Rules

(x)ℱx :: ∼(∃x)∼ℱx (∃x)ℱx :: ∼(x)∼ℱx 1. Prem. 2. x = y :: y = x 3. ℱx
∼(x)ℱx :: (∃x)∼ℱx ∼(∃x)ℱx :: (x)∼ℱx x=x x=y
ℱy

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 Conditional Proof Indirect Proof
— —
— —
— /__ — /__
p ACP p AIP
— —
— —
— —
q q ∼q
●

p⊃q CP ∼p IP

Rules for Removing and Introducing Quantifiers

(a, b, c, . . . u, v, w are individual constants; x, y, z are individual variables)
1. Universal instantiation (UI) (x)ℱx (x)ℱx
     ℱy ℱa
2. Universal generalization (UG) ℱy not ℱa
(x)ℱx   allowed:  (x)ℱx
Restrictions: (1) UG must not be used within the scope of an indented
(conditional and sequence if the instantial variable y is free in the first
indirect proof) line of that sequence.
(overlapping (2) UG must not be used if the instantial variable y is free in
quantifiers) any preceding line obtained by EI.
3. Existential instantiation (EI) (∃x)ℱx not (∃x)ℱx
ℱa allowed: ℱy
 Restriction: The existential name a must be a new name that does not appear in any
previous line (including the conclusion line).
4. Existential generalization (EG) ℱa ℱy
(∃x)ℱx (∃x)ℱx

Quantifier Negation Rule

(x)ℱx :: ∼(∃x)∼ℱx (∃x)ℱx :: ∼(x)∼ℱx
∼(x)ℱx :: (∃x)∼ℱx ∼(∃x)ℱx :: (x)∼ℱx

Identity Rules
1. Prem. 2. x = y :: y = x 3. ℱx
x = x   x = y
  ℱy

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 Rules of Implication
1. Modus ponens (MP) 2. Modus tollens (MT)
p ⊃ q   p ⊃ q
p    ∼q
q   ∼p
3. Pure hypothetical syllogism (HS) 4. Disjunctive syllogism (DS)
p ⊃ q p ¡ q
q ⊃ r ∼p
p ⊃ r q
5. Constructive dilemma (CD) 6. Simplification (Simp)
(p ⊃ q) (r ⊃ s)   p q
● ●

p ¡ r   p
q¡s
7. Conjunction (Conj) 8. Addition (Add)
p   p
q     p ¡ q
p q
●

Rules of Replacement
9. De Morgan’s rule (DM) ∼( p q) :: (∼p ¡ ∼q)
●

∼( p ¡ q) :: (∼p ∼q) ●

10. Commutativity (Com) ( p ¡ q) :: (q ¡ p)

( p q) :: (q p)
● ●

11. Associativity (Assoc) [ p ¡ (q ¡ r)] :: [( p ¡ q) ¡ r]

[ p (q r)] :: [( p q) r]
● ● ● ●

12. Distribution (Dist) [ p (q ¡ r)] :: [( p q) ¡ ( p r)]

● ● ●

[ p ¡ (q r)] :: [( p ¡ q) ( p ¡ r)]
● ●

13. Double negation (DN) p :: ∼∼p

14. Transposition (Trans) ( p ⊃ q) :: (∼q ⊃ ∼p)
15. Material implication (Impl) ( p ⊃ q) :: (∼p ¡ q)
16. Material equivalence (Equiv) ( p ≡ q) :: [( p ⊃ q) (q ⊃ p)] ●

( p ≡ q) :: [( p q) ¡ (∼p ∼q)]
● ●

17. Exportation (Exp) [( p q) ⊃ r] :: [ p ⊃ (q ⊃ r)]

●

18. Tautology (Taut) p :: ( p ¡ p)

p :: ( p p) ●

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