Contents

Chapter 1 Vocabulary Questions..................................................1

Chapter 2 Sentence Simplification Question..............................11

Chapter 3 Factual Information Questions...................................16

Chapter 4 Negative Factual Information Questions....................39

Chapter 5 Inference Questions...................................................59

Chapter 6 Reference Questions.................................................78

Chapter 7 Insert Text Question...................................................83

Chapter 8 Rhetorical Purpose Questions...................................99

Chapter 9 Prose Summary.......................................................118

1. Lenape Horticulture..................................................................................119
2. Mites and Their Hosts...............................................................................126
3. Tidal Heating on lo....................................................................................135
4. The First Eyes............................................................................................143
5. The Classic Mayan Collapse.....................................................................150
6. Water Management in Early Agriculture....................................................156
7. Beaks of Darwin's Finches........................................................................163
8. Water Supply in Venice.............................................................................171
9. Dinosaurs and Parental Care....................................................................177
10. The Chaco Phenomenon........................................................................184
11. The Geographical Distribution of Gliding Animals...................................192
12. Fishing in Early Egypt..............................................................................201
13. Coral Reef Communities.........................................................................208

I
 Passages to Crack

Chapters 1-8
1. 10Q UFO77-3 Theories of Megafauna Extinction
2. 10Q UFO60-1 The Idea of Continental Drift
3. 10Q UFO42-2 Mexican Mural Art
4. 10Q UFO88-1 Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
5. 10Q UFO58-1 Insect wings
6. 10Q UFO42-1 Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
7. 10Q UFO55-3 The Beginning of Planet Formation
8. 10Q UFO29-1 The Western Roman Empire in the Fifth Century
9. 10Q UFO76-2 Fungi and Trees
10. 10Q UFO17-1 Documenting the Incas
11. 10Q UFO14-1 Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
12. 10Q UFO20-1 Early Modern Industrialization
13. 10Q UFO73-1 The Behavior of Magma
14. 10Q UFO9-1 Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
15. 10Q UFO49-3 Saving Soil and Cropland
16. 10Q UFO73-2 The Chemical Defenses of Trees
17. 10Q UFO24-3 Multiplier Effect
18. 10Q UFO76-3 The Postwar Economic Boom
19. 10Q UFO8-2 The Collapse of Maya
20. 10Q UFO3-1 Development of Printing
21. 10Q UFO46-2 Forms of Locomotion
22. 10Q UFO2-3 The Origin of Coral Reefs
23. 10Q UFO15-2 Origin of the Solar System
24. 10Q UFO13-2 Greek Sacred Groves and Parks

Chapter 9
1. 10Q UFO80-3 Lenape Horticulture
2. 10Q UFO75-3 Mites and Their Hosts
3. 10Q UFO75-2 Tidal Heating on lo
4. 10Q UFO34-1 The First Eyes
5. 10Q UFO60-3 The Classic Mayan Collapse
6. 10Q UFO21-2 Water Management in Early Agriculture
7. 10Q UFO77-1 Beaks of Darwin's Finches
8. 10Q UFO68-3 Water Supply in Venice
9. 10Q UFO13-1 Dinosaurs and Parental Care
10. 10Q UFO13-3 The Chaco Phenomenon
11. 10Q UFO33-2 The Geographical Distribution of Gliding Animals
12. 10Q UFO85-3 Fishing in Early Egypt
13. 10Q UFO4-1 Coral Reef Communities

II
 OG

Basic Information and Inferencing questions

1. Factual Information Questions (2 to 5 questions per set)
2. Negative Factual Information Questions (0 to 2 questions per set)
3. Inference Questions (1 to 2 questions per set)
4. Rhetorical Purpose Questions (1 to 2 questions per set)
5. Vocabulary Questions (1 to 2 questions per set)
6. Reference Questions (0 to 2 questions per set)
7. Sentence Simplification Question (0 or 1 question per set)
8. Insert Text Question (1 question per set)

Reading to Learn questions (1 per set)

9. Prose Summary (1 per set)
10. Fill in a Table

III
 Chapter 1 Vocabulary Questions
(1 to 2 questions per set)

• The word "X" in the passage is closest in meaning to . . .

• The phrase "X" in the passage is closest in meaning to . . .
• In stating X, the author means that . . .

"They are not usually words that you can guess from context. So the best general strategy to
be ready for this type of questions is to build your vocabulary." – ETS

1
The paleontologist Paul Martin has argued that the first Americans found a land in which
very large mammals were diverse, widespread, abundant, and – crucially – not fearful of
human hunters and therefore easy to kill.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
1. The word "diverse" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) dominant
(B) common
(C) varied
(D) healthy

If human population size did not depend strongly on megafauna hunting (because people
were also using a variety of other resources), there would still be plenty of hunters around
after megafauna populations had declined to critically low levels, so individuals in these low-
density populations would still be at risk of encountering people and being killed.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
2. The word "critically" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) dangerously
(B) unnaturally
(C) permanently
(D) relatively

In 1912, scientist Alfred Wegener collated all this evidence and proposed the idea of
continental drift.
The Idea of Continental Drif
3. The word "collated" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) appreciated
(B) explained
(C) assembled
(D) identified

One of the most persistent strands in Latin American art in the last 80 years has been an
engagement with political and social issues, including the struggle for social justice.
Mexican Mural Art
4. The word "persistent" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) important
(B) fascinating
(C) lasting
(D) powerful

But as the chill of the glaciation gradually lifted, the climate eased into a drier and warmer
phase, marked by more frequent droughts, and the forest was forced to retreat to the north.

2
 Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
5. The phrase "eased into" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) rapidly shifted to
(B) returned to
(C) slowly entered
(D) went through

High enough to catch the rain and snow, and cooler than the grasslands below, these uplands
created a microclimate in which the trees could retain a toehold.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
6. The word "retain" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) expand
(B) find
(C) keep
(D) support

It is much easier to imagine structures that were already hinged and muscled in fulfilling
some prior function and then eventually taking on a role in flight.
Insect wings
7. The word "fulfilling" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) performing
(B) developing
(C) replacing
(D) combining with

Another theory is that wings may have been derived from flap-like gills (organs allowing
breathing under water) in immature aquatic insects that might have been retained in the
adults for reasons other than movement, such as regulation of body temperature,
concealment, and signaling.
Insect wings
8. The word "retained" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) active
(B) important
(C) kept
(D) featured

Recent research has also revealed that in some squid and fish, bioluminescent light may be
produced by bacteria that live in a mutually beneficial partnership inside the animal's light
organs.

3
 Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
9. The phrase "mutually beneficial" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) helpful to one another
(B) generally practical
(C) efficiently balanced
(D) temporary by design

The beginning of their creation process occurred when the cloud of leftover material from
the formation of the Sun settled into a disc around the young star.
The Beginning of Planet Formation
10. The word "leftover" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) gathering
(B) spreading
(C) remaining
(D) floating

Heat from the young Sun blew much of the gas away, but the rotation of the original cloud
ensured that the dust settled into a disc around the young Sun – a protoplanetary disc like
the ones seen around young stars today.
The Beginning of Planet Formation
11. The word "ensured" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) showed
(B) suggested
(C) confirmed
(D) guaranteed

Whereas the East could pursue war and diplomacy more effectively with their enemies on
the long eastern frontier, the West was exposed to the more volatile tribal Germanic peoples
on a frontier that stretched along the Rhine and Danube rivers for 1,000 miles.
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
12. The word "pursue" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) expand
(B) engage in
(C) control
(D) avoid

He pondered the nature of such a peculiar association; except for the edible fungi, humans
have an antagonistic relationship with fungi.
Fungi and Trees
13. The word "peculiar" in the passage is closest in meaning to

4
(A) beneficial
(B) strange
(C) close
(D) complicated

The Incans ruled a vast empire in western South America when the Spaniards encountered
them in the sixteenth century.
Documenting the Incas
14. The word "vast" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) ancient
(B) wealthy
(C) powerful
(D) extensive

However, there are drawbacks to using the written record.

Documenting the Incas
15. The word "drawbacks" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) requirements
(B) techniques
(C) exceptions
(D) disadvantages

The area appears to have been settled around 500 A.D. by tribes of diverse origins speaking
mutually unintelligible languages: from north to south they include the Tlingit, the Haida,
the Tsimshian, the Bella Coola, the Kwakiutl, and the Nootka.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
16. When the author states that the tribes speak "mutually unintelligible" languages, this
means that the tribes
(A) speak languages of similar difficulty
(B) cannot understand each other's languages
(C) cannot understand the languages of tribes in neighboring areas
(D) understand the languages of tribes of similar origin

The Tlingit and other nations or language groups were collections of autonomous village
communities composed of one or more families, each with its own chief, who inherited his
position through matrilineal descent.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities

5
17. The word "autonomous" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) small
(B) well organized
(C) independent
(D) wealthy

Although trade with the Americas had something to do with this, the main determinants of
this industrial advance lay within Europe itself.
Early Modern Industrialization
18. The word "determinants" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) origins
(B) long-term benefits
(C) causes
(D) effects

Migration had long been critical for the diffusion of knowledge that spawned new trades or
revived others.
Early Modern Industrialization
19. The word "diffusion" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) creation
(B) spread
(C) explosion
(D) application

If you place oil and water in a jar, screw the lid on, and shake the jar, oil droplets disperse
throughout the water.
The Behavior of Magma
20. The word "disperse" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) appear
(B) spread
(C) float
(D) move

When you set the jar down, the droplets coalesce to form larger bubbles, which rise toward
the surface, easily displacing the water as they ascend.
The Behavior of Magma
21. The word "coalesce" in the passage is closest in meaning to

6
(A) rise up
(B) begin moving
(C) come together
(D) expand

Prices for industrial products lagged behind those of raw materials and foodstuffs, and this,
coupled with rising taxes, made it difficult for many producers to repay their creditors.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
22. The phrase "coupled with" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) caused by
(B) compared with
(C) affected by
(D) combined with

Artisans’ autonomy was imperiled, too, by restrictions on their access to markets. During the
sixteenth century, a situation like this often resulted from the concentration of export trade
in a few great storage and distribution centers.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
23. The word "autonomy" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) independence
(B) influence
(C) ability to make a living
(D) ability to adapt

Saving cropland is sometimes more difficult than saving the topsoil on the cropland. This is
particularly the case when dealing with urban sprawl, where strong commercial forces have
influence.
Saving Soil and Cropland
24. The word "particularly" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) usually
(B) obviously
(C) especially
(D) currently

Oaks may put up to 15 percent of their energy production into chemical defenses, which
explains why stressed trees are most prone to attack: they have less energy available to
produce defenses.
The Chemical Defenses of Trees
25. The phrase "prone to" in the passage is closest in meaning to

7
(A) unnecessary to
(B) subject to
(C) difficult to
(D) beneficial to

However, the interaction of several simultaneous developments created a multiplier effect.

Multiplier Effect
26. The phrase "several simultaneous developments" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) independent developments
(B) developments that reinforced each other
(C) developments that occurred at the same time
(D) developments that followed one another in a sequence

When the high rates of growth continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s, it was used to
refer to the entire era.
The Postwar Economic Boom
27. The word "era" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) process
(B) period
(C) world
(D) situation

Here was the archetypal picture of a great lost civilization: abandoned cities submerged in
vegetation.
The Collapse of Maya
28. The word "abandoned" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) carefully hidden
(B) destroyed
(C) enormous
(D) no longer occupied

Several of the lowland cities, such as Tikal, appear to have depended heavily on the
cultivation of raised fields set in the marshy depressions known as bajos, which today flood
intermittently in the rainy season but may originally have been permanent lakes.
The Collapse of Maya
29. The word "intermittently" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) constantly
(B) periodically

8
(C) usually
(D) especially

Two preconditions proved essential for the advent of printing: the industrial production of
paper and the commercial production of manuscripts.
Development of Printing
30. The word "advent" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) success
(B) increase
(C) arrival
(D) practice

Furthermore, a flyer has an extra source of drag that a swimmer does not have: the extra
drag that comes from lift production.
Forms of Locomotion
31. The word "Furthermore" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) Unfortunately
(B) In addition
(C) However
(D) Consequently

The extensive reefs around the Indonesian Islands, the Philippines, New Guinea, Fiji, and
most of the Caribbean Islands are there because a suitable substrate in shallow water existed
on which they could initiate growth.
The Origin of Coral Reefs
32. The word "initiate" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) begin
(B) encourage
(C) establish
(D) maintain

This material formed a vast cloud of dust and gases called a nebula. The heavier substances
in this frigid cloud of dust and gases consisted mostly of such elements as silicon, aluminum,
iron, and calcium – the substances of today's common rocky materials.
Origin of the Solar System
33. The word "frigid" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) moving
(B) giant
(C) original

9
(D) cold

The accumulation of ices partly accounts for the large sizes and low densities of the outer
planets.
Origin of the Solar System
34. The phrase "accounts for" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) explains
(B) creates
(C) encourages
(D) illustrates

Greek philosophers pondered the meaning of nature and its innermost workings, the
relationships between animals and humankind, and how matter related to spirit.
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
35. The word "pondered" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) explained
(B) argued over
(C) thought about
(D) understood

The spiritual significance of the sacred grove mandated specific preservationist measures.
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
36. The word "mandated" in the passage is closet in meaning to
(A) contributed to
(B) produced
(C) limited
(D) required

Chapter 2 Sentence Simplification Question

(0 or 1 question per set)

• Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out
essential information.

10
1. If human population size did not depend strongly on megafauna hunting (because
people were also using a variety of other resources), there would still be plenty of hunters
around after megafauna populations had declined to critically low levels, so individuals in
these low-density populations would still be at risk of encountering people and being
killed.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
(A) Hunters used a variety of food resources in areas where megafauna populations had
declined to critically low levels to reduce dependence on megafauna.
(B) It is thought that human population size did not depend strongly on megafauna hunting
because there were plenty of hunters around after megafauna populations declined.

11
(C) If humans did not depend strongly on hunting megafauna for food, there must be
another explanation for megafauna low-density populations.
(D) A decline in megafauna populations would not necessarily result in a decline in the
human population, so human hunters would remain a threat.

2. The mid-ocean ridge is by far the largest geological feature on Earth, but it had remained
unknown and hidden from human observation except for what are in fact glimpses of its
mountains that here and there break the sea's surface as islands.
The Idea of Continental Drif
(A) Earth's largest geological feature remained hidden until it was glimpsed, here and there,
beneath the oceans’ islands.
(B) The mid-ocean mountain range, Earth's largest geological feature, was undiscovered
because it is visible only where its peaks appear above the sea surface as islands.
(C) The mid-ocean ridge remains unobservable except for brief periods of time when
mountains can be glimpsed above the sea's surface.
(D) It is now known that Earth's islands are in fact created when the mid-ocean mountain
range is so high that it breaks the sea's surface.

3. In the sometimes-lengthy interludes between the killing droughts, trees and shrubs
were often able to take advantage of cool, moist weather to extend their reach onto the
grassy plains.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
(A) After a killing drought, it sometimes took a long time for the cool, moist weather to
appear and make it possible for trees and shrubs to return to the plains.
(B) Extended periods of cooler, wetter weather between severe droughts allowed trees and
shrubs to spread onto the plains.
(C) Trees and shrubs could move farther into the plains during cool, moist weather than
during periods of drought.
(D) Trees and shrubs could spread onto the plains because the periods of cool, moist
weather were sometimes longer than the droughts.

4. Which of these might have been of primary significance in the evolution of wings is a
matter of debate, but predator avoidance is an excellent candidate as it is clear that life in
the Paleozoic (540 to 230 million years ago) was dangerous due to the numbers of
predators.
Insect wings
(A) Debate over the purpose of wing evolution in insects has ended with the conclusion that
wings evolved as a means to avoid predators.
(B) Whether wing evolution in insects was significant for insect safety in the Paleozoic is a
matter of debate.
(C) Predator avoidance was difficult for insects during the Paleozoic because wings did not
evolve until about 230 million years ago.
(D) Wings might have evolved mainly as a means to avoid the many predators that
endangered insects during the Paleozoic.

12
5. Because of their young ages, Theodosius' sons and grandsons could not rule without
older advisors and supervising regents upon whom they naturally became dependent and
from whom they were unable to break away after reaching maturity.
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
(A) As young rulers, the sons and grandsons of Theodosius necessarily depended on older
advisors, and as adults, they were unable to rule independently of these advisors.
(B) The sons and grandsons of Theodosius were too young when they came to power to rule
without the assistance of older advisors.
(C) On reaching maturity, the sons and grandsons of Theodosius attempted to break away
from the older officials who had advised them since childhood.
(D) Because the sons and grandsons of Theodosius were young when they became rulers,
older advisors were able to prevent them from breaking away.

6. Some differences must have been due to those among the cultures in which they were
created, but their place of origin cannot always be ascertained as they seem to have
passed from one contiguous nation to another in the course of trade or warfare.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
(A) Some characteristics of masks must be due to cultural and national factors, such as
whether they were made during a period of warfare or of peace and trade.
(B) As one contiguous nation exchanged masks with another during trade or warfare, it
became more difficult to determine the place of origin of masks.
(C) Some differences among masks were probably due to their different origins, but because
they passed from one nation to another, their origin cannot always be determined.
(D) As masks of different cultural origins passed from one nation to anther during trade or
warfare, they acquired certain differences depending on how they were used.
7. For centuries European artisans had operated in small, autonomous handcraft
businesses, but by the sixteenth century an evolving economic system — moving toward
modern capitalism, with its free-market pricing, new organization of production,
investments, and so on — had started to erode their stable and relatively prosperous
position.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
(A) In the sixteenth century, the European economy moved toward a system of free-market
pricing, new ways of production, and investments.
(B) Before the sixteenth century, European makers of handcrafts enjoyed stability, autonomy,
and relative prosperity.
(C) By the sixteenth century, the rise of capitalism began to weaken the autonomy and
relative prosperity of European artisans.
(D) European artisans operated small, autonomous businesses before modern capitalism
emerged in the sixteenth century.

8. The 1930s Dust Bowl that threatened to turn the United States Great Plains into a vast
desert was a traumatic experience that led to revolutionary changes in American
agricultural practices, such as the planting of tree shelter belts, rows of trees planted

13
beside fields to slow wind and thus reduce wind erosion.
Saving Soil and Cropland
(A) The 1930s Dust Bowl was a revolutionary event that threatened to destroy United States
agriculture by turning the Great Plains into a vast desert.
(B) The 1930s Dust Bowl in the United States resulted in radical changes in agricultural
practices aimed at reducing wind erosion, such as the planting of tree shelter belts.
(C) Tree shelter belts, which are often used in the Great Plains area, are made up of trees
that are planted in long rows beside agricultural fields.
(D) Of all the innovative techniques used to control wind erosion after the 1930s Dust Bowl,
only tree shelter belts proved effective.

9. To understand the major changes in social organization and complexity that took place,
it was necessary, said Renfrew, to determine the impact that new variables emerging in the
early Bronze Age may have had on every interrelated aspect of the local social system.
Multiplier Effect
(A) Renfrew said that local variables affected the complex social organization of the early
Bronze Age.
(B) Renfrew said that the major changes in social organization could be understood only by
examining the effects of the new developments that took place in the early Bronze Age.
(C) The early Bronze Age, Renfrew said, was a time in which there were major changes to
many interrelated aspects of local social systems.
(D) To understand the social organization and complexity of the early Bronze Age, it was
necessary, said Renfrew, first to determine what new variables had emerged.
10. The multiplication of standardized texts altered the thinking habits of Europeans by
freeing individuals from having to memorize everything they learned; it certainly made
possible the speedy and inexpensive dissemination of knowledge.
Development of Printing
(A) European ways of thinking were affected by the new multiple sources of knowledge that
became available through the standardization of texts.
(B) Once standardized texts became widespread, people could acquire knowledge in faster,
more affordable ways because they no longer had to memorize texts.
(C) Individuals were increasingly free to take advantage of the large number of standardized
texts that became available.
(D) It became easier for people to increase their knowledge in many areas because books
were significantly cheaper than they had previously been.

11. Nearly five billion years ago, some external influence, such as a shock wave traveling
from a catastrophic explosion (supernova), may have triggered the collapse of this huge
cloud of gases and minute grains of heavier elements, causing the cloud to begin to slowly
contract due to the gravitational interactions among its particles.
Origin of the Solar System
(A) Possibly due to some explosion about five billion years ago, this nebular cloud began to
collapse, causing gravitational contractions as its particles interacted.
(B) About five billion years ago, a supernova may have exploded, causing a huge cloud of

14
gases and heavier elements to form.
(C) Gravitational attraction among particles of gases and heavier elements caused some
explosive event nearly five billion years ago.
(D) About five billion years ago, a shock wave from an external event caused this huge cloud
of gases to collapse into small grains of heavier elements.

12. Meanwhile, the suggestion of a state of nature, wholesome and pure, defined in
opposition to civilized life, found acceptance in Aristotle's time through the concept of the
Golden Age — a legendary ideal that had significance for landscape planning and artistic
experiment.
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
(A) Aristotle used the concept of the Golden Age to explain how the pure beauty of nature
could be recreated in a new, carefully planned state.
(B) During the Golden Age of Aristotle's time, human activities such as landscape planning
and art reached the height of creativity.
(C) In ancient Greek thought, both art and nature were characterized by purity and
wholesomeness within a Golden Age.
(D) During Aristotle's time, the idea that nature is pure and distinct from civilization was
expressed in the idea of the perfect Golden Age, which influenced both art and landscape
design.

Chapter 3 Factual Information Questions

(2 to 5 questions per set)

• According to the paragraph, which of the following is true of X?

• The author's description of X mentions which of the following?
• According to the paragraph, X occurred because . . .
• According to the paragraph, X did Y because . . .
• According to the paragraph, why did X do Y?

15
Across the world, at varying times thousands of years ago, large mammals (megafauna such
as mammoths, giant deer, and ground sloths) went extinct in a relatively short time. In North
America this happened around 11,000 years ago, soon after the arrival of the first humans on
the continent. The paleontologist Paul Martin has argued that the first Americans found a
land in which very large mammals were diverse, widespread, abundant, and – crucially – not
fearful of human hunters and therefore easy to kill. The great size of the megafauna
combined with their lack of fear since they had never before encountered humans meant
that the hunting of them was a very profitable activity. People specialized in giant-mammal
hunting, and the human population increased very quickly as a result. This in turn meant that
the predation pressure on the large mammals became very great, and within a short time
their populations crashed to extinction. People then had to turn to alternative food sources
or move on to find more megafauna to kill. This process took the form of a wave that, driven
onward by the migration of people from places where megafauna had been overexploited
into areas where they were still abundant, traveled from one end of the Americas to the
other within a few thousand years. The rapidity of extinction at the "wave front" is an
essential element of this theory, because a long period of interaction of people with
megafauna would have allowed the initially naive creatures to learn or evolve appropriate
defensive or escape behaviors, and so reduce their susceptibility to hunting.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is an essential part of the wave theory of
extinction?
(A) The availability of alternative food sources other than megafauna
(B) The speed with which megafauna species were hunted to extinction

16
(C) A long period of interaction between humans and megafauna before extinction
(D) The ability of megafauna to travel from one end of the continent to the other

For many centuries people thought that Earth was stable and unchanging. But as early as
1596, mapmaker Abraham Ortelius recognized that the coasts of Africa and Europe would fit
closely against the Americas on the other side of the Atlantic and proposed that they might
once have been joined. Supporting evidence grew over time. Coal deposits and other
geological features were found to be similar in Africa and the Americas, and fossils of the
extinct reptile Mesosaurus have been found both along the west coast of southern Africa
and the east coast of South America. In 1912, scientist Alfred Wegener collated all this
evidence and proposed the idea of continental drift. He suggested that there used to be one
supercontinent, Pangaea, and that in geological time, it broke apart, its various pieces
separating out to their modern-day positions. At first, his ideas were received with skepticism
because there was no known mechanism by which continental drift could occur. It wasn ’t
until the late 1960s that the mechanism was found and his ideas were truly accepted.
The Idea of Continental Drif
2. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 1 as evidence supporting the idea that
southern Africa and South America were once joined?
(A) The awareness that Earth was no longer stable and unchanging
(B) The fact that both southern Africa and South America were once parts of Pangaea
(C) The geologic similarity of the opposite coasts of the Atlantic
(D) The slow movement of these land areas away from each other

17
The first major modern art movement in Latin America was Mexican muralism, which
featured largescale murals painted on the wall surfaces of public buildings. One of the most
persistent strands in Latin American art in the last 80 years has been an engagement with
political and social issues, including the struggle for social justice. This in turn has been
accompanied by a desire for authentic forms of self-expression and freedom from cultural
dependency. Although these preoccupations have taken many different forms, Mexican
muralism was the first, and its influence was the most far-reaching. Muralism flourished in
Mexico in the years immediately following the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) as a result of
a combination of circumstances: a climate of revolutionary optimism and cultural
experimentation that challenged traditional Eurocentrism, a small but strong group of
relatively mature artists of energy, ideas, and ability, and a visionary minister of education,
Jose Vasconcelos. Vasconcelos believed that Mexico was destined to play a central role on
the international stage. He understood that ideas could be more quickly assimilated through
images than through any other medium, and he had the courage to allocate the funds, and
the walls of public buildings, to the artists to do with as they liked
Mexican Mural Art
3. According to paragraph 1, Mexican muralism is concerned with
(A) the attempt to make art a more important subject in the Latin American educational
system
(B) the combination of European art traditions with authentic Latin American art forms
(C) the creation of a just society and an independent form of cultural expression
(D) the use of art to raise funds for the construction of new public buildings

The muralists shared a belief in the power of art to transform society for the better, to
challenge social, political, economic, and cultural stereotypes, and to enrich the intellectual
life of their country. During the 1920s and 1930s, they covered miles of wall with paintings
representing aspects of Mexico's past and present and the future to which all aspired.

18
Although Mexican muralism is representational and often narrative in form, it should be
recognized as a modern movement; it was modernizing in intent, in that it challenged the old
order — culturally, socially, and politically. By definition, it was a public, accessible form of art
— not a commodity that could be bought and sold by the wealthy elite. Its purpose was to
educate, inform, enlighten, politicize and thus empower the general public, in particular the
working classes.
Mexican Mural Art

4. According to paragraph 2, in what way can Mexican muralism be regarded as a

characteristically modern art movement?
(A) It was representational and often narrative in form.
(B) It was supported by a small but enlightened artistic elite.
(C) It questioned traditional ideas.
(D) It emphasized the future rather than dwelling on the past.

At the end of the last ice age, some 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, the climate was cool and
damp, and a dense coniferous (evergreen) forest occupied the Great Plains, the vast region
stretching from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba in Canada south through Texas. A dark
mantle of spruce trees extended from what are now the Canadian prairies south through the
Dakotas into the central states of the United States, while pinewoods appear to have
flourished on the southern plains of the United States. But as the chill of the glaciation
gradually lifted, the climate eased into a drier and warmer phase, marked by more frequent
droughts, and the forest was forced to retreat to the north. Within a remarkably short time,
the forests of the Great Plains either surrendered directly to grasses or else gave way first to
deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves seasonally) and then to prairie grasses.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
5. According to paragraph 1, what was true of the region stretching from the present
Canadian prairies south through the southern plains of the United States 8,000 to 10,000
years ago?
(A) It was covered with coniferous forests.
(B) It was largely covered with glaciers.
(C) It was largely covered with grasses.
(D) Its forests contained a mixture of deciduous trees.

For the woody plants that grew down on the grasslands, by contrast, there was no chance of
escape. Despite a variety of adaptations for withstanding occasional burns — corky, fire-
resistant bark (bur oak trees); seeds that are stimulated by heat (ponderosa pine trees);
roots that put out new shoots to compensate for fire damage (many poplars and oaks) —
few species of trees can survive frequent, intense fires. Grasses, by contrast, are basically
born to burn. Not only do they produce a tinder — dry thatch of dead foliage that lights with
the slightest spark, but they are equipped to rise from their own ashes. The buds, or
meristems, from which they put forth new growth, are tucked down at the surface of the
ground, where they are protected from serious harm. But woody plants, which are inclined
to reach for the light, hold their buds on the tips of their branches, where they are exposed

19
to the flames and are sorely vulnerable to fire damage.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
6. According to paragraph 3, grasses are better able to recover from fire than trees are, in
part because
(A) ashes left by fires are more beneficial to grasses than to trees
(B) grasses produce more dead foliage than trees do
(C) the buds of grasses are much less likely to be damaged by fire than the buds of trees are
(D) the roots of grass plants are usually buried less deeply than the roots of trees are

Insects are different from other flying creatures like birds and bats, which evolved wings
from already existing legs, and one of the main questions is what the first protowings (early
forms of wings) were used for. One view is that outgrowths from the notum (upper portion)
of the thorax (middle region of the body between the head and the abdomen) would have
enabled insects to have a more stable and longer glide path (movement through the air
without using wings). This paranotal theory envisages early insects climbing plants and
launching themselves into the air as a more efficient, and perhaps safer, means of getting
around or avoiding predators. These protowings might have had other functions, and
experimental evidence suggests that when small, they would have had a significant role in
the regulation of body temperature. Other ideas have involved small insects being carried
around in air currents or larger insects jumping from the ground and taking to the air.
Insect Wings
7. According to paragraph 2, one benefit of the outgrowths from an insect's thorax might
have been to
(A) allow the insect to sense the presence of predators
(B) prevent the insect from being carried away by air currents
(C) allow the insect to glide through the air for a longer distance
(D) aid the insect in climbing up plants

20
How and why bioluminescence occurs is not fully understood; however, in the undersea
realm, it appears to be used in a variety of interesting and ingenious ways. The most
commonly observed form of bioluminescence in the sea is the pinpoint sparkling of light at
night that can create cometlike trails behind moving objects. Almost always, this is the result
of dinoflagellates reacting to water motion. The relatively short, momentary displays of light
may have evolved to startle, distract, or frighten would-be predators. Collection nets brought
up from the sea's depths at night frequently glow green at great distance. Slowly fading
green blobs or pulses of light can be seen coming from the organisms within, often from
gelatinous creatures. This type of light display may be used to stun, disorient, or lure prey.
Like a wide-eyed deer caught on a road and dazed by headlights, undersea creatures living
within the ocean's darkness may be momentarily disoriented by short flashes of
bioluminescent light. Another of the sea's light-producing organisms is a small copepod (a
type of crustacean) named Sapphirina iris. In the water, Sapphirina creates short flashes of a
remarkably rich, azure blue light. But its appearance under a microscope is even more
spectacular, the living copepod appears as if constructed of delicately handcrafted,
multicolored pieces of stained glass. Within the deep sea, some fish also have a dangling
bioluminescent lure or a patch of luminescent skin near the mouth, which may be used to
entice unsuspecting prey.
Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
8. According to paragraph 3, when do dinoflagellates produce pinpoint sparkling displays of
light?
(A) When they are caught in collection nets
(B) When they are hunting food
(C) When there is a sudden movement of the water around them
(D) When they are stunned or disoriented

21
Something else may also have helped the particles to stick together – something else that is
special about the solar system. Studies of pieces of rock from meteorites show that the dusty
disc around the young Sun contained tiny globules of material, known as chondrules, formed
by melting at temperatures between 1,200 degrees centigrade and 1,600 degrees
centigrade. Molten, or partly molten, blobs would be more sticky and encourage the buildup
of larger lumps of stuff in the disc. But how did they get so hot? The most likely explanation
is that the heat was released by radioactive elements that had been sprayed by a nearby star
in the process of dying into the gas cloud from which the planets form ed. One possibility is
that a supernova occurred close to the cloud that became the Sun just before the Sun
formed; it is even possible that the blast wave from this explosion triggered the collapse of
the gas cloud that became the Sun and solar system. Supporting evidence for this idea comes
from measurements of the proportions of various isotopes (different forms of an element)
found in meteorites. Radioactive aluminium-26 seems to have been present in the proto-
solar system from the beginning, but a pulse of iron-60 arrived about a million years later.
This matches what we know about the fate of a very large star, with more than 30 times as
much mass as the Sun. In the late stages of its life, the star first blows away much of the
outer layers of material, which by then is relatively rich in aluminium-26, in a wind easily
strong enough to cause any nearby gas cloud to collapse. The star only explodes at the very
end of its life, showering the neighborhood with elements including iron-60.
The Beginning of Planet Formation
9. According to paragraph 3, why is the timing of the arrival of iron-60 in the proto-solar
system significant?
(A) It provides evidence in favor of the theory that a nearby supernova had a role in the
formation of the solar system.
(B) It provides information about the force of the winds that blew away a very large star 's
outer layers.
(C) It suggests that the formation of the solar system began earlier than scientists once
believed.
(D) It shows that the presence of aluminium-26 was not enough to cause the collapse of the
gas cloud.

22
There is a rival idea, developed in Barcelona by Josep Trigo-Rodriguez and colleagues, which
suggests that the radioactive material was fed into the solar system as it was forming from a
much less massive star which came much closer to the Sun. The right proportion of isotopes
could have come in the wind of material being blown away from a star with only six times as
much mass as our Sun in the last stages of its life. But the star would have to be very close to
the Sun for this to happen – closer than 10 light-years – which makes such an event unlikely,
statistically speaking.
The Beginning of Planet Formation
10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is a weakness in the explanation
proposed by Rodriguez and colleagues?
(A) A star of the required size was unlikely to contain the right proportion of isotopes.
(B) Stars that are six times more massive than the Sun are statistically unusual.
(C) It is unlikely that a star of the required size would be close enough to the Sun.
(D) Much of the material in the solar system would have been blown away by a star coming
very close to it.

Unfortunately, the high positions achieved by Germanic officers often aroused the jealousy
and hostility of high-ranking Roman military and civilian officials. Such positions also gave
their Germanic holders a chance to act on both personal and tribal animosities in the arena
of Imperial politics. Internal Roman rivalries and power struggles aggravated the situation.
Rival factional leaders often granted imperial titles and conceded territory to one Germanic
leader or another in return for help against fellow Romans. While the Romans were thus
distracted by internal conflict, other tribes seized the opportunity to cross into Roman
territory unopposed. When the Romans could not dislodge them, peace was bought with
further titles and territorial concessions as allies. In the midst of it all, alliances and coalitions
between Roman emperors or powerful commanders and various tribes or tribal kings were
made, unmade, and remade so often that it is nearly impossible to follow their course.
Accordingly, all of these situations proved dangerous to the peace and safety of the West.
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
11. Which of the following is identified in paragraph 5 as a negative consequence of making
Germanic chieftains high-ranking officers in the Roman army
(A) Romans no longer sought achievement through the military.
(B) Germanic generals sometimes used their military power to advance their own and their
tribes' interests.
(C) Germanic soldiers focused on achieving imperial titles rather than military success.
(D) Greater divisions developed between the Western Empire and the Eastern Empire, which

23
lacked military leadership.

In the late nineteenth century, A. B. Hatch, a mycologist (a scientist who studies fungi —
organisms that include molds, mushrooms, and yeast), exhumed an underground fungal
system and discovered that the parent fungi were not growing through the soil alone; they
attached themselves to the fine roots of the surrounding trees. Fungus and root actually
grew into one another, becoming almost a single organism. Hatch named this compound life-
form mycorrhizee, which means fungus-root. He pondered the nature of such a peculiar
association; except for the edible fungi, humans have an antagonistic relationship with fungi.
Fungi are responsible for three kinds of pneumonia and one kind of meningitis, along with
various lesser ailments. In a mycorrhizal arrangement, however, both fungus and root benefit
from the experience. Fossil evidence suggests that this mutual dependency existed 400
million years ago, in the first plants to invade the continents. Ecologist Chris Maser observes,
"land plants probably originated through a symbiosis (mutually beneficial association)
between marine fungi and photosynthesizing algae." Since the marine plants that invaded
the land had no roots of their own, they would have had to make use of fungi to obtain
enough water and minerals to survive on dry land. The fungi, for their part, needed the
plants for the food they produced by photosynthesis.
Fungi and Trees
12. According to paragraph 1, fungi helped the earliest land plants in which of the following
ways?
(A) Fungi made it possible for the earliest land plants to survive without any roots.
(B) Fungi protected the earliest land plants from several kinds of illnesses.
(C) Fungi allowed the earliest land plants to establish close relationships with other plants.
(D) Fungi made it easier for the earliest land plants to produce food using photosynthesis.

Fungi/orchid relationships are endotrophic, which means the fungus actually grows inside

24
cells of the orchid plant's tuber (underground plant stem). Nearly 300,000 plant species have
endotrophic mycorrhizal relationships with only 130 species of fungi. Fungi/tree
relationships are ectotrophic, since the complex network of hyphae forms a mantle that
encases the root on the outside, like a layer of gauze. As Jon Luoma notes, "mycologists now
believe that mycorrhizal fungi effectively connect trees with as much as one thousand times
more soil area than the roots themselves." And within that area the concentration of hyphae
is immense. A single liter of soil from a mycorrhizal mass contains several kilometers of
tightly compacted hyphae. Only about 2,000 plant species have ectotrophic mycorrhizal
relationships, but they involve some 5,000 species of fungi.
Fungi and Trees
13. According to paragraph 4, fungi/orchid relationships differ from fungi/tree relationships
in which of the following ways?
(A) In whether the relationship is mutually beneficial
(B) In whether the fungus grows inside the plant's cells
(C) In the thickness of the fungal hyphae that cover the root system
(D) In whether the fungus can extract nutrients from the soil

Second, both Spanish writers and Incan informants sometimes had motives for being
deliberately deceitful. For example, in an effort to gain status in the Spaniards' eyes, Incas
might say that they formerly had been more important in the Inca empire than they actually
were. Spanish officials as well were occasionally untruthful when it served their purposes.
For example, Spaniards might deliberately underreport the productivity of a region under
their authority so they could sell the additional products and keep the money, rather than
hand it over to the Spanish Crown.
Documenting the Incas
14. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 2 as a possible motive for deliberate
inaccuracy in official Spanish reports of the Incas?
(A) The desire of some Spanish officials to appear more important than they really were
(B) The need to please Spanish rulers by making productivity seem greater than it really was
(C) The desire of the Incas to make their empire seem more successful than it really was
(D) The desire of most Spanish officials to enrich themselves

A fourth problem relates to the nature of the Inca conquests of the other people in the
Americas before the Spanish arrived and how accurate the accounts of those conquests are –
whether related by the Spaniards or by the Incas on whom they relied. It was certainly in the
Inca's interest to describe themselves as invincible and just. However, lacking accounts by
conquered people about their interactions with the Incas, it is unknown how much of the

25
information of the Inca conquest as related by the ruling class is factual.
Documenting the Incas
15. According to paragraph 4, why is there some doubt whether Spanish accounts of the
Incan conquests of other people are accurate?
(A) The Spaniards included some information about which Incan informants disagreed.
(B) The conquered people's tales of the Incan conquests sometimes differed from the Inca's
tales of them.
(C) The Spanish accounts of the Incan conquest were based on information from Incan
informants only.
(D) Some archaeological evidence does not support the Spanish accounts.

Totem poles, the most distinctive artistic product of the Northwest, were conspicuous
declarations of prestige and of the genealogy (family history) by which it had been attain ed.
These magnificent sculptures that probably originated as funerary monuments were first
described by travelers in the late eighteenth century. Each one was carved from a single
trunk of cedar, and the increasing availability of metal tools both permitted and encouraged
more complex compositions and greater height — up to 27.4 meters. Their superimposed
figures — eagles, beavers, whales, and so on — were crests (symbols of identity) that a chief
inherited from his lineage, his clan, and his moiety. They were not objects of worship, though
the animals carved on them might represent guardian spirits. Poles were designed according
to a governing principle of bilateral symmetry, with their various elements interlocked so
that they seem to grow organically out of one another, creating a unity of symbolism, form,
and surface.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
16. According to paragraph 4, what was the significance of totem poles in the culture of the
northwestern peoples?
(A) They showed a family's status and history.
(B) They were thought to increase success in hunting.
(C) They were objects of worship.
(D) They were battle monuments.

Population grew from 61 million in 1500 to 78 million a century later, and the proportion of
Europeans living in cities of 10,000 or more — and thus dependent on the market for what
they consumed — expanded from less than 6 percent to nearly 8 percent during the same
period. More important than sheer numbers, many Europeans’ incomes rose. This was
especially true among more fully employed urban groups, farmers who benefited from
higher prices and the intensifying commercialization and specialization in agriculture (which
also led them to shed much non-agricultural production in favor of purchased goods), and
landlords and other property owners who collected mounting rents. Government activities

26
to build and strengthen the state were a stimulus to numerous industries, notably
shipbuilding, textiles, and metallurgy. To cite just one example, France hastened to develop
its own iron industry when the Hapsburgs — the family that governed much of Europe, and
whom France fought repeatedly in the sixteenth century — came to dominate the
manufacture of weapons in Germany and the cities of Liege and Milan, which boasted
Europe's most advanced technology.
Early Modern Industrialization
17. According to paragraph 2, the fact that more people lived in European cities meant that
(A) more people had to purchase food and other basic necessities rather than producing
these things themselves
(B) industrial output increased because more people were available for employment in
manufacturing
(C) fewer people were available for agricultural work and thus farmers were forced to pay
higher wages
(D) more people competed for full-time urban employment, driving wages down

The supply of goods was also significantly modified. Migration had long been critical for the
diffusion of knowledge that spawned new trades or revived others. Now thousands of
workers, and sizeable amounts of capital, moved from one region to another. At the same
time, new commodities appeared on the market, often broadening and deepening dema nd.
Most were inexpensive items destined for individual consumers. Knitted stockings, ribbon
and lace, buttons, starch, soap, vinegar brewed from beer, knives and tools, pots and ovens,
and many more goods, formerly made only for local sale, now entered into channels of
national or international trade. The best-known and most widely adopted new industry was
printing with movable type, which spread swiftly throughout Europe after Johannes
Gutenberg perfected his innovation in 1453. Despite isolated cases of resistance — the

27
scribes’ guild (an association of book copiers) delayed printing's introduction into Paris for
twenty years, for example — more than 380 working presses had sprung up by 1480, and
1,000 (in nearly 250 towns) by 1500. Between 1453 and 1500, all the presses of Europe
together turned out some 40,000 editions (known as incunabula), but from 1501 to 1600,
that same quantity was produced in Lyon and Paris alone.
Early Modern Industrialization
18. According to paragraph 3, which of the following was true about the new technology for
printing with movable type?
(A) It met with opposition wherever attempts were made to introduce it.
(B) It spread with increasing rapidity throughout Europe after 1453.
(C) It rapidly turned printing into the most important industry in Paris.
(D) It was controlled in most places by the local scribes’ guild.

In most cases, granitic magma solidifies within Earth's crust to form a rocky mass called a
pluton. Many granite plutons are large, measuring tens of kilometers in diameter. To form a
large pluton, a huge volume of granitic magma must rise through continental crust. But how
can such a large mass of magma rise through solid rock? If you place oil and water in a jar,
screw the lid on, and shake the jar, oil droplets disperse throughout the water. When you set
the jar down, the droplets coalesce to form larger bubbles, which rise toward the surface,
easily displacing the water as they ascend. Granitic magma rises in a similar way. It forms
near the base of continental crust, where surrounding rock is soft and flexible and behaves
plastically, i.e., it flows and deforms without fracturing because it is hot. As the magma rises,
it shoulders aside the hot plastic rock, which then slowly flows back to fill in behind the rising
bubble. After a pluton forms, forces in the crust may push it upward and erosion may expose
parts of it at Earth's surface.

28
 The Behavior of Magma
19. According to paragraph 5, which of the following happens to the rock near the base of
the continental crust as granitic magma rises through it?
(A) It cracks and opens as a result of the pressure of the rising granitic rock.
(B) It develops empty pockets where bubbles of granitic magma used to be.
(C) It melts and becomes part of the magma.
(D) It is displaced to let the magma rise and then slowly moves back to fill in the gaps.

Raw materials, not equipment, constituted artisans’ major expense in most traders, however.
Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom (and made small
payments over many years to pay off the debt for purchasing the loom), every six weeks he
or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required to make a piece of
cloth. Thus access to cheap and plentiful primary materials was a constant preoccupation for
independent producers. Using local materials might allow even the poorest among them to
avoid reliance on merchant suppliers. The loss of nearby sources could therefore be
devastating. As silk cultivation waned around the Spanish cities of Cordoba and Toledo,
weavers in these cities were forced to become employees of merchants who put out raw silk
from Valencia and Murcia provinces. In the Dutch Republic, merchants who imported
unprocessed salt from France, Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-refining industry
once exploitation of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which held back the sea
from the low-lying Dutch land) would be undermined.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
20. According to paragraph 3, which of the following was sometimes an effect on artisans of
the loss of local sources of their primary materials?
(A) They had to sell their products to merchants.
(B) They needed to take loans in order to buy the materials from merchants.
(C) They could no longer afford to be independent producers.
(D) They imported the materials from distant sources.

In the United States, where farmers during the 1990s were required to implement a soil-
conservation plan on erodible cropland to be eligible for crop price supports, the no-till area
went from 7 million hectares in 1990 to nearly 21 million hectares (51 million acres) in 2000,
tripling within a decade. An additional 23 million hectares were minimum-tilled, for a total of
44 million hectares of conservation tillage. This total included 37 percent of the corn crop, 57
percent of soybeans, and 30 percent of the wheat. Outside the United States, data for crop
year 1998-1999 show Brazil using conservation tillage on 11 million hectares and Argentina
on 7 million hectares. Canada, using conservation tillage on 4 million hectares, rounds out
the big four. And now no-till farming is catching on in Europe, Africa, and Asia. In addition to
reducing soil losses, minimum-till and no-till practices also help retain water and reduce
energy use.
Saving Soil and Cropland
21. According to paragraph 4, why did the amount of no-till area increase between 1990 and
2000 in the United States
(A) More land area had become available for farming during this period.

29
(B) Fewer crops were needed since no-till farming had increased the soybean, wheat, and
corn crop yields.
(C) Because conventional farming practices were too expensive, farmers decided to use the
cheaper no-till conservation plan.
(D) The government provided financial support to farmers who practiced soil conservation.

Defensive chemicals are costly for the plant to produce and store; many are toxic to the plant
producing them. Oaks may put up to 15 percent of their energy production into chemical
defenses, which explains why stressed trees are most prone to attack: they have less energy
available to produce defenses. Thus, although there may be large pools of defenses available
where attacks are common and ferocious, it makes evolutionary sense in lesser situations to
produce the chemicals in earnest only when they are needed. Oaks (and a number of other
trees) manage with low concentrations of tannins in their leaves, but once part of the canopy
is attacked, the tree will produce tannins in large quantity. More than that, the tannins
released into the air are detected by surrounding oaks and they in turn will produce more
tannins in preparation for the onslaught. In a similar way, willow trees in Alaska that had
their leaves eaten by snowshoe hares produce shoots with lower nutritional concentration
and higher levels of lignin and deterrent phenols thus rendering them less palatable. These
"induced" defenses may have an effect for some time; birch trees can remain unpalatable for
up to three years after being eaten. Expensive defenses are saved not only when they are not
needed but also where. The north American aspen has been shown to produce fewer
tannins in trees growing on fertile soils: it is cheaper to replace lost material than to defend
it. Similarly, more is invested in defenses where herbivores and diseases are more common.

30
 The Chemical Defenses of Trees
22. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about oaks and their chemical
defenses？
(A) Stressed oaks must spend even more than 15 percent of their energy to produce
defensive chemicals.
(B) The leaves of oaks have lower quantities of tannins than the other parts of oaks have.
(C) Oaks produce larger amounts of defensive chemicals when a neighboring oak releases
such chemicals.
(D) Oaks produce large quantities of defensive chemicals throughout the year, even before
attacks occur.

The economy of Neolithic Greece was based on growing grains and raising sheep. Early in the
third millennium B.C.E., cultivation of grape vines and olive trees also became important in
southern Greece and the Aegean Islands. Both crops were eminently suitable for trade and
storage in the form of olive oil and wine. They were grown on land that was not suitable for
grain farming. Their cultivation required work at a different time of year from that needed by
grain crops, and much of this work, such as harvesting, was relatively light. As a result,
agricultural yields were substantially increased without disrupting established agricultural
practice. That increase in turn allowed, or stimulated, population growth. For the first time
there was enough demand for specialized crafts and services to justify the existence of full-
time craftspeople, who could be supported from the extra agricultural output.
The Multiplier Effect
23. According to paragraph 3, growing grape vines and olive trees increased agricultural
yields because
(A) grapes and olives were mostly used for trade rather than for competing with established
crops in local markets.
(B) grape vines and olive trees could be cultivated on land that was also used for raising
sheep.
(C) growing grapes and olives did not require the services of specialized workers.
(D) grape vines and olive trees did not compete with other crops for land or labor.

31
Other major factors were the attitude and role of governments. They participated in
economic life both directly and indirectly on a much larger scale than previously. They
nationalized some basic industries, drew up economic plans, and provided a wide range of
social services. Nevertheless, private enterprise was responsible for by far the largest part of
economic activity. On average, between one-fourth and one-third of national income in
Western Europe originated in the government sector. Though this proportion was much
greater than it had been before the war, it was less than half the contribution of the private
sectors of the economy. In the mixed economies that became characteristic of the Western
democracies government assumed the tasks of providing overall stability, a climate favorable
to growth, and minimal protection for the economically weak and underprivileged, but it left
the main task of producing the goods and services desired by the population to private
enterprise.
The Postwar Economic Boom
24. According to paragraph 4, what impact did governments have on the mixed economies
that characterized Western European democracies after the war?
(A) Governments were responsible for a larger part of national economic activity than was
private enterprise.
(B) Governments provided overall economic stability and encouraged economic growth.
(C) Governments controlled most private industries to ensure that they worked together to
promote national growth.
(D) Governments created plans for the national production of goods that private enterprise

32
enforced.

Yet it may be incorrect to lay the blame entirely on human action. Several of the lowland
cities, such as Tikal, appear to have depended heavily on the cultivation of raised fields set in
the marshy depressions known as bajos, which today flood intermittently in the rainy season
but may originally have been permanent lakes. The raised-field system of intensive
cultivation (created by digging surrounding canals and using the soil removed to elevate the
fields for planting) allows year-round food production through the constant supply of soil
nutrients that erode into the drainage ditches dug around the raised fields, nutrients that are
then collected and replaced. Stable water levels were essential to this subsistence system,
but evidence from Lake Chichancanab in Yucatán shows that between A.D. 800 and A.D.
1000 this region suffered its driest period of climate in several thousand years. We may
expect that as a result water levels fell, and the raised fields in many areas became unusable.
But the human response must be viewed through the lens of the social, political, and cultural
circumstances. These exerted a powerful mediating effect on the way the Maya endeavored
to cope with their difficulties. Had population levels been lower, the impact of the drought
may not have been catastrophic, as it was, the Maya were already reaching the limits of the
available subsistence capacity, and Mayan elites had espoused certain social and political
agendas (including expensive warfare and competition with each other). It was against this
specific background that a period of drought led quickly to crisis and collapse.
The Collapse of Maya
25. According to paragraph 5, why did the raised fields in many areas become unusable?
(A) The marshy depressions around the fields flooded in the rainy season.
(B) Intensive cultivation of the fields drained the soil of nutrients.
(C) The area where the fields were located experienced a drop in water levels.

33
(D) Unstable design caused the failure of the drainage ditches.

The invention of movable type was an enormous technological breakthrough that took
bookmaking out of the hands of human copyists. Printing was not new: the Chinese had
been printing by woodblock since the tenth century, and woodcut pictures (in which an
image is cut on wood and then transferred to paper) made their appearance in Europe in the
early fifteenth century. Movable type, however, allowed entire manuscripts to be print ed.
The process involved casting durable metal molds to represent the letters of the alphabet.
The letters were arranged to represent the text on a page and then pressed in ink against a
sheet of paper. The imprint could be repeated numerous times with only a small amount of
human labor. In 1467 two German printers established the first press in Rome and produced
12,000 volumes in five years, a feat that in the past would have required one thousand
scribes working full time for the same number of years.
The Development of Printing
26. According to paragraph 4, which of the following occurred because of the invention of
movable type?
(A) An increase in the cost of book production.
(B) An increase in the popularity of the techniques of woodblock and woodcut.
(C) The creation of a large number of printing jobs.
(D) A decline in the importance of human copyists.

In terms of energy, walking is inefficient because of the acceleration and deceleration

required with every step. Both the decelerations and accelerations need muscular effort and
thus energy use. In swimming and flying, animals accelerate and decelerate relatively little
over the course of a tail stroke or a wingbeat, so less energy is consumed by this process. As
an analogy, consider riding a bicycle. When a person rides a bicycle, the bicycle does not
accelerate or decelerate much with each turn of the petal. Thus, a person can ride a bicycle
much faster than he or she could run using the same amount of effort.

34
 Forms of Locomotion
27. Paragraph 5 states that swimming and flying are more efficient than walking because
(A) swimming and flying animals make tail strokes and wingbeats much less often than
walking animals take steps
(B) swimming and flying animals use more muscles than walking animals do
(C) swimming and flying do not require as much acceleration and deceleration with every
movement
(D) animals that are swimming or flying can accelerate and decelerate more quickly than can
animals that are walking

Since the current surface features of atolls give no evidence of a volcanic base, in the years
after the development of Darwin's theory other explanations were offered, and the whole
concept of the origin of atolls became embroiled in the controversy over the origin of coral
reefs. If Darwin's theory was correct, it must be assumed that drilling down through the
current atoll reefs would yield layer after layer of reef limestone until, finally, volcanic rock
would be encountered. The ability to drill to the base of atoll reefs and resolve the problem
had to wait until the mid-twentieth century in 1953. Ladd and other geologists reported
borings at Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands that penetrated 1,283 meters of reef
limestone and then hit volcanic rock. This was the evidence that Darwin's theory was
substantially correct. The correctness of this theory has been strengthened by the discovery
of flat-topped mountains or guyots that, at present, have their tops many hundreds or
thousands of meters below the ocean surface, but have on their surface the remains of
shallow-water corals. Evidently, these mountains sank too fast for reef growth to keep above
the ocean surface.
The Origin of Coral Reefs
28. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 3 as the reason many scientists
doubted Darwin's theory of how atolls form?
(A) After Darwin's five-year voyage, different kinds of atolls than those he observed were
discovered.
(B) Scientists discovered guyots, or flat-topped mountains, below the ocean's surface.
(C) Surface features of atolls do not show any signs of a volcanic base.
(D) Drilling through layers of atoll reef did not produce the results Darwin predicted.

The formation of the Sun marked the end of the period of contraction and thus the end of
gravitational heating. Temperatures in the region where the inner planets now reside began
to decline. The decrease in temperature caused those substances with high melting points to
condense into tiny particles that began to coalesce (join together). Such materials as iron and
nickel and the elements of which the rock-forming minerals are composed — silicon,
calcium, sodium, and so forth — formed metallic and rocky clumps that orbited the Sun.

35
Repeated collisions caused these masses to coalesce into larger asteroid-size bodies, called
protoplanets, which in a few tens of millions of years accumulated into the four inner planets
we call Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Not all of these clumps of matter were
incorporated into the protoplanets. Rocky and metallic pieces that still remain in orbit are
called meteoroids.
Origin of the Solar System
29. According to paragraph 4, the protoplanets formed by
(A) gravitational interactions among meteoroids
(B) increases in the gravitational pull of the Sun
(C) the warming of the nebular cloud
(D) collisions between materials orbiting the Sun

Such environmental care suggested to historian J. Donald Hughes that sacred groves
represented "classical national parks." By helping to insulate sacred groves from pressures of
deforestation, erosion, and urbanization, Greek codes protected ecosystems from
destruction. Sacred groves nonetheless represented imperfect parkscapes. Some
encompassed relatively small areas such as a section of a hillside or a series of caves.
Meanwhile, the fundamental purpose of the grove — the visitation of resident gods —
sometimes promoted activities not entirely conducive to modern concepts of conservation.
Animals were routinely captured to serve as sacrifices to the gods. Many groves witnessed
horticultural and architectural improvements. Flowers were planted, trails cut, and statues,
fountains, and caves installed for the benefit of visitors. The grove served as a recreational
center for Greek society, a realm of ritual, performance, feasting, and even chariot racing.
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
30. Why are the sacred groves of the ancient Greeks referred to as "imperfect parkscapes" in
the passage?
(A) The Greeks protected their sacred groves from deforestation and erosion but allowed
people to build houses on the grounds.
(B) The ancient Greeks often changed the environment of the groves by adding plants,
building shrines, and capturing animals for sacrifice.
(C) The Greeks allowed only religious ceremonies in the groves.
(D) The ancient Greeks had strict size limits on how big a sacred area could be.

36
 Chapter 4 Negative Factual Information Questions
(0 to 2 questions per set)

• According to the passage, which of the following is NOT true of X?

• The author's description of X mentions all of the following EXCEPT . . .

37
An alternative view is that people hunted megafauna but did not specialize in large-animal
hunting, which may actually have been a rather small component of a broad hunter-gatherer
economy. The biologist Gavin Prideaux and others have suggested that light hunting of this
kind could have caused the extinction of large mammals, which were vulnerable to it for two
reasons. First, because very large mammals typically have low reproductive rates and long
development times, the rate at which animals killed by hunters can be replaced is very low.
Therefore a small addition to natural mortality by hunting could hold death rates above birth
rates and cause population decline in very large species, while for smaller species a similar
rate of mortality from hunting would be compensated by increased reproductive success.
Second, large mammals typically have naturally low population densities, so that a small
absolute number of animals killed by hunters per year translates into a demographically
significant mortality rate.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
1. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is NOT one of the characteristics that
make large mammals vulnerable to extinction through light hunting?
(A) Low birthrates
(B) High natural mortality rates
(C) Long development times
(D) Low population densities

As geologists began to investigate part of the range that extends up the Atlantic (the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge), they found evidence that the ocean floor was spreading apart, thus
supporting Wegener's idea of continental drift. Rocks near the center of the ridge were
younger than those further away. Moreover, the further away from the ridge the geologists
looked, the more overlying sediment there was, suggesting the rocks beneath had been
there longer. The final piece of evidence came when the magnetism of the rocks was
examined. Every so often, in geological time, Earth's magnetic field reverses its polarity so
that the magnetic north switched to the south. Magnetic particles in molten rock align
themselves to the new direction. Geologists found a series of bands or strips of alternating
magnetic polarity in the rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, each one signifying a change in
Earth's polarity. These bands run parallel to each other along the length of the ridge. They
also discovered that the series of bands on either side of the ridge are mirror images of each
other. Here, then, was the evidence that continents were moving apart. Wegener's theory

38
was accepted.
The Idea of Continental Drif
2. According to paragraph 3, all of the following provided geologists with essential evidence
about the widening of the ocean floor in the Atlantic Ocean EXCEPT
(A) measurements showing an increase in the distance between the continents on either
side of the Atlantic Ocean
(B) the comparatively young age of rocks close to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(C) the increase in sediment with increasing distance from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(D) a series of bands of alternating polarity in the rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
It is now recognized that the surface of Earth's is divided into 13 major plates and a number
of smaller ones. The undersea mountain ranges are along edges of these plates. The plates
float on top of the partially molten layer of the mantle, which is the inner part of the planet
between the rocky outer part (the lithosphere) and the core. Some of these plates carry
continents, but others are purely oceanic. Those that do carry continents are responsible for
continental drift. Continents move at the same rate as the plates are moving apart or
together – 2 centimeters per year in the Atlantic and 18 centimeters per year in the eastern
Pacific. It is thought that currents within the fluid rock of the mantle below cause the plates
to move. The plates, which are 50 – 100 kilometers thick, consist of the surface crust of Earth
and a part of the upper mantle, both of which are rock. The crust part varies in nature.
Continental crust, or land, is thicker (30 – 40 km) but less dense than oceanic crust (only 6
km). This difference in density accounts for the oceans themselves. Despite being thinner,
the denser oceanic crust floats lower in the liquid rock of the mantle than the lighter
continental crust. Water flows by gravity to the lower areas, thus creating the oceans.
The Idea of Continental Drif
3. Which of the following questions is NOT answered by paragraph 4?
(A) Where is the lithosphere located in relationship to the other layers of Earth?
(B) How is it possible for the speed of currents within the fluid rock of the mantle to vary
from one location to another?
(C) Which type of plate is responsible for continental drift?
(D) How many major plates make up the surface of Earth?

39
The muralist movement was not a unified force, however. The painters who were its leaders
took different directions and did not always see eye to eye. Diego Rivera (1886-1957) sought
to promote a pluralistic vision of Mexican society by drawing on the rich heritage of the pre-
Columbian past (before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas in 1492) and
contemporary popular culture, and he investigated pre-Columbian styles and techniques in
an effort to create an aesthetic language that was new and Mexican. He was deeply
influenced by native pictographic traditions of communication in which pictures represent
written words and ideas, and he sought to develop a modern equivalent, a visual language
that could be read like a book. The art of Jose Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) is less
optimistic: he saw both the pre-Columbian past and the revolutionary present in a more
negative light, the former as barbarous, the latter often tarnished by corruption and cruelty.
He offers no comforting narratives and his expressive, aggressive technique serves as a
metaphor of Mexico's harsh, contradictory reality. David Alfaro Siqueiros (1898-1976) was
the most politically active of the three and was an internationalist both ideologically and
artistically. In his art he deliberately avoided traditional materials and methods, preferring to
use modern industrial paints and spray guns. His works look forward to a fully socialist future
where the workers will have won the right to the benefits of the modern industrial era, and
his often fragmented, complex imagery does not patronize or make concessions to his
audience.
The Mexican Mural Art
4. Paragraph 3 makes all of the following points about artist Diego Rivera EXCEPT:
(A) He used elements of pre-Columbian art to help make a new, modern art.
(B) He tried to develop a visual language that communicated as clearly as native
pictographs had.
(C) He used art to express his ideas of what Mexican society should be like.
(D) He tried but failed to unify the muralist movement.

5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is NOT true of David Alfaro Siqueiros?
(A) He used modern industrial materials rather than traditional materials in his art.
(B) He designed images that were intentionally meant to please his audience.
(C) He believed in socialism and viewed the future of workers in the modern industrial
era favorably.
(D) He took an international approach to both politics and art.

40
Prairie fires were also set by Native people, who used burning as a tool to hold back the
growth of woody plants and maintain the grasslands as pasture for buffalo. But with the
introduction of intensive farming, prairie fires were suppressed and trees began to make a
slow but steady advance over the last 200 years. This expansion of woody vegetation has
now been documented in most ecoregions across the Great Plains. Some researchers have
suggested that overgrazing of grasslands by cattle in the nineteenth century created
openings where woody plants could grow. Alternatively, global rather than local forces may
be at work. Recent evidence suggests that rising concentrations of atmospheric carbon
dioxide may be giving woody plants a competitive advantage over nonwoody plants. But
whatever other factors may be involved, the suppression of natural fires has certainly played
a central role in the intrusion of woody plants into the grasslands.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible factors in the expansion of
woody plants into grasslands over the last 200 years EXCEPT
(A) efforts of Native people to maintain pasture for buffalo
(B) higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide
(C) the overgrazing of grasslands by cattle
(D) the tendency to suppress natural fires rather than let them burn

41
Paragraph 3
There is a major problem with ideas that involve paranotal protowings and gliding, which is
that, at some time, these fixed structures needed to have become hinged (connected in a
way that allows an structure to swing relative to the other) and to have developed muscle
systems to make them flap up and down. It is much easier to imagine structures that were
already hinged and muscled in fulfilling some prior function and then eventually taking on a
role in flight. The endite-exite theory suggests that protowings developed from the fusion of
inner and outer appendages (endites and exites) of short leg segments, which were already
hinged and might have been under some sort of muscular control.

Paragraph 4
An additional convincing argument in support of the theory that wings developed from leg
appendages, and that further disputes the paranotal theory, comes from the occurrence and
distribution of sensory receptors on the wings of today's insects. Chemical-sensing organs
are not found on the surface of the thorax but are typical of legs. Furthermore, specialized
receptors called campaniform sensilla that are found on wings and react to stresses and
strains are only ever found on appendages, not body segments.
Insect Wings
7. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 or 4 as being a problem with the
paranotal theory of insect-wing evolution?
(A) Wings require hinged structures.
(B) Insects of today have sensory receptors on their wings.
(C) Wings developed at the thorax could not have supported an insect's weight while gliding.
(D) Wing flapping requires a system of muscle control.

42
Many of the sea's creatures, including squid, dinoflagellates, bacteria, worms, crustaceans,
and fish, are known to produce light. The process that marine creatures use to create light is
like that of the common firefly and similar to that which creates the luminous green color
seen in plastic glow sticks, often used as children's toys or for illumination during nighttime
events. When a glow stick is bent, two chemicals mix, react, and create a third substance
that gives off light. Bioluminescent organisms do essentially the same thing; they have a
substance, called luciferin, that reacts with oxygen in the presence of enzyme, luciferase.
When the reaction is complete, a new molecule is formed that gives off light — glowing blue-
green in the underwater world. This biologically driven chemical reaction occurs within the
organism's special light-producing cells, called photocyptes, or light-producing organs, called
photophores. Probably one of the most complex light-producing systems is that of the squid.
Some squid have both photophores and chromatophores (organs for changing color) with
their skin, thus enabling them to control both the color and intensity of the light produced.
Recent research has also revealed that in some squid and fish, bioluminescent light may be
produced by bacteria that live in a mutually beneficial partnership inside the animal's light
organs.
Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
8. Which of the following statements about the chemical reaction that produces
bioluminescence is NOT true, according to paragraph 2?
(A) It occurs when luciferin reacts with oxygen.
(B) It produces a glowing blue-green light.
(C) It is much like the process by which children's toys are illuminated.
(D) It requires organs called chromatophores.

43
How and why bioluminescence occurs is not fully understood; however, in the undersea
realm, it appears to be used in a variety of interesting and ingenious ways. The most
commonly observed form of bioluminescence in the sea is the pinpoint sparkling of light at
night that can create cometlike trails behind moving objects. Almost always, this is the result
of dinoflagellates reacting to water motion. The relatively short, momentary displays of light
may have evolved to startle, distract, or frighten would-be predators. Collection nets brought
up from the sea's depths at night frequently glow green at great distance. Slowly fading
green blobs or pulses of light can be seen coming from the organisms within, often from
gelatinous creatures. This type of light display may be used to stun, disorient, or lure prey.
Like a wide-eyed deer caught on a road and dazed by headlights, undersea creatures living
within the ocean's darkness may be momentarily disoriented by short flashes of
bioluminescent light. Another of the sea's light-producing organisms is a small copepod (a
type of crustacean) named Sapphirina iris. In the water, Sapphirina creates short flashes of a
remarkably rich, azure blue light. But its appearance under a microscope is even more
spectacular, the living copepod appears as if constructed of delicately handcrafted,
multicolored pieces of stained glass. Within the deep sea, some fish also have a dangling
bioluminescent lure or a patch of luminescent skin near the mouth, which may be used to
entice unsuspecting prey.
Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
9. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as a possible reason for the use
of bioluminescence?
(A) To provide a means of lighting the dark marine waters
(B) To momentarily disorient other creatures
(C) To frighten away potential predators
(D) To attract prey

44
Within the disc, all the particles were moving in the same direction around the Sun, like
runners going round a track. This meant that when they bumped into one another, they did
so relatively gently, not in head-on collisions, giving the particles a chance to stick to one
another. The tendency to stick may have been helped by electric forces produced by particles
rubbing against one another, in the same way that you can make a child's balloon stick to the
ceiling after rubbing it on a woolen sweater. Another important factor was turbulence in the
gas, creating swirling structures like whirlwinds which gathered pieces of material together
and gave them a chance to interact. Computer simulations show how objects as big
as Ceres can form in this way – provided the particles can stick together.
Ceres: one of the biggest asteroids in the solar system
The Beginning of Planet Formation
10. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a characteristic of the particle
interactions in the Sun's protoplanetary disc?
(A) The particles collided with one another violently.
(B) The particles all traveled in the same direction.
(C) The particles rubbed against one another.
(D) The particles were pulled together by turbulence.

Something else may also have helped the particles to stick together – something else that is

45
special about the solar system. Studies of pieces of rock from meteorites show that the dusty
disc around the young Sun contained tiny globules of material, known as chondrules, formed
by melting at temperatures between 1,200 degrees centigrade and 1,600 degrees
centigrade. Molten, or partly molten, blobs would be more sticky and encourage the buildup
of larger lumps of stuff in the disc. But how did they get so hot? The most likely explanation
is that the heat was released by radioactive elements that had been sprayed by a nearby star
in the process of dying into the gas cloud from which the planets formed. One possibility is
that a supernova occurred close to the cloud that became the Sun just before the Sun
formed; it is even possible that the blast wave from this explosion triggered the collapse of
the gas cloud that became the Sun and solar system. Supporting evidence for this idea comes
from measurements of the proportions of various isotopes (different forms of an element)
found in meteorites. Radioactive aluminium-26 seems to have been present in the proto-
solar system from the beginning, but a pulse of iron-60 arrived about a million years later.
This matches what we know about the fate of a very large star, with more than 30 times as
much mass as the Sun. In the late stages of its life, the star first blows away much of the
outer layers of material, which by then is relatively rich in aluminium-26, in a wind easily
strong enough to cause any nearby gas cloud to collapse. The star only explodes at the very
end of its life, showering the neighborhood with elements including iron-60.
supernova: explosion of a very large star
The Beginning of Planet Formation
11. According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true about chondrules EXCEPT:
(A) They were very small pieces of material found in the disc around the young Sun.
(B) They were formed from material that melted at very high temperatures.
(C) They caused radioactive elements to be released from a supernova.
(D) They played a significant role in the formation of larger pieces of material within the
Sun's protoplanetary disc.

One of the most outstanding features at the beginning of this period was the prominence of
Germanic generals in the high command of the Roman Imperial army. The trend became
significant, and several practical reasons can explain it. The foremost probably was the sheer
need for military manpower that made it attractive to recruit bands of Germanic peoples for

46
the armies, which, in turn, gave able chieftains and warlords the opportunity to gain Imperial
favor and advance in rank. Second, one way to turn Germanic chieftains from potential
enemies into loyal supporters was to offer them a good position in the Roman military. Third,
although Theodosius had risen to power as a military leader, he was also a cultured aristocrat
and preferred to emphasize the civilian role of the emperor and to rely for protection on
Germanic generals whose loyalties were primarily to him, their patron.
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
12. Which of the following is NOT identified in paragraph 4 as a reason the practice arose of
making Germanic chieftains generals in the Roman high command
(A) It helped reduce the number of possible enemies against the empire.
(B) It helped make it possible to maintain an imperial military force of sufficient size.
(C) It was cheaper than recruiting and training Roman generals.
(D) It gave Theodosius confidence that his generals would remain loyal while he focused on
other matters.

A tree is stuck where its seed landed and sent down its original root, fixing its fate to a single
spot. After that the tree cannot avoid predators or pests, seek food elsewhere, or migrate to
a more benign climate. Its expanding root system will have to find water and dissolved
nutrients, as well as anchor the growing plant against wind, rain, and floods. The efficiency of
the roots depends on the distance they penetrate into the soil as well as on the surface area
that comes into contact with the material in the ground. The mat of fungal hyphae vastly
increases the volume of soil a tree is able to explore. It absorbs water and passes it on to the
tree. Hyphae are also better than tree roots at extracting critical nutrients from the soil, such
as phosphorus and nitrogen, which they then trade to the tree in exchange for sugar. They
excrete enzymes that break down nitrogen in the soil and sometimes even kill insects and
absorb trace elements from their bodies, which are then passed along to the tree.
Fungi and Trees
13. According to paragraph 3, fungal hyphae benefit trees in all of the following ways EXCEPT
(A) by increasing the trees' uptake of water
(B) by improving the trees' ability to take in nutrients from the soil
(C) by helping the trees break down nutrients into sugar
(D) by transferring elements from dead insects to the trees

The 1,600-kilometer stretch of the northwestern Pacific coast of North America (from
southern Alaska to Washington State) provided an ideal environment for the growth of
stable communities. Despite the northerly latitude, the climate is temperate. Natural
resources were originally so rich that the inhabitants could subsist by fishing and hunting and
gathering, without the need to domesticate stock or cultivate the land. Forests yielded an
abundance of wood for buildings, for boats, and for sculpture. Beyond them the Rocky
Mountains were an impenetrable barrier against raids. The area appears to have been

47
settled around 500 A.D. by tribes of diverse origins speaking mutually unintelligible
languages: from north to south they include the Tlingit, the Haida, the Tsimshian, the Bella
Coola, the Kwakiutl, and the Nootka. The culture to which they contributed has,
nevertheless, an underlying homogeneity and a distinct visual character.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
14. According to paragraph 1, which of the following was NOT one of the factors that made
the northwestern Pacific coast perfect for the development of stable communities?
(A) Temperate climate
(B) Natural protection from raids
(C) Abundant natural resources
(D) Easily cultivated land

In metals and mining, technical improvements were available that saved substantially on raw
materials and fuel, causing prices to drop. The construction of ever-larger furnaces capable
of higher temperatures culminated in the blast furnace, which used cheaper ores and
economized on scarce and expensive wood, cutting costs per ton by 20 percent while
boosting output substantially. A new technique for separating silver from copper allowed
formerly worthless ores to be exploited. Better drainage channels, pumps, and other devices
made it possible to tunnel more deeply into the earth as surface deposits began to be
exhausted. In most established industries, however, technological change played little role,
as in the past, new customers were sought by developing novel products based on existing
technologies, such as a new type of woolen cloth with the texture of silk.
Early Modern Industrialization
15. All of the following are identified in paragraph 4 as improvements made possible by
technological developments EXCEPT
(A) the use of previously useless ores
(B) the construction of furnaces that cost less to operate
(C) the use of cheaper and more readily available types of wood
(D) the mining of ores that had previously been too deep to reach

As in silicate minerals, silicate tetrahedra (four-faced solids similar to triangular pyramids) in

magma link together to form chains, sheets, and framework structures. They form long
chains if silica is abundant in the magma but shorter chains if less silica present. Because of
its higher silica content, granitic magma contains longer chains than does basaltic magma. In
granitic magma, the long chains become tangled, making the magma stiff or viscous. It rises
slowly because of its viscosity and has ample time to solidify within the crust before reaching
the surface. In contrast, basaltic magma, with its shorter silicate chains, is less viscous and
flows easily. Because of its fluidity, it rises rapidly to erupt at Earth's surface.
The Behavior of Magma
16. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is NOT true of basaltic magma

48
compared to granitic magma?
(A) Basaltic magma has shorter silicate chains.
(B) Basaltic magma is much less likely to solidify before reaching the surface.
(C) Basaltic magma's internal structure is less tangled.
(D) Basaltic magma is stiffer.

With good reason, finally, urban artisans feared the growth of industries in the countryside.
For one thing, they worried that the spread of village crafts would reduce their supply of raw
materials, driving up prices. City producers also knew that rural locations enjoyed lower
living costs, wages, and taxes, and often employed fewer or simplified processes. These
advantages became a major preoccupation as competition intensified in the 1570s and
1580s.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
17. All of the following are identified in paragraph 6 as concerns that urban artisans had
about the growth of industry in the countryside EXCEPT
(A) a decrease in the supply of raw materials
(B) a cheaper cost of living in the countryside
(C) a more manageable level of competition
(D) less complex production processes in the countryside

One of the time-tested methods of dealing with water erosion is terracing: creating hill-side
ridges to reduce runoff. Another newer, highly effective tool in the soil conservation tool kit is
conservation, which includes both no tillage and minimum tillage. In conventional farming,
land is plowed, disked, or harrowed to prepare the seedbed, seed is drilled into the soil with
a planter, and row crops are cultivated with a mechanical cultivator two or three times to
control weeds. With minimum tillage, farmers simply drill seeds directly into the soil. The
only tillage is a one-time disturbance in a narrow band of soil where the seeds are inserted,
leaving the remainder of the soil undisturbed, covered by crop residues and thus resistant to
both water and wind erosion.
Saving Soil and Cropland
18. According to paragraph 3, all of the following are practices involved in minimum tillage

49
EXCEPT
(A) using mechanical devices to control weeds
(B) leaving unseeded soil undisturbed
(C) disturbing the soil only once where the seeds are inserted
(D) protecting against water and wind erosion by leaving parts of the soil covered with crop
residues

In the United States, where farmers during the 1990s were required to implement a soil-
conservation plan on erodible cropland to be eligible for crop price supports, the no-till area
went from 7 million hectares in 1990 to nearly 21 million hectares (51 million acres) in 2000,
tripling within a decade. An additional 23 million hectares were minimum-tilled, for a total of
44 million hectares of conservation tillage. This total included 37 percent of the corn crop, 57
percent of soybeans, and 30 percent of the wheat. Outside the United States, data for crop
year 1998-1999 show Brazil using conservation tillage on 11 million hectares and Argentina
on 7 million hectares. Canada, using conservation tillage on 4 million hectares, rounds out
the big four. And now no-till farming is catching on in Europe, Africa, and Asia. In addition to
reducing soil losses, minimum-till and no-till practices also help retain water and reduce
energy use.
Saving Soil and Cropland
19. Paragraph 4 suggests that all of the following were among the largest users of
conservation tillage during the late 1990s EXCEPT
(A) Argentina
(B) Europe
(C) Canada
(D) Brazil

Some copper artifacts were made during the fourth millennium B.C.E, but there were not
many of them and they had little economic or social significance. When, in the third
millennium, copper began to be mixed with tin to produce the relatively hard alloy bronze,
demand for metal goods grew. Bronze could be used to make a range of useful new tools and
weapons and a variety of impressive ornaments. The demand for metalwork stimulated
further specialization in crafts such as toolmaking and jewelry making. The new tools
promoted the development of other crafts, like carpentry and shipbuilding. Competition for
prestigious or useful craft products and for control of their producers helped to heighten
both social differences within communities and conflicts between them, resulting in the
emergence of local chieftains, who were also in many instances warriors. These chieftains
regulated agricultural and craft production, operating a distribution system through which
the farmers could obtain tools or ornaments they needed or wanted. The organizational
demands of controlled distribution made it necessary to develop methods of measurement

50
and recording, which led to the development of writing.
The Multiplier Effect
20. All of the following are discussed in paragraph 4 as changes in Greek society after bronze
was introduced EXCEPT:
(A) Social differentiation within communities increased.
(B) Metalcraft workers became more specialized.
(C) Methods were invented for documenting the distribution of goods.
(D) Craft workers gained greater independence from local chieftains.

Renfrew argued that any single innovation would have had a limited or negligible effect on
social organization because the inherently conservative nature of societies acts to minimize
change. However, the interaction of several simultaneous developments created a multiplier
effect. In the Aegean, increased agricultural productivity provided the means to support craft
specialization, while bronze metallurgy provided the technology for producing highly valued
new products. These factors set in motion a series of changes in other subsystems of society.
Those changes in turn resulted in what, in a term borrowed from electronics, are called
positive feedback loops — alterations in the workings of a social system that serve to
reinforce themselves. Thus Aegean society was transformed from one consisting of basically
self-sufficient and egalitarian farming villages to one of prosperous, hierarchical chiefdoms,
with palace-dwelling rulers, actively competing with one another both at home and in
international trade.
The Multiplier Effect
21. According to paragraph 5, the transformation of Aegean society involved all the following
EXCEPT
(A) interdependence of the society's various social and economic structures
(B) economic success
(C) competition between chiefdoms for economic dominance
(D) social and political equality

The quarter century or so after the Second World War witnessed the longest period of
uninterrupted growth among the industrialized countries of the world and at the highest
rates in history. For the industrialized countries as a group the average increase in gross
domestic product per person employed from 1950 to 1973 amounted to 4.5 percent per
year. Rates for individual countries ranged from 2.2 percent for the United Kingdom to 7.3
percent for Japan. Growth was most rapid in those countries that had abundant supplies of
labor, such as Japan and West Germany. Growth in the United States, Canada, and Great
Britain, which had the highest individual incomes at the end of the war, was slower than that
of continental Europe and Japan but more rapid than in any prolonged period in their
previous histories. At the same time, countries with relatively low individual incomes within
the industrial group — Italy, Austria, Spain, Greece, and Japan — grew more rapidly than the
average.
The Postwar Economic Boom
22. According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about economic growth in the
industrialized countries during the 25 years after the Second World War are true EXCEPT:

51
(A) Countries with comparatively low individual incomes had the slowest growth.
(B) Great Britain experienced slower economic growth than continental Europe did.
(C) Those countries that had plenty of available labor had the fastest growth.
(D) Canada and the United States grew steadily and more rapidly than in the past.

The Marshall Plan (officially called the European Recovery Program and based on investment
from the United States) played a crucial role in sparking the European recovery. When
funding from the United States ended in 1951, Europeans kept economic growth going with
high levels of savings and investments. Much of the investment went into equipment for new
products and processes, since during the preceding years a backlog of technical innovations
had built up that only awaited capital and skilled labor to be employed. In effect, the
European economies had stopped growing for an entire generation, operating with obsolete
equipment and lagging behind in technical progress. Thus, technological modernization both
accompanied and was an important contributory factor to the so-called economic miracle.
The Postwar Economic Boom
23. According to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the European economic
recovery EXCEPT:
(A) It involved purchasing new equipment.
(B) It received financial support from outside Europe.
(C) It stopped for a generation after the Marshall Plan ended.
(D) It was affected in important ways by technological changes.

But what about the possibility of food shortages? These could have come about through
either natural or humanly induced changes in the environment. Increasingly fierce
competition between Mayan cities led to an upsurge of monument construction during the
eighth and ninth centuries A.D., which would have placed added strain on agricultural
production and expansion. Interstate rivalry may hence have pushed the Maya toward
overexploitation of their fragile ecosystem. Deforestation and soil erosion might ultimately
have destroyed the capacity of the land to support the high population levels of the Mayan
cities, leading to famine, social unrest, and the collapse of the major Mayan centers.
The Collapse of the Maya
24. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as possible direct or indirect causes of
food shortages EXCEPT
(A) increased monument construction
(B) rivalries between states
(C) deforestation and erosion
(D) introduction of new crops

Flying animals move through air that is less dense and less viscous than water, so why does
flying cost more than swimming? First, most flying animals move much faster than a
swimmer in order to produce enough lift (the upward force necessary to overcome gravity).

52
This higher speed increases the drag that a flyer must overcome. Furthermore, a flyer has an
extra source of drag that a swimmer does not have: the extra drag that comes from lift
production. In a way, the extra drag represents the cost of supporting the flyer's weight in air.
Forms of Locomotion
25. According to paragraph 3, flying requires more energy than swimming for all of the
following reasons EXCEPT:
(A) A flying animal must overcome more drag because it moves more quickly than a
swimming animal.
(B) A flying animal must expend more energy to create lift than a swimming animal does.
(C) More energy is required for a flying animal to support its weight in air than for a
swimming animal to support its weight in water.
(D) Because air has a lower density than water does, more energy is required for an animal
to move through air than through water.

Coral reefs are natural structures formed from deposits of the calcium carbonate secretions
of coral, a marine animal that lives in colonies. In general, coral reefs are grouped into one of
three categories: atolls, barrier reefs, and fringing reefs. Atolls are usually easily distinguished
because they are modified horseshoe shaped reefs that rise out of very deep water far from
land and enclose a lagoon (a body of ocean water surrounded by a coral reef). With few
exceptions, atolls are found only in the Indo-Pacific area. Barrier reefs and fringing reefs, on
the other hand, tend to grade into each other and are not readily separable. Some scientists
would prefer to group them into a single category. Both types occur adjacent to a landmass,
with a barrier reef being separated from the landmass by a greater distance and deeper
water channel than the fringing reef. Fringing reefs and barrier reefs are common throughout
the coral reef zones in all oceans.
The Origin of Coral Reefs
26. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of atolls EXCEPT:
(A) Most atolls occur in the Indo-Pacific area.
(B) Atolls occur only in very deep waters.
(C) Atolls are more common than other types of reefs.
(D) Atolls occur far from a landmass.

53
Different types of reefs and reefs in different oceans may have diverse origins and histories.
The greatest interest in the origin of reefs has centered on atolls. For many years, humans
speculated as to how such reefs could develop in such deep water, miles from the nearest
emergent land. This interest was heightened when it was discovered that reef corals could
not live deeper than 50-70 meters. This led to the development of several theories
concerning the origin of atolls. Only one need be discussed here — the subsidence or
compensation theory. This explanation for the origin of atolls was first advanced by Charles
Darwin following his five-year voyage on the Beagle, during which time he had the
opportunity to study reefs in several areas. According to Darwin's subsidence theory, atolls
are created when fringing reefs begin to grow on the shores of newly formed volcanic islands
that have pushed to the surface from deep water. These islands often begin to subside, and if
the subsidence is not too fast, reef growth will keep up with the subsidence. The reef growth
will then form a barrier reef and, ultimately, an atoll as the island disappears beneath the
sea. When the island has disappeared, corals continue to grow on the outside and keep the
reef at the surface. On the inside, where the island used to be, quiet water conditions and
high sedimentation prevail. These conditions prevent continued vigorous coral growth;
hence, a lagoon develops. This theory links all three reef types in an evolutionary sequence
but is not an explanation for all fringing and barrier reef types.
The Origin of Coral Reefs
27. According to paragraph 2, Darwin's subsidence theory provided an answer to each of the
following questions EXCEPT:
(A) How does a lagoon develop?
(B) Why do volcanic islands subside?

54
(C) How does a fringing reef become a barrier reef?
(D) What happens to coral growth when a volcanic island subsides slowly?

The spiritual significance of the sacred grove mandated specific preservationist measures.
Civil restrictions and environmental codes of practice governed the use of such spaces.
Enclosing walls prevented sheep from desecrating sacred sites, while patrolling priests issued
spiritual guidance along with fines for vandalism. Laws forbade hunting, fishing, or the
cutting of trees. Those not dissuaded by monetary penalties were threatened with the anger
of the resident gods.
Greek Sacred Parks and Groves
28. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as ways the Greeks protected their
sacred groves EXCEPT
(A) by building protective walls around the groves
(B) by allowing only priests in sacred groves
(C) by punishing those who cut trees, hunted, or fished in the groves
(D) by telling people that the gods could punish vandals of the groves

Such environmental care suggested to historian J. Donald Hughes that sacred groves
represented "classical national parks." By helping to insulate sacred groves from pressures of
deforestation, erosion, and urbanization, Greek codes protected ecosystems from
destruction. Sacred groves nonetheless represented imperfect parkscapes. Some
encompassed relatively small areas such as a section of a hillside or a series of caves.
Meanwhile, the fundamental purpose of the grove — the visitation of resident gods —
sometimes promoted activities not entirely conducive to modern concepts of conservation.
Animals were routinely captured to serve as sacrifices to the gods. Many groves witnessed
horticultural and architectural improvements. Flowers were planted, trails cut, and statues,
fountains, and caves installed for the benefit of visitors. The grove served as a recreational
center for Greek society, a realm of ritual, performance, feasting, and even chariot racing.

55
 Greek Sacred Parks and Groves
29. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 6 as a change made to the
landscapes of sacred groves?
(A) The introduction of new animals to the area
(B) The construction of statues and fountains
(C) The planting of flowers
(D) The creation of trails

Chapter 5 Inference Questions

(1 to 2 questions per set)

• Which of the following can be inferred about X?

• The author of the passage implies that X . . .
• Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about X?

56
The paleontologist Tim Flannery proposed that very similar events happened in Australia and
New Guinea. If anything, he implies that in this part of the world there was an extreme
version of the process, because before people arrived, the main predators of the Australian
megafauna were large reptiles. Their lack of any evolved response against mammalian
predators could have meant that Australia's megafauna were especially slow to react to the
threat from people. And like Richard Owen before him, Flannery pointed out that many of
the extinct species were probably slow-moving and would have been poorly equipped to
escape from human hunters even if motivated by the appropriate fear responses.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
1. Paragraph 2 implies that the extinction process in Australia was more extreme than in
other parts of the world partly because
(A) Australian megafauna had never been exposed to mammalian predators before the
arrival of humans
(B) large reptiles killed far more megafauna than humans did
(C) Australian megafauna had no predators before people arrived
(D) there were no available escape areas for megafauna on the isolated continent of
Australia

After the Second World War (1939-1945), the use of sonar revolutionized surveys of the sea
floor, making accurate mapping of the ocean basins possible. Far from finding merely the flat
plains previously imagined, scientists discovered gigantic mountain ranges, isolated
seamounts, and deep trenches. The mid-ocean ridge is by far the largest geological feature
on Earth, but it had remained unknown and hidden from human observation except for what
are in fact glimpses of its mountains that here and there break the sea's surface as islands. It
was the mapping of a great mid-ocean mountain range that, incredibly, extends through all
the ocean basins that was the key to understanding continental drift.

57
 The Idea of Continental Drif
2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the theory of continental
drift before the Second World War?
(A) Scientists who supported the idea of continental drift assumed that a gigantic mountain
range existed in the ocean.
(B) Human observations of islands confirmed a mechanism for continental drift.
(C) Scientists lacked evidence for continental drift until sonar became available.
(D) Extensive early mapping of the ocean floor posed challenges to the theory of continental
drift.

The first major modern art movement in Latin America was Mexican muralism, which
featured largescale murals painted on the wall surfaces of public buildings. One of the most
persistent strands in Latin. American art in the last 80 years has been an engagement with
political and social issues, including the struggle for social justice. This in turn has been
accompanied by a desire for authentic forms of self-expression and freedom from cultural
dependency. Although these preoccupations have taken many different forms, Mexican
muralism was the first, and its influence was the most far-reaching. Muralism flourished in
Mexico in the years immediately following the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) as a result of
a combination of circumstances: a climate of revolutionary optimism and cultural
experimentation that challenged traditional Eurocentrism, a small but strong group of
relatively mature artists of energy, ideas, and ability, and a visionary minister of education,
Jose Vasconcelos. Vasconcelos believed that Mexico was destined to play a central role on
the international stage. He understood that ideas could be more quickly assimilated through
images than through any other medium, and he had the courage to allocate the funds, and
the walls of public buildings, to the artists to do with as they liked.
Mexican Mural Art
3. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that the muralists got most of their financial support
from
(A) opponents of traditional Europe art
(B) wealthy art lovers
(C) other muralists from around the world
(D) the Mexican government

By the time the transformation was over, coniferous forests could be found in the central
United States only on the crowns of the tallest breaks and ridges. High enough to catch the
rain and snow, and cooler than the grasslands below, these uplands created a microclimate
in which the trees could retain a toehold. The thin mineral soils of the ridges — more
suitable for conifers than for grasses or other plants — probably also gave the trees an

58
advantage. The factor that made the biggest difference to the scarp forests (forests on a line
of cliffs), however, was their high, isolated location. Historically speaking, the greatest threat
to prairie woodlands, apart from prolonged drought, was the fierce heat of grass fires.
Where better to find refuge than atop a natural firebreak? The present distribution of scarp
woodlands therefore probably represents the limits of past wildfires.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
4. Paragraph 2 supports which of the following explanations of why scarp forests are less
likely to experience damaging fire outbreaks?
(A) Fires do not burn as easily in the cooler climate where scarp forests grow.
(B) The frequent precipitation on ridges prevents fires from burning for long.
(C) The mineral soils of ridges make fires less likely.
(D) The scarp forests are not in direct contact with grasslands and thus do not burn.

Flight certainly allowed insects to disperse, to colonize new habitats, and to escape from
their enemies. Which of these might have been of primary significance in the evolution of
wings is a matter of debate, but predator avoidance is an excellent candidate as it is clear
that life in the Paleozoic (540 to 230 million years ago) was dangerous due to the numbers of
predators. Preeminent among predator-avoidance mechanisms must have been increasingly
sophisticated early-warning systems composed of delicate vibration- or wind-sensing hairs.
These systems elicit an escape response of running or jumping. It has been suggested that
this escape response, the development of protowings, and a gradual rewiring of nerves in
the thorax and abdomen might have been the route by which insects achieved powered
flight so quickly.
Insect wings
5. What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about how an early insect learned that a predator
was near?
(A) Wind would carry the predator's smell to sensory receptors on the insect.
(B) A predator's approach would cause a response in specialized hairs on the insect.
(C) An insect's protowing would vibrate when a predator was close.
(D) Nerve impulses would pass between the thorax and abdomen when a predator was near.

59
Many of the sea's creatures, including squid, dinoflagellates, bacteria, worms, crustaceans,
and fish, are known to produce light. The process that marine creatures use to create light is
like that of the common firefly and similar to that which creates the luminous green color
seen in plastic glow sticks, often used as children's toys or for illumination during nighttime
events. When a glow stick is bent, two chemicals mix, react, and create a third substance
that gives off light. Bioluminescent organisms do essentially the same thing; they have a
substance, called luciferin, that reacts with oxygen in the presence of enzyme, luciferase.
When the reaction is complete, a new molecule is formed that gives off light — glowing blue-
green in the underwater world. This biologically driven chemical reaction occurs within the
organism's special light-producing cells, called photocyptes, or light-producing organs, called
photophores. Probably one of the most complex light-producing systems is that of the squid.
Some squid have both photophores and chromatophores (organs for changing color) with
their skin, thus enabling them to control both the color and intensity of the light produced
Recent research has also revealed that in some squid and fish, bioluminescent light may be
produced by bacteria that live in a mutually beneficial partnership inside the animal's light
organs.
Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
6. Which of the following statements about bioluminescent creatures is implied by paragraph
2?
(A) Bioluminescent creatures cannot produce light if bacteria enter their light organs.
(B) Not all bioluminescent creatures have both photophores and chromatophores.
(C) Most bioluminescent organisms do not need the enzyme luciferase in order to produce
light.
(D) Creatures with light-producing organs are much more common than those that have only
light producing cells.

60
Something else may also have helped the particles to stick together – something else that is
special about the solar system. Studies of pieces of rock from meteorites show that the dusty
disc around the young Sun contained tiny globules of material, known as chondrules, formed
by melting at temperatures between 1,200 degrees centigrade and 1,600 degrees
centigrade. Molten, or partly molten, blobs would be more sticky and encourage the buildup
of larger lumps of stuff in the disc. But how did they get so hot? The most likely explanation
is that the heat was released by radioactive elements that had been sprayed by a nearby star
in the process of dying into the gas cloud from which the planets formed. One possibility is
that a supernova occurred close to the cloud that became the Sun just before the Sun
formed; it is even possible that the blast wave from this explosion triggered the collapse of
the gas cloud that became the Sun and solar system. Supporting evidence for this idea comes
from measurements of the proportions of various isotopes (different forms of an element)
found in meteorites. Radioactive aluminium-26 seems to have been present in the proto-
solar system from the beginning, but a pulse of iron-60 arrived about a million years later.
This matches what we know about the fate of a very large star, with more than 30 times as
much mass as the Sun. In the late stages of its life, the star first blows away much of the
outer layers of material, which by then is relatively rich in aluminium-26, in a wind easily
strong enough to cause any nearby gas cloud to collapse. The star only explodes at the very
end of its life, showering the neighborhood with elements including iron-60.
supernova: explosion of a very large star
The Beginning of Planet Formation
7. Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about iron-60 and aluminium-26 in the proto-
solar system?
(A) They are both materials that tend to stick together.
(B) They both originated from the same large source star.
(C) They were both present in the gas cloud before the Sun's formation began.
(D) They were both released into the proto-solar system at the same time.

61
Compared with the East, however, the West faced a greater number of external threats along
more permeable frontiers. Whereas the East could pursue war and diplomacy more
effectively with their enemies on the long eastern frontier, the West was exposed to the
more volatile tribal Germanic peoples on a frontier that stretched along the Rhine and
Danube rivers for 1,000 miles. The East, however, only had to guard the last 500 miles of the
Danube. In addition, the East had many more human and material resources with which to
pursue its military and diplomatic objectives. The East also had a more deeply rooted unity in
the Greek culture of the numerous Greek and Near Eastern cities that Rome had inherited
from earlier Grecian empires. Latin culture had not achieved comparable penetration of the
less urbanized West outside of Italy. The penetration of Germanic culture from the north had
been so extensive along the permeable Rhine-Danube frontier that it was often difficult to
distinguish between barbarians (speakers of German and other languages unrelated to Latin)
and Romans in those regions by the fifth century anyway.
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
8. Paragraph 3 supports which of the following statements about the Eastern Roman Empire
in the fifth century?
(A) It had fewer sizeable cities than the Western Roman Empire had.
(B) It faced more internal threats than the Western Roman Empire did.
(C) It was more strongly influenced by Roman culture than by Greek culture.
(D) It was easier to protect against foreign invasion than the Western Roman Empire was.

Fungi/orchid relationships are endotrophic, which means the fungus actually grows inside
cells of the orchid plant's tuber (underground plant stem). Nearly 300,000 plant species have
endotrophic mycorrhizal relationships with only 130 species of fungi. Fungi/tree
relationships are ectotrophic, since the complex network of hyphae forms a mantle that
encases the root on the outside, like a layer of gauze. As Jon Luoma notes, "mycologists now
believe that mycorrhizal fungi effectively connect trees with as much as one thousand times
more soil area than the roots themselves." And within that area the concentration of hyphae
is immense. A single liter of soil from a mycorrhizal mass contains several kilometers of
tightly compacted hyphae. Only about 2,000 plant species have ectotrophic mycorrhizal
relationships, but they involve some 5,000 species of fungi.
Fungi and Trees
9. Paragraph 4 suggests that which of the following is true of endotrophic relationships
between plants and fungi?
(A) Fungi involved in endotrophic relationships with plants encase the outside of the plants'
roots.

62
(B) Trees are often involved in endotrophic relationships with fungi.
(C) More plant species have endotrophic relationships with fungi than ectotrophic
relationships with fungi.
(D) Orchids have endotrophic relationships with thousands of different species of fungi.
The Incans ruled a vast empire in western South America when the Spaniards encountered
them in the sixteenth century. Although the Incas had no writing system of their own,
historical information about Incas is available to researchers because early Spaniards wrote
documents about them. However, there are drawbacks to using the written record. First, the
Spanish writers were describing activities and institutions that were very different from their
own, but they often described Inca culture in terms of their own society. As an example,
consider the list of kings given by the Incas. As presented in the historical chronology,
Spanish sources indicate there were thirteen kings who ruled sequentially. The names were
given to them by Inca informants. However, one school of thought in Inca studies suggests
that the names were not actual people, but, rather, titles filled by different individuals. Thus,
the number of actual kings may have been fewer, and several titles may have been filled at
the same time. The early Spanish writers, being unfamiliar with such a system of titles,
simply translated it into something they were familiar with (a succession of kings). Given that
the Inca empire expanded only during the time of the last four kings, or as a result of the
actions of the individuals in those four positions, this question is not deemed significant for
an understanding of the Incas. But the example shows that biases and inaccuracies may have
been introduced inadvertently from the very beginning of the written Spanish reports about
the Incas. Moreover, early writers often copied information from each other – so
misinformation was likely to be passed on and accepted as true by later scholars.
Documenting the Incas
10. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the Incan system of
rulers?
(A) It was first introduced when the expansion of the Incan empire began.
(B) It required that multi-rulers share a particular title at the same time.
(C) It was sometimes confusing to the Incan informants of the Spaniards.
(D) It was unlike the system used in sixteenth century Spain.

63
The major differences between masks were determined by their purpose. Some were
representations of chiefs and their ancestors and made to be displayed and treasured as
heirlooms. Although they appear to record the styles of facial tattooing customary in
different groups, it is difficult to say how far they were intended to be portraits rather than
generalized images. Many masks, sometimes quite large, were carved to be worn in dance-
dramas that re-enacted and kept alive the cohesive myths of a culture. Often, Tlingit masks
were made for religious leaders and incorporated the animals that were believed to be their
spirit helpers. Conjuring up forces of nature from the ocean, the forests, or the sky, they
mediated between life on Earth and the inscrutable powers around and above.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
11. What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about masks representing chiefs and their
ancestors?
(A) They were made to be exhibited and appreciated rather than used.
(B) They include scenes depicting the heroic achievements of chiefs and their ancestors.
(C) They were made from different materials than were other types of masks.
(D) They were sometimes worn by non-family members during religious rituals.

64
The supply of goods was also significantly modified. Migration had long been critical for the
diffusion of knowledge that spawned new trades or revived others. Now thousands of
workers, and sizeable amounts of capital, moved from one region to another. At the same
time, new commodities appeared on the market, often broadening and deepening dema nd.
Most were inexpensive items destined for individual consumers. Knitted stockings, ribbon
and lace, buttons, starch, soap, vinegar brewed from beer, knives and tools, pots and ovens,
and many more goods, formerly made only for local sale, now entered into channels of
national or international trade. The best-known and most widely adopted new industry was
printing with movable type, which spread swiftly throughout Europe after Johannes
Gutenberg perfected his innovation in 1453. Despite isolated cases of resistance — the
scribes’ guild (an association of book copiers) delayed printing's introduction into Paris for
twenty years, for example — more than 380 working presses had sprung up by 1480, and
1,000 (in nearly 250 towns) by 1500. Between 1453 and 1500, all the presses of Europe
together turned out some 40,000 editions (known as incunabula), but from 1501 to 1600,
that same quantity was produced in Lyon and Paris alone.
Early Modern Industrialization
12. Paragraph 3 suggests that one reason for the change in the supply of goods available to
European consumers was
(A) the development of the new industry of printing with movable type
(B) a decrease in the demand for European goods in areas outside Europe
(C) an increase in the wider European market for goods that before had been intended only
for local markets
(D) the overturning of rules preventing workers from moving from one region to another

Why do some volcanoes explode violently while others erupt gently? Why do some kinds of
magma (molten rock) solidify within Earth to form hard rocks, and others rise all the way to
the surface to erupt from volcanoes as lava? To answer these questions, we must consider
the properties and behavior of magma. Once magma forms it rises toward Earth's surface
because it is less dense than surrounding rock. As it rises, two changes occur. First, it cools as
it enters shallower and cooler levels of Earth. Second, pressure drops because the weight of
overlying rock decreases. Cooling and decreasing pressure have opposite effects on magma:
cooling tends to solidify it, but decreasing pressure tends to keep it liquid.
The Behavior of Magma
13. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that high pressure has which of the following effects
on magma?
(A) It does not allow magma to escape from deeper and hotter levels of Earth.
(B) It makes magma solidify.
(C) It makes magma rise toward earth's surface.
(D) It cools magma.

In most cases, granitic magma solidifies within Earth's crust to form a rocky mass called a
pluton. Many granite plutons are large, measuring tens of kilometers in diameter. To form a
large pluton, a huge volume of granitic magma must rise through continental crust. But how
can such a large mass of magma rise through solid rock? If you place oil and water in a jar,

65
screw the lid on, and shake the jar, oil droplets disperse throughout the water. When you set
the jar down, the droplets coalesce to form larger bubbles, which rise toward the surface,
easily displacing the water as they ascend. Granitic magma rises in a similar way. It forms
near the base of continental crust, where surrounding rock is soft and flexible and behaves
plastically, i.e., it flows and deforms without fracturing because it is hot. As the magma rises,
it shoulders aside the hot plastic rock, which then slowly flows back to fill in behind the rising
bubble. After a pluton forms, forces in the crust may push it upward and erosion may expose
parts of it at Earth's surface.
The Behavior of Magma
14. Paragraph 5 suggests that plutons form in which of the following ways?
(A) Granitic magma solidifies on Earth's surface.
(B) Large deposits of oil solidify inside Earth's crust.
(C) Smaller amounts of granitic magma combine and become harder while rising through
rock.
(D) Granitic magma displaces water as it rises through Earth's crust.

Raw materials, not equipment, constituted artisans’ major expense in most traders, however.
Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom (and made small
payments over many years to pay off the debt for purchasing the loom), every six weeks he
or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required to make a piece of
cloth. Thus access to cheap and plentiful primary materials was a constant preoccupation for
independent producers. Using local materials might allow even the poorest among them to
avoid reliance on merchant suppliers. The loss of nearby sources could therefore be
devastating. As silk cultivation waned around the Spanish cities of Cordoba and Toledo,
weavers in these cities were forced to become employees of merchants who put out raw silk
from Valencia and Murcia provinces. In the Dutch Republic, merchants who imported
unprocessed salt from France, Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-refining industry
once exploitation of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which held back the sea
from the low-lying Dutch land would be undermined.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
15. What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about local materials?
(A) They were of higher quality than imported materials.
(B) They were usually more plentiful than imported materials.
(C) They remained available even after merchants began to control the industries.
(D) They tended to be more affordable than materials supplied by merchants.

Paragraphs 4
In the United States, where farmers during the 1990s were required to implement a soil-
conservation plan on erodible cropland to be eligible for crop price supports, the no-till area
went from 7 million hectares in 1990 to nearly 21 million hectares (51 million acres) in 2000,
tripling within a decade. An additional 23 million hectares were minimum-tilled, for a total of
44 million hectares of conservation tillage. This total included 37 percent of the corn crop, 57

66
percent of soybeans, and 30 percent of the wheat. Outside the United States, data for crop
year 1998-1999 show Brazil using conservation tillage on 11 million hectares and Argentina
on 7 million hectares. Canada, using conservation tillage on 4 million hectares, rounds out
the big four. And now no-till farming is catching on in Europe, Africa, and Asia. In addition to
reducing soil losses, minimum-till and no-till practices also help retain water and reduce
energy use.

Paragraphs 5
Another example of an effort to control soil erosion is the Conservation Reserve Program
(CRP). Created in the United States in 1985, the CRP aimed to convert 45 million acres of
highly erodible land into permanent vegetative cover under ten-year contracts. Under this
program, farmers were paid to plant grass or trees on fragile cropland. The retirement of 35
million acres under the CRP, together with the adoption of conservation practices on 37
percent of all cropland, reduced soil erosion in the United States from 3.1 billion tons in 1982
to 1.9 billion tons in 1997.
Saving Soil and Cropland
16. What can be inferred from paragraphs 4 and 5 about soil conservation efforts in the
United States
(A) Encouraging minimum tillage practices resulted in much more efficient soil conservation
than converting erodible land into vegetative cover.
(B) Complete retirement of land combined with soil-conservation practices significantly
reduced soil erosion.
(C) Measuring the success of government-supported conservation programs over extended
periods of time was sometimes as difficult as getting the programs started
(D) The reduction of energy use due to practices such as conservation tillage and land
retirement was much larger in the United States than in any other country.

Plants are not immune to the effects of chemical defenses. Spanish moss, which hangs from
trees in the southern United States and in South America, never grows on pines, presumably
because of the resins pine trees secrete. Perhaps the best-known example of antiplant
chemical defenses was first reported in the first century A.D. by Pliny the elder, who wrote
that "the shadow of walnut trees is poison to all plants within its compass." Walnuts and
related trees contain the chemical juglone, which, seeping from the roots, reduces the
germination of competitors, stunts their growth and even kills nearby plants, resulting in

67
open-canopied walnut groves having very little growing under them. Tomatoes, apples,
rhododendrons, and roses are very susceptible, but many grasses, vegetables, and Virginia
creeper will happily live under walnuts.
The Chemical Defenses of Trees
17. In paragraph 3, which of the following can be inferred from the discussion of walnut trees
and the chemical juglone？
(A) Walnut tree defenses are more effective than the chemical defenses of pine trees.
(B) Plants that also contain juglone in their roots, such as tomatoes and apples, can live
under walnut trees.
(C) Some species, such as Virginia creeper, actually grow better in the presence of juglone
than in other locations.
(D) Plant chemical defenses may not affect all species in the same way.

The causes behind the rapid development of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations in the
Aegean during the late third and second millennia B.C.E. have intrigued scholars for years.
Until recently, most explanations attributed Aegean development to outside influence.
Civilization had emerged in Mesopotamia by 3000 B.C.E, and, some archeologists argued,
Mesopotamian trade introduced civilized ideas and technological innovations into nearby,
less advanced areas. Others hypothesized that civilization was brought to the Aegean by
invasion from some adjacent region, of which Anatolia in modern Turkey seemed the most
plausible.
Multiplier Effect
18. Paragraph 1 implies which of the following about traditional scholarship concerning the
development of Aegean civilizations?
(A) It focused on the influence of Aegean trade on more advanced civilization rather than the
invasion of the Aegean by a technologically advanced culture.
(B) The development of Minoan civilization was thought to require a different explanation
from that for the development of Mycenaean civilization.
(C) It maintained that the rapid development of Aegean civilization could be explained only
through external influence.
(D) There was general agreement that Anatolia and Mesopotamia were both responsible for
the development of civilization in the Aegean.

The quarter century or so after the Second World War witnessed the longest period of
uninterrupted growth among the industrialized countries of the world and at the highest
rates in history. For the industrialized countries as a group the average increase in gross
domestic product per person employed from 1950 to 1973 amounted to 4.5 percent per
year. Rates for individual countries ranged from 2.2 percent for the United Kingdom to 7.3
percent for Japan. Growth was most rapid in those countries that had abundant supplies of
labor, such as Japan and West Germany. Growth in the United States, Canada, and Great
Britain, which had the highest individual incomes at the end of the war, was slower than that

68
of continental Europe and Japan but more rapid than in any prolonged period in their
previous histories. At the same time, countries with relatively low individual incomes within
the industrial group — Italy, Austria, Spain, Greece, and Japan — grew more rapidly than the
average.
The Postwar Economic Boom
19. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that the industrialized country with the greatest
economic growth during the 25 years after the Second World War was
(A) West Germany
(B) Italy
(C) the United States
(D) Japan

Finally, in the long term, much credit must go to Europe's wealth of human capital. Its high
rates of literacy and specialized educational institutions, from kindergartens to technical
schools, universities, and research establishments, provided the skilled personnel and
brainpower to make the new technology work effectively. During the first flush of the success
of the Marshall Plan, many observers incorrectly deduced that physical or financial capital
alone would suffice to bring about development, and several grandiose projects based on
that false premise were undertaken elsewhere, only to end in failure and disillusionment.
The Postwar Economic Boom
20. Paragraph 6 suggests that the failure of some large development projects in places other
than Europe was largely caused by
(A) the inadequate supply of financial capital for investment
(B) the use of inefficient technology
(C) the lack of an adequately skilled and educated workforce
(D) the fact that the projects were not covered by the Marshall Plan

The Mayan society of Central America (2000 B.C. – A.D. 1500), like other ancient states, was
characterized by populations unprecedented both in their size and density. It was not just
the number of people that lived in the Mayan city-states but also the relatively small area
into which they were concentrated. To support such populations, societies developed various
intensive agricultural methods, including large-scale irrigation and hill-slope terracing (the
cutting of horizontal ridges into hillsides so they can be farmed). These were designed both
to increase yields from a given area and to increase the absolute amount of land under
cultivation. These strategies were in essence very successful: they made it possible to feed
larger populations than ever before and supported the growth of cities. But they also placed
considerable strains on the environment and rendered it increasingly fragile and vulnerable

69
to unexpected climatic events, and even to short-term fluctuations. Thus, the argument is
that because of their size and ever more intensive agriculture, the Mayan and other ancient
state societies were fundamentally unsustainable.
The Collapse of Maya
21. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the intensive agricultural
methods of the Maya?
(A) They helped the Maya overcome short-term fluctuations in the climate.
(B) They could not supply all of the food required for the growth of Mayan cities.
(C) They strained the environment more than the Maya's previous farming techniques did.
(D) They were invented by the Maya to help them grow new kinds of crops.

Increased paper production in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the first stage in
the rapid growth of manuscript books — hand-copied works bound as books — which in turn
led to the invention of mechanical printing. Papermaking came to Europe from China via
Arab intermediaries. By the fourteenth century, paper mills were operating in Italy, producing
paper that was much more fragile but much cheaper than parchment or vellum, animal skins
that Europeans had previously used for writing. To produce paper, old rags were soaked in a
chemical solution, beaten by mallets into a pulp, washed with water, treated, and dried in
sheets — a method that still produces good-quality paper today.
Development of Printing
22. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the process of making
paper in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Europe?
(A) It was based on the process previously used to make parchment and vellum.
(B) It was replaced by a process that added steps to create a better quality of paper.
(C) It was dependent on the availability of discarded or used cloth.
(D) It produced paper that was more fragile than paper made in China.

After the 1440s, printing spread rapidly from Germany to other European countries. The
cities of Cologne, Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Basel, and Augsburg had major presses; many
Italian cities had established their own by 1480. In the 1490s, the German city of Frankfurt
became an international meeting place for printers and booksellers. The Frankfurt book fair,
where printers from different nations exhibited their newest titles, represented a major
international cultural event and remains an unbroken tradition to this day. Early books from
other presses were still rather exclusive and inaccessible, especially to a largely illiterate
population. Perhaps the most famous early book, Gutenberg's two-volume edition of the
Latin Bible, was unmistakably a luxury item. Altogether 185 copies were printed. First priced
at well over what a fifteenth-century professor could earn in a year, the Gutenberg Bible has
always been one of the most expensive books in history, both for its rarity and its exquisite
crafting.
Development of Printing

70
23. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about the Gutenberg Bible?
(A) It was printed in Frankfurt.
(B) People with average incomes were not likely to own it.
(C) Numerous copies of it were sold at the Frankfurt book fair.
(D) It was one of the first expensive books to be sold to an international population.

Just why is locomotion so cheap for a fish? The main reason is that the water supports most
of the body weight of such a swimmer, so all the animal needs to do to swim is to produce
enough force to overcome the drag of its own body. Most aquatic animals have nearly the
same density as the water in which they swim, so they do almost no work to support their
weight against gravity. However, swimming is cheap only for those animals well adapted to
swimming completely submerged. When animals such as ducks and muskrat swim on the
surface, they use two or three times more energy to swim on the surface than when
submerged, and as much as twenty times more energy than fish of a similar size. This is
because of what is called the "bow wave": any object moving on the surface of water pushes
up a bow wave at the front, which streams alongside and trails back. Boat designers have
long known that the bigger the bow wave, the harder it is to push a boat through the water.
The bow wave produces extra drag on anybody moving on the surface of water. An animal
swimming on the surface of the water uses extra energy in order to overcome drag. Thus, for
our purposes, efficient "swimming" means underwater locomotion by animals with
streamlined bodies, not the exhausting, inefficient locomotion of humans in swimming

71
pools.
Forms of Locomotion
24. Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about the drag faced by aquatic animals?
(A) The closer an aquatic animal's body density is to the density of the water, the less drag
the animal must overcome.
(B) Aquatic animals that swim on the surface must overcome fewer sources of drag than
animals that swim underwater.
(C) The drag faced by most fish swimming underwater is much greater than previously
thought.
(D) All fish must overcome at least two forces of drag — the drag produced by their own
bodies and by the bow wave.

Different types of reefs and reefs in different oceans may have diverse origins and histories.
The greatest interest in the origin of reefs has centered on atolls. For many years, humans
speculated as to how such reefs could develop in such deep water, miles from the nearest
emergent land. This interest was heightened when it was discovered that reef corals could
not live deeper than 50-70 meters. This led to the development of several theories
concerning the origin of atolls. Only one need be discussed here — the subsidence or
compensation theory. This explanation for the origin of atolls was first advanced by Charles
Darwin following his five-year voyage on the Beagle, during which time he had the
opportunity to study reefs in several areas. According to Darwin's subsidence theory, atolls
are created when fringing reefs begin to grow on the shores of newly formed volcanic islands
that have pushed to the surface from deep water. These islands often begin to subside, and if
the subsidence is not too fast, reef growth will keep up with the subsidence. The reef growth
will then form a barrier reef and, ultimately, an atoll as the island disappears beneath the
sea. When the island has disappeared, corals continue to grow on the outside and keep the
reef at the surface. On the inside, where the island used to be, quiet water conditions and
high sedimentation prevail. These conditions prevent continued vigorous coral growth;
hence, a lagoon develops. This theory links all three reef types in an evolutionary sequence

72
but is not an explanation for all fringing and barrier reef types.
The Origin of Coral Reefs
25. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 as the reason that the origin of
atolls has generated more interest than has the origin of other types of reefs?
(A) Most reefs have a predictable shape, but atolls do not.
(B) Atolls appear to form more rapidly than other kinds of reefs.
(C) The animals that form coral reefs cannot live in water below 70 meters, but atolls only
form in very deep water.
(D) Atolls have more diverse origins and histories than other types of reefs.

26. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the development of atolls according to
Darwin's theory?
(A) All atolls begin as fringing reefs.
(B) An atoll will not develop if an island subsides too slowly.
(C) Most atolls will eventually become barrier reefs.
(D) The formation of a lagoon accelerates the overall development of an atoll.

At the same time that the inner planets were forming, the larger, outer planets (Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), along with their extensive satellite systems, were also
developing. Because of low temperatures far from the Sun, the material from which these
planets formed contained a high percentage of ices — water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and
methane — as well as rocky and metallic debris. The accumulation of ices partly accounts for
the large sizes and low densities of the outer planets. The two most massive planets, Jupiter
and Saturn, had surface gravities sufficient to attract and hold large quantities of even the
lightest elements — hydrogen and helium.
Origin of the Solar System
27. What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the role that gravity on the outer planets
plays in their having low densities?
(A) The forces of gravity from the outer planets increase the speed of the solar winds,
causing the winds to carry away the heavier, denser elements.
(B) The outer planets’ strong gravities capture low-density ices from the outer reaches of the
solar system.
(C) Gravity on the outer planets is strong enough to prevent lighter elements from escaping.
(D) The strong gravity on the outer planets results in high-velocity impacts with nebular
debris, causing their denser elements to be carried away into space.

In some spiritual traditions, landscapes such as gardens or deserts were treated as abstract

73
emblems of spiritual states such as innocence or despair. Rather than symbolic landscapes,
as in the Judeo-Christian tradition, Greek sacred groves operated as literal homes of the
gods. Instead of being confined to prehistory or celestial space, spiritual parkscapes were
present within the existing cultural terrain. One could not visit a symbol of peace and
serenity, but one could experience these qualities in a sacred grove.
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
28. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that the ancient Greeks believed that their gods
(A) resided only in celestial space
(B) actually lived on Earth
(C) did not exist in prehistoric times
(D) were only representations of ideas

Chapter 6 Reference Questions

(0 to 2 questions per set)

• The word "X" in the passage refers to . . .

• The phrase "X" in the passage refers to . . .

74
Fungi, of which there are some ninety thousand species, are incapable of manufacturing
their own food internally, since they do not have the ability to perform photosynthesis.
However, they still require energy in the form of sugars in order to reproduce, and so
mycorrhizal fungi penetrate the roots of living plants and take sugar from the plant host. In
fact, they take so much sugar that they are able to expand to gigantic proportions. If that
were the end of the story, the fungus would be a parasite and the tree would eventually die.
But the fungus reciprocates the favor; in return for the sugars it derives from the tree, its vast
network of hyphae (filaments) provides the tree's root system with access to water and
nutrients it would not otherwise be able to reach or extract from the soil.
Fungi and Trees
1. In the phrase "it would not" in the passage, the word "it" refers to
(A) the fungus
(B) its vast network of hyphae
(C) the tree's root system
(D) access to water and nutrients

75
Paragraph 3
One prevailing hypothesis is that metamorphic species specialize so as to exploit habitats
with high but transient (short term) productivity – and hence high potential for growth. Part
of this strategy is that specializations for feeding, dispersal, and reproduction are separated
across stages. A frog tadpole occupies an aquatic environment (such as a pond with
extremely high potential for growth. The existence of the pond or its high production may be
transient, however. Whereas an aquatic larva is not capable of dispersal to new ponds if its
habitat becomes unsuitable, the adult frog is. In this case rapid growth in the larva is
separated from dispersal and reproduction in the adult. Although the adult feeds, its growth
rate is far less than that of the tadpole. The energy that adults obtain from feeding is
dedicated to dispersal and reproduction.

Paragraph 4
Many insects benefit from the same strategy. Although a butterfly larva feeds voraciously,
often on a very specific set of host plant species, the adult does not grow. If it feeds, it does
so only to maintain energy reserves required for dispersal and reproduction. The monarch
butterfly exemplifies this strategy. Its larvae feed specifically on milkweeds. Monarch pupae
also develop on this host plant. The emerging adults migrate long distances – from all over
eastern North America to nine small sites in the Sierra Madre mountains of Mexico. There,
females become sexually mature and migrate north, mating along the way and feeding only
to maintain energy reserves. In this example, the feeding specialist stage is again separated
from the dispersal and reproduction stages.
Metamorphosis
2. The phrase "the same strategy" in the passage refers to
(A) dispersing to new habitats as adults

76
(B) spending most of the life cycle on dispersal and reproduction
(C) feeding on a specific set of host plant species
(D) separating specialization for feeding from dispersal and reproduction

Termite evolution has several obvious trends, from primitive species, which live in small
hidden colonies, to groups millions strong, the builders of enormous mounds that allow for
heat and gas exchange. The less advanced groups digest microorganisms, which do the real
work of breaking food down. The culture (colony) of cellulose digesters is passed along
through a special exchange. Young termites feed on a special liquid secretion provided by
adults, rich in the group's digestive heritage. When reproductive termites (those destined to
produce offspring) leave the nest, they carry in their stomachs the microorganisms essential
for the digestive success of their offspring.
Primitive and Advanced Termite Species
3. The phrase "special exchange" in the passage refers to
(A) the transfer of cellulose digesters from one colony of termites to another
(B) the development of small colonies into much larger ones
(C) the transfer of liquid secretions from adult termites to young termites
(D) the departure of certain reproductive termites and the arrival of others

The earliest Mesoamerican art and architecture to combine ideological complexity, craft, and
permanence was that of the Olmecs, whose civilization flourished between about 1500 B.C.
and 100 B.C. The early Olmecs established major ceremonial centers along the rich lowlands
of the modern Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco. At distant Teopantecuanitlan, the
Olmecs established a sacred precinct, the first monumental evidence of the Olmecs in the
highlands. But the Olmecs had an advanced social and economic system, with networks for
commerce extending far to the west and south. The fertile gulf plain probably allowed for an
agricultural surplus, controlled by only a handful of individuals. From the art and architecture
of their ceremonial centers (we know too little about Olmec domestic life to call their sites
cities), it is clear that for the Olmecs, social stratification was sufficiently advanced for their
society to place great importance on the records of specific individuals, particularly in the
form of colossal heads (enormous stone sculptures of human heads and faces).

77
 Olmec Art
4. The word "that" in the passage refers to
(A) Mesoamerican art and architecture
(B) the ideological complexity, craft, and permanence
(C) the earliest civilization
(D) the permanent art and architecture

Paragraph 6
Most megaliths occur in areas inhabited in the postglacial period by Mesolithic hunter-
gatherers (8500 B.C. – 4000 B.C.). Their adoption of agriculture through contact with
Neolithic farmers, Renfrew argues, led to a population explosion in the region and
consequent competition for farmland between neighboring groups. In the face of potential
conflict, the groups may have found it desirable to define their territories and emphasize
their boundaries. The construction of megaliths could have arisen in response to this need.

Paragraph 7
Renfrew has studied two circumscribed areas, the Scottish islands of Arran and Rousay, to
examine "this hypothesis" more closely. He found that a division of the arable land into
territories, each containing one megalith, results in units that correspond in size to the
individual farming communities of recent times in the same area. Each unit supported
between 10 and 50 people. The labor needed to put up a megalith would probably be
beyond the capabilities of a community this size. But Renfrew argues that the cooperation of
other communities could be secured by some form of recognized social incentive, perhaps a
period of feasting at which communal building was one of several activities.
Origins of the Megaliths
5. The phrase "this hypothesis" in the passage refers to the idea that
(A) there was competition for territory between Mesolithic hunter-gathers and invading
Neolithic farmers
(B) a population explosion brought about a division of the region's Neolithic farmers into
neighboring groups
(C) the need of neighboring groups to define their territories led to the construction of
megaliths
(D) the construction of megaliths was a way of competing for farmland

78
 Chapter 7 Insert Text Question
(1 question per set)

Look at the four squares 【】 that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
[You will see a sentence in bold.]
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square 【 】 to add the sentence to the
passage.

79
Paragraph 1
Across the world, at varying times thousands of years ago, large mammals (megafauna such
as mammoths, giant deer, and ground sloths) went extinct in a relatively short time. 【A】In
North America this happened around 11,000 years ago, soon after the arrival of the first
humans on the continent. 【 B 】 The paleontologist Paul Martin has argued that the first
Americans found a land in which very large mammals were diverse, widespread, abundant,
and – crucially – not fearful of human hunters and therefore easy to kill. 【C】The great size
of the megafauna combined with their lack of fear since they had never before encountered
humans meant that the hunting of them was a very profitable activity. 【 D 】 People
specialized in giant-mammal hunting, and the human population increased very quickly as a
result. This in turn meant that the predation pressure on the large mammals became very
great, and within a short time their populations crashed to extinction.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
1. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
The timing of these two events may very well be more than a coincidence.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3
As geologists began to investigate part of the range that extends up the Atlantic (the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge), they found evidence that the ocean floor was spreading apart, thus
supporting Wegener's idea of continental drift.【A】Rocks near the center of the ridge were
younger than those further away. 【 B 】 Moreover, the further away from the ridge the
geologists looked, the more overlying sediment there was, suggesting the rocks beneath had
been there longer.【C】The final piece of evidence came when the magnetism of the rocks
was examined. 【 D 】 Every so often, in geological time, Earth's magnetic field reverses its
polarity so that the magnetic north switched to the south. Magnetic particles in molten rock
align themselves to the new direction. Geologists found a series of bands or strips of
alternating magnetic polarity in the rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, each one signifying a
change in Earth's polarity. These bands run parallel to each other along the length of the
ridge. They also discovered that the series of bands on either side of the ridge are mirror
images of each other. Here, then, was the evidence that continents were moving apart.

80
Wegener's theory was accepted.
The Idea of Continental Drif
2. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
For example, the age of seafloor rock varied in relation to its distance from the ridge.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 4
【 A 】 The Mexican muralist movement is undoubtedly one of the most important
manifestations of twentieth-century Mexican culture. 【 B 】 Its impact elsewhere in the
region, as well as in the United States and Europe, has been enormous. 【C】The work of
Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros triggered a homegrown muralist movement in the United
States in cities like New York City, Detroit, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.【D】The influence
of the Mexicans on the modern Spanish painter Picasso's first mural and almost his only
major explicitly propagandist work of art — his famous Guemica of 1937 — is unmistakable
even though the artist himself would have denied it. In Latin America, Mexican-influenced
muralism has recurred whenever artists have felt the need to make a clear, public statement
in a language that has not been borrowed from outside.
Mexican Mural Art
3. Look at the four squares 【】 that indicate where the following sentence can be added to
the passage.
However, its influence was not limited to Mexico itself.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 2
By the time the transformation was over, coniferous forests could be found in the central
United States only on the crowns of the tallest breaks and ridges.【A】High enough to catch
the rain and snow, and cooler than the grasslands below, these uplands created a
microclimate in which the trees could retain a toehold. 【B 】The thin mineral soils of the
ridges — more suitable for conifers than for grasses or other plants — probably also gave the
trees an advantage. 【C 】 The factor that made the biggest difference to the scarp forests
(forests on a line of cliffs), however, was their high, isolated location. 【 D 】 Historically
speaking, the greatest threat to prairie woodlands, apart from prolonged drought, was the
fierce heat of grass fires. Where better to find refuge than atop a natural firebreak? The
present distribution of scarp woodlands therefore probably represents the limits of past
wildfires.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
4. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
However, favorable moisture and temperature levels were not the only factors affecting
the survival of conifers at these locations.
Where would the sentence best fit?

81
Paragraph 2
Insects are different from other flying creatures like birds and bats, which evolved wings
from already existing legs, and one of the main questions is what the first protowings (early
forms of wings) were used for. 【 A 】 One view is that outgrowths from the notum (upper
portion) of the thorax (middle region of the body between the head and the abdomen)
would have enabled insects to have a more stable and longer glide path (movement through
the air without using wings). 【 B 】 This paranotal theory envisages early insects climbing
plants and launching themselves into the air as a more efficient, and perhaps safer, means of
getting around or avoiding predators. 【 C 】 These protowings might have had other
functions, and experimental evidence suggests that when small, they would have had a
significant role in the regulation of body temperature.【D】Other ideas have involved small
insects being carried around in air currents or larger insects jumping from the ground and
taking to the air.
Insect wings
5. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
The research showed that protowings less than 1.3 centimeters long would have helped
insects absorb heat from sunlight.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph4
Other sea creatures have both light-sensing and light-producing organs. These creatures are
thought to use bioluminescence as a form of communication or as a means of identifying an
appropriate mate. 【 A 】 In the lantern fish, the pattern of photophores distinguishes one
species from another. 【B】 In other fish, bioluminescence may help to differentiate males
from females.【C】The squid uses light as a means of camouflage. 【D】By producing light
from the photophores on its underside, the squid can match light form above and become
nearly invisible to predators looking up from below. Squid, as well as some of the gelatinous
zooplankton, have also been known to release luminescent clouds or strands of organic
material, possibly as a decoy to facilitate escape. And finally, because what they eat is often
bioluminescent, many of the transparent deep-sea creatures have red or black stomachs to
hide the potentially flashing contents of ingested bioluminescent creatures. Without such a
blacked-out stomach, their digestive organs would flash like a neon sign that says, "Eat me,
eat me!"
Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
6. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to

82
the passage.
Yet, certain species use bioluminescence for exactly the opposite purpose — to blend in
with surroundings and become less identifiable.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 1
The four innermost planets of our solar system – Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars – are
terrestrial, or rocky, planets.【A】The beginning of their creation process occurred when the
cloud of leftover material from the formation of the Sun settled into a disc around the young
star. 【B 】Most of the material in the cloud, like the material of the Sun itself, was in the
form of hydrogen and helium.【C】But there was a trace of dust, no more than 2 percent of
the original material, in the form of particles as fine as the particles in smoke. 【 D 】 Heat
from the young Sun blew much of the gas away, but the rotation of the original cloud
ensured that the dust settled into a disc around the young Sun – a protoplanetary disc like
the ones seen around young stars today.
The Beginning of Planet Formation
7. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Several important steps were involved in their formation.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 5
Unfortunately, the high positions achieved by Germanic officers often aroused the jealousy
and hostility of high-ranking Roman military and civilian officials. Such positions also gave
their Germanic holders a chance to act on both personal and tribal animosities in the arena
of Imperial politics. Internal Roman rivalries and power struggles aggravated the situation.
Rival factional leaders often granted Imperial titles and conceded territory to one Germanic
leader or another in return for help against fellow Romans. While the Romans were thus
distracted by internal conflict, other tribes seized the opportunity to cross into Roman
territory unopposed. 【A】 When the Romans could not dislodge them, peace was bought
with further titles and territorial concessions as allies. 【B 】In the midst of it all, alliances
and coalitions between Roman emperors or powerful commanders and various tribes or
tribal kings were made, unmade, and remade so often that it is nearly impossible to follow
their course. 【 C 】 Accordingly, all of these situations proved dangerous to the peace and
safety of the West.【D】
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
8. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Once within Roman borders, they proved difficult to remove.
Where would the sentence best fit?

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Paragraph 1
In the late nineteenth century, A. B. Hatch, a mycologist (a scientist who studies fungi —
organisms that include molds, mushrooms, and yeast), exhumed an underground fungal
system and discovered that the parent fungi were not growing through the soil alone; they
attached themselves to the fine roots of the surrounding trees. Fungus and root actually
grew into one another, becoming almost a single organism. Hatch named this compound life-
form mycorrhizee, which means fungus-root. 【 A 】 He pondered the nature of such a
peculiar association; except for the edible fungi, humans have an antagonistic relationship
with fungi. 【 B 】 Fungi are responsible for three kinds of pneumonia and one kind of
meningitis, along with various lesser ailments.【C】In a mycorrhizal arrangement, however,
both fungus and root benefit from the experience. 【D】Fossil evidence suggests that this
mutual dependency existed 400 million years ago, in the first plants to invade the continents.
Ecologist Chris Maser observes, "land plants probably originated through a symbiosis
(mutually beneficial association) between marine fungi and photosynthesizing algae." Since
the marine plants that invaded the land had no roots of their own, they would have had to
make use of fungi to obtain enough water and minerals to survive on dry land. The fungi, for
their part, needed the plants for the food they produced by photosynthesis.
Fungi and Trees
9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
The long-standing relationship between plants and fungi is evidence of the advantageous
nature of the relationship to both parties.
Where would the sentence best fit?

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Paragraph 1
The Incans ruled a vast empire in western South America when the Spaniards encountered
them in the sixteenth century.【A】Although the Incas had no writing system of their own,
historical information about Incas is available to researchers because early Spaniards wrote
documents about them. 【 B 】 However, there are drawbacks to use the written record.
【 C 】 First, the Spanish writers were describing activities and institutions that were very
different from their own, but they often described Inca culture in terms of their own society.
【 D 】 As an example, consider the list of kings given by the Incas. As presented in the
historical chronology, Spanish sources indicate there were thirteen kings who ruled
sequentially. The names were given to them by Inca informants. However, one school of
thought in Inca studies suggests that the names were not actual people, but, rather, titles
filled by different individuals. Thus, the number of actual kings may have been fewer, and
several titles may have been filled at the same time. The early Spanish writers, being
unfamiliar with such a system of titles, simply translated it into something they were familiar
with (a succession of kings). Given that the Inca empire expanded only during the time of the
last four kings, or as a result of the actions of the individuals in those four positions, this
question is not deemed significant for an understanding of the Incas. But the example shows
that biases and inaccuracies may have been introduced inadvertently from the very
beginning of the written Spanish reports about the Incas. Moreover, early writers often
copied information from each other – so misinformation was likely to be passed on and
accepted as true by later scholars.
Documenting the Incas
10. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence can be added to
the passage.
Official accounts, legal papers, and letters written during that period provide a wealth of
information about the Incan empire and the Incas' way of life.
Where would the sentence best fit?

85
Paragraph 5
【A】Masks are the most varied of the carvings from the Northwest, where they were an
essential part of communal life.【B】In style they range from an almost abstract symbolism
to combinations of human and animal features and to a lifelike naturalism sometimes
bordering on caricature (a style that strongly exaggerates features or characteristics), taken
to its extreme in Tlingit war helmets. Some differences must have been due to those among
the cultures in which they were created, but their place of origin cannot always be
ascertained as they seem to have passed from one contiguous nation to another in the
course of trade or warfare. 【 C 】 Although carvers worked according to established
conventions, no two masks are identical and those with basic similarities reveal varying
degrees of skill.【D】
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
11. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
If we consider 100 raven masks made by different carvers, for example, some will have
been well executed, others less so, and one may have been made by an exceptional carver.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3
The supply of goods was also significantly modified.【A】Migration had long been critical for
the diffusion of knowledge that spawned new trades or revived others. Now thousands of
workers, and sizeable amounts of capital, moved from one region to another. 【 B】 At the
same time, new commodities appeared on the market, often broadening and deepening
demand.【C】Most were inexpensive items destined for individual consumers.【D】Knitted
stockings, ribbon and lace, buttons, starch, soap, vinegar brewed from beer, knives and tools,
pots and ovens, and many more goods, formerly made only for local sale, now entered into
channels of national or international trade. The best-known and most widely adopted new
industry was printing with movable type, which spread swiftly throughout Europe after
Johannes Gutenberg perfected his innovation in 1453. Despite isolated cases of resistance —
the scribes’ guild (an association of book copiers) delayed printing's introduction into Paris
for twenty years, for example — more than 380 working presses had sprung up by 1480, and
1,000 (in nearly 250 towns) by 1500. Between 1453 and 1500, all the presses of Europe
together turned out some 40,000 editions (known as incunabula), but from 1501 to 1600,
that same quantity was produced in Lyon and Paris alone.
Early Modern Industrialization
12. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
For example, during this period, international investment in Switzerland rapidly expanded
after the country was flooded by skilled workers fleeing religious persecution in Italy and
France.
Where would the sentence best fit?

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Paragraph 2
Whether magma solidifies or remains liquid as it rises toward Earth's surface depends on the
type of magma. 【 A 】 Basaltic magma commonly rises to the surface to erupt from a
volcano.【B】In contrast granitic magma usually solidifies within Earth's crust (outer layer).
【C】Granitic magma contains about 70 percent silica, whereas the silica content of basaltic
magma is only about 50 percent.【D】In addition, granitic magma generally contains up to
10 percent water, whereas basaltic magma contains only 1 to 2 percent water.
The Behavior of Magma
13. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
The different behavior of these two types of magma is a result of their different
compositions.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3
Raw materials, not equipment, constituted artisans’ major expense in most traders, however.
【A】Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom (and made small
payments over many years to pay off the debt for purchasing the loom), every six weeks he
or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required to make a piece of
cloth. 【 B 】 Thus access to cheap and plentiful primary materials was a constant
preoccupation for independent producers. 【C】Using local materials might allow even the
poorest among them to avoid reliance on merchant suppliers. 【 D 】 The loss of nearby
sources could therefore be devastating. As silk cultivation waned around the Spanish cities of
Cordoba and Toledo, weavers in these cities were forced to become employees of merchants
who put out raw silk from Valencia and Murcia provinces. In the Dutch Republic, merchants
who imported unprocessed salt from France, Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-
refining industry once exploitation of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which
held back the sea from the low-lying Dutch land would be undermined.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
14. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
This was possible because when transportation costs were low, the price of raw materials
was generally also low.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3

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One of the time-tested methods of dealing with water erosion is terracing: creating hill-side
ridges to reduce runoff. 【 A 】Another newer, highly effective tool in the soil conservation
tool kit is conservation, which includes both no tillage and minimum tillage. 【 B 】 In
conventional farming, land is plowed, disked, or harrowed to prepare the seedbed, seed is
drilled into the soil with a planter, and row crops are cultivated with a mechanical cultivator
two or three times to control weeds.【C】With minimum tillage, farmers simply drill seeds
directly into the soil. The only tillage is a one-time disturbance in a narrow band of soil where
the seeds are inserted, leaving the remainder of the soil undisturbed, covered by crop
residues and thus resistant to both water and wind erosion.【D】
Saving Soil and Cropland
15. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
These methods differ from traditional farming practices.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 2
Some chemical defenses are highly toxic and will kill attackers in small doses. Known as
"qualitative" defenses, they work in low concentrations. These include alkaloids present in
plants such as the tansy ragwort, which is notorious for killing cattle and horses when
ingested. Other chemicals work by building up in the herbivore. Referred to as "quantitative"
defenses, they become more effective the more they accumulate in the animal's body.
Classic examples are phenolic resins in creosote bushes and tannins found in a number of
plants.【A】Tannin is a "protein precipitant which gradually makes food less digestible, so
herbivores end up starving and having stunted growth. These often have the effect of
causing the herbivore to move elsewhere. 【 B 】 It is possible, for example, that the
endangered British red squirrel is declining not through competition with the introduced
North American gray squirrel, as commonly thought, but because of acorns. 【 C 】 Acorns
(nuts from oak trees) contain digestion inhibitors that gray squirrels can disarm but red
squirrels cannot. Red squirrels do well in conifer tree plantations, feeding on the more
nutritious pine seeds, and where there are no oaks to give the gray squirrels a competitive
edge.【D】
The Chemical Defenses of Trees
16. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
This explains why certain species are disappearing from some habitats.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 2
In a work published in 1972, Professor Colin Renfrew approached the problem from a

88
different viewpoint. 【 A 】 He argued that the scanty available evidence for invasion or
immigration from Anatolia into Greece in the early Bronze Age (about 3300-2200 B.C.E.)
showed that, at most, such incursion was limited, and that it could not be regarded as
responsible for the transformation of society there.【B】Trade, though clearly documented,
was also an inadequate explanation in itself.【C】To understand the major changes in social
organization and complexity that took place, it was necessary, said Renfrew, to determine
the impact that new variables emerging in the early Bronze Age may have had on every
interrelated aspect of the local social system. 【 D 】 The two new major developments he
considered were changes in the subsistence economy and the introduction of bronze
metallurgy.
Multiplier Effect
17. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
Instead, Renfrew emphasized the complex internal dynamics of change.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3
The Marshall Plan (officially called the European Recovery Program and based on investment

89
from the United States) played a crucial role in sparking the European recovery. When
funding from the United States ended in 1951, Europeans kept economic growth going with
high levels of savings and investments.【A】Much of the investment went into equipment
for new products and processes, since during the preceding years a backlog of technical
innovations had built up that only awaited capital and skilled labor to be employed. 【B】In
effect, the European economies had stopped growing for an entire generation, operating
with obsolete equipment and lagging behind in technical progress.【C】Thus, technological
modernization both accompanied and was an important contributory factor to the so-called
economic miracle.

Paragraph 4
【D】Other major factors were the attitude and role of governments. They participated in
economic life both directly and indirectly on a much larger scale than previously. They
nationalized some basic industries, drew up economic plans, and provided a wide range of
social services. Nevertheless, private enterprise was responsible for by far the largest part of
economic activity. On average, between one-fourth and one-third of national income in
Western Europe originated in the government sector. Though this proportion was much
greater than it had been before the war, it was less than half the contribution of the private
sectors of the economy. In the mixed economies that became characteristic of the Western
democracies government assumed the tasks of providing overall stability, a climate favorable
to growth, and minimal protection for the economically weak and underprivileged, but it left
the main task of producing the goods and services desired by the population to private
enterprise.
The Postwar Economic Boom
18. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
But technological development was not the only element in the European economic
recovery.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 5
Yet it may be incorrect to lay the blame entirely on human action. 【 A 】 Several of the
lowland cities, such as Tikal, appear to have depended heavily on the cultivation of raised
fields set in the marshy depressions known as bajos, which today flood intermittently in the

90
rainy season but may originally have been permanent lakes.【B】The raised-field system of
intensive cultivation (created by digging surrounding canals and using the soil removed to
elevate the fields for planting) allows year-round food production through the constant
supply of soil nutrients that erode into the drainage ditches dug around the raised fields,
nutrients that are then collected and replaced.【C】Stable water levels were essential
to this subsistence system, but evidence from Lake Chichancanab in Yucatán shows that
between A.D. 800 and A.D. 1000 this region suffered its driest period of climate in several
thousand years.【D】We may expect that as a result water levels fell, and the raised fields in
many areas became unusable. But the human response must be viewed through the lens of
the social, political, and cultural circumstances. These exerted a powerful mediating effect on
the way the Maya endeavored to cope with their difficulties. Had population levels been
lower, the impact of the drought may not have been catastrophic, as it was, the Maya were
already reaching the limits of the available subsistence capacity, and Mayan elites had
espoused certain social and political agendas (including expensive warfare and competition
with each other). It was against this specific background that a period of drought led quickly
to crisis and collapse.
The Collapse of Maya
19. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
Nature apparently also contributed to the food shortages.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 6
Some historians argue that the invention of mechanical printing gave rise to a
communications revolution as significant as, for example, the widespread use of the personal
computer today.【A】The multiplication of standardized texts altered the thinking habits of
Europeans by freeing individuals from having to memorize everything they learned; it
certainly made possible the speedy and inexpensive dissemination of knowledge. 【 B 】 It

91
created a wilder community of scholars, no longer dependent on personal patronage or
church sponsorship for texts. 【C】Printing facilitated the free expression and exchange of
ideas, and its disruptive potential did not go unnoticed by political and church authorities.
【 D 】 Emperors and bishops in Germany, the homeland of the printing industry, moved
quickly to issue censorship regulations.
The Development of Printing
20. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
For such leaders, the uncontrolled expression of ideas was clearly unwelcome.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3
Flying animals move through air that is less dense and less viscous than water, so why does
flying cost more than swimming? First, most flying animals move much faster than a
swimmer in order to produce enough lift (the upward force necessary to overcome gravity).
【A】This higher speed increases the drag that a flyer must overcome.【B】Furthermore, a
flyer has an extra source of drag that a swimmer does not have: the extra drag that comes
from lift production. 【 C 】 In a way, the extra drag represents the cost of supporting the
flyer's weight in air.【D】
Forms of Locomotion
21. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
Thus, the need to overcome resistance to fast forward motion plus the muscular effort
needed just to keep from falling makes flying more energy intensive than swimming.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 3
Since the current surface features of atolls give no evidence of a volcanic base, in the years
after the development of Darwin's theory other explanations were offered, and the whole
concept of the origin of atolls became embroiled in the controversy over the origin of coral
reefs. If Darwin's theory was correct, it must be assumed that drilling down through the
current atoll reefs would yield layer after layer of reef limestone until, finally, volcanic rock
would be encountered. The ability to drill to the base of atoll reefs and resolve the problem
had to wait until the mid-twentieth century in 1953. Ladd and other geologists reported

92
borings at Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands that penetrated 1,283 meters of reef
limestone and then hit volcanic rock.【A】This was the evidence that Darwin's theory was
substantially correct. 【 B 】 The correctness of this theory has been strengthened by the
discovery of flat-topped mountains or guyots that, at present, have their tops many
hundreds or thousands of meters below the ocean surface, but have on their surface the
remains of shallow-water corals. 【 C 】 Evidently, these mountains sank too fast for reef
growth to keep above the ocean surface.【D】
The Origin of Coral Reefs
22. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
Had subsidence occurred more slowly, the reefs would have eventually become atolls.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 2
Nearly five billion years ago, some external influence, such as a shock wave traveling from a
catastrophic explosion (supernova), may have triggered the collapse of this huge cloud of
gases and minute grains of heavier elements, causing the cloud to begin to slowly contract
due to the gravitational interactions among its particles.【A】As this slowly spiraling nebula
contracted, it rotated faster and faster for the same reason ice-skaters do when they draw
their arms toward their bodies.【B】Eventually, the inward pull of gravity came into balance
with the outward force caused by the rotational motion of the nebula.【C】By this time the
once vast cloud had assumed a flat disk shape with a large concentration of material at its
center, called the protosun (pre-Sun).【D】Astronomers are fairly confident that the nebular
cloud formed a disk because similar structures have been detected around other stars.
Origin of the Solar System
23. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
In other words, as the outer parts of a rotating mass are pulled inward, the speed of
rotation increases.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Paragraph 4
In some spiritual traditions, landscapes such as gardens or deserts were treated as abstract
emblems of spiritual states such as innocence or despair. 【 A 】 Rather than symbolic
landscapes, as in the Judeo-Christian tradition, Greek sacred groves operated as literal
homes of the gods.【B】Instead of being confined to prehistory or celestial space, spiritual
parkscapes were present within the existing cultural terrain. 【 C 】 One could not visit a
symbol of peace and serenity, but one could experience these qualities in a sacred grove.
【D】
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
24. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.

93
This, however, was not the Greek attitude.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Chapter 8 Rhetorical Purpose Questions

(1 to 2 questions per set)

• The author discusses X in paragraph 2 in order to . . .

• Why does the author mention X?
• Why does the author compare X to Y?

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Paragraph 3
An alternative view is that people hunted megafauna but did not specialize in large-animal
hunting, which may actually have been a rather small component of a broad hunter-gatherer
economy. The biologist Gavin Prideaux and others have suggested that light hunting of this
kind could have caused the extinction of large mammals, which were vulnerable to it for two
reasons. First, because very large mammals typically have low reproductive rates and long
development times, the rate at which animals killed by hunters can be replaced is very low.
Therefore a small addition to natural mortality by hunting could hold death rates above birth
rates and cause population decline in very large species, while for smaller species a similar
rate of mortality from hunting would be compensated by increased reproductive success.
Second, large mammals typically have naturally low population densities, so that a small

95
absolute number of animals killed by hunters per year translates into a demographically
significant mortality rate.

Paragraph 4
Could this kind of low-level hunting have driven species all the way to extinction? In
principle, yes, if all individuals in the prey populations were potentially exposed to hunting at
some time in their lives. This would be most likely if hunters used all of the habitats in which
the prey species lived and there were no refuge areas in which the animals were
invulnerable. If human population size did not depend strongly on megafauna hunting
(because people were also using a variety of other resources), there would still be plenty of
hunters around after megafauna populations had declined to critically low levels, so
individuals in these low-density populations would still be at risk of encountering people and
being killed. This theory does not require that the extinctions were very rapid or assume that
the mammals that went extinct were any more naive to hunters or slow-footed than those
that survived; only that they were demographically more sensitive to small increases in
mortality imposed by hunting.
Theories of Megafauna Extinction
1. What is the author's purpose in paragraph 4 of the passage?
(A) To introduce another additional theory of megafauna extinction as an alternative to those
described in paragraph 3
(B) To determine which of the two theories introduced in the passage best explains
megafauna extinction
(C) To question whether megafauna species were actually driven to extinction in North
America
(D) To examine the believability of the theory of megafauna extinction introduced in
paragraph 3

Alexander Du Toit, a South African geologist was one of Wegener's ardent supporters. He
noted that fossils of the Permian freshwater reptile "Mesosaurus" occur in rocks of the same
age in both Brazil and South Africa. Because the physiology of freshwater and marine
animals is completely different, it is hard to imagine how a freshwater reptile could have
swum across the Atlantic Ocean and then found a freshwater environment nearly identical to
its former habitat. Furthermore, if Mesosaurus could have swum across the ocean, its fossil
remains should occur in other localities besides Brazil and South Africa. It is more logical to
assume that Mesosaurus lived in lakes in what are now adjacent areas of South America and
Africa but were then united in a single continent.
Early Theories of Continental Drif
2. Why does the author mention the fact that "the physiology of freshwater and marine
animals is completely different"?
(A) To explain why Du Toit was able to determine that Mesosaurus was a freshwater reptile

96
(B) To explain why Du Toit concluded that certain fossils in rocks in Brazil and South Africa
were those of the same animal
(C) To cast doubt on the idea that Mesosaurus could have swum from one landmass to
another
(D) To show Du Toit determined which landmass Mesosaurus originated on

The Mexican muralist movement is undoubtedly one of the most important manifestations
of twentieth century Mexican culture. Its impact elsewhere in the region, as well as in the
United States and Europe, has been enormous. The work of Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros
triggered a homegrown muralist movement in the United States in cities like New York City,
Detroit, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The influence of the Mexicans on the modern
Spanish painter Picasso's first mural and almost his only major explicitly propagandist work
of art — his famous Guemica of 1937 — is unmistakable even though the artist himself
would have denied it. In Latin America, Mexican-influenced muralism has recurred whenever
artists have felt the need to make a clear, public statement in a language that has not been
borrowed from outside.
Mexican Mural Art
3. The author mentions Picasso's mural "Guemica" in order to
(A) provide an example of one of the biggest European influences on Mexican muralism
(B) indicate that politically motivated murals were as popular in Europe as they were in
Mexico
(C) explain why the influence of Mexican muralism was especially strong among Spanish
artists
(D) provide evidence that the Mexican muralists had a significant impact on the international
art world

For the woody plants that grew down on the grasslands, by contrast, there was no chance of
escape. Despite a variety of adaptations for withstanding occasional burns — corky, fire-
resistant bark (bur oak trees); seeds that are stimulated by heat (ponderosa pine trees);
roots that put out new shoots to compensate for fire damage (many poplars and oaks) —
few species of trees can survive frequent, intense fires. Grasses, by contrast, are basically
born to burn. Not only do they produce a tinder — dry thatch of dead foliage that lights with
the slightest spark, but they are equipped to rise from their own ashes. The buds, or
meristems, from which they put forth new growth, are tucked down at the surface of the
ground, where they are protected from serious harm. But woody plants, which are inclined
to reach for the light, hold their buds on the tips of their branches, where they are exposed
to the flames and are sorely vulnerable to fire damage.
Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
4. In paragraph 3, why does the author mention "seeds that are stimulated by heat"?
(A) To help explain why ponderosa pine trees are able to survive in areas where there are
frequent, intense fires
(B) To identify an adaptation that can enable a woody plant to survive in areas where there
are occasional fires

97
(C) To point out a difference between ponderosa pine trees and bur oak trees
(D) To provide evidence that some woody plants are better adapted than grasses are to
environments where there are occasional burns

Another theory is that wings may have been derived from flap-like gills (organs allowing
breathing under water) in immature aquatic insects that might have been retained in the
adults for reasons other than movement, such as regulation of body temperature,
concealment, and signaling. Aquatic insects, such as the ancient mayflies, use their tracheal
gills not just for breathing but also for movement. What then might be the link between
movement through water and flying? A novel insight has been provided by the sailing or
surface-skimming behavior seen in some stoneflies. Using their wings either as static sails to
catch gusts of wind or by gentle flapping, these insects are able to propel themselves across
the water's surface to reach stones and vegetation. Perhaps the early protowings were gill
flaps or gill covers that were used by such insects to move through water, but could also have
been of use to the adult in surface skimming. Gradual development of larger muscles would
have allowed stronger and stronger flapping and led ultimately to true flight.
Insect wings
5. Why does the author discuss the behavior of "some stoneflies"?
(A) To suggest how the gills of aquatic insects might have evolved into wings capable of flight
(B) To show that some insects are able to use their wings for purposes other than flight
(C) To give an example of an insect that has developed muscles for flapping its wings
(D) To contrast the use of gills in stoneflies with the use of gills in ancient mayflies
Many of the sea's creatures, including squid, dinoflagellates, bacteria, worms, crustaceans,
and fish, are known to produce light. The process that marine creatures use to create light is
like that of the common firefly and similar to that which creates the luminous green color
seen in plastic glow sticks, often used as children's toys or for illumination during nighttime
events. When a glow stick is bent, two chemicals mix, react, and create a third substance
that gives off light. Bioluminescent organisms do essentially the same thing; they have a
substance, called luciferin, that reacts with oxygen in the presence of enzyme, luciferase.
When the reaction is complete, a new molecule is formed that gives off light — glowing blue-
green in the underwater world. This biologically driven chemical reaction occurs within the
organism's special light-producing cells, called photocyptes, or light-producing organs, called
photophores. Probably one of the most complex light-producing systems is that of the squid.
Some squid have both photophores and chromatophores (organs for changing color) with
their skin, thus enabling them to control both the color and intensity of the light produced.
Recent research has also revealed that in some squid and fish, bioluminescent light may be
produced by bacteria that live in a mutually beneficial partnership inside the animal's light
organs.
Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
6. Why does the author mention "the common firefly" in the passage?
(A) To relate the light production of marine creature to that of a familiar light-producing
species
(B) To compare the light production of an insect with the more complex light production of
marine creatures

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(C) To provide an example of a species that does not use a chemical reaction to produce light
(D) To support the point that bioluminescence usually occurs at night

Paragraph 1
The four innermost planets of our solar system – Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars – are
terrestrial, or rocky, planets. The beginning of their creation process occurred when the
cloud of leftover material from the formation of the Sun settled into a disc around the young
star. Most of the material in the cloud, like the material of the Sun itself, was in the form of
hydrogen and helium. But there was a trace of dust, no more than 2 percent of the original
material, in the form of particles as fine as the particles in smoke. Heat from the young Sun
blew much of the gas away, but the rotation of the original cloud ensured that the dust
settled into a disc around the young Sun – a protoplanetary disc like the ones seen around
young stars today.

Paragraph 2
Within the disc, all the particles were moving in the same direction around the Sun, like runn
ers going round a track. This meant that when they bumped into one another, they did so rel
atively gently, not in head-on collisions, giving the particles a chance to stick to one another.
The tendency to stick may have been helped by electric forces produced by particles rubbing
against one another, in the same way that you can make a child's balloon stick to the ceiling
after rubbing it on a woolen sweater. Another important factor was turbulence in the gas, cre
ating swirling structures like whirlwinds which gathered pieces of material together and gave
them a chance to interact. Computer simulations show how objects as big as Ceres can form
in this way – provided the particles can stick together.
Ceres: one of the biggest asteroids in the solar system
The Beginning of Planet Formation
7. Why does the author mention "runners going round a track," "a child's balloon," and

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"whirlwinds" in the discussion of the interaction of particles in the Sun's protoplanetary
disc?
(A) To argue that interactions among the particles were no different from certain phenomena
observed on Earth
(B) To help explain how different types of particle interactions were actually very similar to
one another
(C) To suggest that the interactions among the particles were simpler than astronomers once
believed
(D) To use relatively familiar concepts to illustrate particle interactions that contributed to
planet formation

Compared with the East, however, the West faced a greater number of external threats along
more permeable frontiers. Whereas the East could pursue war and diplomacy more
effectively with their enemies on the long eastern frontier, the West was exposed to the
more volatile tribal Germanic peoples on a frontier that stretched along the Rhine and
Danube rivers for 1,000 miles. The East, however, only had to guard the last 500 miles of the
Danube. In addition, the East had many more human and material resources with which to
pursue its military and diplomatic objectives. The East also had a more deeply rooted unity in
the Greek culture of the numerous Greek and Near Eastern cities that Rome had inherited
from earlier Grecian empires. Latin culture had not achieved comparable penetration of the
less urbanized West outside of Italy. The penetration of Germanic culture from the north had
been so extensive along the permeable Rhine-Danube frontier that it was often difficult to
distinguish between barbarians (speakers of German and other languages unrelated to Latin)
and Romans in those regions by the fifth century anyway.
The Western Roman Empire in the Fifh Century
8. In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss German penetration along the Rhine-Danube
frontier?
(A) To explain why the Western Empire had fewer human and material resources than the
Eastern Empire had
(B) To explain why Roman military and diplomatic objectives had changed by the fifth
century
(C) To help support the idea that the Western Empire was less culturally unified than the
Eastern Empire was
(D) To explain how this region differed from other frontiers in the Western Roman Empire
that were penetrated by German tribes

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Fungi, of which there are some ninety thousand species, are incapable of manufacturing
their own food internally, since they do not have the ability to perform photosynthesis.
However, they still require energy in the form of sugars in order to reproduce, and so
mycorrhizal fungi penetrate the roots of living plants and take sugar from the plant host. In
fact, they take so much sugar that they are able to expand to gigantic proportions. If that
were the end of the story, the fungus would be a parasite and the tree would eventually die.
But the fungus reciprocates the favor; in return for the sugars it derives from the tree, its vast
network of hyphae (filaments) provides the tree's root system with access to water and
nutrients it would not otherwise be able to reach or extract from the soil.
Fungi and Trees
9. For which of the following reasons does the author state that fungi "are incapable of
manufacturing their own food internally"?
(A) To emphasize that mycorrhizal fungi must obtain nutrients through their vast network of
hyphae
(B) To help explain why mycorrhizal fungi need to expand to gigantic proportions
(C) To indicate why it is necessary for mycorrhizal fungi to take sugar from their plant host
(D) To argue that mycorrhizal fungi cannot produce the energy that plants need for growth
and reproduction

A tree is stuck where its seed landed and sent down its original root, fixing its fate to a
single spot. After that the tree cannot avoid predators or pests, seek food elsewhere, or
migrate to a more benign climate. Its expanding root system will have to find water and
dissolved nutrients, as well as anchor the growing plant against wind, rain, and floods. The
efficiency of the roots depends on the distance they penetrate into the soil as well as on the
surface area that comes into contact with the material in the ground. The mat of fungal
hyphae vastly increases the volume of soil a tree is able to explore. It absorbs water and

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passes it on to the tree. Hyphae are also better than tree roots at extracting critical nutrients
from the soil, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which they then trade to the tree in
exchange for sugar. They excrete enzymes that break down nitrogen in the soil and
sometimes even kill insects and absorb trace elements from their bodies, which are then
passed along to the tree.
Fungi and Trees
10. For which of the following reasons does the author state, "A tree is stuck where its seed
landed and sent down its original root, fixing its fate to a single spot"?
(A) To illustrate a fundamental problem of trees that fungi help solve
(B) To contrast the life cycle and characteristics of trees with those of fungi
(C) To point out that trees can grow only in areas with favorable conditions
(D) To demonstrate that relationships with trees have some disadvantages for fungi

Paragraph 1
The Incans ruled a vast empire in western South America when the Spaniards encountered
them in the sixteenth century. Although the Incas had no writing system of their own,
historical information about Incas is available to researchers because early Spaniards wrote
documents about them. However, there are drawbacks to using the written record. First, the
Spanish writers were describing activities and institutions that were very different from their
own, but they often described Inca culture in terms of their own society. As an example,
consider the list of kings given by the Incas. As presented in the historical chronology,
Spanish sources indicate there were thirteen kings who ruled sequentially. The names were
given to them by Inca informants. However, one school of thought in Inca studies suggests
that the names were not actual people, but, rather, titles filled by different individuals. Thus,
the number of actual kings may have been fewer, and several titles may have been filled at
the same time. The early Spanish writers, being unfamiliar with such a system of titles,
simply translated it into something they were familiar with (a succession of kings). Given that
the Inca empire expanded only during the time of the last four kings, or as a result of the
actions of the individuals in those four positions, this question is not deemed significant for
an understanding of the Incas. But the example shows that biases and inaccuracies may have
been introduced inadvertently from the very beginning of the written Spanish reports about
the Incas. Moreover, early writers often copied information from each other – so
misinformation was likely to be passed on and accepted as true by later scholars.

Paragraph 2
Second, both Spanish writers and Incan informants sometimes had motives for being
deliberately deceitful. For example, in an effort to gain status in the Spaniards' eyes, Incas
might say that they formerly had been more important in the Inca empire than they actually
were. Spanish officials as well were occasionally untruthful when it served their purposes.
For example, Spaniards might deliberately underreport the productivity of a region under
their authority so they could sell the additional products and keep the money, rather than

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hand it over to the Spanish Crown.

Paragraph 3
Third, it should be noted that the Spaniards' main sources of information were the Incas
themselves, often members of the Inca ruling class. Therefore, what was recorded was the
Incas' point of view about their own history and empire. Some modern authorities question
whether the history of Incas happened as they said it did. Although some of their history is
certainly more myth than truth, many, if not most, scholars agree that the history of the last
four Inca kings is probably accurate. The same is true of other things told to the Spanish
writers: the more recently an event is said to have occurred, the more likely it is to have
actually happened.
Documenting the Incas

11. Why does the author indicate that "the Spaniards' main sources of information were
the Incas themselves"?
(A) To argue that the Spaniards made great efforts to obtain the most information
(B) To explain why some scholars think that the documentary history of the Incan empire
may not be correct
(C) To question the idea that more recent events in the Incan empire are more likely to be
accurate than are more ancient ones
(D) To explain how scholars are able to determine that the history of the last four Incan kings
is probably correct

Masks are the most varied of the carvings from the Northwest, where they were an essential
part of communal life. In style they range from an almost abstract symbolism to
combinations of human and animal features and to a lifelike naturalism sometimes bordering
on caricature (a style that strongly exaggerates features or characteristics), taken to its
extreme in Tlingit war helmets. Some differences must have been due to those among the
cultures in which they were created, but their place of origin cannot always be ascertained as
they seem to have passed from one contiguous nation to another in the course of trade or
warfare. Although carvers worked according to established conventions, no two masks are
identical and those with basic similarities reveal varying degrees of skill.
Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
12. The author mentions "Tlingit war helmets" in the passage to
(A) explain why masks were an essential part of communal life
(B) provide an example of masks representing a stylistic extreme
(C) identify one of the uses of masks
(D) provide an example of masks characterized by abstract symbolism

Sharply declining transaction costs (the direct and indirect expenses associated with
transporting, distributing, and marketing goods and services) were more influential. On a
general level, the decrease was due to greater security thanks to the lessening of wartime
disruptions and to the economies of scale achieved when selling to large, concentrated

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urban populations. More specifically, it can be traced to transport innovations such as the
carrack, a large ship that reduced rates for oceanborne freight by up to 25 percent, and big
four-wheeled Hesse carts for overland routes. The spread of efficient organizational forms
further contributed to declining costs, as did falling interest rates, which dropped from 20
percent or 25 percent in the mid-fifteenth century to 10 percent 100 years later.
Early Modern Industrialization
13. In paragraph 5, the author mentions the transport innovations of the carrack and Hesse
carts in order to
(A) provide examples of wartime inventions that were adapted for use in industry
(B) explain how knowledge of more efficient organizational forms was spread
(C) provide reasons for the decline in transaction costs
(D) identify innovations that led to falling interest rates
As in silicate minerals, silicate tetrahedra (four-faced solids similar to triangular pyramids) in
magma link together to form chains, sheets, and framework structures. They form long
chains if silica is abundant in the magma but shorter chains if less silica present. Because of
its higher silica content, granitic magma contains longer chains than does basaltic magma. In
granitic magma, the long chains become tangled, making the magma stiff or viscous. It rises
slowly because of its viscosity and has ample time to solidify within the crust before reaching
the surface. In contrast, basaltic magma, with its shorter silicate chains, is less viscous and
flows easily. Because of its fluidity, it rises rapidly to erupt at Earth's surface.
The Behavior of Magma
14. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide information about the formation of silicate
chains in different types of magma?
(A) To support the claim that granitic magma contains more silica than basaltic magma does
(B) To argue that fast-rising magma does not have enough time to form long silicate chains
(C) To explain why granitic magma is more viscous than basaltic magma
(D) To illustrate how silicate tetrahedra link together

Raw materials, not equipment, constituted artisans’ major expense in most traders, however.
Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom (and made small
payments over many years to pay off the debt for purchasing the loom), every six weeks he
or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required to make a piece of
cloth. Thus access to cheap and plentiful primary materials was a constant preoccupation for
independent producers. Using local materials might allow even the poorest among them to
avoid reliance on merchant suppliers. The loss of nearby sources could therefore be
devastating. As silk cultivation waned around the Spanish cities of Cordoba and Toledo,
weavers in these cities were forced to become employees of merchants who put out raw silk
from Valencia and Murcia provinces. In the Dutch Republic, merchants who imported
unprocessed salt from France, Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-refining industry
once exploitation of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which held back the sea
from the low-lying Dutch land would be undermined.
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
15. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information about an Antwerp silk
weaver's costs in 1583?

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(A) To describe some typical costs in the silk-weaving industry
(B) To support the statement that artisans’ main expense was materials, not equipment
(C) To argue against the view that artisans did not have to borrow money to buy equipment
(D) To show that materials were cheap and plentiful for most artisans

Saving cropland is sometimes more difficult than saving the topsoil on the cropland This is
particularly the case when dealing with urban sprawl, where strong commercial forces have
influence. With cropland becoming scarce, efforts to protect prime farmland from urban
spread are needed everywhere. Japan provides a good example of such efforts. It has
successfully protected rice paddies even within the boundaries of Tokyo, thus enabling it to
remain self-sufficient in rice, its staple food.
Saving Soil and Cropland
16. In paragraph 6, the author refers to Tokyo, Japan in order to
(A) explain why Japan is not likely to experience problems with soil erosion in the future
(B) provide evidence of the importance of maintaining cropland close to big cities
(C) point to an approach for reducing urban spread into croplands that has had positive
results
(D) argue for the use of Japanese techniques to prevent erosion in the United States

Some chemical defenses are highly toxic and will kill attackers in small doses. Known as
"qualitative" defenses, they work in low concentrations. These include alkaloids present in
plants such as the tansy ragwort, which is notorious for killing cattle and horses when
ingested. Other chemicals work by building up in the herbivore. Referred to as "quantitative"
defenses, they become more effective the more they accumulate in the animal's body.
Classic examples are phenolic resins in creosote bushes and tannins found in a number of
plants. Tannin is a "protein precipitant which gradually makes food less digestible, so
herbivores end up starving and having stunted growth. These often have the effect of
causing the herbivore to move elsewhere. It is possible, for example, that the endangered
British red squirrel is declining not through competition with the introduced North American
gray squirrel, as commonly thought, but because of acorns. Acorns （ nuts from oak
trees ）contain digestion inhibitors that gray squirrels can disarm but red squirrels cannot.
Red squirrels do well in conifer tree plantations, feeding on the more nutritious pine seeds,
and where there are no oaks to give the gray squirrels a competitive edge.
The Chemical Defenses of Trees
17. In paragraph 2, why does the author provide the information that red squirrels do well in
conifer plantations where there are no oaks？
(A) To argue that red squirrels compete successfully against gray squirrels because the gray
squirrel's diet lacks nutrition
(B) To emphasize the care with which red squirrels choose a new habitat
(C) To suggest that the further decline of the endangered British red squirrel can be
prevented
(D) To support the idea that competition with the gray squirrel may not be the main cause of
the red squirrel's decline

105
Renfrew argued that any single innovation would have had a limited or negligible effect on
social organization because the inherently conservative nature of societies acts to minimize
change. However, the interaction of several simultaneous developments created a multiplier
effect. In the Aegean, increased agricultural productivity provided the means to support craft
specialization, while bronze metallurgy provided the technology for producing highly valued
new products. These factors set in motion a series of changes in other subsystems of society.
Those changes in turn resulted in what, in a term borrowed from electronics, are called
positive feedback loops — alterations in the workings of a social system that serve to
reinforce themselves. Thus Aegean society was transformed from one consisting of basically
self-sufficient and egalitarian farming villages to one of prosperous, hierarchical chiefdoms,
with palace-dwelling rulers, actively competing with one another both at home and in
international trade.
Multiplier Effect
18. What role does the idea of a "multiplier effect" serve in Renfrew's explanation of the
development of civilization in the Aegean?
(A) It allows him to argue that the combined effect of individual developments can lead to a
major transformation of a social organization.
(B) It allows him to explain the idea of a positive feedback loop.
(C) It allows him to explain the inherently conservative nature of societies.
(D) It allows him to explain how the changes in agriculture, bronze metallurgy, and craft
specialization came about.

The term "economic miracle" was first applied to the remarkable spurt in growth in West
Germany after 1948. When the high rates of growth continued throughout the 1950s and
1960s, it was used to refer to the entire era. It was then noted that several other nations,
notably Italy and Japan, had growth rates as high as or higher than West Germany's. Still,
though the high growth rates in most of the industrial countries were certainly remarkable,
and unprecedented in history, they were scarcely miraculous. There were solid reasons for
them in every case.
The Postwar Economic Boom
19. Why does the author make the statement that "There were solid reasons for them in
every case"?
(A) To emphasize that the term "economic miracle" correctly refers to every example
mentioned in the discussion about the postwar economic boom in industrial countries
(B) To provide support for the claim that the term "economic miracle" more appropriately
refers to Italy and Japan than to Germany
(C) To question the appropriateness of using the term "economic miracle" to refer to the
strong growth rates in certain industrial countries after the war
(D) To argue that the term "economic miracle" should refer to the economic recovery of the
late 1940s but not to the growth of the 1950s and 1960s

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Recent studies of the Mayan collapse (beginning around A.D. 900) have emphasized the
gradual and progressive nature of the process, beginning in earnest in the South and
advancing northward. It was not a single, sudden event, as had once been thought. Warfare
and social unrest are thought to have played a part, but these may well have arisen through
pressure from other causes. The Mayan cities had, after all, flourished for over 500 years
and had frequently been at war with each other.
The Collapse of Maya
20. Why does the author include the information that Mayan cities "had flourished for over
500 years and had frequently been at war with each other"?
(A) To identify a possible reason for the eventual collapse of Mayan society
(B) To make the point that war and social unrest alone do not account for the Mayan collapse
(C) To explain why recent studies argue that human actions were responsible for the Mayan
collapse
(D) To provide evidence that frequent wars weakened Mayan society only very gradually

107
Paragraph 1
Printing with movable type, a revolutionary departure from the old practice of copying by
hand, was invented in the 1440s by Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith. Mass
production of identical books and pamphlets made the world of letters more accessible to a
literate audience. Two preconditions proved essential for the advent of printing: the
industrial production of paper and the commercial production of manuscripts.

Paragraph 2
Increased paper production in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the first stage in
the rapid growth of manuscript books — hand-copied works bound as books — which in turn
led to the invention of mechanical printing. Papermaking came to Europe from China via
Arab intermediaries. By the fourteenth century, paper mills were operating in Italy, producing
paper that was much more fragile but much cheaper than parchment or vellum, animal skins
that Europeans had previously used for writing. To produce paper, old rags were soaked in a
chemical solution, beaten by mallets into a pulp, washed with water, treated, and dried in
sheets—a method that still produces good-quality paper today.

Paragraph 3
By the fifteenth century, a brisk industry in manuscript books was flourishing in Europe's
university towns and major cities. Production was in the hands of merchants called
stationers, who supplied materials, arranged contracts for book production, and organized
workshops known as scriptoria, where the manuscripts were copied, and acted as retail
booksellers. The largest stationers, in Paris and Florence, were extensive operations by
fifteenth-century standards. The Florentine Vespasiano da Bisticci, for example, created a
library for Cosimo de’ Medici, the head of Florence’ s leading family, by employing 45
copyists to complete 200 volumes in 22 months. Nonetheless, bookmaking in scriptoria was
slow and expensive.
Development of Printing
21. The author mentions Vespasiano da Bisticci‖ in order to emphasize
(A) the process by which stationers obtained the necessary materials for book production
(B) the equal importance of Florence and Paris in the rapidly developing book industry
(C) the superiority of Florentine libraries to those in other European cities
(D) that making books was a commercial enterprise in Europe before the invention of
printing

Some historians argue that the invention of mechanical printing gave rise to a
communications revolution as significant as, for example, the widespread use of the
personal computer today. The multiplication of standardized texts altered the thinking habits
of Europeans by freeing individuals from having to memorize everything they learned; it
certainly made possible the speedy and inexpensive dissemination of knowledge. It created a

108
wilder community of scholars, no longer dependent on personal patronage or church
sponsorship for texts. Printing facilitated the free expression and exchange of ideas, and its
disruptive potential did not go unnoticed by political and church authorities. Emperors and
bishops in Germany, the homeland of the printing industry, moved quickly to issue
censorship regulations.
Development of Printing
22. The author mentions the personal computer in the passage in order to
(A) compare the importance of the development of mechanical printing to the development
of the computer
(B) contrast the superiority of communications technology in the modern era to that of the
fifteenth century
(C) emphasize the sophisticated social and economic growth of fifteenth-century society
(D) emphasize the conflicting views of historians about the significance of new technologies

Just why is locomotion so cheap for a fish? The main reason is that the water supports most
of the body weight of such a swimmer, so all the animal needs to do to swim is to produce
enough force to overcome the drag of its own body. Most aquatic animals have nearly the
same density as the water in which they swim, so they do almost no work to support their
weight against gravity. However, swimming is cheap only for those animals well adapted to
swimming completely submerged. When animals such as ducks and muskrat swim on the
surface, they use two or three times more energy to swim on the surface than when
submerged, and as much as twenty times more energy than fish of a similar size. This is

109
because of what is called the "bow wave": any object moving on the surface of water pushes
up a bow wave at the front, which streams alongside and trails back. Boat designers have
long known that the bigger the bow wave, the harder it is to push a boat through the water.
The bow wave produces extra drag on anybody moving on the surface of water. An animal
swimming on the surface of the water uses extra energy in order to overcome drag. Thus, for
our purposes, efficient "swimming" means underwater locomotion by animals with
streamlined bodies, not the exhausting, inefficient locomotion of humans in swimming
pools.
Forms of Locomotion
23. What is the author's purpose in mentioning "Boat designers" in a discussion of the
amount of energy used in swimming?
(A) To illustrate the point that large animals are not efficient swimmers because they produce
very large bow waves
(B) To make a comparison between the type of drag produced by the bow wave and the type
produced by an animal's weight
(C) To suggest that boat designers could design better boats if they studied locomotion in
animals
(D) To apply a principle used in boat design to further illustrate why surface swimming is
inefficient

Although the subsidence theory links all three reef types in a successional sequence, not all
barrier reefs and fringing reefs can be explained by this mechanism. Indeed, the reasons
barrier and fringing reef types occur around continental margins and high nonvolcanic
islands are simply that these areas offer suitable environmental conditions for the growth of
reefs and a suitable substrate (surface) on which to begin growth. The extensive reefs
around the Indonesian Islands, the Philippines, New Guinea, Fiji, and most of the
Caribbean Islands are there because a suitable substrate in shallow water existed on which
they could initiate growth. In none of these areas are large land areas subsiding, nor will
these reefs ultimately become atolls.

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 The Origin of Coral Reefs
24. In paragraph 4, why does the author discuss the reefs around the Indonesian Islands,
the Philippines, New Guinea, Fiji, and the Caribbean Islands?
(A) To argue that these islands have suitable environmental conditions for subsidence
(B) To support the claim that the subsidence theory cannot explain the formation of all
barrier and fringing reefs
(C) To indicate how different barrier and fringing reefs could be from atolls
(D) To identify reefs that grow around nonvolcanic islands

Nearly five billion years ago, some external influence, such as a shock wave traveling from a
catastrophic explosion (supernova), may have triggered the collapse of this huge cloud of
gases and minute grains of heavier elements, causing the cloud to begin to slowly contract
due to the gravitational interactions among its particles. As this slowly spiraling nebula
contracted, it rotated faster and faster for the same reason ice-skaters do when they draw
their arms toward their bodies. Eventually, the inward pull of gravity came into balance with
the outward force caused by the rotational motion of the nebula. By this time the once vast
cloud had assumed a flat disk shape with a large concentration of material at its center,
called the protosun (pre-Sun). Astronomers are fairly confident that the nebular cloud
formed a disk because similar structures have been detected around other stars.
Origin of the Solar System
25. In paragraph 2, why does the author describe how ice-skaters use their arms to increase
their speed of rotation?
(A) To help describe the armlike structures on a spiraling nebula
(B) To help explain why a nebula rotates faster when it contracts
(C) To show why spinning ice-skaters are not pulled down by gravity
(D) To show how the motion of a nebula differs from that of an ice-skater

In Greek and Roman civilizations, parks were associated with spirituality, public recreation,
and city living. Greek philosophers pondered the meaning of nature and its innermost
workings, the relationships between animals and humankind, and how matter related to
spirit. The philosophy of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) advanced the fundamental notion of nature
as the embodiment of everything outside culture, an essence opposed to art and artificiality.
This sense of nature and culture as distinct opposites continues to govern ideas about the
environment and society today. Meanwhile, the suggestion of a state of nature, wholesome
and pure, defined in opposition to civilized life, found acceptance in Aristotle's time through
the concept of the Golden Age — a legendary ideal that had significance for landscape
planning and artistic experiment. Described by Greek poets and playwrights, the Golden Age
of perpetual spring depicted an era before the adoption of agriculture, when humans
embraced nature's wonder and communicated with spirits in sacred woods. In The Odyssey

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(800 B.C.), Homer, the great Greek writer, described a garden that was a place of constant
productivity, where "fruit never fails nor runs short, winter and summer alike."
Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
26. In paragraph 1, why does the author include the quotation from The Odyssey?
(A) To support the idea that modern ideas about nature have not changed much since the
ancient Greeks
(B) To contrast Homer's ideas about nature with those of Aristotle
(C) To argue that the adoption of agriculture advanced Greek culture
(D) To give an example of an ancient Greek description of the Golden Age

Chapter 9 Prose Summary

· An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete
the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas
in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas
that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is
worth 2 points.

[An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage.]

(A) (B)
(C) (D)
(E) (F)

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 1. Lenape Horticulture

Paragraph 1
Older scholarship on Native Americans assumed that, at the time of their first contact with
Europeans, Native Americans in the northeastern United States were farmers whose main
food source was maize (corn). This view was based on evidence of extensive fields inland. It
was also consistent with reports from early European explorers, including Henry Hudson who
sailed for the Dutch, about trading with Native Americans for "Turkish wheat," the explorers'
term for maize. However, in the 1970s a persuasive archaeologist, Lynn Ceci, challenged this
orthodoxy. She argued that for the people living in coastal New York, such as the Lenape
occupying Manhattan Island when Dutch explorers arrived in the early seventeenth century,
the environment was so abundant with resources that horticulture was an adjunct to the
diet, not the primary source of calories. She argued along several lines of evidence. First, she

113
noted that "flotation tests" – in which prehistoric fire pits are flooded with water – caused
relatively few seeds and corn kernels to float to the surface in coastal sites compared to
inland sites. Second, she argued that the soils in coastal regions, generally sandy and rocky,
are not particularly productive and would require a lot of work to cultivate (an observation
also noted by the Dutch). Third, she argued from ecological evidence that it really was not
necessary for coastal people to adopt an agricultural way of life, given the year-round
abundance of shellfish, fish, mammals, nuts, and berries. Other archaeologists corroborated
these views by testing Lenape bones from local archaeological sites and showing that the
Lenape primarily ate local plants, not maize, and a lot of seafood, and were generally
healthy. (Adopting agriculture often leads to a reduction in the health of a population.)

Paragraph 2
Research has added a couple of twists to Ceci's hypothesis. A Columbia University student
used a modern crop model to simulate maize horticulture on Manhattan, using
representative soil types, climate, and maize varieties. He found that when maize was grown
by itself, productivity was uneven, and there was a modest but significant probability of total
crop failure each year. Soil nitrogen levels appeared to be the limiting factor. But the Lenape
did not plant maize in monoculture (as a single crop), rather they practiced team planting
(also known as multicropping); that is, they grew maize in combination with beans and
squash – the traditional "three sisters" garden.

Paragraph 3
Beginning in late April, Lenape men cleared a plot of land by cutting down the large trees and
burning the vegetation. Burning fertilized the soil with ash, which promoted plant growth by
changing the soil chemistry from acidic to alkaline, releasing more nutrients. In early May the
women created mounds and planted maize kernels saved from the year before. A few weeks
later, they planted beans along the sides of the mounds and squash between them. Over the
course of the summer, the beans climbed up the maize stalks, using the six-foot stems as a
ladder to reach the sun; in the meantime, the beans, which have nitrogen-fixing nodules on
their roots, transformed nitrogen from the atmosphere into a natural fertilizer, which fed the
maize and the beans. The squash, growing its large green leaves between the mounds, kept
the weeds down and held in soil moisture between rain showers (the Lenape did not practice
irrigation). Crops were harvested from late summer until first frost, usually in October.

Paragraph 4
Modern crop models are generally not written to include team planting, because they
assume monocultures, but they will accept inputs of fertilizer. Researchers simulated
nitrogen inputs from bean plants at three different levels and showed that even modest
nitrogen support increased maize productivity, and, more importantly, enhanced the
consistency of the crop. In model simulations by researchers, maize rarely failed when grown
with beans. Productivity, though, was still generally low, at about 700-2,300 kilograms per
hectare.

Paragraph 5

114
How many people that level of productivity would feed depends, of course, on how large the
fields were. As mentioned, gardening was a woman's responsibility, but women had many
other tasks that would limit their time in the garden. The Lenape were not immune to the
human-wildlife conflicts that bedevil suburban gardeners today – deer, squirrels, raccoons,
and assorted other wildlife were pests in the fields. Keeping the animals out required
diligence throughout the growing season.

Paragraph 1
Older scholarship on Native Americans assumed that, at the time of their first contact with
Europeans, Native Americans in the northeastern United States were farmers whose main
food source was maize (corn). This view was based on evidence of extensive fields inland. It
was also consistent with reports from early European explorers, including Henry Hudson who
sailed for the Dutch, about trading with Native Americans for "Turkish wheat," the explorers'
term for maize. However, in the 1970s a persuasive archaeologist, Lynn Ceci, challenged this
orthodoxy. She argued that for the people living in coastal New York, such as the Lenape
occupying Manhattan Island when Dutch explorers arrived in the early seventeenth century,
the environment was so abundant with resources that horticulture was an adjunct to the
diet, not the primary source of calories. She argued along several lines of evidence. First, she
noted that "flotation tests" – in which prehistoric fire pits are flooded with water – caused
relatively few seeds and corn kernels to float to the surface in coastal sites compared to
inland sites. Second, she argued that the soils in coastal regions, generally sandy and rocky,
are not particularly productive and would require a lot of work to cultivate (an observation
also noted by the Dutch). Third, she argued from ecological evidence that it really was not
necessary for coastal people to adopt an agricultural way of life, given the year-round
abundance of shellfish, fish, mammals, nuts, and berries. Other archaeologists corroborated

115
these views by testing Lenape bones from local archaeological sites and showing that the
Lenape primarily ate local plants, not maize, and a lot of seafood, and were generally
healthy. (Adopting agriculture often leads to a reduction in the health of a population.)

1. The word "persuasive" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) convincing
(B) important
(C) ambitious
(D) brilliant

2. The word "corroborated" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) developed
(B) spread
(C) examined
(D) confirmed

3. According to paragraph 1, Ceci considered all of the following facts to be evidence that
maize was less important on the coast EXCEPT:
(A) Old fire pits along the coast reveal few traces of seeds and maize.
(B) The soil along the coast was not well suited for growing maize.
(C) Many different sources of food were available on the coast.
(D) Maize fields on the coast were frequently flooded with water.

Paragraph 2
Research has added a couple of twists to Ceci's hypothesis. A Columbia University student
used a modern crop model to simulate maize horticulture on Manhattan, using
representative soil types, climate, and maize varieties. He found that when maize was grown
by itself, productivity was uneven, and there was a modest but significant probability of total
crop failure each year. Soil nitrogen levels appeared to be the limiting factor. But the Lenape
did not plant maize in monoculture (as a single crop), rather they practiced team planting
(also known as multicropping); that is, they grew maize in combination with beans and
squash – the traditional "three sisters" garden.

4. According to paragraph 2, the modern crop model was not an accurate simulation of
Lenape agriculture because
(A) the type of maize used in the model was not the same as Lenape maize
(B) the soil on Manhattan was different from the soil types used by the Lenape
(C) the model used only one type of plant but the Lenape used several types of plants
(D) the climate of Manhattan is no longer appropriate for growing Lenape maize

Paragraph 3
Beginning in late April, Lenape men cleared a plot of land by cutting down the large trees and
burning the vegetation. Burning fertilized the soil with ash, which promoted plant growth by

116
changing the soil chemistry from acidic to alkaline, releasing more nutrients. In early May the
women created mounds and planted maize kernels saved from the year before. A few weeks
later, they planted beans along the sides of the mounds and squash between them. Over the
course of the summer, the beans climbed up the maize stalks, using the six-foot stems as a
ladder to reach the sun; in the meantime, the beans, which have nitrogen-fixing nodules
on their roots, transformed nitrogen from the atmosphere into a natural fertilizer, which
fed the maize and the beans. The squash, growing its large green leaves between the
mounds, kept the weeds down and held in soil moisture between rain showers (the Lenape
did not practice irrigation). Crops were harvested from late summer until first frost, usually in
October.

5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) The maize relied on the stems to reach the sun and on the beans for fertilizer.
(B) The beans turned atmospheric nitrogen into a natural fertilizer for the maize.
(C) The beans and maize were able to grow in areas with sun and natural fertilizer.
(D) The maize helped the beans reach the sun while the beans fertilized the maize.

Paragraph 3
Beginning in late April, Lenape men cleared a plot of land by cutting down the large trees and
burning the vegetation. Burning fertilized the soil with ash, which promoted plant growth by
changing the soil chemistry from acidic to alkaline, releasing more nutrients. In early May the
women created mounds and planted maize kernels saved from the year before. A few weeks
later, they planted beans along the sides of the mounds and squash between them. Over the
course of the summer, the beans climbed up the maize stalks, using the six-foot stems as a
ladder to reach the sun; in the meantime, the beans, which have nitrogen-fixing nodules on
their roots, transformed nitrogen from the atmosphere into a natural fertilizer, which fed the
maize and the beans. The squash, growing its large green leaves between the mounds, kept
the weeds down and held in soil moisture between rain showers (the Lenape did not practice
irrigation). Crops were harvested from late summer until first frost, usually in October.

6. According to paragraph 3, men made which of the following contributions to Lenape plant
cultivation?
(A) They planted maize seeds.
(B) They created ash that fertilized the soil.
(C) They removed weeds from around the crops.
(D) They improved soil moisture with irrigation.

7. Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about squash grown on Lenape fields?
(A) It increased the availability of water for the maize and beans.

117
(B) It was usually planted in late April.
(C) It led to increasing weeds.
(D) It needed irrigation in order to grow successfully.

Paragraph 5
How many people that level of productivity would feed depends, of course, on how large the
fields were. As mentioned, gardening was a woman's responsibility, but women had many
other tasks that would limit their time in the garden. The Lenape were not immune to the
human-wildlife conflicts that bedevil suburban gardeners today – deer, squirrels, raccoons,
and assorted other wildlife were pests in the fields. Keeping the animals out required
diligence throughout the growing season.

8. In paragraph 5, why does the author mention that Lenape women had to perform tasks
other than gardening?
(A) To suggest that Lenape women were treated unfairly
(B) To challenge the belief that gardening was a woman's responsibility
(C) To provide a factor that limited the total amount of food grown on Lenape fields
(D) To demonstrate that Lenape gardening was similar to modern gardening

Paragraph 1
Older scholarship on Native Americans assumed that, at the time of their first contact with
Europeans, Native Americans in the northeastern United States were farmers whose main
food source was maize (corn). This view was based on evidence of extensive fields inland. It
was also consistent with reports from early European explorers, including Henry Hudson who
sailed for the Dutch, about trading with Native Americans for "Turkish wheat," the explorers'
term for maize. However, in the 1970s a persuasive archaeologist, Lynn Ceci, challenged this
orthodoxy. 【 A 】 She argued that for the people living in coastal New York, such as the
Lenape occupying Manhattan Island when Dutch explorers arrived in the early seventeenth
century, the environment was so abundant with resources that horticulture was an adjunct
to the diet, not the primary source of calories. She argued along several lines of evidence.
First, she noted that "flotation tests" – in which prehistoric fire pits are flooded with water –
caused relatively few seeds and corn kernels to float to the surface in coastal sites compared
to inland sites.【B】Second, she argued that the soils in coastal regions, generally sandy and
rocky, are not particularly productive and would require a lot of work to cultivate (an
observation also noted by the Dutch).【C】Third, she argued from ecological evidence that
it really was not necessary for coastal people to adopt an agricultural way of life, given the
year-round abundance of shellfish, fish, mammals, nuts, and berries. 【 D 】 Other
archaeologists corroborated these views by testing Lenape bones from local archaeological
sites and showing that the Lenape primarily ate local plants, not maize, and a lot of seafood,
and were generally healthy. (Adopting agriculture often leads to a reduction in the health of
a population.)

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.

118
If maize had been the main food source for the Lenape, Ceci reasoned, more remains of
corn should have risen to the top.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

The Lenape of Manhattan changed their environment through horticulture and fire.

Early Dutch and English explorers adapted Historians long believed that groups of
Lenape methods of growing maize in order Native Americans such as the Lenape ate
to provide a food source for settlers in inland primarily maize, but recent research has
areas. shown that the Lenape actually ate relatively
little maize.
Crop models have shown that the Lenape The methods that the Lenape used to
"three sisters" horticulture on Manhattan practice horticulture, such as burning
produced a significant probability of crop vegetation and planting different crops at
failure because of low nitrogen levels in the different times, reduced nutrients in the soil
soil. and kept productivity low.
The Lenape did not rely primarily on The mixture of crops grown by the Lenape
horticulture for food, but they did grow helped sustain overall agricultural
beans, squash, and maize on Manhattan. production, although keeping wildlife out of
the fields was a problem.

119
 2. Mites and Their Hosts

Paragraph 1
Mites are small arthropods (the order of invertebrates that includes insects, spiders, and
crustaceans) related to ticks and spiders. Because of their small size – many are nearly
microscopic – mites are particularly well-suited to parasitic lifestyles, and many of them live
on other animals. There are many varieties of parasitic mites, and some can be highly
destructive to their hosts. Varroa destructor, for example, is a mite that lives in honeybee
colonies and feeds on the hemolymph (a bodily fluid that plays the role of blood in insects)
of the bees. This mite is thought to be partly responsible for colony collapse disorder, a
phenomenon in which honeybee colonies around the world are failing.

Paragraph 2
Other mites, however, live in commensal or symbiotic relationships with their hosts. In a
commensal relationship, one organism benefits without harming the other, whereas in a
symbiotic relationship, both organisms benefit from each other. One species of mites, for
instance, lives on cockroaches and feeds on the saliva they leave behind after feeding and
grooming (cleaning the antennae); this is an example of a commensal relationship. Scientists
suspect that many species of feather mites, which customarily inhabit the feathers of birds,
have symbiotic relationships with their hosts. Examinations of the contents of feather mite
stomachs have revealed mostly fungal spores, rather than bird cells; scientists hypothesize
that feather mites protect their hosts by eating fungi that could otherwise infect their
feathers.

Paragraph 3
In some cases, it is difficult to ascertain whether a mite is a parasite or whether it lives

120
commensally or symbiotically with its host. A number of animals, including several species of
bees and wasps, have special flaps of skin called "mite pockets," which are normally
inhabited by large numbers of mites. Because the mite pockets cost resources to produce,
and because they seem to be adapted to the purpose of housing mites, scientists initially
assumed that the mites that lived in these pockets must benefit their hosts in some way. One
problem with this supposition is that in many cases, mites fail to provide a benefit that can
be directly observed. Some carpenter bees, for instance, have mite pocket but do not seem
to suffer any ill effects when their mites are removed. Nevertheless, it is possible that some
mites confer a benefit that would not be observable in the laboratory. For instance, mites
might very slightly increase their hosts’ likelihood of survival or reproduction – such an effect
would be significant over thousands of years, but might not be discernible by human
observers. Alternatively, the mites might provide protection against some harmful stimulus
that is only occasionally present – they might prevent their hosts from being infected by a
particular fungus, for instance, that does not occur in laboratory tests.

Paragraph 4
However, scientists studying the wasp Ancistrocerus antilope made a discovery that posed a
more serious problem. A. antilope adults have mite pockets, and the wasps are accompanied
by mites throughout their entire life cycle. Scientists were surprised to discover that the A.
antilope larvae (young insects) attacked and killed the mites living alongside them. In light of
this discovery, scientists have developed an alternative hypothesis about mite pockets.
According to this hypothesis, the mites that live in these pockets are parasitic rather than
symbiotic. The purpose of the mite pockets is to encourage mites to live in particular areas,
where they will do less damage than if they roamed freely around the host. Scientists have
pointed to similar mite pockets found on geckos and other lizards to support this hypothesis.
The skin in these mite pockets is particularly rich in lymph cells, a preferred food source for
mites. It is also unusually elastic and resistant to damage, and it heals more quickly than skin
on other parts of the gecko.

Paragraph 5
Some evolutionary biologists have hypothesized that parasitic mites will tend to evolve to
become commensal or symbiotic. Parasitic mites run the risk of killing their hosts, which
would deprive them of their food source. Additionally, hosts are less likely to employ
defensive mechanisms, like scratching or preening (cleaning feathers), against beneficial or
harmless mite. In the future, it may be possible to test this hypothesis by determining when
particular species of mites evolved; if the hypothesis is correct, then parasitic mite species
will tend to be of more recent evolutionary origin.

121
Paragraph 1
Mites are small arthropods (the order of invertebrates that includes insects, spiders, and
crustaceans) related to ticks and spiders. Because of their small size – many are nearly
microscopic – mites are particularly well-suited to parasitic lifestyles, and many of them live
on other animals. There are many varieties of parasitic mites, and some can be highly
destructive to their hosts. Varroa destructor, for example, is a mite that lives in honeybee
colonies and feeds on the hemolymph (a bodily fluid that plays the role of blood in insects)
of the bees. This mite is thought to be partly responsible for colony collapse disorder, a
phenomenon in which honeybee colonies around the world are failing.

1. According to paragraph 1, a mite species may have contributed to bee colony failures
around the world by
(A) introducing parasites that normally live on mites to bee colonies
(B) feeding on a particular body fluid of bees
(C) eliminating microscopic arthropods that play a role in bee colonies
(D) attacking bee colonies that are resistant to colony collapse disorder

122
Paragraph 2
Other mites, however, live in commensal or symbiotic relationships with their hosts. In a
commensal relationship, one organism benefits without harming the other, whereas in a
symbiotic relationship, both organisms benefit from each other. One species of mites, for
instance, lives on cockroaches and feeds on the saliva they leave behind after feeding and
grooming (cleaning the antennae); this is an example of a commensal relationship. Scientists
suspect that many species of feather mites, which customarily inhabit the feathers of birds,
have symbiotic relationships with their hosts. Examinations of the contents of feather mite
stomachs have revealed mostly fungal spores, rather than bird cells; scientists hypothesize
that feather mites protect their hosts by eating fungi that could otherwise infect their
feathers.

2. According to paragraph 2, why is the relationship between a species of mites and

cockroaches an example of a commensal relationship?
(A) The mites help the cockroaches with grooming but do not get any benefits.
(B) The cockroaches' saliva cleans the mites without the cockroaches benefiting in turn.
(C) The cockroaches' saliva provides food for the mites without the mites harming the
cockroaches in any way.
(D) The mites help groom the cockroaches and in turn get to feed on the cockroaches’ saliva.

3. In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss the contents of feather mite stomachs?
(A) To indicate that both mites and fungi often infect the feathers of birds
(B) To argue that mites and fungi have a symbiotic relationship
(C) To provide evidence for scientists' suspicion that feather mites benefit the birds they live
on
(D) To show that different species of mites have different eating habits

123
Paragraph 3
In some cases, it is difficult to ascertain whether a mite is a parasite or whether it lives
commensally or symbiotically with its host. A number of animals, including several species of
bees and wasps, have special flaps of skin called "mite pockets," which are normally
inhabited by large numbers of mites. Because the mite pockets cost resources to produce,
and because they seem to be adapted to the purpose of housing mites, scientists initially
assumed that the mites that lived in these pockets must benefit their hosts in some way. One
problem with this supposition is that in many cases, mites fail to provide a benefit that can
be directly observed. Some carpenter bees, for instance, have mite pocket but do not seem
to suffer any ill effects when their mites are removed. Nevertheless, it is possible that some
mites confer a benefit that would not be observable in the laboratory. For instance, mites
might very slightly increase their hosts’ likelihood of survival or reproduction – such an effect
would be significant over thousands of years, but might not be discernible by human
observers. Alternatively, the mites might provide protection against some harmful stimulus
that is only occasionally present – they might prevent their hosts from being infected by a
particular fungus, for instance, that does not occur in laboratory tests.

4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) The harm to the mites’ hosts might not be caused by the mites but by a particular fungus
or other stimulus.
(B) Perhaps the mites provide protection against a fungus or other stimulus not found in
laboratory tests.
(C) Some harmful stimulus is only occasionally present in the mites’ hosts but does not occur
in laboratory tests.
(D) A particular fungus might occasionally infect the mites’ hosts, but the mites might
provide protection against some other harmful stimulus.

5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about mite pockets?
(A) Carpenter bees need relatively few resources to produce mite pockets.
(B) A host animal is harmed if all the mites are removed from its mite pockets.
(C) Mite pockets are now generally believed to hold only commensal mites.
(D) Mite pockets have no obvious function other than housing mites.

124
Paragraph 4
However, scientists studying the wasp Ancistrocerus antilope made a discovery that posed a
more serious problem. A. antilope adults have mite pockets, and the wasps are accompanied
by mites throughout their entire life cycle. Scientists were surprised to discover that the A.
antilope larvae (young insects) attacked and killed the mites living alongside them. In light of
this discovery, scientists have developed an alternative hypothesis about mite pockets.
According to this hypothesis, the mites that live in these pockets are parasitic rather than
symbiotic. The purpose of the mite pockets is to encourage mites to live in particular areas,
where they will do less damage than if they roamed freely around the host. Scientists have
pointed to similar mite pockets found on geckos and other lizards to support this hypothesis.
The skin in these mite pockets is particularly rich in lymph cells, a preferred food source for
mites. It is also unusually elastic and resistant to damage, and it heals more quickly than skin
on other parts of the gecko.

6. The word "posed" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) illustrated
(B) presented
(C) solved
(D) caused

7. According to paragraph 4, what were scientists surprised to discover about Ancistrocerus

antilope?
(A) During their larval stage, Ancistrocerus antilope destroyed the mites around them.
(B) Ancistrocerus antilope did not have mite pockets, despite being populated by many
mites.
(C) Ancistrocerus antilope benefited from mites only during the later stages of their life cycle.
(D) Mites attacked and killed the larvae of Ancistrocerus antilope.

125
Paragraph 5
Some evolutionary biologists have hypothesized that parasitic mites will tend to evolve to
become commensal or symbiotic. Parasitic mites run the risk of killing their hosts, which
would deprive them of their food source. Additionally, hosts are less likely to employ
defensive mechanisms, like scratching or preening (cleaning feathers), against beneficial or
harmless mite. In the future, it may be possible to test this hypothesis by determining when
particular species of mites evolved; if the hypothesis is correct, then parasitic mite species
will tend to be of more recent evolutionary origin.

8. According to paragraph 5, which TWO of the following explain why some evolutionary
biologists hypothesized that parasitic mites will tend to evolve to become commensal or
symbiotic? To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.
(A) Mites could lose their food source if they continue to endanger their hosts.
(B) Hosts that benefit or suffer no particular harm from mites do not try to get rid of them.
(C) The defensive mechanisms employed by hosts have mostly eliminated harmful mite
species.
(D) Evidence suggests that mites of more recent evolutionary origin are less likely to be
parasitic.

126
Paragraph 3
In some cases, it is difficult to ascertain whether a mite is a parasite or whether it lives
commensally or symbiotically with its host. 【 A 】 A number of animals, including several
species of bees and wasps, have special flaps of skin called "mite pockets," which are
normally inhabited by large numbers of mites.【B】Because the mite pockets cost resources
to produce, and because they seem to be adapted to the purpose of housing mites, scientists
initially assumed that the mites that lived in these pockets must benefit their hosts in some
way.【C】One problem with this supposition is that in many cases, mites fail to provide a
benefit that can be directly observed. 【 D 】 Some carpenter bees, for instance, have mite
pocket but do not seem to suffer any ill effects when their mites are removed. Nevertheless,
it is possible that some mites confer a benefit that would not be observable in the
laboratory. For instance, mites might very slightly increase their hosts’ likelihood of survival
or reproduction–such an effect would be significant over thousands of years, but might not
be discernible by human observers. Alternatively, the mites might provide protection against
some harmful stimulus that is only occasionally present–they might prevent their hosts from
being infected by a particular fungus, for instance, that does not occur in laboratory tests.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Observations about certain animals and the mites they carry demonstrate why scientists
are sometimes unable to determine the exact nature of the relationship between mites
and their hosts.
Where would the sentence best fit?

127
10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Mites are tiny arthropods that often live on other animals in parasitic, commensal, or
symbiotic relationships.

Parasitic mites may be contributing to the It is unclear whether some hosts have
loss of honeybee colonies around the world, evolved mite pockets to provide a home for
but some other types of mites do no harm or mites that are beneficial or to restrict
even provide benefits such as prevention of harmful mites to a more protected area of
fungal infections. the host's body.
Scientists determined that mites live in Scientists have proposed a number of
parasitic, commensal, or symbiotic hypotheses about mites, but none
relationships depending on whether their adequately explains why they evolved
hosts are birds, insects, or lizards, parasitic, commensal, or symbiotic
respectively. relationships with their various hosts.
It can be difficult to tell which type of Some biologists have hypothesized that
relationship mites have with their hosts, and mites that have evolved to avoid defensive
it is possible that as a mite species evolves, measures such as scratching are of more
its relationship with its host species may recent evolutionary origin than those that
change. have not.

3. Tidal Heating on lo

128
Paragraph 1
To understand tidal heating, we must go back to when the twin spacecraft Voyager 1 and
Voyager 2 made close flybys of the moon lo, Jupiter's closest moon. lo had been a priority for
both Voyager spacecraft as a visit made five years earlier by another United States
spacecraft, Pioneer 11, hinted at a brightly colored yet undetermined surface. Astronomers
were intrigued, and the trajectories (paths in space) of both Voyager spacecraft were
conceived in such a way that close flybys of lo could be performed. When the high-resolution
images from the Voyager spacecraft came back, they revealed an active world, but unlike the
icy but active neighboring moon Europa, this one was hot. lo was a dream world for
volcanologists. The moon was peppered with volcan calderas and tall mountains, upon which
eruption plumes and lava flows, stained yellow and red by oxides of sulfur, would emerge.
Remarkably, the surface seemed not to have a single impact crater suggesting that the
moon's surface was continually being renewed by volcanic activity. lo had a lot of energy.

Paragraph 2
Finding such an active world lying far away from the Sun was astonishing and led to a hunt
for the source of lo's energy. The explanation came from a paper by Stanton Peale and his
colleagues published in the prestigious journal Science just a few days before Voyager 1's
arrival in the Jupiter system. The paper proposed that lo could be experiencing warming as it
orbits Jupiter in a noncircular orbit (elliptical orbit), which produces variations in the gravity
pull from the giant planet. This process was named tidal heating, and it didn't take long for
this new theory to be accepted by the scientific community as the primary heat source
driving lo's intense warming. What goes on inside lo can be easily demonstrated by using a
simple metal wire. If you flex one part of the wire backward and forward, it won’t take long
for heat to be felt in the bent part. The explanation is simple. Some of the kinetic energy was
transformed into heat through internal friction. A similar process also makes squash balls
warm after a match.

Paragraph 3
The reason behind lo's energy output is its elliptic orbit resulting from a phenomenon known
as orbital resonance, which locks each of Jupiter's four largest moons into a specific orbital
ratio around Jupiter. For every two orbits that lo takes around the planet, Europa takes
precisely one orbit. Due to orbital mechanics, both moons always come closest to each other
at the same location within their orbits, pulling lo closer to Europa, thus making its orbit
elliptical instead of circular. Elliptical orbits are measured by their eccentricity. The greater
the eccentricity, the more elliptical the orbit will be and vice versa.

Paragraph 4
Since lo's orbit around its giant parent planet is not a circular one but an elliptical one, the
moon will feel Jupiter's gravitational pull differently along its orbit. This is referred to as tidal
forces and is similar to the gravitational effect our Moon has on the seas and oceans of
earth. On lo, the tidal forces will be most influential during the moon's closest approach in
orbit (periapsis) and least during its furthest point (apoapsis). As it moves from periapsis to

129
apoapsis and back, the tidal forces pull lo at varying intensities, thus creating friction and
generating heat as the moon's interior repeatedly distorts and buckles.

Paragraph 5
Of course, many factors determine how much impact tidal forces can have on an object. The
size of the moon in relation to its parent planet as well as the distance of the moon 's orbit
will be determining factors. As importantly, the composition of the moon itself will dictate
how strongly it responds to these distortions. If the object is rocky, like our Moon, it will
distort far less than if it is made entirely of ice. By analyzing its orbit around Jupiter,
astronomers deduced that lo has roughly the same density as silicate rock, which means that
the inside of the moon must consist mainly of rocky material. This material is flexible enough
to be affected by Jupiter' s strong gravitational pull, but not so fragile as to be pulled apart by
it. Therefore, the rocky core and mantle get stretched in orbit, producing considerable heat
through friction, which fuels the volcanism on the surface.

Paragraph 1
To understand tidal heating, we must go back to when the twin spacecraft Voyager 1 and
Voyager 2 made close flybys of the moon lo, Jupiter's closest moon. lo had been a priority for
both Voyager spacecraft as a visit made five years earlier by another United States
spacecraft, Pioneer 11, hinted at a brightly colored yet undetermined surface. Astronomers
were intrigued, and the trajectories (paths in space) of both Voyager spacecraft were

130
conceived in such a way that close flybys of lo could be performed. When the high-resolution
images from the Voyager spacecraft came back, they revealed an active world, but unlike the
icy but active neighboring moon Europa, this one was hot. lo was a dream world for
volcanologists. The moon was peppered with volcan calderas and tall mountains, upon which
eruption plumes and lava flows, stained yellow and red by oxides of sulfur, would emerge.
Remarkably, the surface seemed not to have a single impact crater suggesting that the
moon's surface was continually being renewed by volcanic activity. lo had a lot of energy.

1. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about the voyager 1 and Voyager
2 spacecraft？
(A) They were the first United States spacecraft to have specially designed trajectories.
(B) They were designed to help scientists understand tidal heating.
(C) They were the first spacecraft to image the surface of Jupiter's closest moon, lo.
(D) Their flight plans were developed in part in response to the findings of Pioneer 11.

2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of the moon Io EXCEPT:
(A) It has a mountainous surface.
(B) Oxides of sulfur color its surface.
(C) Its surface is peppered with impact craters.
(D) Volcanic materials continuously renew its surface.

Paragraph 2
Finding such an active world lying far away from the Sun was astonishing and led to a hunt
for the source of lo's energy. The explanation came from a paper by Stanton Peale and his
colleagues published in the prestigious journal Science just a few days before Voyager 1's
arrival in the Jupiter system. The paper proposed that lo could be experiencing warming as it
orbits Jupiter in a noncircular orbit (elliptical orbit), which produces variations in the gravity
pull from the giant planet. This process was named tidal heating, and it didn't take long for
this new theory to be accepted by the scientific community as the primary heat source

131
driving lo's intense warming. What goes on inside lo can be easily demonstrated by using a
simple metal wire. If you flex one part of the wire backward and forward, it won’t take long
for heat to be felt in the bent part. The explanation is simple. Some of the kinetic energy was
transformed into heat through internal friction. A similar process also makes squash balls
warm after a match.

3. The word "prestigious" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) carefully reviewed
(B) respected
(C) widely distributed
(D) independent

4. In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss "metal wire" and "squash balls"?
(A) To help explain how tidal heating occurs on lo
(B) To demonstrate how Stanton Peale and his colleagues developed the theory of warming
on lo
(C) To suggest that objects made of completely different materials can experience internal
friction
(D) To help the reader understand the difference between a noncircular orbit and a circular
orbit

Paragraph 3
The reason behind lo's energy output is its elliptic orbit resulting from a phenomenon known
as orbital resonance, which locks each of Jupiter's four largest moons into a specific orbital
ratio around Jupiter. For every two orbits that lo takes around the planet, Europa takes
precisely one orbit. Due to orbital mechanics, both moons always come closest to each other
at the same location within their orbits, pulling lo closer to Europa, thus making its orbit
elliptical instead of circular. Elliptical orbits are measured by their eccentricity. The greater
the eccentricity, the more elliptical the orbit will be and vice versa.

132
5. According to paragraph 3, which TWO of the following are factors that contribute to lo's
elliptical orbit? To receive credit, you must select TWO answer choices
(A) lo being locked into a specific orbital ratio with three other moons
(B) lo taking a longer time than Europa to orbit Jupiter
(C) lo being pulled closer to Europa where the two moons come closest to each other
(D) lo's energy output increasing with its eccentricity

Paragraph 4
Since lo's orbit around its giant parent planet is not a circular one but an elliptical one, the
moon will feel Jupiter's gravitational pull differently along its orbit. This is referred to as tidal
forces and is similar to the gravitational effect our Moon has on the seas and oceans of
earth. On lo, the tidal forces will be most influential during the moon's closest approach in
orbit (periapsis) and least during its furthest point (apoapsis). As it moves from periapsis to
apoapsis and back, the tidal forces pull lo at varying intensities, thus creating friction and
generating heat as the moon's interior repeatedly distorts and buckles.

6. According to paragraph 4, lo's movement from periapsis to apoapsis results in which of the
following?
(A) lo experiences tidal forces of different strengths.
(B) lo's orbit becomes more elliptical over time.
(C) lo s orbit gets closer and closer to Jupiter.
(D) lo's effect on Jupiter becomes more like our Moon's effect on Earth's seas and oceans.

Paragraph 5
Of course, many factors determine how much impact tidal forces can have on an object. The
size of the moon in relation to its parent planet as well as the distance of the moon 's orbit
will be determining factors. As importantly, the composition of the moon itself will dictate
how strongly it responds to these distortions. If the object is rocky, like our Moon, it will
distort far less than if it is made entirely of ice. By analyzing its orbit around Jupiter,
astronomers deduced that lo has roughly the same density as silicate rock, which means that
the inside of the moon must consist mainly of rocky material. This material is flexible enough
to be affected by Jupiter' s strong gravitational pull, but not so fragile as to be pulled apart by
it. Therefore, the rocky core and mantle get stretched in orbit, producing considerable heat
through friction, which fuels the volcanism on the surface.

133
7. Paragraph 5 supports the idea that if lo were made of ice
(A) its orbit would be closer to Jupiter than it actually is
(B) it would distort considerably more than it actually does
(C) its response to distortions would more resemble that of our Moon than it actually does
(D) it would produce less heat than it actually does

8. According to paragraph 5, all of the following are factors that determine how much impact
tidal forces can have on a moon EXCEPT:
(A) The relative sizes of the moon and planet
(B) The distance of the moon's orbit from the planet
(C) What materials the moon is made of
(D) The amount of heat produced by other forces

Paragraph 1
To understand tidal heating, we must go back to when the twin spacecraft Voyager 1 and
Voyager 2 made close flybys of the moon lo, Jupiter's closest moon. 【 A 】 lo had been a
priority for both Voyager spacecraft as a visit made five years earlier by another United
States spacecraft, Pioneer 11, hinted at a brightly colored yet undetermined surface.
Astronomers were intrigued, and the trajectories (paths in space) of both Voyager spacecraft
were conceived in such a way that close flybys of lo could be performed. 【 B 】 When the
high-resolution images from the Voyager spacecraft came back, they revealed an active
world, but unlike the icy but active neighboring moon Europa, this one was hot. 【C】lo was
a dream world for volcanologists. 【D】The moon was peppered with volcan calderas and
tall mountains, upon which eruption plumes and lava flows, stained yellow and red by oxides
of sulfur, would emerge. Remarkably, the surface seemed not to have a single impact crater
suggesting that the moon's surface was continually being renewed by volcanic activity. lo had
a lot of energy.

134
9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
This was because of the concentration of highly active features on lo's surface.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

The images of lo that came back from the Voyager spacecraft revealed a volcanically active
world far from the sun.

Revelations about lo's surface made by the Differences in the way that lo experiences
Voyager spacecraft confirmed astronomers' Jupiter's gravitational pull during its orbit
ideas about volcanic activity on lo that were cause friction within lo, resulting in lo
based on observations made during earlier heating up.

135
spacecraft missions.
lo and Europa are two of Jupiter's four Tidal forces have a strong effect on lo's
largest moons, and their orbital relationship interior, producing heat and generating
creates conditions that contribute to volcanic activity on the surface of the moon.
warming within lo.
Scientists have described several phenomena By comparing lo s relationship to its parent
caused by the heating and volcanic activity planet, Jupiter, with that of our Moon to
on lo, with eccentricity identified as the most Earth, astronomers have been able to explain
important one. the impact of tidal forces on lo's volcanism.

4. The First Eyes

Paragraph 1
Putting a date on the first appearance of eyes depends on what one means by eye. If the
term refers to a multicellular organ, even if it has just a few cells, then by definition, eyes
could not form before there were multicellular animals. But many protists (animal-like,
plantlike, or fungus-like unicellular organisms that require a water-based environment) can
detect light by using aggregations of pigment molecules, and they use this information to
modify their metabolic activity or motility (the ability to move spontaneously and
independently). One of the familiar living examples, probably known to anyone who has
taken a biology class, is the aquatic protozoan Euglena, which has an eyespot near its motile
flagellum (hairlike structure). Some living protists are very like their ancestral forms
embedded in ancient sedimentary rocks, and this similarity suggests that the ability to detect
light and modify behavior in response to light has been around for a very long time. Animals
arose from one of such unicellular creatures, perhaps from one already specialized for a

136
primitive kind of vision.

Paragraph 2
An eye is a collection of cells that are specialized for light detection through the presence of
photosensitive pigment as well as a means of restricting the direction of incoming light that
will strike the photosensitive cells. This definition says nothing about image formation,
lenses, eye movements, or any of the other features we associate with our own eyes, but it
does recognize the simplest form of functional and anatomical specialisation namely,
detection of light. Everything else can be built up from this simple beginning, and some
animals appear to have had eyes almost from the beginning of the animal kingdom.

Paragraph 3
Animals were scarce 600 million years ago in the geological era called the Precambrian.
There are very few fossil remains from that time (though more keep turning up), and most
evidence of the presence of animals is indirect, such as small tunnels in rock that could be
ancient worm burrowings. But just 50 million years or so later, fossilized bits and pieces of
animals abound, suggesting that a great burst of evolutionary creativity occurred in the 50-
million-year interval. This surge of new life, marked by an abundance of animals, is called the
Cambrian explosion.

Paragraph 4
The first direct evidence for the early origin of eyes comes from fossils that are about 530
million years old, a time shortly after the Cambrian explosion; they were found on a
mountainside in British Columbia in a deposit known as the Burgess Shale. The Burgess Shale
fossils are extraordinarily important because among them are remains of soft-bodied
creatures, many of them lacking shells and other hard parts that fossilize easily.
Consequently, their preservation is little short of miraculous (as are the delicate methods
used to reconstruct three-dimensional structure from these flattened fossils), and they are
one of the few known repositories of early soft-bodied animals.

Paragraph 5
Not all of the Burgess animals had eyes. However, some did. (Gross features location, size,
and hemispheric shape are responsible for the designation of some structures as eyes). The
reconstructed eyes of these Burgess animals look superficially like eyes of some living
crustaceans, particularly those of shrimp and crabs whose eyes are mounted on stalks that
improve the range of vision by raising the eyes above the surface of the head. The eyes of
some Burgess organisms sat on stalks; those of others were on or a part of the body surface.
One animal, Opabinia, had five eyes: two lateral pairs and a single medial eye; at least one of
the lateral pairs had stalks that could have been movable. And some trilobite-like animals in
the Burgess Shale had faceted eyes much like those of later fossil trilobites.

Paragraph 6
Although the presence of eyes on some of the Burgess animals indicates that eyes have been
around for a very long time, it is unlikely that these were the first eyes; they seem much too

137
large and (potentially) well developed to be brand new inventions. The best we can do is put
the origin of eyes somewhere between the beginning of the Cambrian explosion, about 600
million years ago, and the death of the Burgess animals, some 530 million years ago.

Paragraph 1
Putting a date on the first appearance of eyes depends on what one means by eye. If the
term refers to a multicellular organ, even if it has just a few cells, then by definition, eyes
could not form before there were multicellular animals. But many protists (animal-like,
plantlike, or fungus-like unicellular organisms that require a water-based environment) can
detect light by using aggregations of pigment molecules, and they use this information to
modify their metabolic activity or motility (the ability to move spontaneously and
independently). One of the familiar living examples, probably known to anyone who has
taken a biology class, is the aquatic protozoan Euglena, which has an eyespot near its motile
flagellum (hairlike structure). Some living protists are very like their ancestral forms
embedded in ancient sedimentary rocks, and this similarity suggests that the ability to detect
light and modify behavior in response to light has been around for a very long time. Animals
arose from one of such unicellular creatures, perhaps from one already specialized for a
primitive kind of vision.

1. The word "aggregations" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) parts
(B) reactions
(C) groups
(D) types

138
2. According to paragraph 1, what have scientists concluded from the fact that some living
protists are very like their ancestral forms
(A) The eye did not evolve until multicellular organisms arose.
(B) The ability to detect light and change behavior in response to light has existed for a long
time.
(C) The ancestral forms of these living protists likely had an eyespot near the motile
flagellum.
(D) The ancestral forms of these living protists depended primarily on light as the mechanism
for modifying their metabolic activity or motility.

Paragraph 2
An eye is a collection of cells that are specialized for light detection through the presence of
photosensitive pigment as well as a means of restricting the direction of incoming light that
will strike the photosensitive cells. This definition says nothing about image formation,
lenses, eye movements, or any of the other features we associate with our own eyes, but it
does recognize the simplest form of functional and anatomical specialisation namely,
detection of light. Everything else can be built up from this simple beginning, and some
animals appear to have had eyes almost from the beginning of the animal kingdom.

3. Paragraph 2 implies which of the following about the early eyes

(A) They were able to detect simple movements almost from the beginning of their
evolution.
(B) They were not as sensitive to light as once thought.
(C) They could not form images.
(D) Their cells had more photosensitive pigment than do human eyes.

Paragraph 3
Animals were scarce 600 million years ago in the geological era called the Precambrian.
There are very few fossil remains from that time (though more keep turning up), and most
evidence of the presence of animals is indirect, such as small tunnels in rock that could be
ancient worm burrowings. But just 50 million years or so later, fossilized bits and pieces of

139
animals abound, suggesting that a great burst of evolutionary creativity occurred in the 50-
million-year interval. This surge of new life, marked by an abundance of animals, is called the
Cambrian explosion.

4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) There are few fossils from the Precambrian, though more keep turning up.
(B) Most evidence of animals in the fossil record is indirect and little of it is from the
Precambrian.
(C) Tunnels in Precambrian rocks that may have been made by worms provide indirect
evidence of these animals existing at that time.
(D) There are very few fossils of animals from the Precambrian and most evidence of animal
life from that period is indirect.

5. According to paragraph 3, the Cambrian period was characterized by

(A) a great abundance of animals
(B) a slow rate of animal extinction
(C) the rapid fossilization of animals
(D) an increase in the life span of some animals

Paragraph 4
The first direct evidence for the early origin of eyes comes from fossils that are about 530
million years old, a time shortly after the Cambrian explosion; they were found on a
mountainside in British Columbia in a deposit known as the Burgess Shale. The Burgess Shale
fossils are extraordinarily important because among them are remains of soft-bodied
creatures, many of them lacking shells and other hard parts that fossilize easily.
Consequently, their preservation is little short of miraculous (as are the delicate methods
used to reconstruct three-dimensional structure from these flattened fossils), and they are
one of the few known repositories of early soft-bodied animals.

6. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of the Burgess Shale EXCEPT:
(A) Its fossils were in a flattened condition when discovered.
(B) Its fossils provide direct evidence about the origin of eyes.
(C) It contains fossils of both Precambrian and Cambrian animals.
(D) It contains fossilized remains of soft-bodied organisms.

Paragraph 5
Not all of the Burgess animals had eyes. However, some did. (Gross features location, size,
and hemispheric shape are responsible for the designation of some structures as eyes). The
reconstructed eyes of these Burgess animals look superficially like eyes of some living
crustaceans, particularly those of shrimp and crabs whose eyes are mounted on stalks that
improve the range of vision by raising the eyes above the surface of the head. The eyes of
some Burgess organisms sat on stalks; those of others were on or a part of the body surface.

140
One animal, Opabinia, had five eyes: two lateral pairs and a single medial eye; at least one of
the lateral pairs had stalks that could have been movable. And some trilobite-like animals in
the Burgess Shale had faceted eyes much like those of later fossil trilobites.

7. Why does the author point out that "The eyes of some Burgess organisms sat on stalks"
(A) To suggest that some Burgess organisms had a greater range of vision than do living
shrimp and crabs
(B) To explain why it is thought that one of the lateral pairs of eyes in Opabinia may have
been movable
(C) To explain why the eyes of some Burgess animals were not recognizable as such before
they were reconstructed
(D) To support the statement that the reconstructed eyes of Burgess animals look
superficially like the eyes of some living crustaceans

Paragraph 6
Although the presence of eyes on some of the Burgess animals indicates that eyes have been
around for a very long time, it is unlikely that these were the first eyes; they seem much too
large and (potentially) well developed to be brand new inventions. The best we can do is put
the origin of eyes somewhere between the beginning of the Cambrian explosion, about 600
million years ago, and the death of the Burgess animals, some 530 million years ago.

8. Paragraph 6 suggests that the first eyes probably

(A) came into existence long before 600 million years ago
(B) came into existence at a late point in the Cambrian period
(C) existed before the animals of the Burgess Shale existed
(D) were larger than those of animals found in the Burgess Shale

Paragraph 5
Not all of the Burgess animals had eyes. 【A】However, some did. (Gross features location,
size, and hemispheric shape are responsible for the designation of some structures as eyes).
【B】The reconstructed eyes of these Burgess animals look superficially like eyes of some
living crustaceans, particularly those of shrimp and crabs whose eyes are mounted on stalks
that improve the range of vision by raising the eyes above the surface of the head.【C】The
eyes of some Burgess organisms sat on stalks; those of others were on or a part of the body
surface.【D】One animal, Opabinia, had five eyes: two lateral pairs and a single medial eye;
at least one of the lateral pairs had stalks that could have been movable. And some trilobite-
like animals in the Burgess Shale had faceted eyes much like those of later fossil trilobites.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Molaria spinifera and H. optata, both of which lived in water levels beyond the reach of

141
light, fit into this category.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

It is difficult for us to pinpoint when the first eyes appeared.

The ability of some unicellular organisms to The earliest eyes apparently contained
detect light and change their behavior molecules that were capable of forming and
accordingly suggests that eyes did not focusing images.
originate with multicellular animals.
Too few fossils from the Precambrian have Evidence from the Burgess Shale suggests
been found to determine which, if any, that eyes of some early animals were similar
Precambrian organisms had eyes. to the eyes of living crustaceans.
Fossil evidence suggests that organisms in The large size and possible complexity of the
the Burgess Shale with faceted eyes eyes of some organisms in the Burgess Shale
developed later than organisms in the suggest that their eyes were not the first
Burgess Shale with nonfaceted eyes. eyes.

142
 5. The Classic Mayan Collapse

Paragraph 1
The Classic Mayan civilization, located in the lowlands of present-day southern Mexico and
Central America, began a precipitous decline around A.D. 900. The majority of the people
abandoned their great urban centers, buildings were no longer kept up, and carved
monuments – a hallmark of the civilization – were no longer created. Various theories about
this collapse have been explored, such as invasion from foreigners, natural disaster, disease,
failure of agricultural techniques, and internal revolt, although it is a combination of factors
that probably constitutes the ultimate explanation.

Paragraph 2
When one looks at the remains of a city, it is difficult to determine why a building collapsed.
Whether caused by natural disaster, natural decay, or structural weakness, the rubble and
remains can look very similar. There is no historical record of earthquakes in the central
Mayan lowland area at the end of the Classic period, although some evidence suggests that
Mayan centers in the southern lowlands experienced earthquakes. Hurricanes can destroy
significant quantities of crops and are therefore another possibility; however, the effects of
both hurricanes and earthquakes are generally local and not so widespread as to cause the
abandonment of the entire lowlands. An ill-timed natural disaster certainly could have
compounded other problems brewing in Mayan civilization.

Paragraph 3
The possibility of drought throughout the area has also been considered and to date stands
as likely contributor to the collapse. Lake Chichancanab, located in the central Yucatan
Peninsula, is the largest closed-basin lake in the Yucatan. Studies of lake-bottom sediment
revealed that between A.D. 800 and A.D. 1000, the lake experienced its driest period in the
past 8,000 years, with aridity peaking in A.D. 922. These are useful findings indeed; however,
Lake Chichancanab represents only one area in the Mayan region and evidence for drought

143
in other regions needs to be examined.

Paragraph 4
Agricultural collapse is most likely to have been another important factor. Research done in
1985 shows an accumulation of silt in the lakes of the Peten region at the end of the tenth
century. An increase in sediment signifies an erosion of soil brought on by deforestation.
Slash-and-burn agriculture – a style of farming that requires clearing new plots of forest land
every two years – was probably the Maya's primary means of subsistence. It is a system of
agriculture requiring large amounts of land and resulting in deforestation. It is possible that
the Maya simply tapped their natural resources until none that were accessible were left.

Paragraph 5
As populations in the lowlands grew, additional methods of farming were developed, but the
number of people may have outweighed the capacity of the land, resulting in a food
shortage. Population studies of the Mayan area continue, but current general consensus puts
the numbers well into the millions. Some scientists say there was a conversion from diverse
agricultural management to the exclusive cultivation of maize, which concluded with the end
of the Classic period. The shift reflects the change in Mayan culture and in how the people
were managing their land, although it does not explain why the change came about. Once
the culture's resources were stressed, people were more vulnerable to the hardships of
natural disaster, poor health, and social chaos.

Paragraph 6
In addition, pottery, architecture, and sculpture in some Mayan centers changed significantly
at the end of the Classic period, suggesting a takeover by an outside or surrounding group.
Clear evidence of this kind of invasion has been found at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal,
although few other sites show such blatant signs. It is not understood exactly where the
invaders came from, but most likely they were from the surrounding Mexican states. Also
supporting this theory is the fact that the seafaring Putun Maya of Tabasco, Mexico, were in
power in the Yucatan peninsula by the post-classic period. Lowland centers whose success
depended on internal trade routes were no longer in the heart of the economic and political
action; as the Putun gained power, the focus of trade seems to have moved toward the
coasts. This could have pushed people to abandon their homeland, following the center of
commerce.

144
Paragraph 1
The Classic Mayan civilization, located in the lowlands of present-day southern Mexico and
Central America, began a precipitous decline around A.D. 900. The majority of the people
abandoned their great urban centers, buildings were no longer kept up, and carved
monuments – a hallmark of the civilization – were no longer created. Various theories about
this collapse have been explored, such as invasion from foreigners, natural disaster, disease,
failure of agricultural techniques, and internal revolt, although it is a combination of factors
that probably constitutes the ultimate explanation.

1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following indicated the collapse of Mayan

civilization around A.D. 900?
(A) The Maya stopped carving stone monuments.
(B) The Maya no longer explored foreign lands.
(C) Most of the Maya moved to urban centers.
(D) The Maya adopted foreign agricultural techniques.

Paragraph 2
When one looks at the remains of a city, it is difficult to determine why a building collapsed.
Whether caused by natural disaster, natural decay, or structural weakness, the rubble and
remains can look very similar. There is no historical record of earthquakes in the central
Mayan lowland area at the end of the Classic period, although some evidence suggests that
Mayan centers in the southern lowlands experienced earthquakes. Hurricanes can destroy
significant quantities of crops and are therefore another possibility; however, the effects of
both hurricanes and earthquakes are generally local and not so widespread as to cause the
abandonment of the entire lowlands. An ill-timed natural disaster certainly could have
compounded other problems brewing in Mayan civilization.

2. What point does the author want to make in paragraph 2 about earthquakes?
(A) Earthquakes were the most likely cause for the collapse of Classic Mayan civilization.
(B) It cannot be determined from examination of the remains of Mayan buildings whether or
not they were destroyed by earthquakes.
(C) The historical records of earthquakes in Mayan lowlands are not accurate.
(D) Many different earthquakes contributed to the abandonment of the entire Mayan
lowlands.

145
3. The word "compounded" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) outweighed
(B) created
(C) raised awareness to
(D) added to

Paragraph 3
The possibility of drought throughout the area has also been considered and to date stands
as likely contributor to the collapse. Lake Chichancanab, located in the central Yucatan
Peninsula, is the largest closed-basin lake in the Yucatan. Studies of lake-bottom sediment
revealed that between A.D. 800 and A.D. 1000, the lake experienced its driest period in the
past 8,000 years, with aridity peaking in A.D. 922. These are useful findings indeed; however,
Lake Chichancanab represents only one area in the Mayan region and evidence for drought
in other regions needs to be examined.

4. According to paragraph 3, what evidence is there that a drought contributed to the

collapse of Mayan civilization between A.D. 800 and A.D. 1000?
(A) The Maya constructed a large closed-basin lake in the Yucatan.
(B) There are indications of drought throughout Mayan territory.
(C) Studies of sediment taken from Lake Chichancanab show that there were very dry
periods.
(D) Drought is thought to have affected several other civilizations.

Paragraph 4
Agricultural collapse is most likely to have been another important factor. Research done in
1985 shows an accumulation of silt in the lakes of the Peten region at the end of the tenth
century. An increase in sediment signifies an erosion of soil brought on by deforestation.
Slash-and-burn agriculture – a style of farming that requires clearing new plots of forest land
every two years – was probably the Maya's primary means of subsistence. It is a system of
agriculture requiring large amounts of land and resulting in deforestation. It is possible that
the Maya simply tapped their natural resources until none that were accessible were left.

5. According to paragraph 4, what may have caused the collapse of Mayan agriculture?
(A) Mayan farming practices eventually made land unusable for agriculture.
(B) Mayan farmers were unable to find crops suited to the soil of the available land.
(C) Sediment from the lakes of the Peten region began to erode the soil on which Mayan
agriculture depended.
(D) The Maya developed other means of subsistence that made agriculture less important.

146
Paragraph 5
As populations in the lowlands grew, additional methods of farming were developed, but the
number of people may have outweighed the capacity of the land, resulting in a food
shortage. Population studies of the Mayan area continue, but current general consensus puts
the numbers well into the millions. Some scientists say there was a conversion from diverse
agricultural management to the exclusive cultivation of maize, which concluded with the end
of the Classic period. The shift reflects the change in Mayan culture and in how the people
were managing their land, although it does not explain why the change came about. Once
the culture's resources were stressed, people were more vulnerable to the hardships of
natural disaster, poor health, and social chaos.

6. The word "exclusive" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) late
(B) main
(C) sole
(D) intensive

7. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide information about Mayan population figures?
(A) To explain the effect of natural disaster on the Mayan population
(B) To support the claim that resources may have been scarce
(C) To indicate that overpopulation resulted in social chaos
(D) To illustrate the gradual decline in urban population

Paragraph 6
In addition, pottery, architecture, and sculpture in some Mayan centers changed significantly
at the end of the Classic period, suggesting a takeover by an outside or surrounding group.
Clear evidence of this kind of invasion has been found at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal,
although few other sites show such blatant signs. It is not understood exactly where the
invaders came from, but most likely they were from the surrounding Mexican states. Also
supporting this theory is the fact that the seafaring Putun Maya of Tabasco, Mexico, were in
power in the Yucatan peninsula by the post-classic period. Lowland centers whose success
depended on internal trade routes were no longer in the heart of the economic and political
action; as the Putun gained power, the focus of trade seems to have moved toward the
coasts. This could have pushed people to abandon their homeland, following the center of
commerce.

8. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the Maya by the post-
classic period?
(A) They had stopped creating pottery, architecture, and sculpture.
(B) They had replaced agriculture with seafaring as a means of survival.
(C) They depended on the Putun-controlled centers of commerce.

147
(D) They were moving to the coasts with a view to expanding their territory.
Paragraph 4
Agricultural collapse is most likely to have been another important factor. 【 A 】 Research
done in 1985 shows an accumulation of silt in the lakes of the Peten region at the end of the
tenth century. 【 B 】 An increase in sediment signifies an erosion of soil brought on by
deforestation. 【 C 】 Slash-and-burn agriculture – a style of farming that requires clearing
new plots of forest land every two years – was probably the Maya's primary means of
subsistence.【D】It is a system of agriculture requiring large amounts of land and resulting
in deforestation. It is possible that the Maya simply tapped their natural resources until none
that were accessible were left.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Some geological evidence suggests that the Maya were using up all their agricultural land.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Researchers have offered a variety of theories to explain the decline of the Mayan
civilization around A.D. 900.

Evidence taken from remains of city buildings Although evidence is incomplete, it is

has led to the theory that an earthquake or a believed that natural disasters and drought
hurricane caused the Mayan collapse. played a role in the collapse of Mayan
civilization.
Studies show that Lake Chichancanab, a huge Research suggests that environmentally
closed-basin lake that once existed in the destructive agricultural practices and poor
Yucatan, dried up during a drought around planning probably left the Maya without a
A.D. 922. sufficient, sustainable food supply.
By the end of the Classic period, internal The shift from a diverse agriculture to maize
economic power struggles and invasions suggests the influence of invaders on the
from other groups seem to have decreased cultural practices of the Maya.
the power of previously influential lowland
centers.

148
 6. Water Management in Early Agriculture

Paragraph 1
As the first cities formed in Mesopotamia in the Middle East, probably around 3000 B.C., it
became necessary to provide food for larger populations, and thus to find ways of increasing
agricultural production. This, in turn, led to the problem of obtaining sufficient water.

Paragraph 2
Irrigation must have started on a small scale with rather simple constructions, but as its value
became apparent, more effort was invested in new construction to divert more water into
the canals and to extend the canal system to reach greater areas of potential farmland.
Because of changing water levels and clogging by waterborne particles, canals and their
intakes required additional labor to maintain, besides the normal labor required to guide
water from field to field. Beyond this, some personnel had to be devoted to making decisions
about the allocation of available water among the users and ensuring that these directions
were carried out. With irrigation water also came potential problems, the most obvious
being the susceptibility of low-lying farmlands to disastrous flooding and the longer-term
problem of salinization (elevated levels of salt in the soil). To combat flooding from rivers,
people from early historic times until today have constructed protective levees (raised
barriers of earth) between the river and the settlement or fields to be protected. This, of
course, is effective up to a certain level of flooding but changes the basic water patterns of
the area and can multiply the damage when the flood level exceeds the height of the levee.

Paragraph 3
Salinization is caused by an accumulation of salt in the soil near its surface. This salt is carried
by river water from the sedimentary rocks in the mountains and deposited on the
Mesopotamian fields during natural flooding or purposeful irrigation. Evaporation of water
sitting on the surface in hot climates is rapid, concentrating the salts in the remaining water
that then descends through the soil to the underlying water table. In southern
Mesopotamia, for example, the natural water table comes to within roughly six feet of the
surface. Conditions of excessive irrigation bring the water table to eighteen inches, and water
can rise further to the root zone, where the high concentration of salts would kill most
plants.

Paragraph 4
Solutions for salinization were not as straightforward as for flooding, but even in ancient
times it was understood that the deleterious effects of salinization could be minimized by
removing harmful elements through leaching the fields with additional fresh water, digging
deep wells to lower the water table, or instituting a system of leaving fields uncultivated. The
first two cures would have required considerable labor, and the third solution would have led
to diminished productivity, not often viewed as a likely decision in periods of growing
population. An effective irrigation system laid the foundation for many of the world's early
civilizations, but it also required a great deal of labor input.

149
Paragraph 5
Growing agrarian societies often tried to meet their food-producing needs by farming less-
desirable hill slopes surrounding the favored low-lying valley bottoms. Since bringing
irrigation water to a hill slope is usually impractical, the key is effective utilization of rainfall.
Rainfall either soaks into the soil or runs off of it due to gravity. A soil that is deep, well-
structured, and covered by protective vegetation and mulch will normally absorb almost all
of the rain that falls on it, provided that the slope is not too steep. However, soils that have
lost their vegetative cover and surface mulch will absorb much less, with almost half the
water being carried away by runoff in more extreme conditions. This runoff carries with it
topsoil particles, nutrients, and humus (decayed vegetable matter) that are concentrated in
the topsoil. The loss of this material reduces the thickness of the rooting zone and its
capacity to absorb moisture for crop needs.

Paragraph 6
The most direct solution to this problem of slope runoff was to lay lines of stones along the
contours of the slope and hence, perpendicular to the probable flow of water and sediment.
These stones could then act as small dams, slowing the downhill flow of water and allowing
more water to infiltrate and soil particles to collect behind the dam. This provided a buildup
of sediments for plants and improved the landscape's water-retention properties.

Paragraph 2
Irrigation must have started on a small scale with rather simple constructions, but as its value
became apparent, more effort was invested in new construction to divert more water into
the canals and to extend the canal system to reach greater areas of potential farmland.
Because of changing water levels and clogging by waterborne particles, canals and their
intakes required additional labor to maintain, besides the normal labor required to guide

150
water from field to field. Beyond this, some personnel had to be devoted to making decisions
about the allocation of available water among the users and ensuring that these directions
were carried out. With irrigation water also came potential problems, the most obvious
being the susceptibility of low-lying farmlands to disastrous flooding and the longer-term
problem of salinization (elevated levels of salt in the soil). To combat flooding from rivers,
people from early historic times until today have constructed protective levees (raised
barriers of earth) between the river and the settlement or fields to be protected. This, of
course, is effective up to a certain level of flooding but changes the basic water patterns of
the area and can multiply the damage when the flood level exceeds the height of the levee.

1. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as operations involved in the

Mesopotamian irrigation system EXCEPT
(A) determining how much irrigation water should be distributed to various farmers
(B) widening existing canals so they could hold more water
(C) removing undesirable materials from the intakes of irrigation canals
(D) building new canals so irrigation water could be transported to distant areas

2. Paragraph 2 suggests that irrigation increased the likelihood of destructive floods because
(A) irrigated fields were often in locations that tended to flood naturally
(B) the canal intakes for irrigation water often did not work
(C) most irrigation canals were too narrow and thus overflowed
(D) levees built to protect irrigation systems required maintenance

3. The word "potential" in the passage is closet in meaning to

(A) serious
(B) basic
(C) new
(D) possible

Paragraph 3
Salinization is caused by an accumulation of salt in the soil near its surface. This salt is
carried by river water from the sedimentary rocks in the mountains and deposited on the
Mesopotamian fields during natural flooding or purposeful irrigation. Evaporation of water
sitting on the surface in hot climates is rapid, concentrating the salts in the remaining water
that then descends through the soil to the underlying water table. In southern
Mesopotamia, for example, the natural water table comes to within roughly six feet of the
surface. Conditions of excessive irrigation bring the water table to eighteen inches, and water
can rise further to the root zone, where the high concentration of salts would kill most

151
plants.

4. The word "accumulation" in the passage is closet in meaning to

(A) distribution
(B) mixture
(C) buildup
(D) exchange

Paragraph 4
Solutions for salinization were not as straightforward as for flooding, but even in ancient
times it was understood that the deleterious effects of salinization could be minimized by
removing harmful elements through leaching the fields with additional fresh water, digging
deep wells to lower the water table, or instituting a system of leaving fields uncultivated. The
first two cures would have required considerable labor, and the third solution would have led
to diminished productivity, not often viewed as a likely decision in periods of growing
population. An effective irrigation system laid the foundation for many of the world's early
civilizations, but it also required a great deal of labor input.

5. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of the more-likely-used solutions

to the problem of salinization?
(A) They resulted in a decrease in the amount of food that was produced.
(B) They succeeded only on areas where the natural water table was especially low.
(C) They often demanded much time and effort on the part of their users.
(D) They often led to other technological advances.

Paragraph 5
Growing agrarian societies often tried to meet their food-producing needs by farming less-
desirable hill slopes surrounding the favored low-lying valley bottoms. Since bringing
irrigation water to a hill slope is usually impractical, the key is effective utilization of rainfall.
Rainfall either soaks into the soil or runs off of it due to gravity. A soil that is deep, well-
structured, and covered by protective vegetation and mulch will normally absorb almost all
of the rain that falls on it, provided that the slope is not too steep. However, soils that have
lost their vegetative cover and surface mulch will absorb much less, with almost half the
water being carried away by runoff in more extreme conditions. This runoff carries with it
topsoil particles, nutrients, and humus (decayed vegetable matter) that are concentrated in

152
the topsoil. The loss of this material reduces the thickness of the rooting zone and its
capacity to absorb moisture for crop needs.

6. According to paragraph 5, which of the following was the main challenge faced by early
agricultural societies that wanted to grow crops on hill slopes?
(A) Getting enough irrigation water to the hill slope
(B) Growing crops without disturbing the natural vegetative cover
(C) Retaining rainwater and thus preventing excessive runoff
(D) Identifying crops that do not need a thick rooting zone

7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) However, soils that are unable to absorb much water experience massive runoff during
heavy rains.
(B) However, where neither protective vegetation nor mulch covers the soil, much rainwater
can be lost to runoff.
(C) However, on extremely steep slopes there is no vegetative cover or mulch to prevent
runoff.
(D) However, in more extreme conditions water that runs off can carry away the vegetative
cover and the surface mulch.

Paragraph 5
Growing agrarian societies often tried to meet their food-producing needs by farming less-
desirable hill slopes surrounding the favored low-lying valley bottoms. Since bringing
irrigation water to a hill slope is usually impractical, the key is effective utilization of rainfall.
Rainfall either soaks into the soil or runs off of it due to gravity. A soil that is deep, well-
structured, and covered by protective vegetation and mulch will normally absorb almost all
of the rain that falls on it, provided that the slope is not too steep. However, soils that have
lost their vegetative cover and surface mulch will absorb much less, with almost half the
water being carried away by runoff in more extreme conditions. This runoff carr ies with it
topsoil particles, nutrients, and humus (decayed vegetable matter) that are concentrated in
the topsoil. The loss of this material reduces the thickness of the rooting zone and its

153
capacity to absorb moisture for crop needs.

Paragraph 6
The most direct solution to this problem of slope runoff was to lay lines of stones along the
contours of the slope and hence, perpendicular to the probable flow of water and sediment.
These stones could then act as small dams, slowing the downhill flow of water and allowing
more water to infiltrate and soil particles to collect behind the dam. This provided a buildup
of sediments for plants and improved the landscape's water-retention properties.

8. Which of the following best describes how paragraph 6 relates to paragraph 5?

(A) Paragraph 6 describes how the solution to a problem identified in paragraph 5 created
unexpected benefits.
(B) Paragraph 6 compares two possible solutions to a problem described in paragraph 5.
(C) Paragraph 6 explains how the attempt to solve a problem introduced in paragraph 5 led
to more difficult problems.
(D) Paragraph 6 explains one way in which a difficulty described in paragraph 5 was resolved.

Paragraph 3
Salinization is caused by an accumulation of salt in the soil near its surface.【A】This salt is
carried by river water from the sedimentary rocks in the mountains and deposited on the
Mesopotamian fields during natural flooding or purposeful irrigation. Evaporation of water
sitting on the surface in hot climates is rapid, concentrating the salts in the remaining water
that then descends through the soil to the underlying water table. 【 B 】 In southern
Mesopotamia, for example, the natural water table comes to within roughly six feet of the
surface.【C】Conditions of excessive irrigation bring the water table to eighteen inches, and
water can rise further to the root zone, where the high concentration of salts would kill most
plants.【D】

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Natural flooding, however, does not raise the water table nearly as much and thus does
not have these sorts of consequences.

154
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

As cities emerged and populations grew in Mesopotamia, more water had to be provided
to increase agricultural production.

Early on, irrigation was recognized as a Levees were the major means of protection
valuable practice, even though it was labor- against flooding, while leaching with added
intensive and brought with it problems of water and lowering the water table helped
salinization and damaging floods. to control salinization.
Because of the enormous amount of labor The mountain water that was used to irrigate
involved in irrigating fields, farming was farmland in Mesopotamia was exceptionally
increasingly moved to hill slopes, where high in salt, causing rapid salinization of the
irrigation systems required less labor. soil.
The practice of leaving fields uncultivated As cultivation was extended to hill slopes,
periodically was used primarily by societies methods were developed to better retain
lacking a large labor force. water from rainfall for crops growing on
hillsides.

7. Beaks of Darwin's Finches

Paragraph 1
In 1835, before he had developed his theory of evolution Charles Darwin collected
specimens of 13 previously unknown species of finches from the isolated Galapagos Islands.
The Galapagos finches closely resembled a species of finches living on the mainland of South
America, but each of the Galapagos species of finches had a differently shaped beak unique
to it. His observations led Darwin to speculate that "from an original paucity of birds in this
archipelago (the Galapagos Islands), one species has been taken and modified for different
ends." This is the essence of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection: Birds with a
particular beak shape survived and reproduced because their beak made them well adapted
for using a particular food source. In this way one original species that came to Galapagos
from the mainland ultimately evolved into 13 new species.

Paragraph 2
The correspondence between the beaks of the 13 finch species and their food source

155
immediately suggested to Darwin that evolution had shaped them. If his suggestion that the
beak of an ancestral finch had been shaped by evolution is correct, then it ought to be
possible to see the different species of finches acting out their evolutionary roles, each using
their beaks to acquire their particular food specialty. The four species that crush seeds within
their beaks, for example, should feed on different seeds, those with stouter beaks
specializing in harder-to-crush seeds.

Paragraph 3
Many biologists visited the Galapagos after Darwin, but it was 100 years before any tried this
key test of his hypothesis. When the great naturalist David Lack finally set out to do this in
1938 observing the birds closely for a full five months, his observations seemed to contradict
Darwin's proposal. Lack often observed many different species of finch feeding together on
the same seeds. We now know that it was Lack's misfortune to study the birds during a wet
year, when food was plentiful. The finch's beak is of little importance in such flush times;
small seeds are so abundant that birds of all species are able to get enough to eat.

Paragraph 4
The key to successfully testing Darwin's proposal that the beaks of Galapagos finches are
adaptations to different food sources proved to be patience. Starting in 1973, Peter and
Rosemary Grant of Princeton University and generations of their students have studied the
medium ground finch Geospiza fortis on a tiny island in the center of the Galapagos called
Daphne Major. These finches feed preferentially on small, tender seeds produced in
abundance by plants in wet years. The birds resort to larger, drier seeds, which are harder to
crush, only when small seeds become depleted during long periods of dry weather and
plants produce few seeds.
Paragraph 5
The Grants quantified beak shape among the medium ground finches of Daphne Major by
carefully measuring beak depth (width of beak, from top to bottom, at its base) on individual
birds. Measuring many birds every year, they were able to assemble a detailed portrait of
evolution in action. The Grants found that beak depth changed from one year to the next in a
predictable fashion. During droughts, plants produced few seeds and all available small seeds
were quickly eaten, leaving large seeds as the remaining source of food. As a result, birds
with large beaks survived better because they were better able to break open these large
seeds. Consequently, the average beak depth of birds in the population increased the next
year, only to decrease again when wet seasons returned.

Paragraph 6
Could these changes in beak dimension reflect the action of natural selection? An alternative
possibility might be that the changes in beak depth do not reflect changes in gene
frequencies, but rather are simply a response to diet – perhaps during lean times the birds
become malnourished and then grow stouter beaks, for example. If this were the case, it
would not be genetics but environment alone that influences beak size. To rule out this
possibility, the Grants measured the relation of parent beak size to offspring beak size,
examining many broods over several years. The depth of the beak was passed down

156
faithfully from one generation to the next, regardless of environmental conditions,
suggesting that the differences in beak size indeed reflected genetic differences.

Paragraph 1
In 1835, before he had developed his theory of evolution Charles Darwin collected
specimens of 13 previously unknown species of finches from the isolated Galapagos Islands.
The Galapagos finches closely resembled a species of finches living on the mainland of South
America, but each of the Galapagos species of finches had a differently shaped beak unique
to it. His observations led Darwin to speculate that "from an original paucity of birds in this
archipelago (the Galapagos Islands), one species has been taken and modified for different
ends." This is the essence of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection: Birds with a
particular beak shape survived and reproduced because their beak made them well adapted
for using a particular food source. In this way one original species that came to Galapagos
from the mainland ultimately evolved into 13 new species.

1. The word "speculate" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) claim
(B) hypothesize
(C) establish
(D) realize

157
Paragraph 2
The correspondence between the beaks of the 13 finch species and their food source
immediately suggested to Darwin that evolution had shaped them. If his suggestion that the
beak of an ancestral finch had been shaped by evolution is correct, then it ought to be
possible to see the different species of finches acting out their evolutionary roles, each using
their beaks to acquire their particular food specialty. The four species that crush seeds
within their beaks, for example, should feed on different seeds, those with stouter beaks
specializing in harder-to-crush seeds.

2. In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss the four finch species that crush seeds
within their beaks?
(A) To suggest one way of testing Darwin's view that evolution determined the shape of finch
beaks
(B) To emphasize that the finches with stouter beaks required a diet of larger seeds in order
to survive in their island environment
(C) To argue that evolution may not have been the only factor in the shaping of finch beaks
(D) To explain why the other species observed by Darwin do not exist today

3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following should be true if Darwin was right about
the evolution of finch beaks?
(A) The four finch species that crush seeds should all feed on the same seeds.
(B) Most finches should eventually have similarly shaped beaks.

158
(C) Finches with the stoutest beaks should feed on seeds that are the hardest to crush.
(D) Finches with stout beaks should have difficulty crushing seeds.

Paragraph 3
Many biologists visited the Galapagos after Darwin, but it was 100 years before any tried this
key test of his hypothesis. When the great naturalist David Lack finally set out to do this in
1938 observing the birds closely for a full five months, his observations seemed to contradict
Darwin's proposal. Lack often observed many different species of finch feeding together on
the same seeds. We now know that it was Lack's misfortune to study the birds during a wet
year, when food was plentiful. The finch's beak is of little importance in such flush times;
small seeds are so abundant that birds of all species are able to get enough to eat.

4. What can be inferred from the discussion in paragraph 3 about Lack's research on finches?
(A) His research supported his belief that evolution influenced the feeding habits of finches.
(B) His observations indicated that finches that feed on small seeds have higher survival rates
than finches that feed on large seeds.
(C) His observations would have confirmed Darwin's hypothesis about finch beaks if Lack had
visited the Galapagos Islands during a dry year.
(D) His observations led him to conclude that climate greatly affected the feeding habits of
finches as well as their beak sizes.

Paragraph 4
The key to successfully testing Darwin's proposal that the beaks of Galapagos finches are
adaptations to different food sources proved to be patience. Starting in 1973, Peter and
Rosemary Grant of Princeton University and generations of their students have studied the
medium ground finch Geospiza fortis on a tiny island in the center of the Galapagos called
Daphne Major. These finches feed preferentially on small, tender seeds produced in
abundance by plants in wet years. The birds resort to larger, drier seeds, which are harder to

159
crush, only when small seeds become depleted during long periods of dry weather and
plants produce few seeds.

5. According to paragraph 4, which of the following accurately describes the feeding habits of
the medium ground finch Geospiza fortis?
(A) The finch feeds primarily on large, dry seeds because small seeds do not contain
adequate nutrients.
(B) The finch tends to feed more often on large, dry seeds that are more visible than the
smaller seeds.
(C) The finch feeds on large seeds during dry years because smaller seeds are too easily
crushed and destroyed.
(D) The finch feeds on tender seeds when it can, but when these are unavailable it will eat
large, dry seeds.

Paragraph 5
The Grants quantified beak shape among the medium ground finches of Daphne Major by
carefully measuring beak depth (width of beak, from top to bottom, at its base) on individual
birds. Measuring many birds every year, they were able to assemble a detailed portrait of
evolution in action. The Grants found that beak depth changed from one year to the next in a
predictable fashion. During droughts, plants produced few seeds and all available small seeds
were quickly eaten, leaving large seeds as the remaining source of food. As a result, birds
with large beaks survived better because they were better able to break open these large
seeds. Consequently, the average beak depth of birds in the population increased the next
year, only to decrease again when wet seasons returned.

6. According to paragraph 5, the average beak depth of birds increased after a period of
drought because
(A) bird bodies, including their beaks, grew larger as they compensated for the period when
less food was available
(B) birds with larger beaks had been able to feed on larger seeds and therefore survived the
drought of the previous season
(C) birds could store additional seeds and food in their beaks for periods of scarcity
(D) larger birds with larger beaks attacked competing smaller birds in order to protect their
food supplies

160
Paragraph 6
Could these changes in beak dimension reflect the action of natural selection? An
alternative possibility might be that the changes in beak depth do not reflect changes in
gene frequencies, but rather are simply a response to diet – perhaps during lean times the
birds become malnourished and then grow stouter beaks, for example. If this were the
case, it would not be genetics but environment alone that influences beak size. To rule out
this possibility, the Grants measured the relation of parent beak size to offspring beak size,
examining many broods over several years. The depth of the beak was passed down
faithfully from one generation to the next, regardless of environmental conditions,
suggesting that the differences in beak size indeed reflected genetic differences.

7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) Changes in beak depth are often the result of variations in diet, such as when birds grow
stouter beaks during lean times.
(B) Alternatively, it is possible that genetics may be a better explanation than diet for changes
in beak depth.
(C) An alternative possibility is that changes in diet result in changes in gene frequencies,
such as when malnourished birds grow stouter beaks.
(D) It is possible that changes in beak depth may result from variations in the food supply
rather than from changes in gene frequencies.

8. The word "faithfully" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) consistently
(B) easily
(C) generally
(D) noticeably

161
Paragraph 1
In 1835, before he had developed his theory of evolution Charles Darwin collected
specimens of 13 previously unknown species of finches from the isolated Galapagos Islands.
【A】The Galapagos finches closely resembled a species of finches living on the mainland of
South America, but each of the Galapagos species of finches had a differently shaped beak
unique to it.【B】His observations led Darwin to speculate that "from an original paucity of
birds in this archipelago [the Galapagos Islands], one species has been taken and modified
for different ends." 【 C 】 This is the essence of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural
selection: Birds with a particular beak shape survived and reproduced because their beak
made them well adapted for using a particular food source. 【 D】In this way one original
species that came to Galapagos from the mainland ultimately evolved into 13 new species.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Moreover, the differences in beak shape corresponded to differences in the foods eaten by
the various finch species.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Darwin's observation of Galapagos finches and their food sources led him to conclude that
evolution shaped the birds' beaks.

The Galapagos finches had beaks that David Lack was unable to confirm Darwin's

162
resembled the beak of a species that had hypothesis because his study occurred
once lived on the mainland of South during a wet year, when finches feed on the
America. same type of seed.
The Grants attempted to study how The Grants' conclusion that beak size was
evolution worked by examining the changes passed down from parent to offspring
in average beak size during wet years and dry supported Darwin's hypothesis that
years. evolution had shaped the beaks of
Galapagos finches.
David Lack and the Grants both observed The most recent research on Galapagos
that birds with larger beaks specialize in dry, finches suggests that evolutionary factors are
tough seeds, but their explanations for this less significant today than they were for
observation differed. ancestral finches.

8. Water Supply in Venice

Paragraph 1
The city of Venice, built on saltwater marshes and crisscrossed by canals, experienced
problems with its water supply for most of its history. One fifteenth-century French traveler
noted that "in a city in which the inhabitants are in water up to their mouths, they often go
thirsty." How was the community to solve this important problem?

Paragraph 2
Water drawn from the lagoon (the large, shallow body of water between Venice and the
Mediterranean Sea) and the canals within the city served many domestic uses such as
washing and cooking. Inventories of even the most modest households list large numbers of
buckets, which were emptied and rinsed. The ones used to carry the brackish (somewhat
salty) canal water were kept separate from those intended for fresh water. Still, even serving
such needs would have been impossible if the canals of Venice had been extremely polluted.
The government was obliged to impose controls, and in the early fourteenth century, the
Great Council prohibited the washing of all cloth and dyed woolens in the canals, adding that
water used for dyeing could not be flushed into the canals. Henceforth dirty water of that
sort was to go into the lagoon. Thanks to resistance on the part of the dyers, infractions were
many. The law did not reflect common practice. A century later, however, most of the dye
works that used blood or indigo (a dark blue dye) had shifted to the periphery of the city, as
had all activities "that let off bad odors or smells", such as butchering. Blood, carcasses, and
spoiled meat were to go into the lagoon. The canals of Venice began to be protected in the
name of nascent ecological awareness.

Paragraph 3
Much more stringent measures were necessary to guarantee a supply of drinking water,
however. In the early centuries of settlement in the lagoon basin, the populations depended
on wells on the nearby coastal region. By the ninth century, however, with the increase in
population density, cisterns became necessary. Basically, the cisterns were large, covered pits

163
dug into the ground and lined with clay to hold water. The cisterns were located in the city,
but unlike the wells, the cisterns were not supplied with water from the lagoon, they
collected rainwater instead. Cisterns became widespread in the growing city.

Paragraph 4
Over a period of several hundred years, Venice developed an elaborate system of cisterns
and gome – the gutters or pipes that carried rainwater to the cisterns and that, for a single
cistern, might extend over an area of several streets. Wealthy households had their own
cisterns. In less affluent areas of the city, cisterns were often owned and maintained by
neighborhood groups. In crowded parts of the city where landlords offered small house for
rent, one or two cisterns were provided for each street. A network of public cisterns
paralleled these private and semiprivate arrangements. Every public square in the city had a
cistern to serve the poorest Venetians.

Paragraph 5
In the thirteenth century, a decision was made to create 50 additional cisterns, primarily in
the recently urbanized area at the edge of the city. At the same time, a campaign was
launched to repair the existing cisterns. Expansion of the cistern system stopped during
much of the fourteenth century as Venice, like other cities in Europe, suffered from bubonic
plague. In the fifteenth century, however, a new program of cistern construction and repair
was undertaken.

Paragraph 6
In spite of the expansion of the cistern system, Venice continued to have problems with its
water supply, especially during dry periods. Flotillas of boats had to be dispatched to the
mouths of nearby rivers – first to the Bottenigo, then to the Brenta – to fetch fresh water.
The fresh water was then sold by the bucket or poured into the cisterns. The public
authorities made efforts to take bolder action to ensure the supply of fresh water from this
parallel source and a number of projects were suggested during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries to channel river water and even to construct an aqueduct. However, the high cost
of such initiatives precluded their execution.

164
Paragraph 1
The city of Venice, built on saltwater marshes and crisscrossed by canals, experienced
problems with its water supply for most of its history. One fifteenth-century French traveler
noted that "in a city in which the inhabitants are in water up to their mouths, they often go
thirsty." How was the community to solve this important problem?

1. Why does the author include the quotation "in a city in which the inhabitants are in
water up to their mouths, they often go thirsty"?
(A) To indicate that the French traveled to Venice frequently in the fifteenth century
(B) To illustrate the opinion of other Europeans about the water situation in Venice
(C) To suggest that the water supply problem of Venice continued well beyond the fifteenth
century
(D) To emphasize how serious the water problem was in Venice

Paragraph 2
Water drawn from the lagoon (the large, shallow body of water between Venice and the
Mediterranean Sea) and the canals within the city served many domestic uses such as
washing and cooking inventories of even the most modest households list large numbers of
buckets, which were emptied and rinsed, the ones used to carry the brackish (somewhat
salty) canal water were kept separate from those intended for fresh water. Still, even serving
such needs would have been impossible if the canals of Venice had been extremely polluted.
The government was obliged to impose controls, and in the early fourteenth century, the
Great Council prohibited the washing of all cloth and dyed woolens in the canals, adding that
water used for dyeing could not be flushed into the canals. Henceforth dirty water of that
sort was to go into the lagoon. Thanks to resistance on the part of the dyers, infractions were
many, the law did not reflect common practice. A century later, however, most of the dye
works that used blood or indigo (a dark blue dye) had shifted to the periphery of the city, as
had all activities "that let off bad odors or smells", such as butchering. Blood, carcasses, and
spoiled meat were to go into the lagoon. The canals of Venice began to be protected in the
name of nascent ecological awareness.

2. The word "was obliged to" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) had to
(B) was determined to
(C) planned to

165
(D) was prepared to

3. According to paragraph 2, why did the government place restrictions on dyers?

(A) To protect the city's drinking water
(B) To prevent the lagoon from being polluted
(C) To keep canal water clean
(D) To discourage the use of blood and indigo for dyeing cloth
Paragraph 3
Much more stringent measures were necessary to guarantee a supply of drinking water,
however. In the early centuries of settlement in the lagoon basin, the populations depended
on wells on the nearby coastal region. By the ninth century, however, with the increase in
population density, cisterns became necessary. Basically, the cisterns were large, covered pits
dug into the ground and lined with clay to hold water. The cisterns were located in the city,
but unlike the wells, the cisterns were not supplied with water from the lagoon, they
collected rainwater instead. Cisterns became widespread in the growing city.

4. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that wells on the nearby coastal region
(A) were smaller in size than the cisterns located in the city
(B) served as a water source for the growing number of cisterns in the city
(C) increased in number as the population density increased
(D) Provided enough water for only a relatively small number of people

Paragraph 4
Over a period of several hundred years, Venice developed an elaborate system of cisterns
and gome – the gutters or pipes that carried rainwater to the cisterns and that, for a single
cistern, might extend over an area of several streets. Wealthy households had their own
cisterns. In less affluent areas of the city, cisterns were often owned and maintained by
neighborhood groups. In crowded parts of the city where landlords offered small house for
rent, one or two cisterns were provided for each street. A network of public cisterns
paralleled these private and semiprivate arrangements. Every public square in the city had a
cistern to serve the poorest Venetians.

5. According to paragraph 4, all of the following were true of Venice's system of cisterns and
gome EXCEPT
(A) It was developed over several centuries
(B) It collected rainwater
(C) It was maintained with fees paid by the public
(D) It reflected the social and economic diversity of the city of Venice

166
Paragraph 5
In the thirteenth century, a decision was made to create 50 additional cisterns, primarily in
the recently urbanized area at the edge of the city. At the same time, a campaign was
launched to repair the existing cisterns. Expansion of the cistern system stopped during
much of the fourteenth century as Venice, like other cities in Europe, suffered from bubonic
plague. In the fifteenth century, however, a new program of cistern construction and repair
was undertaken.

6. The word "launched" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) paid for
(B) started
(C) proposed
(D) agreed on

7. According to paragraph 5, all of the following had an effect on cisterns in Venice from the
thirteenth to the fifteenth century EXCEPT
(A) the construction of cisterns in other cities in Europe
(B) the establishment of programs to construct and repair cisterns
(C) the outbreak of bubonic plague
(D) the urbanization of an area at the edge of the city

Paragraph 6
In spite of the expansion of the cistern system, Venice continued to have problems with its
water supply, especially during dry periods. Flotillas of boats had to be dispatched to the
mouths of nearby rivers – first to the Bottenigo, then to the Brenta – to fetch fresh water.
The fresh water was then sold by the bucket or poured into the cisterns. The public
authorities made efforts to take bolder action to ensure the supply of fresh water from this
parallel source and a number of projects were suggested during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries to channel river water and even to construct an aqueduct. However, the high cost
of such initiatives precluded their execution.

8. According to paragraph 6, how did public authorities respond to problems with the water
supply during dry periods?
(A) They sent boats to fetch fresh water from nearby rivers
(B) They channeled river water into the cisterns
(C) They constructed an aqueduct
(D) They sold water from the cisterns in buckets to the public

167
Paragraph 4
Over a period of several hundred years, Venice developed an elaborate system of cisterns
and gome – the gutters or pipes that carried rainwater to the cisterns and that, for a single
cistern, might extend over an area of several streets. 【 A 】 Wealthy households had their
own cisterns. 【 B 】 In less affluent areas of the city, cisterns were often owned and
maintained by neighborhood groups. 【 C 】 In crowded parts of the city where landlords
offered small house for rent, one or two cisterns were provided for each street. 【 D 】 A
network of public cisterns paralleled these private and semiprivate arrangements. Every
public square in the city had a cistern to serve the poorest Venetians.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
The complexity of the cistern system was social as well as physical.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

The city of Venice experienced problems with its water supply for most of its history.

The water from the lagoon between Venice By the early fourteenth century, the water in
and the Mediterranean Sea could not be Venice's canals was becoming too polluted
used for drinking because it was extremely for household use, prompting the city
polluted. council to prohibit the use of the canals by
dyers and butchers.
From the ninth to the fifteenth century, By the fifteenth century, cisterns supplied by
Venice developed a system to collect and rainwater proved to be inadequate, but the
store rainwater in cisterns for use by the cost of the projects proposed for a
population. permanent solution was too high for the
projects to be undertaken.
Wealthy households were able to build their The expansion and repair of the cistern
own cisterns, but everyone else had to use system was interrupted for much of the
public cisterns located in the city's many fourteenth century because of the bubonic
squares. plague, a situation that worsened the water
supply problem.

168
 9. Dinosaurs and Parental Care

Paragraph 1
From fossil evidence alone the question of whether or not dinosaurs cared for their young is
very difficult to answer. Because behaviors are not preserved in the fossil record, we can only
make inferences from indirect evidence. Parental care can be divided into two types of
behavior: prehatching (building nests and incubating eggs — for example, sitting on top of
them so as to warm the eggs and encourage hatching) and posthatching (feeding the young
and guarding the nests). Most of our evidence comes from alleged dinosaur rookeries (places
where nests are built). Several have been excavated in eastern Montana, where a large
concentration of dinosaur nests was found at a place now called Egg Mountain. Most of
these probably belonged to the hadrosaur Maiasaura. Preserved in these nests are the bones
of baby dinosaurs. The finds at Egg Mountain and other sites around the world document
that dinosaurs laid their eggs in nests.

Paragraph 2
The nests at Egg Mountain are reported to be equally spaced, separated by a space
corresponding to the length of an adult Maiasaura. From this arrangement scientists have
inferred that the nests were separated in this way to allow incubation in a tightly packed
nesting colony. Although this interpretation is open to challenge, the discovery of Oviraplor
adults on top of Oviraplor egg clutches (as determined by embryos in some eggs), is
relatively powerful evidence that at least these dinosaurs incubated their nests.

Paragraph 3
Evidence for parental care following hatching is much more controversial. Behavioral
speculation based on indirect fossil evidence is dangerous because the data is not always as
unambiguous as might appear. At Egg Mountain, many nests contain baby dinosaur bones.
Not all the dinosaurs in the nest are the same size. Many of the small bones found in the
nests are associated with jaws and teeth, teeth that show signs of wear. It seems reasonable
to assume that the wear was caused by the chewing of the coarse plants that were the
hatchlings’ diet. Because the young were still in the nest, this food may have been brought to
the rookery by foraging adults. This line of reasoning suggests that these animals had an
advanced system of parental care. A closer look at the evidence clouds this interpretation.
Analysis of dinosaur embryos indicates that worn surfaces are present on the teeth of
juveniles even before hatching. Just as a human baby moves inside the mother before birth,
modern-day archosaurs also grind their teeth before birth, wearing the surface in some
spots. Thus, the fossil evidence for an advanced parental care system in extinct dinosaurs is
suggestive but inconclusive, and it is hard even to imagine the sort of paleontologic discovery
that could settle this debate for good.

Paragraph 4

169
The strongest evidence that extinct dinosaurs had some form of advanced parental care
system is based on an understanding of the phylogenetic relationships among dinosaurs and
their closest living relatives. Living dinosaurs (birds), even primitive ones such as ostriches
and kiwis, exhibit parental care, so some form of parental care can be inferred to have
existed in the last common ancestor of all birds. Although unappreciated, crocodiles are
reptiles that are also caring parents. They build nests, guard the nests, and in some cases dig
their young out of the nest when they hear the chirping young ones hatching. The young
even communicate with each other while still in the egg by high-frequency squeaks (as birds
do). Some evidence suggests that this squeaking is a cue for the synchronization of the
hatching. Since birds and crocodiles share a common ancestor, the simplest explanation for
the characteristics they share (such as nest building and some form of parental care) is that
they evolved only once — that these attributes were present in their common ancestor and
passed on to its descendants. Because extinct dinosaurs also descended from that ancestor,
the simplest and most general theory is that extinct dinosaurs also shared these
characteristics, even though they cannot be directly observed, and we cannot be sure how
elaborate their parental care was.

Paragraph 1
From fossil evidence alone the question of whether or not dinosaurs cared for their young is

170
very difficult to answer. Because behaviors are not preserved in the fossil record, we can only
make inferences from indirect evidence. Parental care can be divided into two types of
behavior: prehatching (building nests and incubating eggs — for example, sitting on top of
them so as to warm the eggs and encourage hatching) and posthatching (feeding the young
and guarding the nests). Most of our evidence comes from alleged dinosaur rookeries (places
where nests are built). Several have been excavated in eastern Montana, where a large
concentration of dinosaur nests was found at a place now called Egg Mountain. Most of
these probably belonged to the hadrosaur Maiasaura. Preserved in these nests are the bones
of baby dinosaurs. The finds at Egg Mountain and other sites around the world document
that dinosaurs laid their eggs in nests.

1. Paragraph 1 answers which of the following questions about parental care in dinosaurs?
(A) Which type of parental care was more important for the survival of dinosaur young,
prehatching care or posthatching care?
(B) Why were dinosaur remains in eastern Montana preserved rather than destroyed over
time?
(C) Did Maiasaura hadrosaurs provide types of parental care not provided by other
dinosaurs?
(D) What evidence supports the view that Maiasaura females laid their eggs in nests?

Paragraph 2
The nests at Egg Mountain are reported to be equally spaced, separated by a space
corresponding to the length of an adult Maiasaura. From this arrangement scientists have
inferred that the nests were separated in this way to allow incubation in a tightly packed
nesting colony. Although this interpretation is open to challenge, the discovery of Oviraplor
adults on top of Oviraplor egg clutches (as determined by embryos in some eggs), is
relatively powerful evidence that at least these dinosaurs incubated their nests.

2. According to paragraph 2, the fossil record presents convincing evidence that

(A) some dinosaurs incubated their eggs within a tightly packed nesting area
(B) the nests of most dinosaur species were separated by a distance corresponding to the
length of an adult
(C) Oviraptor adult dinosaurs incubated their eggs longer than Maiasaura adults did
(D) Maiasaura adults built nests and laid eggs but they did not incubate them

Paragraph 3
Evidence for parental care following hatching is much more controversial. Behavioral
speculation based on indirect fossil evidence is dangerous because the data is not always as
unambiguous as might appear. At Egg Mountain, many nests contain baby dinosaur bones.
Not all the dinosaurs in the nest are the same size. Many of the small bones found in the

171
nests are associated with jaws and teeth, teeth that show signs of wear. It seems reasonable
to assume that the wear was caused by the chewing of the coarse plants that were the
hatchlings’ diet. Because the young were still in the nest, this food may have been brought to
the rookery by foraging adults. This line of reasoning suggests that these animals had an
advanced system of parental care. A closer look at the evidence clouds this interpretation.
Analysis of dinosaur embryos indicates that worn surfaces are present on the teeth of
juveniles even before hatching. Just as a human baby moves inside the mother before birth,
modern-day archosaurs also grind their teeth before birth, wearing the surface in some
spots. Thus, the fossil evidence for an advanced parental care system in extinct dinosaurs is
suggestive but inconclusive, and it is hard even to imagine the sort of paleontologic
discovery that could settle this debate for good.

3. The word "inconclusive" in the passage is closet in meaning to

(A) not decisive
(B) insignificant
(C) not valid
(D) misleading

4. Paragraph 3 suggests that signs of wear on the teeth of juvenile dinosaurs may have been
the result of which of the following？
(A) Chewing on the small bones of other animals
(B) Chewing on plants that were different from the hatchlings’ normal diet
(C) Foraging activity that was performed by the juveniles themselves
(D) Grinding of teeth before the juveniles hatched

Paragraph 4
The strongest evidence that extinct dinosaurs had some form of advanced parental care
system is based on an understanding of the phylogenetic relationships among dinosaurs and
their closest living relatives. Living dinosaurs (birds), even primitive ones such as ostriches
and kiwis, exhibit parental care, so some form of parental care can be inferred to have
existed in the last common ancestor of all birds. Although unappreciated, crocodiles are

172
reptiles that are also caring parents. They build nests, guard the nests, and in some cases dig
their young out of the nest when they hear the chirping young ones hatching. The young
even communicate with each other while still in the egg by high-frequency squeaks (as birds
do). Some evidence suggests that this squeaking is a cue for the synchronization of the
hatching. Since birds and crocodiles share a common ancestor, the simplest explanation for
the characteristics they share (such as nest building and some form of parental care) is that
they evolved only once — that these attributes were present in their common ancestor
and passed on to its descendants. Because extinct dinosaurs also descended from that
ancestor, the simplest and most general theory is that extinct dinosaurs also shared these
characteristics, even though they cannot be directly observed, and we cannot be sure how
elaborate their parental care was.

5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) The simplest explanation for the similarities between birds and crocodiles is that they
evolved at the same time.
(B) A common ancestor is probably the source of the shared traits of crocodiles and birds.
(C) The originally similar traits of birds and crocodiles increased after evolving through a
shared ancestor.
(D) Only one shared pattern of behavior — that of nest building — was present in the
common ancestor of birds and crocodiles.

6. The word "elaborate" in the passage is closet in meaning to

(A) widespread
(B) reliable
(C) well developed
(D) long lasting

Paragraph 4
The strongest evidence that extinct dinosaurs had some form of advanced parental care
system is based on an understanding of the phylogenetic relationships among dinosaurs and
their closest living relatives. Living dinosaurs (birds), even primitive ones such as ostriches
and kiwis, exhibit parental care, so some form of parental care can be inferred to have
existed in the last common ancestor of all birds. Although unappreciated, crocodiles are
reptiles that are also caring parents. They build nests, guard the nests, and in some cases dig
their young out of the nest when they hear the chirping young ones hatching. The young

173
even communicate with each other while still in the egg by high-frequency squeaks (as birds
do). Some evidence suggests that this squeaking is a cue for the synchronization of the
hatching. Since birds and crocodiles share a common ancestor, the simplest explanation for
the characteristics they share (such as nest building and some form of parental care) is that
they evolved only once — that these attributes were present in their common ancestor and
passed on to its descendants. Because extinct dinosaurs also descended from that ancestor,
the simplest and most general theory is that extinct dinosaurs also shared these
characteristics, even though they cannot be directly observed, and we cannot be sure how
elaborate their parental care was.

7. Paragraph 4 answers all of the following questions about crocodiles EXCEPT:

(A) What is the evidence that crocodiles are caring parents?
(B) Why do crocodile parents communicate with the young inside their eggs?
(C) What is a possible reason for the high-frequency sounds that crocodiles make inside their
eggs?
(D) How do crocodiles participate in the hatching process of their young?

8. In paragraph 4, the author discusses birds and crocodiles in order to

(A) contrast patterns of parenting behavior in both living and extinct animals
(B) provide evidence that sophisticated parental care behaviors evolved only relatively
recently
(C) demonstrate that parental care behaviors have continued to evolve since the time of the
dinosaurs
(D) support the theory that extinct dinosaurs probably inherited some kind of parental care
system

Paragraph 1
From fossil evidence alone the question of whether or not dinosaurs cared for their young is
very difficult to answer.【A】Because behaviors are not preserved in the fossil record, we
can only make inferences from indirect evidence.【B】Parental care can be divided into two
types of behavior: prehatching (building nests and incubating eggs — for example, sitting on
top of them so as to warm the eggs and encourage hatching) and posthatching (feeding the
young and guarding the nests). 【 C 】 Most of our evidence comes from alleged dinosaur
rookeries (places where nests are built). 【 D 】 Several have been excavated in eastern
Montana, where a large concentration of dinosaur nests was found at a place now called Egg

174
Mountain. Most of these probably belonged to the hadrosaur Maiasaura. Preserved in these
nests are the bones of baby dinosaurs. The finds at Egg Mountain and other sites around the
world document that dinosaurs laid their eggs in nests.

9. Look at the four squares 【】 that indicate where the following sentence can be added to
the passage.
Evidence of the former is easier to find than that of the latter.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Scientists must use indirect evidence to determine whether extinct dinosaurs cared for
their young.

Although there is not any evidence that Tightly packed Oviraplor rookeries indicate
dinosaur parents exhibited prehatching that dinosaurs may have tended to nest in
behavior, there is indirect evidence that they large colonies in order to better protect both
engaged in posthatching behavior. eggs and hatchlings.
Fossils from sites like Egg Mountain indicate Discovery of hadrosaur bones of different
that dinosaurs built nests, and perhaps that sizes in the same nest may indicate that, in
they incubated their eggs and fed their some species, older siblings took care of
hatchlings. younger ones.
Fossil evidence such as the spacing of nests The strongest evidence comes from extinct
may indicate advanced parental care but can dinosaurs’ nearest living relatives, birds and
have different interpretations. crocodiles, who do engage in many forms of
parental care.

10. The Chaco Phenomenon

Paragraph 1
A truly remarkable transformation in settlement patterns occurred in the San Juan basin in
northwestern New Mexico in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, with small
household farmsteads giving way to aggregated communities centered on communal
masonry buildings that are now called "great houses." These structures are found
throughout the basin but are concentrated in Chaco Canyon, where several examples
contained hundreds of rooms and reached four stories in height. The largest great house is

175
Pueblo Bonito, with over 600 rooms covering two acres. The entire episode of great house
construction in Chaco, the Bonito phase (A.D. 900-1140), was obviously a time of immense
cooperative effort. At least 200,000 wooden beams averaging 5 meters long and 20
centimeters in diameter were brought to the canyon from distances between 40 and 100
kilometers away to build a dozen great houses, signifying a huge labor investment and a
complex production process. The bulk of construction took place in the eleventh century, but
by A.D. 1140 it had ceased abruptly, after which there was a rapid decline in use of the great
houses and apparent abandonment of the canyon in the thirteenth century.

Paragraph 2
For more than a century archaeologists have struggled to understand the circumstances
surrounding the rise and collapse of Chacoan society — dubbed the Chaco Phenomenon. In
particular, research has focused on determining why such an apparently inhospitable place
as Chaco, which today is extremely arid and has very short growing seasons, should have
favored the concentration of labor that must have been required for such massive
construction projects over brief periods of time. Until the 1970s, it was widely assumed that
Chaco had been a forested oasis that attracted farmers who initially flourished but eventually
fell victim to their own success and exuberance, as they denuded the canyon of trees and
vegetation to build large great houses. In the 1980s this reconstruction was largely dismissed
in response to evidence that there had never been a forest in Chaco, and that canyon soils
had poor agricultural potential. As scientific interpretations about Chaco changed, the focus
of explanatory models changed from the attractiveness of the canyon for farmers to the
position of the canyon within a regional network of dispersed agricultural communities.

Paragraph 3
The adoption of a regional perspective in explaining the Chaco Phenomenon was based in
part on the discovery of formal trails connecting many of the great houses in Chaco, as well
as linking the canyon to smaller great houses located throughout the San Juan basin, the
latter are referred to as Chaco "outliers". These trails are densest around the concentration
of great houses in the center, and the canyon itself is roughly at the center of the basin.
Consequently, the canyon occupies the geographical and social center of the network formed
by the connecting trails. The current consensus view is that religion provides the
fundamental explanation for this centrifugal pattern.

Paragraph 4
Archaeologists now describe Chaco during the Bonito phase as a location of high devotional
expression and the pilgrimage center of a sacred landscape. These descriptions emphasize
aspects of the archaeological record presumed to be associated with ritual activity, including
caches of turquoise beads and pendants, unusual ceramic vessels and wooden objects,
several rooms with multiple human burials, and especially the large number of kivas
(multipurpose rooms used for religious, political, and social functions) found in great houses.
Most of these indicators occur only at Pueblo Bonito, but archaeologists generally assume
that all the great houses had a similar ritual function. In fact, some scholars have suggested
that the great houses were temples rather than residences.

176
Paragraph 5
However, new geological field studies in Chaco have produced results that may require a
significant reassessment of the assumption that the canyon was not a favorable agricultural
setting. It appears that during the first half of the eleventh century, during the extraordina ry
boom in construction, a large volume of water and suspended sediment flowed into the
canyon. A large natural lake may have existed at the western end of Chaco, near the biggest
concentration of great houses. The presence of large quantities of water and, equally
important, a source of sediment that replenished agricultural fields, presumably made the
canyon an extremely attractive place for newly arriving people from the northern San Juan
River basin.

Paragraph 1
A truly remarkable transformation in settlement patterns occurred in the San Juan basin in
northwestern New Mexico in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, with small
household farmsteads giving way to aggregated communities centered on communal
masonry buildings that are now called "great houses." These structures are found
throughout the basin but are concentrated in Chaco Canyon, where several examples
contained hundreds of rooms and reached four stories in height. The largest great house is
Pueblo Bonito, with over 600 rooms covering two acres. The entire episode of great house
construction in Chaco, the Bonito phase (A.D. 900-1140), was obviously a time of immense
cooperative effort. At least 200,000 wooden beams averaging 5 meters long and 20
centimeters in diameter were brought to the canyon from distances between 40 and 100
kilometers away to build a dozen great houses, signifying a huge labor investment and a
complex production process. The bulk of construction took place in the eleventh century, but
by A.D. 1140 it had ceased abruptly, after which there was a rapid decline in use of the great

177
houses and apparent abandonment of the canyon in the thirteenth century.

1. The word "signifying" in the passage is closet in meaning to

(A) creating
(B) indicating
(C) initiating
(D) requiring

2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following provide evidence that the Bonito phase was
a time of immense cooperative effort EXCEPT
(A) the large amounts of material needed
(B) the size of the Pueblo Bonito complex
(C) the unusual materials used in construction
(D) the distance the materials needed to be transported

Paragraph 2
For more than a century archaeologists have struggled to understand the circumstances
surrounding the rise and collapse of Chacoan society — dubbed the Chaco Phenomenon. In
particular, research has focused on determining why such an apparently inhospitable place
as Chaco, which today is extremely arid and has very short growing seasons, should have
favored the concentration of labor that must have been required for such massive
construction projects over brief periods of time. Until the 1970s, it was widely assumed that
Chaco had been a forested oasis that attracted farmers who initially flourished but eventually
fell victim to their own success and exuberance, as they denuded the canyon of trees and
vegetation to build large great houses. In the 1980s this reconstruction was largely dismissed
in response to evidence that there had never been a forest in Chaco, and that canyon soils
had poor agricultural potential. As scientific interpretations about Chaco changed, the focus
of explanatory models changed from the attractiveness of the canyon for farmers to the
position of the canyon within a regional network of dispersed agricultural communities.

178
3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
(A) Researchers have tried to establish why an area as dry as Chaco was the site of such large
construction efforts.
(B) Researchers have tried to establish whether the concentration of massive construction
projects in a brief period of time made Chaco the dry area that it is today.
(C) Researchers have established that Chaco's brief growing season required a concentration
of labor to produce large quantities of food in a short period of time.
(D) Researchers have established that the hot, dry climate of Chaco forced workers to
complete construction on large buildings in short periods of time.

Paragraph 2
For more than a century archaeologists have struggled to understand the circumstances
surrounding the rise and collapse of Chacoan society — dubbed the Chaco Phenomenon. In
particular, research has focused on determining why such an apparently inhospitable place
as Chaco, which today is extremely arid and has very short growing seasons, should have
favored the concentration of labor that must have been required for such massive
construction projects over brief periods of time. Until the 1970s, it was widely assumed that
Chaco had been a forested oasis that attracted farmers who initially flourished but eventually
fell victim to their own success and exuberance, as they denuded the canyon of trees and
vegetation to build large great houses. In the 1980s this reconstruction was largely dismissed
in response to evidence that there had never been a forest in Chaco, and that canyon soils
had poor agricultural potential. As scientific interpretations about Chaco changed, the focus
of explanatory models changed from the attractiveness of the canyon for farmers to the
position of the canyon within a regional network of dispersed agricultural communities.

4. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the pre-1970s theory about the Chaco
Phenomenon
(A) was based on the widespread farm and tool remains found by archaeologists on the site

179
(B) was largely reinforced by findings in the 1980s
(C) was not supported by substantial evidence
(D) was so strong that it went unchallenged for many decades

5. According to paragraph 2, why did scientists change their view about the cause of the
collapse of Chacoan society?
(A) They found evidence that Chaco had always lacked trees and good soil.
(B) They discovered that Chaco Canyon was much drier than they had previously believed.
(C) They learned that the population was not large enough to supply the laborers needed to
build the great houses.
(D) They found evidence that the farming economy was excessively concentrated in the
central canyon.

Paragraph 3
The adoption of a regional perspective in explaining the Chaco Phenomenon was based in
part on the discovery of formal trails connecting many of the great houses in Chaco, as well
as linking the canyon to smaller great houses located throughout the San Juan basin, the
latter are referred to as Chaco "outliers". These trails are densest around the concentration
of great houses in the center, and the canyon itself is roughly at the center of the basin.
Consequently, the canyon occupies the geographical and social center of the network formed
by the connecting trails. The current consensus view is that religion provides the
fundamental explanation for this centrifugal pattern.

Paragraph 4
Archaeologists now describe Chaco during the Bonito phase as a location of high devotional
expression and the pilgrimage center of a sacred landscape. These descriptions emphasize
aspects of the archaeological record presumed to be associated with ritual activity, including
caches of turquoise beads and pendants, unusual ceramic vessels and wooden objects,
several rooms with multiple human burials, and especially the large number of kivas
(multipurpose rooms used for religious, political, and social functions) found in great houses.
Most of these indicators occur only at Pueblo Bonito, but archaeologists generally assume
that all the great houses had a similar ritual function. In fact, some scholars have suggested
that the great houses were temples rather than residences.

6. According to paragraphs 3 and 4, which of the following best describes how archaeologists

180
arrived at their current view of the nature of Chaco during the Bonito phase?
(A) They discovered a large number of kivas, which probably served as temporary houses for
pilgrims on their way to the main temple.
(B) They found a series of paths leading to the outliers, which seem to have been centers of
trade for makers of jewelry and other products.
(C) They found turquoise beads and pendants and other valuable objects, leading to the
theory that the great houses were wealthy residences.
(D) They discovered many objects and rooms associated with ritual activity, leading to the
theory that Chaco was a religious center.

7. The word "function" in the passage is closet in meaning to

(A) center
(B) practice
(C) design
(D) purpose

Paragraph 5
However, new geological field studies in Chaco have produced results that may require a
significant reassessment of the assumption that the canyon was not a favorable agricultural
setting. It appears that during the first half of the eleventh century, during the extraordinary
boom in construction, a large volume of water and suspended sediment flowed into the
canyon. A large natural lake may have existed at the western end of Chaco, near the
biggest concentration of great houses. The presence of large quantities of water and,
equally important, a source of sediment that replenished agricultural fields, presumably
made the canyon an extremely attractive place for newly arriving people from the northern
San Juan River basin.

8. Why does the author state that "A large natural lake may have existed at the western end
of Chaco, near the biggest concentration of great houses"?
(A) To suggest that geological studies are better than archaeological studies in identifying the
historical uses of land
(B) To demonstrate that large construction projects require a large population of workers
(C) To support the idea that Chaco may have been favorable to agriculture during the Bonito
phase
(D) To show that the Chacoan people preferred to build their homes near water

Paragraph 3
【 A 】 The adoption of a regional perspective in explaining the Chaco Phenomenon was
based in part on the discovery of formal trails connecting many of the great houses in Chaco,
as well as linking the canyon to smaller great houses located throughout the San Juan basin,
the latter are referred to as Chaco "outliers". 【 B 】 These trails are densest around the

181
concentration of great houses in the center, and the canyon itself is roughly at the center of
the basin.【C】Consequently, the canyon occupies the geographical and social center of the
network formed by the connecting trails. 【D】The current consensus view is that religion
provides the fundamental explanation for this centrifugal pattern.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
Scholars have attempted to find a reason for this weblike arrangement of great houses
around a central canyon.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

The population of the Chaco Canyon in New Mexico changed significantly between the
tenth and eleventh centuries, as evidenced by the remains of its great houses.

Before the 1970s, scholars believed that the Archaeological findings indicate that Chaco
fall of Chacoan society was caused by Canyon was completely abandoned by the
farmers’ cutting down all the trees to build end of the thirteenth century.
their great houses.
After discovering trails connecting Chaco to Researchers’ findings in the 1980s revealed
surrounding communities, scholars came to that Chaco Canyon had been a fertile
believe that there were many forested oases agricultural area that caused the population
to support those communities. near the center of the canyon to increase
steadily during the Bonito phase.
Archaeological evidence has led current Recent geological studies indicating the
scholars to believe that Chaco was a religious presence of water in Chaco Canyon in the
center during the Bonito phase. eleventh century may alter scholars’ belief
that the area was not favorable for farming.

182
 11. The Geographical Distribution of Gliding Animals

Paragraph 1
Southeast Asia has a unique abundance and diversity of gliding animals: flying squirrels,
flying frogs, and flying lizards with wings of skin that enable them to glide through the
tropical forest. What could be the explanation for the great diversity in this region and the
scarcity of such animals in other tropical forests? Gliding has generally been viewed as either
a means of escaping predators, by allowing animals to move between trees without
descending to the ground, or as an energetically efficient way of traveling long distances
between scattered resources. But what is special about Southeast Asian rain forests?

Paragraph 2
Scientists have proposed various theories to explain the diversity of gliding animals in
Southeast Asia. The first theory might be called the tall-trees hypothesis. The forests of
Southeast Asia are taller than forests elsewhere due to the domination of the dipterocarp
family: a family of tall, tropical hardwood trees. Taller trees could allow for longer glides and
the opportunity to build up speed in a dive before gliding. The lower wind speeds in tall-tree
forests might also contribute by providing a more advantageous situation for gliding between
trees. This argument has several flaws, however. First, gliding animals are found throughout
the Southeast Asian region, even in relatively short-stature forests found in the northern
range of the rain forest in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Some gliders also thrive in low
secondary forests, plantations, and even city parks. Clearly, gliding animals do not require tall
trees for their activities. In addition, many gliding animals begin their glides from the middle
of tree trunks, not even ascending to the tops of trees to take off.

Paragraph 3
A second theory, which we might call the broken-forest hypothesis, speculates that the top
layer of the forest, the tree canopy, has fewer woody vines connecting tree crowns in
Southeast Asian forests than in New World and African forests. As a result, animals must risk
descending to the ground or glide to move between trees. In addition, the tree canopy is

183
presumed to be more uneven in height in Asian forests, due to the presence of the tall
dipterocarp trees with lower trees between them, again favoring gliding animals. Yet
ecologists who work in different regions of the world observe tremendous local variation in
tree height, canopy structure, and abundance of vines, depending on the site conditions of
soil, climate, slope elevation, and local disturbance. One can find many locations in
Southeast Asia where there are abundant woody vines and numerous connections between
trees and similarly many Amazonian forests with few woody vines.

Paragraph 4
A final theory differs from the others in suggesting that it is the presence of dipterocarp trees
themselves that is driving the evolution of gliding species. According to this view, dipterocarp
forests can be food-deserts for the animals that live in them. The animals living in
dipterocarp forests that have evolved gliding consist of two main feeding groups: leaf eaters
and carnivores that eat small prey such as insects and small vertebrates. For leaf-eating
gliders the problem is not the absence of any leaves but the desert-like absence of edible
leaves. Dipterocarp trees often account for 50 percent or more of the total number of
canopy trees in a forest and over 95 percent of the large trees, yet dipterocarp leaves are
unavailable to most vertebrate plant eaters because of the high concentration of toxic
chemicals in their leaves. Many species of gliding animals avoid eating dipterocarp leaves
and so must travel widely through the forest, bypassing the dipterocarp trees, to find the
leaves they need to eat. And gliding is a more efficient manner of traveling between trees
than descending to the ground and walking or else jumping between trees.

Paragraph 5
Many carnivorous animals also may need to search more widely for food due to the lower
abundance of insects and other prey. This is caused by dipterocarps' irregular flowering and
fruiting cycles of two- to seven-year intervals, causing a scarcity of the flowers, fruits, seeds,
and seedlings that are the starting point of so many food chains. The lower abundance of
prey in dipterocarp forests forces animals such as lizards and geckos to move between tree
crowns in search of food, with gliding being the most efficient means.

184
Paragraph 1
Southeast Asia has a unique abundance and diversity of gliding animals: flying squirrels,
flying frogs, and flying lizards with wings of skin that enable them to glide through the
tropical forest. What could be the explanation for the great diversity in this region and the
scarcity of such animals in other tropical forests? Gliding has generally been viewed as either
a means of escaping predators, by allowing animals to move between trees without
descending to the ground, or as an energetically efficient way of traveling long distances
between scattered resources. But what is special about Southeast Asian rain forests?

1. According to paragraph 1, what question about gliding species are researchers trying to
answer?
(A) Why it took millions of years for gliding animals to evolve in the tropical forests of
Southeast Asia
(B) Why gliding animals, though rare in most tropical forests, have evolved in so many
different families in Southeast Asia
(C) Why gliding animals evolved in many tropical forests in Southeast Asia before they
evolved in any of the tropical forests elsewhere in the world
(D) Why gliding animals evolved only in tropical rain forests

2. The word "scattered" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) hard to find
(B) seasonably available
(C) widely separated
(D) highly varied

185
Paragraph 2
Scientists have proposed various theories to explain the diversity of gliding animals in
Southeast Asia. The first theory might be called the tall-trees hypothesis. The forests of
Southeast Asia are taller than forests elsewhere due to the domination of the dipterocarp
family: a family of tall, tropical hardwood trees. Taller trees could allow for longer glides and
the opportunity to build up speed in a dive before gliding. The lower wind speeds in tall-tree
forests might also contribute by providing a more advantageous situation for gliding between
trees. This argument has several flaws, however. First, gliding animals are found throughout
the Southeast Asian region, even in relatively short-stature forests found in the northern
range of the rain forest in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Some gliders also thrive in low
secondary forests, plantations, and even city parks. Clearly, gliding animals do not require tall
trees for their activities. In addition, many gliding animals begin their glides from the middle
of tree trunks, not even ascending to the tops of trees to take off.

3. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 in support of the tall-trees hypothesis
EXCEPT:
(A) Tall trees make longer glides possible.
(B) Tall trees make building up speed in a dive possible.
(C) Tall trees make gliding from the middle of tree trunks possible.
(D) Tall-tree forests have lower wind speeds.

186
Paragraph 3
A second theory, which we might call the broken-forest hypothesis, speculates that the top
layer of the forest, the tree canopy, has fewer woody vines connecting tree crowns in
Southeast Asian forests than in New World and African forests. As a result, animals must risk
descending to the ground or glide to move between trees. In addition, the tree canopy is
presumed to be more uneven in height in Asian forests, due to the presence of the tall
dipterocarp trees with lower trees between them, again favoring gliding animals. Yet
ecologists who work in different regions of the world observe tremendous local variation in
tree height, canopy structure, and abundance of vines, depending on the site conditions of
soil, climate, slope elevation, and local disturbance. One can find many locations in
Southeast Asia where there are abundant woody vines and numerous connections between
trees and similarly many Amazonian forests with few woody vines.

4. The word "speculates" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) concludes from evidence
(B) recognizes
(C) puts forward as a possibility
(D) claims

5. Paragraph 3 implies which of the following ideas about forests in which there are
abundant woody vines connecting tree crowns?
(A) The tree canopy is more even than it is in other forests.
(B) In such forests, animals can move between trees by traveling on vines.
(C) Such forests generally contain a wider diversity of animals than other forests do.
(D) There are likely to be fewer predators on the ground in such forests than in other forests.

6. Paragraph 3 supports the idea that one problem with the broken-forest hypothesis is that
(A) ecologists have found gliding animals in areas of Southeast Asia where trees are
connected by vines and not found them in Amazonian forests where trees are not connected
by vines
(B) in Southeast Asia, the forests with the fewest woody vines connecting the tops of trees
turn out to have the most gliding animals
(C) according to ecologists in different regions of the world, gliding animals are as abundant
and varied in some forests of Africa and the New World as they are in Southeast Asian
forests
(D) gliding is no easier in broken forests with an uneven canopy structure than it is in forests
where the trees are all about the same height

187
Paragraph 4
A final theory differs from the others in suggesting that it is the presence of dipterocarp trees
themselves that is driving the evolution of gliding species. According to this view, dipterocarp
forests can be food-deserts for the animals that live in them. The animals living in
dipterocarp forests that have evolved gliding consist of two main feeding groups: leaf eaters
and carnivores that eat small prey such as insects and small vertebrates. For leaf-eating
gliders the problem is not the absence of any leaves but the desert-like absence of edible
leaves. Dipterocarp trees often account for 50 percent or more of the total number of
canopy trees in a forest and over 95 percent of the large trees, yet dipterocarp leaves are
unavailable to most vertebrate plant eaters because of the high concentration of toxic
chemicals in their leaves. Many species of gliding animals avoid eating dipterocarp leaves
and so must travel widely through the forest, bypassing the dipterocarp trees, to find the
leaves they need to eat. And gliding is a more efficient manner of traveling between trees
than descending to the ground and walking or else jumping between trees.

7. According to paragraph 4, what special difficulty do leaf-eating animals face in a

dipterocarp forest?
(A) Dipterocarp trees are less leafy than other canopy trees.
(B) There is no efficient method of getting from one tree to another.
(C) Most trees are very tall with leaves that are difficult to reach.
(D) There is a large distance between trees that have edible leaves.

188
Paragraph 4
A final theory differs from the others in suggesting that it is the presence of dipterocarp trees
themselves that is driving the evolution of gliding species. According to this view, dipterocarp
forests can be food-deserts for the animals that live in them. The animals living in
dipterocarp forests that have evolved gliding consist of two main feeding groups: leaf eaters
and carnivores that eat small prey such as insects and small vertebrates. For leaf-eating
gliders the problem is not the absence of any leaves but the desert-like absence of edible
leaves. Dipterocarp trees often account for 50 percent or more of the total number of
canopy trees in a forest and over 95 percent of the large trees, yet dipterocarp leaves are
unavailable to most vertebrate plant eaters because of the high concentration of toxic
chemicals in their leaves. Many species of gliding animals avoid eating dipterocarp leaves
and so must travel widely through the forest, bypassing the dipterocarp trees, to find the
leaves they need to eat. And gliding is a more efficient manner of traveling between trees
than descending to the ground and walking or else jumping between trees.

Paragraph 5
Many carnivorous animals also may need to search more widely for food due to the lower
abundance of insects and other prey. This is caused by dipterocarps' irregular flowering and
fruiting cycles of two- to seven-year intervals, causing a scarcity of the flowers, fruits, seeds,
and seedlings that are the starting point of so many food chains. The lower abundance of
prey in dipterocarp forests forces animals such as lizards and geckos to move between tree
crowns in search of food, with gliding being the most efficient means.

8. How does paragraph 5 relate to paragraph 4?

(A) Paragraph 5 shows that the food-desert theory introduced in paragraph 4 can account for
only part of what needs to be explained.
(B) Paragraph 5 explains why the author calls the theory set out in paragraph 4 the food-
desert theory.
(C) Paragraph 5 completes the account of the food-desert theory begun in paragraph 4.
(D) Paragraph 5 outlines an alternative to the food-desert theory described in paragraph 4.

Paragraph 4

189
A final theory differs from the others in suggesting that it is the presence of dipterocarp trees
themselves that is driving the evolution of gliding species. According to this view, dipterocarp
forests can be food-deserts for the animals that live in them. 【 A 】 The animals living in
dipterocarp forests that have evolved gliding consist of two main feeding groups: leaf eaters
and carnivores that eat small prey such as insects and small vertebrates.【B】For leaf-eating
gliders the problem is not the absence of any leaves but the desert-like absence of edible
leaves.【C】Dipterocarp trees often account for 50 percent or more of the total number of
canopy trees in a forest and over 95 percent of the large trees, yet dipterocarp leaves are
unavailable to most vertebrate plant eaters because of the high concentration of toxic
chemicals in their leaves. 【 D 】 Many species of gliding animals avoid eating dipterocarp
leaves and so must travel widely through the forest, bypassing the dipterocarp trees, to find
the leaves they need to eat. And gliding is a more efficient manner of traveling between
trees than descending to the ground and walking or else jumping between trees.

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
For each group, a dipterocarp forest is like a desert in that food resources are few and far
apart.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they

190
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain why Southeast Asia has a unique
abundance and diversity of gliding animals.

One theory is that so many gliding species The fact that gliding animals are most
evolved in Southeast Asia because the abundant in the short-stature forests of
forests are exceptionally tall, but there is China, Vietnam, and Thailand shows that
evidence that calls that theory into question. gliding did not evolve as an adaptation to an
environment of tall trees.
Ecologists have shown that the abundance of The hypothesis that gliding evolved to
gliding animals in different regions of the compensate for a scarcity of vines linking
world corresponds to variations in tree tree canopies overlooks problematic
height, canopy structure, and abundance of evidence from both Southeast Asian and
vines. Amazonian forests.
In forests that are dominated by tall trees, Dipterocarp trees create an environment in
jumping from tree to tree or descending to which many species must travel widely to
the ground may be a more efficient way of find food, and gliding may have evolved as a
traveling through the forest than gliding. rapid and efficient way of moving between
tree crowns.

12. Fishing in Early Egypt

191
Paragraph 1
The easy availability of fish called Clarias, or Nile catfish, helped foster early human
settlements in areas of modern-day Egypt. The Mediterranean Sea's level 16,000 years ago
was far below modern levels. The mouth of the river that would later be called the Nile lay at
least 50 kilometers offshore from where it is today. The river passed across a gently
undulating near desert dissected by numerous small channels. Thanks to the steeper slope, it
flowed much faster than it does today, bringing down more gravel than silt (finer particles
carried by water). Far upstream, wadis – channels that were dry except during the rainy
season – opened into the river. Small groups of foragers visited some sites to feed on the
catfish that abounded in the shallows created by the annual Nile inundations (floods). The
catfish harvest offered a temporary feast, but its real importance lay in the possibility of
drying the catch, providing food for the lean months when other foods were scarce and
elusive. Some groups used fire to smoke their catches. A 12,000-year-old site at Makhadma
in Upper Egypt has yielded thick garbage heaps with fish bones and abundant charcoal,
including what were probably smoking pits.

Paragraph 2
As sea levels rose and the Nile slowed, the inundations brought heavy silt loads that built up
a large delta (landform) at its mouth. Water also overflowed into the dry Faiyum Depression,
eight kilometers southwest of Cairo, forming fish-rich Lake Moeris. Its dunes, marshes, and
reed beds made the depression a magnet for human settlement by at least 11,000 years ago.
Scatters of 9,000-year-old fish bones from camps along the north shore of the then-extensive
lake have yielded numerous catfish bones. The lake also supported a diverse population of
other shallow-water species, most of which were taken from the receding floodwaters at
spawning (egg laying) season.

Paragraph 3
The Nile River delta, which would become the largest grain source for Egypt's rulers, was also
a bountiful fishery. Here, the floodplain extended to the horizon: a maze of scrubland,
swamps, reed-choked ponds, and narrow, shallow channels that changed with each flood.
This was the ancient Egyptians' Ta-Mehu (land of papyrus), named for Cyperus papyrus, a
wetland plant that yielded the thin, paperlike sheets used by scribes. Like the Faiyum, the
delta was a paradise for shallow-water fishers, a fishery so predictably rich that occasional
fishing could give way to routine fishing. The tools and weapons that had long killed
terrestrial game and trapped birds – clubs, barbed spears, and simple nets – were more than
sufficient in the shallows and at water's edge. In the Nile River delta, the fishing grounds
were extensive and ever changing, the water often too deep for shore-based spearmen. At
some unknown moment Egyptian fishers took to the water in boats constructed from the
only raw material available in their treeless world, papyrus reeds.
Paragraph 4
The technology is simplicity itself and is known to have been in use in Kuwait by at least 7000
B.C.E. Almost certainly Nile fishers began using papyrus watercraft about the same time, for
this was when the diversity of fish found in archaeological sites increased dramatically to
include such deeper-water fish as mullet and Nile perch. The fishers lashed papyrus stalks

192
into tight bundles to form double-ended canoes with elevated ends. Using the same
technique, they also built sturdy rafts that could be used for casting nets and carrying loads.
The hot, dry climate worked to the fishers’ advantage, for they could prolong the useful lives
of their easily waterlogged canoes by laying them out in the sun to dry. Ancient fishers in
southern California and coastal Peru did the same. Papyrus revolutionized Egyptian fishing,
turning it from occasional foraging into a much more intensive form of subsistence and then
into a sport. In much later times, the Eighteenth Dynasty (1539 to 1292 B.C.E.) high official
Userhat, who had the imposing title of scribe who counts bread in Upper Egypt and Lower
Egypt, commissioned a painting in which he is shown spearing a fish from a papyrus boat,
accompanied by his cats as his family looks on.

Paragraph 1
The easy availability of fish called Clarias, or Nile catfish, helped foster early human
settlements in areas of modern-day Egypt. The Mediterranean Sea's level 16,000 years ago
was far below modern levels. The mouth of the river that would later be called the Nile lay at
least 50 kilometers offshore from where it is today. The river passed across a gently
undulating near desert dissected by numerous small channels. Thanks to the steeper slope, it

193
flowed much faster than it does today, bringing down more gravel than silt (finer particles
carried by water). Far upstream, wadis – channels that were dry except during the rainy
season – opened into the river. Small groups of foragers visited some sites to feed on the
catfish that abounded in the shallows created by the annual Nile inundations (floods). The
catfish harvest offered a temporary feast, but its real importance lay in the possibility of
drying the catch, providing food for the lean months when other foods were scarce and
elusive. Some groups used fire to smoke their catches. A 12,000-year-old site at Makhadma
in Upper Egypt has yielded thick garbage heaps with fish bones and abundant charcoal,
including what were probably smoking pits.

1. Why does the author discuss a "12,000-year-old site at Makhadma in Upper Egypt"?
(A) To suggest that ancient Egyptians needed to move from place to place in order to harvest
catfish year round
(B) To explain why the catfish harvest during Nile floods offered a temporary feast
(C) To support the idea that ancient Egyptians preserved fish by smoking them
(D) To indicate that ancient Egyptians burned their waste material in special pits

2. According to paragraph 1, the Nile of 16,000 years ago differed from the modern Nile in all
of the following ways EXCEPT
(A) The mouth of the Nile was lower than the level of the Mediterranean Sea today.
(B) The Nile flowed through a deeper channel in the near desert than it does today.
(C) The Nile's slope was steeper than it is today.
(D) The Nile flowed much faster than it does today.

Paragraph 2
As sea levels rose and the Nile slowed, the inundations brought heavy silt loads that built up
a large delta (landform) at its mouth. Water also overflowed into the dry Faiyum Depression,
eight kilometers southwest of Cairo, forming fish-rich Lake Moeris. Its dunes, marshes, and
reed beds made the depression a magnet for human settlement by at least 11,000 years ago.
Scatters of 9,000-year-old fish bones from camps along the north shore of the then-extensive
lake have yielded numerous catfish bones. The lake also supported a diverse population of
other shallow-water species, most of which were taken from the receding floodwaters at

194
spawning (egg laying) season.

3. Paragraph 2 answers all of the following questions about Lake Moeris EXCEPT
(A) How was Lake Moeris created?
(B) What land features first attracted settlers to the Lake Moeris area?
(C) Why was there a difference between the time of human settlement and the age of fish
bones found around Lake Moeris?
(D) How do historians know that long ago Lake Moeris provided large numbers of catfish?

Paragraph 3
The Nile River delta, which would become the largest grain source for Egypt's rulers, was also
a bountiful fishery. Here, the floodplain extended to the horizon: a maze of scrubland,
swamps, reed-choked ponds, and narrow, shallow channels that changed with each flood.
This was the ancient Egyptians' Ta-Mehu (land of papyrus), named for Cyperus papyrus, a
wetland plant that yielded the thin, paperlike sheets used by scribes. Like the Faiyum, the
delta was a paradise for shallow-water fishers, a fishery so predictably rich that occasional
fishing could give way to routine fishing. The tools and weapons that had long killed
terrestrial game and trapped birds – clubs, barbed spears, and simple nets – were more than
sufficient in the shallows and at water's edge. In the Nile River delta, the fishing grounds

195
were extensive and ever changing, the water often too deep for shore-based spearmen. At
some unknown moment Egyptian fishers took to the water in boats constructed from the
only raw material available in their treeless world, papyrus reeds.

4. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of the tools and weapons used by
early Egyptians who fished the Nile River delta?
(A) They were made of papyrus reeds found on the shores of the Nile River delta.
(B) They were equally effective for fishing in shallow waters as they were for hunting.
(C) They had to be changed frequently because of the difficult conditions in the extensive
floodplain.
(D) They were just as useful in deep water as they were near the shore.

5. Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about the practice of fishing in the Nile River
delta?
(A) It likely progressed from shallow-water fishing to deep-water fishing.
(B) It required more specialized skill when it was done from the shore.
(C) It provided less food than hunting game and trapping birds did.
(D) It yielded the most fish when it occurred right before a flood.

Paragraph 4
The technology is simplicity itself and is known to have been in use in Kuwait by at least 7000
B.C.E. Almost certainly Nile fishers began using papyrus watercraft about the same time, for
this was when the diversity of fish found in archaeological sites increased dramatically to
include such deeper-water fish as mullet and Nile perch. The fishers lashed papyrus stalks
into tight bundles to form double-ended canoes with elevated ends. Using the same
technique, they also built sturdy rafts that could be used for casting nets and carrying loads.
The hot, dry climate worked to the fishers’ advantage, for they could prolong the useful lives
of their easily waterlogged canoes by laying them out in the sun to dry. Ancient fishers in
southern California and coastal Peru did the same. Papyrus revolutionized Egyptian fishing,
turning it from occasional foraging into a much more intensive form of subsistence and then

196
into a sport. In much later times, the Eighteenth Dynasty (1539 to 1292 B.C.E.) high official
Userhat, who had the imposing title of scribe who counts bread in Upper Egypt and Lower
Egypt, commissioned a painting in which he is shown spearing a fish from a papyrus boat,
accompanied by his cats as his family looks on.

6. The word "elevated" in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) lightweight
(B) narrow
(C) raised
(D) balanced

7. In paragraph 4, which of the following is mentioned as evidence that Nile fishers began
using papyrus watercraft by about 7000 B.C.E.?
(A) Archaeological sites dating to about this time contain the remains of several deep-water
fish species.
(B) Easy access to such wetland plants as papyrus became possible at this time.
(C) Fishers in Kuwait are known to have shared their watercraft technology with Nile fishers
around this time.
(D) The remains of ancient papyrus watercraft dating to around this time have been
uncovered at sites near the Nile.

8. According to paragraph 4, which of the following caused problems for papyrus

watercraft?
(A) Heat
(B) Dry air
(C) Excess water
(D) Heavy loads

Paragraph 2
As sea levels rose and the Nile slowed, the inundations brought heavy silt loads that built up
a large delta (landform) at its mouth. Water also overflowed into the dry Faiyum Depression,
eight kilometers southwest of Cairo, forming fish-rich Lake Moeris.【A】Its dunes, marshes,
and reed beds made the depression a magnet for human settlement by at least 11,000 years
ago. 【 B 】 Scatters of 9,000-year-old fish bones from camps along the north shore of the
then-extensive lake have yielded numerous catfish bones. 【 C 】 The lake also supported a
diverse population of other shallow-water species, most of which were taken from the
receding floodwaters at spawning (egg laying) season.【D】

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.

197
This feature of the lake meant that settlers did not have to depend only on catfish.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Fishing in and around the Nile supported early human settlements in areas of modern-day
Egypt.

Fishing in early Egypt was done by foragers Rising sea levels and the slowing of the Nile
rather than permanent settlers, providing created a fish-rich lake and helped to build
food at specific times, and the fish could be up the Nile River delta, a rich area for
smoked or dried for later consumption. shallow waterfishing.
Nile catfish were highly sought after because Settlers turned to occasional fishing of the
they lived in shallow water where they were Nile's shallow waters because few game
easy to catch, and fishing for them did not animals and birds could be hunted where
require construction of boats. papyrus plants grew in the Nile River delta.
The construction of papyrus boats allowed As fishing moved from shallow waters to
Egyptians to fish more intensively and in deeper waters, Egyptian fishers replaced
deeper waters. technologically simple tools and weapons
with more complex alternatives.

13. Coral Reef Communities

Paragraph 1
Coral reefs are massive underwater structures made from the hard limestone exoskeletons
of thousands of tiny living organisms (coral polyps) produced one on top of another in warm,
clear, shallow ocean waters. Living polyps extend upward and outward from the coral colony
center and live on top of the old dead exoskeletons. Coral reef communities are crowded
with other animals representing virtually every major animal phylum. Space is at a premium
on reefs, corals, seaweeds (various forms of algae), sponges, or other organisms cover
virtually every surface. Because both corals and algae require light to survive, access to light,
like space, is also a resource subject to competition.

Paragraph 2
Fast-growing, branching corals can grow over slower-growing, encrusting, or massive corals
and deny them light. In response, the slower-growing forms can extend stinging filaments
from their digestive cavity and kill their competitor's polyps. Undamaged polyps on the

198
faster-growing, branching coral, however, may grow very long sweeper tentacles, containing
powerful nematocysts (stingers) that kill polyps on the slower-growing form. The faster-
growing form repairs the damage and continues to overgrow its competitor. In addition to
sweeper tentacles and stinging filaments, corals have several other mechanisms available for
attack or defense.

Paragraph 3
In general, slower-growing corals are more aggressive than fast-growing species. In cases
where a competitor cannot be overcome, however, corals may survive by taking advantage
of differences in local habitats. Massive corals are generally more shade tolerant and able to
survive at greater depths. Therefore, on many reefs it is the fast-growing, branching corals
that ultimately dominate at the upper, shallower portion of the reef, whereas more massive
forms dominate in deeper areas.

Paragraph 4
Corals also must compete with other reef organisms, each with its own strategies for
survival. Sponges, soft corals, and seaweeds (algae) can overgrow stony corals and smother
them. Algae are competitively superior to corals in shallow water but less so at depth.
Survival of coral in shallow water, therefore, may depend on grazing by plant-eating
echinoderms (starfish and sea urchins) and fishes. In Jamaica, overfishing removed most of
the plant-eating fish from coral reefs. Initially, algal growth was kept in check by grazing sea
urchins, but in 1982, a pathogen reduced the population by 99 percent. Without grazers, the
algae were able to completely overgrow the coral.

Paragraph 5
Competition may occur among other reef communities. Grazing by urchins and fishes is
important in preventing seaweeds from overgrowing the reef. The dominant algae on a
healthy reef are usually fast-growing filamentous forms or coralline algae, well protected by
calcification (hardening) and the production of noxious chemicals. These algae are inferior
competitors to larger, fleshier seaweeds, so grazing by urchins and fishes on the larger
seaweeds allows these algae to persist. Grazing on plants is greatest in the shallow reef areas
but decreases with depth, where lower temperatures and light reduce algal growth. The reef
is, therefore, a mosaic of microhabitats with different levels of grazing and different algal
communities.

Paragraph 6
An additional complexity arises from the activity of damselfish. Because they are territorial,
many damselfish species exclude grazers and other species from certain areas of the reef.
Algae grow rapidly in these territories, providing habitat for many small invertebrates but
overgrowing the corals. Branching corals tend to dominate in damselfish territories because
they are upright and faster growing than the more massive or encrusting forms.

Paragraph 7
Although less studied than on rocky shores, predation almost certainly has a significant

199
influence on the community structure of coral reefs. Fish and other predators may
preferentially prey on such competitors of corals as sponges and gorgonians, giving
competitively inferior reef corals an advantage in securing space. Many species of fish,
mollusks, and crustaceans also feed directly on coral polyps. Several surgeonfish and
parrotfish may actually pass coral skeletons through their digestive tracts and add sediment
to the reef. Both fish and invertebrate corallivores (coral-feeding organisms) seem to attack
faster-growing, branching species preferentially, perhaps preventing slower-growing forms
from being overgrown. Corallivores, however, rarely ever completely destroy a coral colony
except in cases where tropical storms or humans have already done severe damage. The fact
that almost all small invertebrates on reefs are so well hidden or highly camouflaged is
another indicator of how prevalent predation is on reefs and its importance in determining
reef structure.

Paragraph 1
Coral reefs are massive underwater structures made from the hard limestone exoskeletons
of thousands of tiny living organisms (coral polyps) produced one on top of another in warm,
clear, shallow ocean waters. Living polyps extend upward and outward from the coral colony
center and live on top of the old dead exoskeletons. Coral reef communities are crowded
with other animals representing virtually every major animal phylum. Space is at a premium
on reefs, corals, seaweeds (various forms of algae), sponges, or other organisms cover
virtually every surface. Because both corals and algae require light to survive, access to light,
like space, is also a resource subject to competition.

1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of coral reefs EXCEPT:
(A) Coral reefs grow biggest in the deepest waters of the ocean.
(B) The organisms living around coral reefs compete for limited resources.
(C) There are many different organisms in coral reef communities.
(D) Coral reefs consist of the outer skeletons of small living organisms.

Paragraph 2
Fast-growing, branching corals can grow over slower-growing, encrusting, or massive corals
and deny them light. In response, the slower-growing forms can extend stinging filaments
from their digestive cavity and kill their competitor's polyps. Undamaged polyps on the
faster-growing, branching coral, however, may grow very long sweeper tentacles, containing

200
powerful nematocysts (stingers) that kill polyps on the slower-growing form. The faster-
growing form repairs the damage and continues to overgrow its competitor. In addition to
sweeper tentacles and stinging filaments, corals have several other mechanisms available for
attack or defense.

2. According to paragraph 2, how do fast-growing branching corals defend themselves from

attacks by slower-growing corals?
(A) By producing stinging sweeper tentacles
(B) By growing on top of the slower-growing corals
(C) By blocking the light to the slower-growing corals
(D) By destroying the stinging filament of the slower-growing corals

Paragraph 3
In general, slower-growing corals are more aggressive than fast-growing species. In cases
where a competitor cannot be overcome, however, corals may survive by taking advantage
of differences in local habitats. Massive corals are generally more shade tolerant and able to
survive at greater depths. Therefore, on many reefs it is the fast-growing, branching corals
that ultimately dominate at the upper, shallower portion of the reef, whereas more massive
forms dominate in deeper areas.

3. The word "ultimately " in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) naturally
(B) eventually
(C) quickly
(D) clearly

Paragraph 4
Corals also must compete with other reef organisms, each with its own strategies for
survival. Sponges, soft corals, and seaweeds (algae) can overgrow stony corals and smother
them. Algae are competitively superior to corals in shallow water but less so at depth.
Survival of coral in shallow water, therefore, may depend on grazing by plant-eating
echinoderms (starfish and sea urchins) and fishes. In Jamaica, overfishing removed most of
the plant-eating fish from coral reefs. Initially, algal growth was kept in check by grazing sea
urchins, but in 1982, a pathogen reduced the population by 99 percent. Without grazers, the

201
algae were able to completely overgrow the coral.

4. In paragraph 4, why does the author discuss the effects of removing plant-eating fish and
sea urchins from coral reefs?
(A) To identify a situation that contributes to the dominance of corals in shallow waters
(B) To demonstrate the importance of grazing on seaweeds for the survival of some corals
(C) To provide evidence that seaweeds are better competitors than coral at depth
(D) To argue that sea urchin pathogens also attack corals

5. According to paragraph 4, all of these pairs of organisms are in competition EXCEPT

(A) corals and sponges
(B) algae and corals
(C) echinoderms and corals
(D) sea urchins and algae

Paragraph 5
Competition may occur among other reef communities. Grazing by urchins and fishes is
important in preventing seaweeds from overgrowing the reef. The dominant algae on a
healthy reef are usually fast-growing filamentous forms or coralline algae, well protected by
calcification (hardening) and the production of noxious chemicals. These algae are inferior
competitors to larger, fleshier seaweeds, so grazing by urchins and fishes on the larger
seaweeds allows these algae to persist. Grazing on plants is greatest in the shallow reef areas
but decreases with depth, where lower temperatures and light reduce algal growth. The reef
is, therefore, a mosaic of microhabitats with different levels of grazing and different algal
communities.

6. According to paragraph 5, fast-growing filamentous or coralline algae are usually the

dominant algae on healthy coral reefs in part because they
(A) are not affected by noxious chemicals produced by other organisms
(B) are less attractive as food for sea urchins and fishes than bigger seaweeds are
(C) occupy the areas of coral reefs that have lower temperatures and less light
(D) can live in a wider variety of microhabitats than their competitors can

Paragraph 6
An additional complexity arises from the activity of damselfish. Because they are territorial,
many damselfish species exclude grazers and other species from certain areas of the reef.
Algae grow rapidly in these territories, providing habitat for many small invertebrates but
overgrowing the corals. Branching corals tend to dominate in damselfish territories because
they are upright and faster growing than the more massive or encrusting forms.

7. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is an effect of the activity of damselfish

202
on the reef environment?
(A) Encrusting corals dominate in damselfish territories.
(B) The damselfish attract many species of grazers.
(C) Algae grow rapidly.
(D) Algal diversity is greater than in other parts of the reef.

Paragraph 7
Although less studied than on rocky shores, predation almost certainly has a significant
influence on the community structure of coral reefs. Fish and other predators may
preferentially prey on such competitors of corals as sponges and gorgonians, giving
competitively inferior reef corals an advantage in securing space. Many species of fish,
mollusks, and crustaceans also feed directly on coral polyps. Several surgeonfish and
parrotfish may actually pass coral skeletons through their digestive tracts and add sediment
to the reef. Both fish and invertebrate corallivores (coral-feeding organisms) seem to attack
faster-growing, branching species preferentially, perhaps preventing slower-growing forms
from being overgrown. Corallivores, however, rarely ever completely destroy a coral colony
except in cases where tropical storms or humans have already done severe damage. The fact
that almost all small invertebrates on reefs are so well hidden or highly camouflaged is
another indicator of how prevalent predation is on reefs and its importance in determining
reef structure.

8. Paragraph 7 mentions all of the following as effects of predation on the community

structure of coral reefs EXCEPT:
(A) Corals are advantaged when predators prefer to attack competitors of corals.
(B) Faster-growing corals are prevented from overgrowing slower-growing corals when faster-
growing species are preferred by competitors.
(C) Predation contributes to the sediment deposit of the reef.
(D) Small invertebrates are exposed to competitively superior organisms.

Paragraph 3
In general, slower-growing corals are more aggressive than fast-growing species. 【 A 】 In
cases where a competitor cannot be overcome, however, corals may survive by taking
advantage of differences in local habitats. 【 B 】 Massive corals are generally more shade
tolerant and able to survive at greater depths. 【C】Therefore, on many reefs it is the fast-

203
growing, branching corals that ultimately dominate at the upper, shallower portion of the
reef, whereas more massive forms dominate in deeper areas.【D】

9. Look at the four squares【】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.
For example, different species of corals have different needs for light.
Where would the sentence best fit?

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they
express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the
passage, click on View Text.

Coral reef communities include many different organisms that must compete for resources
such as space and light.

In order to keep from being overgrown, the Coral reefs are divided into a shallow upper
different species of coral kill each other's portion and a deeper lower portion with
polyps, or live in different local habitats branching corals dominating in the lower
within the reef community. portion.
Competition among the different species of Grazing by fishes and urchins prevents algae
corals is more intense than that between and seaweeds from overgrowing the corals,
corals and other coral reef inhabitants. although damselfish exclude grazers from
some areas.
Predation shapes reef structure by getting rid Fish and invertebrate corallivores are the
of competitors of corals, but coral polyps most common cause of coral colony
themselves are also eaten, as are many reef destruction, followed by tropical storms and
inhabitants. damage by humans.

204