2017

Cache Memory – Notes

Bootstrap Process - A bootstrap program is the first code that is executed when the computer
system is started. The entire operating system depends on the bootstrap program to work correctly
as it loads the operating system.

Bootstrapping Process

The bootstrapping process does not require any outside input to start. Any software can be loaded
as required by the operating system rather than loading all the software automatically.

The bootstrapping process is performed as a chain i.e., at each stage, it is the responsibility of the
simpler and smaller program to load and execute the much more complicated and larger program.
This means that the computer system improves in increments by itself.

The booting procedure starts with the hardware procedures and then continues onto the software
procedures that are stored in the main memory. The bootstrapping process involves self-tests,
loading BIOS, configuration settings, hypervisor, operating system etc.

Benefits of Bootstrapping

Without bootstrapping, the computer user would have to download all the software components,
including the ones not frequently required. With bootstrapping, only those software components
need to be downloaded that are legitimately required and all extraneous components are not
required. This process frees up a lot of space in the memory and consequently saves a lot of time.

2018

Primary Key and Foreign Key – Notes

Sarbanne’s Oxyley Act - Notes

Data Flow Diagrams - Notes

A data flow diagram (DFD) is type of flowchart, a graphical representation of the flow of data
through an information system. It is also known as a data flow diagram, function diagram, or process
diagram. Data flow diagrams are used to design the architecture of an information system and to
document the functional aspects of it.

Data Flow Diagram

Definition

A data flow diagram (or DFD) is a graphical representation of the information flow in a business
process. It demonstrates how data is transferred from the input to the file storage and reports
generation.

By visualizing the system flow, the flow charts will give users helpful insights into the process and
open up ways to define and improve their business.

Components

External Entity
An external entity, also known as terminators, sources, sinks, or actors, is an outside process where
information enters or leaves the system. It acts as the source and the destination of the information.

Thus, it is usually placed at the edge of the diagram. External entities can either be a person, an
organization, or a computer system.

Unlike other flowchart symbols, which are triangles, rectangles, or circles, a DFD uses stick-figure
drawings to demonstrate external entities.

Process

The process is a procedure that makes changes to the information and its flow, resulting in new
output. A process can perform several functions, from carrying out computations, categorizing
information based on logic, or using business rules to change the flow.

It is labeled with a short and simple term that describes the whole process, such as “Submit
payment”.

Data Store

Data store is a place that contains information for later use. It can be files, documents, or a filing
cabinet. A data store stays between two processes, receiving and sending the inputs and outputs. In
business process diagrams, this component is in the form of two horizontal lines.

Data Flow

Data flow is the direction that the information takes to pass from external entities to processes and
stores. A DFD shows this route by using arrows and succinct labels. Users will get the interface
among the three components above by observing the system’s information path.

Advantages Of A DFD

Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are a type of diagramming technique used in systems analysis and data
modeling to represent system tasks and how they interact with each other. This can be seen as a
notation for process flow charts. It provides instructions on how to process data. Data flow diagrams
can help identify where problems in the system may be, allowing for the system to be repaired or
redesigned before it falls apart. DFDs are also useful for teaching about the basics of computer
science because it demonstrates how computers work by way of manipulating information, which is
basically what all computers do.

Data flow diagrams provide a way for people who are involved in the process (such as managers and
engineers) to better understand how objects are used in the system. It enables them to see how
data is transferred from one object to the next, making it easier to spot errors. Data Flow Diagrams
also offer a more natural and intuitive way for people unfamiliar with computers or programming
languages to understand what's happening in the system.

Social Networking

Social networking, in an online business context, is the usage of social media websites to connect
with existing and potential customers to increase revenues and expand your business. The most
frequently used social networking websites are Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Other popular
social connection sites include LinkedIn, Instagram, Pinterest, and Snapchat.
While social networking has been used from its early beginnings by individuals to make social
connections with other people, the explosion of social network marketing by businesses has largely
occurred just in the past decade, shortly after the advent of Facebook in 2009. Social networking has
proven so effective as a marketing tool that the vast majority of large companies have hired social
media consultants or marketers to help them promote their products.

Primary advantages of marketing through social networking include its relatively low cost compared
to traditional advertising and its proven effectiveness in creating not only sales but brand loyalty.

Advantages of Social Networking

1. Reduces marketing costs

Using social networking for marketing purposes can dramatically reduce your advertising costs. Paid
advertising on social sites such as Facebook is typically much cheaper than traditional advertising
venues – such as radio or television – and often offers the additional advantage of being able to
reach more people.

The increased sophistication of social media advertising enables businesses to effectively target
individuals who are likely to be good potential customers. For example, a company that sells
children’s toys can target their advertising to new mothers.

Social networking can be especially helpful for new, small businesses that have limited funds for
marketing. Such businesses may be able to forego paid advertising altogether and market their
products by only investing the necessary time and effort to post information about them on social
networking sites.

2. Immediate customer feedback

Using social networking sites is one of the most effective ways to obtain immediate and reliable
customer feedback on your business products or services. Monitoring social media comments on
your products or services can provide you with continuous information on how – and why –
consumers are liking or disliking what you’re selling.

In addition to providing such valuable information, social networking offers your business the ability
to respond to customers immediately. For example, if a customer posts something about having
problems assembling or operating a product your company sells, then someone from your customer
service department can quickly offer them assistance online.

Social site listening/monitoring tools can help you stay informed of mentions of your products or
company that occur anywhere across designated social media sites.

The consumer feedback that you obtain online through social networking can be extremely valuable
in tweaking existing products or services or in helping to guide the design of new products or
services to meet customer needs or wants more effectively.

3. Builds brand loyalty

Because social networking creates a sense of community among the members of a social network, it
can provide an immense boost in building brand loyalty to your company’s products or services.

Being present on social media websites helps to “humanize” your company and increases a sense of
personal connection with your customers – both potential and existing. Customers who feel a
personal connection with your company are more likely to continue buying from you and will resist
switching to a competitor.

Responding directly to consumer comments about your products or company engenders customer
loyalty. In addition, simply being present on social networking sites means that your company’s logo
and brand message are frequently seen by potentially millions of people.

4. Increases website traffic

The use of social networking can help increase visits to your company website and increase sales and
revenues in a couple of ways. First, social networking increases the mention of your company online
overall, which can help boost your SEO ranking, putting your company higher in online search
results. Secondly, providing direct online links to your company website in social media posts can
increase traffic to your site.

2019

CPU – Notes

ERD – Notes

An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is a data modeling technique that graphically illustrates an

information system’s entities and the relationships between those entities. An ERD is a conceptual
and representational model of data used to represent the entity framework infrastructure.

The elements of an ERD are:

Entities

Relationships

Attributes

Steps involved in creating an ERD include:

Identifying and defining the entities

Determining all interactions between the entities

Analyzing the nature of interactions/determining the cardinality of the relationships

Creating the ERD

Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)

An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is crucial to creating a good database design. It is used as a

high-level logical data model, which is useful in developing a conceptual design for databases.

An entity is a real-world item or concept that exists on its own. Entities are equivalent to database
tables in a relational database, with each row of the table representing an instance of that entity.

An attribute of an entity is a particular property that describes the entity. A relationship is the
association that describes the interaction between entities. Cardinality, in the context of ERD, is the
number of instances of one entity that can, or must, be associated with each instance of another
entity. In general, there may be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many relationships.
For example, let us consider two real-world entities, an employee, and his department. An employee
has attributes such as an employee number, name, department number, etc. Similarly, department
number and name can be defined as attributes of a department. A department can interact with
many employees, but an employee can belong to only one department, hence there can be a one-
to-many relationship, defined between department and employee.

In the actual database, the employee table will have department number as a foreign key,
referencing from department table, to enforce the relationship.

Role of Internet in Business Development

The internet plays a major role in every aspect of our modern life. Internet technologies play a major
role in business. As a business owner, knowing the role of internet in business will help one take
advantage of the powerful opportunities it offers to grow his/her business and make operations
more effective.

Here are different ways in which the internet has contributed to the success and growth of
businesses.

Communication: The internet makes communication fast and cost efficient. Businesses use internet
technologies such as Skype internet and video calls, email, and video conferencing to make
communication virtually instant.

Growth: The internet plays a big role in the growth of businesses. It gives businesses an opportunity
to reach a wider global audience. Promoting through the internet is also a way to increase sales and
reach the desired growth level. Business can also expand by having an online division.

Marketing: One of the roles of internet in business involves marketing and advertising. Most
businesses are taking advantage of the internet to market their products and services to a global
audience. The most notable internet technologies here include search engines such as Google.

Networking and Recruiting: Social networking websites play a role in business networking by
connecting like-minded professionals. Through the internet, people have found business partners
and great employees.

Outsourcing services: The internet has helped cut costs by outsourcing services to countries where it
is cheaper to provide these services. Apart from the cost reduction through the outsourcing role of
internet in business, outsourcing enables businesses to concentrate on their core services and
become more efficient.

Online Shopping Role: One role of internet in business is the birth of ecommerce websites and
online payment solutions that allow people to shop online from the comfort of their own homes.

New Opportunities: The internet has opened up new business opportunities and giving rise to a
group of successful online business owners. This is a powerful role as anyone can now start an online
business.

The role of internet in business cannot be overstated. New businesses are taking advantage of the
powerful role the internet plays in business to grow and succeed at a faster rate than was previously
possible. Traditional businesses are also not being left behind as they are creating online divisions. A
business owner can only ignore the role the internet plays in business at the peril of his or her
business.
2021

Flow Chart - Notes

Data Dictionary

A data dictionary contains metadata i.e., data about the database. The data dictionary is very
important as it contains information such as what is in the database, who is allowed to access it,
where is the database physically stored etc. The users of the database normally don't interact with
the data dictionary, it is only handled by the database administrators.

The data dictionary in general contains information about the following −

Names of all the database tables and their schemas.

Details about all the tables in the database, such as their owners, their security constraints, when
they were created etc.

Physical information about the tables such as where they are stored and how.

Table constraints such as primary key attributes, foreign key information etc.

Information about the database views that are visible.

The different types of data dictionary are −

Active Data Dictionary

If the structure of the database or its specifications change at any point of time, it should be
reflected in the data dictionary. This is the responsibility of the database management system in
which the data dictionary resides.

So, the data dictionary is automatically updated by the database management system when any
changes are made in the database. This is known as an active data dictionary as it is self-updating.

Passive Data Dictionary

This is not as useful or easy to handle as an active data dictionary. A passive data dictionary is
maintained separately to the database whose contents are stored in the dictionary. That means that
if the database is modified the database dictionary is not automatically updated as in the case of
Active Data Dictionary.

So, the passive data dictionary has to be manually updated to match the database. This needs
careful handling or else the database and data dictionary are out of sync.

Distinguish Between Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary VS Secondary Memory

Primary Memory – PM

Secondary Memory – SM

This memory is temporary memory. PM

This memory is permanent memory. SM

This memory is directly accessible by the computer’s Processor/CPU. PM

This memory is not directly accessible by the computer’s CPU. SM

The nature of Parts of this Primary memory varies because RAM- is volatile in nature while the ROM-
Non-volatile. PM

This memory is always Non-volatile in nature. SM

The devices of primary memory are more expensive than secondary storage devices. PM

The devices of secondary memory devices are not more expensive as compared to primary memory
devices. SM

The memory devices used for primary memory are semiconductor memories. PM

The secondary memory devices are magnetic and optical memories. SM

This memory is known as a device's main or internal memory. PM

This memory is known as external memory or auxiliary memory of a device. SM

Example: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc. are Examples. PM

Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tapes, etc. are Examples. SM

Key Difference Between Primary and Secondary Memory

While secondary memory is often referred to as backup memory or auxiliary memory, primary
memory is also known as internal memory.

The data bus can access primary memory, whereas I/O channels can access secondary memory.

Data in secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by the processor, whereas data in primary
memory can be accessed immediately by the processing unit.

When comparing the prices of primary and secondary storage options, primary storage is more
expensive than secondary storage, while secondary storage is less expensive than a primary storage
option.

While secondary memory can be either volatile or nonvolatile, primary memory is always
nonvolatile.