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The design issues In Network Layer :

Store − and − Forward Packet Switching
The network layer operates in an environment that uses store and forward packet switching.
The node which has a packet to send, delivers it to the nearest router. The packet is stored
in the router until it has fully arrived and its checksum is verified for error detection. Once,
this is done, the packet is forwarded to the next router. Since, each router needs to store the
entire packet before it can forward it to the next hop, the mechanism is called store − and
− forward switching.
Services to Transport Layer
The network layer provides service its immediate upper layer, namely transport layer,
through the network − transport layer interface. The two types of services provided are –
• Connection − Oriented Service − In this service, a path is setup between the source and
the destination, and all the data packets belonging to a message are routed along this
path.
• Connectionless Service − In this service, each packet of the message is considered as
an independent entity and is individually routed from the source to the destination.
The objectives of the network layer while providing these services are –
• The services should not be dependent upon the router technology.
• The router configuration details should not be of a concern to the transport layer.
• A uniform addressing plan should be made available to the transport layer, whether
the network is a LAN, MAN or WAN.
Providing Connection Oriented Service
In connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver in the same
order in which they have been sent by the sender. It can be done in either two ways :
Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path or a circuit is established
between the communicating nodes and then data stream is transferred once data transfer is
over the connection is released.
Virtual Circuit Switched Connection – a virtual circuit is setup between the source and
the destination nodes before the transmission starts. All the packets in the message are sent
along this route. When all the packets are transmitted, the virtual circuit is terminated and
the connection is released
Providing Connectionless Service :
In connectionless service, since each packet is transmitted independently, each packet
contains its routing information and is termed as datagram. The network using datagrams
for transmission is called datagram networks or datagram subnets. No prior setup of routes
are needed before transmitting a message. Each datagram belong to the message follows
its own individual route from the source to the destination. An example of connectionless
service is Internet Protocol or IP.
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Network Layer Functions:

1. Routing : Routing is the process of moving data from one device to another device.
These are two other services offered by the network layer. In a network, there are a number
of routes available from the source to the destination. The network layer specifies some
strategies which find out the best possible route. This process is referred to as routing.

2. Encapsulation and Decapsulation / Packetizing : Network Layer encapsulates the data

coming from the Transport Layer, and also adds important header parts to the packets,
which consists of the necessary information like source IP address and destination IP
address. After receiving the data packets on the destination side it decapsulates those and
make them of original size.This process is called Packetizing
3.Network Address Translation (NAT): Network Layer also takes care of the Network
Address Translation (NAT), means that it converts any private IP address into a public IP
address which is required to communicate between the sender and the receiver.

4. Logical Addressing :There are two types of addressing performed in the network:
logical addressing and physical addressing. The data link layer performs the physical
addressing, while the network layer does the logical addressing in the OSI model. Logical
addressing is also used to distinguish between the source and destination system. The
network layer adds a header to the packet, which includes the logical addresses of both the
sender and the receiver.

5. Internetworking :This is the most important function performed by the network layer
of the OSI model. It establishes the logical connection between nodes in the same or
different networks.
6. Fragmentation and Reassembly: Fragmentation is the conversion of data packets
into the smallest individual data units capable of being transmitted in the network. At
the receiving end all those fragmented packets are reassembled to create the actual data
in order

Network Layer Routing

Types of routing
1.Unicast routing : The term unicast refers to one to one .In unicasting there is one source
and one destination network so the relationship between the source and the destination
network is one to one Eg. Browsing a website,downloading a file from FTP server

2.Multicast Routing : The term multicast refers to one to selected group of

members.There is one source and a group of destination the relationship is one to many
Eg . IPTV,multicast window deployment service

3.Broadcast routing : The term broadcast refers to one to all.The IPV4 address
255.255.255.255 is used as a broadcast address Eg. ARP request message,DHCP discover
message
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IPV4 Packet Format:

• Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).

• IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
• DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
• ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the congestion seen in
the route.
• Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP Payload).
• Identification − If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments
contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet they belong to.
• Flags − As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle,
these ‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the MSB is
always set to ‘0’.
• Fragment Offset − This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original
IP Packet.
• Time to Live − To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some
TTL value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can
cross. At each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the value reaches zero,
the packet is discarded.
• Protocol − Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this
packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of
ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
• Header Checksum − This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header
which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
• Source Address − 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
• Destination Address − 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.
• Options − This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than 5.
These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Route, Time
Stamp, etc.
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Classful Addressing
The 32 bit IPV4 address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:
1) Class A 2)Class B 3) Class C 4) Class D 5)Class E
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
Network ID and Host ID

Class A: IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large
number of hosts.

• The leading bit of class A is always set to 0.

• The default subnet mask for class A is 255.0.0.0
• class A has a total of 27 network addresses and 224 – 2 host addresses
• IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0
Class B: IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from
medium-sized to large-sized networks.

• The leading bits of class B are always set to 10.

• The default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.0.0.
• Class B has a total of: 214 network address and 216 – 2 host address
• IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0.

Class C: IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.

• The leading bits of the class C are always set to 110.

• The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.0
• Class C has a total of: 221 network address and 28 – 2 host address
• IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0.

Class D:
• IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting.
• The leading bits D are always set to 1110.
• IP addresses belonging to class D ranges from 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.
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Class E:
• IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research
purposes.
• IP addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254.
• The higher order bits of first octet of class E are always set to 1111.

Network Mask
• A network mask helps to know which portion of the address identifies – the network
and which portion of the address identifies the node.
• A mask is a 32-bit binary number.

Class A, B, and C networks have default masks, also known as natural masks.
Class A – 255.0.0.0
Class B – 255.255.0.0
Class C – 255.255.255.0

IPV4 Addressing

• An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP

network.
• The IPV4 address is made up of 32 binary bits.
• The Address space of IPV4 is 232 4,294,967,296. (approx. 4 billion)
• The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
• Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
• For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for
example, 172.16.81.100).
• Each byte is identified by a decimal number in the range [0 to 255]
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Limitations of IPv4
• IP relies on network layer addresses to identify end-points on network, and
each network has a unique IP address.
• IPv4 addresses are exhausting as we can have maximum 232 IPv4 addresses
• Complex host and routing configuration
• non-hierarchical addressing
• large routing tables
• QoS (Quality of Service), mobility ,multihoming

IPV6 Addressing
• An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits divided into eight 16-bits blocks. Each block is
then converted into 4-digit Hexadecimal numbers separated by colon symbols.
• The Address space of IPV6 is 2128

Even after converting into Hexadecimal format, IPv6 address remains long. IPv6 provides
some rules to shorten the address. The rules are as follows:
Rule.1: Discard leading Zero(es):
In Block 2, 0074, the leading two 0s can be omitted
Rule.2: If two of more blocks contain consecutive zeroes, omit them all and replace with
double colon sign : such as ( 7th block):
Consecutive blocks of zeroes such as (3rd 4th and 5th ) can be replaced only once by ::
The Final IPv6 address is FDEC: 74 :: BOFF:0:FFF0
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Need for IPv6

The Internet has experienced a phenomenal increase of devices accessing the Internet.
Because of this increase, IPv4 addresses are running out. Traditional model of class full
addressing does not allow the address space to be used to its maximum potential. The
solution is IPv6 which can accommodate the increased demand by providing a
much larger address space IPv6 has 128-bit address space or 4 times more address bits
compared to IPv4's 32-bit address space. This large address space will provide enough
address space for many decades to come.

IPV6 Dtatagram Format

Version: This four-bit field specifies the version of the IP, i.e., 6 in this case.
Priority: It defines the priority of the packet concerning traffic congestion.
Flow label: The reason for designing this protocol is to facilitate with special controlling
for a certain flow of data.
Payload length: It defines the total length of the IP datagram excepting the base header.
Next header: It‟s an eight-bit field describe the header that trails the base header in the
datagram. The next header is one of the optional extension headers which IP uses or the
header for an upper layer protocol such as UDP or TCP.
Hop limit: This eight-bit hop limit field assist with the same functions at the TTL field in
IPv4.
Source address: It is a 16 bytes internet address identifies the source of the datagram.
Destination address: This is 16-byte internet address that generally describes the final
destination of the datagram.
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Major enhancement in IPv6 or Importannce of IPV6

1. IPv4 has 32-bit address length whereas IPv6 has 128-bit address length.
2. IPv4 addresses represent the binary numbers in decimals. On the other hand, IPv6
addresses express binary numbers in hexadecimal.
3. IPv6 uses end-to-end fragmentation while IPv4 requires an intermediate router to
fragment any datagram that is too large.
4. Header length of IPv4 is 20 bytes. In contrast, header length of IPv6 is 40 bytes.
5. IPv4 uses checksum field in the header format for handling error checking. On the
contrary, IPv6 removes the header checksum field.
6. In IPv4, the base header does not contain a field for header length, and 16-bit payload
length field replaces it in the IPv6 header.
7. The option fields in IPv4 are employed as extension headers in IPv6.
8. The Time to live field in IPv4 refers to as Hop limit in IPv6.
9. The header length field which is present in IPv4 is eliminated in IPv6 because the length
of the header is fixed in this version.
10. IPv4 uses broadcasting to transmit the packets to the destination computers while IPv6
uses multicasting and anycasting.
11. IPv6 provides authentication and encryption, but IPv4 doesn‟t

Explain the process of transition from of IPv4 to IPv6 for a network.

Three Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 strategies are
1. Dual Stack
2. Tunnelling
3. Header Translation
1. Dual Stack
• In this kind of strategy, a station has a dual stack of protocols run IPv4 and IPv6
simultaneously.
• To determine which version to use when sending a packet to a destination, the source
host queries the DNS.
• If the DNS returns an IPv4 address, the source host sends an IPv4 packet. If the DNS
returns an IPv6 address, the source host sends an IPv6 packet.
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2. Tunnelling
• Tunnelling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to communicate
with each other and the packet must pass through a region that uses IPv4.
• To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address.So the IPv6 packet
is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters the region.
• To make it clear that the IPv4 packet is carrying an , IPv6 packet as data the protocol
value is set to 41.

3. Header Translation
• In this case, the header format must be totally changed through header translation.
The header of the IPv6 packet is converted to an IPv4 header see figure.
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Network Address Translation

• To access the Internet, one public IP address is needed, but we can use a private IP
address in our private network.
• The idea of NAT is to allow multiple devices to access the Internet through a
single public address.
• Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP
address is translated into one or more Global IP address and vice versa in order to
provide Internet access to the local hosts.
• NAT generally operates on router or firewall.

• Network Address Translation (NAT) working –

A border router is configured for NAT i.e the router which has one interface in
local (inside) network and one interface in the global (outside) network. When a
packet traverse outside the local (inside) network, then NAT converts that local
(private) IP address to a global (public) IP address. When a packet enters the local
network, the global (public) IP address is converted to a local (private) IP address.
• Static NAT – In this, a single unregistered (Private) IP address is mapped with a
legally registered (Public) IP address i.e one-to-one mapping between local and
global address. This is generally used for Web hosting.
• Dynamic NAT – In this type of NAT, an unregistered IP address is translated into
a registered (Public) IP address from a pool of public IP address.
• Port Address Translation (PAT) – . In this, many local (private) IP addresses can
be translated to a single registered IP address. Port numbers are used to distinguish
the traffic i.e., which traffic belongs to which IP address. This is most frequently
used as it is cost-effective as thousands of users can be connected to the Internet by
using only one real global (public) IP address.
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Compare IPV4 and IPV6

IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
It Supports Manual and DHCP address It supports Auto and renumbering address
configuration configuration
In IPv4 end to end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is
integrity is Unachievable Achievable
The Address space of IPV4 is 232 The Address space of IPV6 is 2128
The Security feature is dependent on IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the
the application IPv6 protocol
Address representation of IPv4 is in Address Representation of IPv6 is in
decimal hexadecimal
Fragmentation performed by Sender In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by
and forwarding routers the sender
In IPv6 packet flow identification are
In IPv4 Packet flow identification is
Available and uses the flow label field in the
not available
header
In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available
It has a broadcast Message In IPv6 multicast and anycast message
Transmission Scheme transmission scheme is available
In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are
In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication
provided
facility not provided
IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed
IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.
IPv4 can be converted to IPv6 Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4
IPv4 consists of 4 fields which are IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated
separated by addresses dot (.) by a colon (:)
IPv4’s IP addresses are divided into
IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP
five different classes. Class A , Class
address.
B, Class C, Class D , Class E.
IPv4 supports VLSM(Variable Length
IPv6 does not support VLSM.
subnet mask).
Example of IPv6:
Example of IPv4: 66.94.29.13
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
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For the IP addresses given below

1. Identify the classes to which the following IP address belongs to
2. Identify network address sections
3. Identify host address section
4. Calculate number of hosts that can be assigned with each network
i. 22.34.45.133
ii. 12.12.12.12
iii. 192.0.233.26
iv. 126.123.16.87
1) 22.34.45.133= 00010110.00100010.00101101.10000101
IP address class = Class A
Network Section = 00010110 = 22
Host Section = 00100010.00101101.10000101= 34.45.133
Number of Host/Network = 2²⁴-2 = 16,777,214
2) 12.12.12.12= 00001100.00001100.00001100.00001100
IP address class = Class A
Network Section = 00001100 = 12
Host Section = 00001100.00001100.00001100= 12.12.12
Number of Host/Network = 2²⁴-2 = 16,777,214
3) 192.0.233.26= 11000000.00000000.11101001.00011010
IP address class = Class C
Network Section = 11000000.00000000.11101001 = 192.0.233
Host Section = 00011010= 26
Number of Host = 28-2 = 154
4) 126.123.16.87= 01111110.01111011.00010000.01010111
IP address class = Class A
Network Section = 01111110 = 126
Host Section = 01111011.00010000.01010111= 123.16.87
Number of Host = 2²⁴-2 = 16,777,214
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Elaborate the procedure to divide networks into subnets. Divide given network address in
four equal part to hold maximum 50 devices in each subnet.
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