The document discusses relational algebra and its fundamental operations. Relational algebra uses operators to query relational databases and its operations include selection, projection, join, set operations, and renaming. Examples are also provided to demonstrate how selection works on relations.
The document discusses relational algebra and its fundamental operations. Relational algebra uses operators to query relational databases and its operations include selection, projection, join, set operations, and renaming. Examples are also provided to demonstrate how selection works on relations.
The document discusses relational algebra and its fundamental operations. Relational algebra uses operators to query relational databases and its operations include selection, projection, join, set operations, and renaming. Examples are also provided to demonstrate how selection works on relations.
The document discusses relational algebra and its fundamental operations. Relational algebra uses operators to query relational databases and its operations include selection, projection, join, set operations, and renaming. Examples are also provided to demonstrate how selection works on relations.
1. Database Systems: Design, Implementation and Management by
Peter Rob and Carlos Coronel 8th-Edition 2. Fundamentals of Database Systems by Elmasri & Navathe 7th-Edition 3. An Introduction to Database Systems by C. J. Date 8th-Edition Lecture No. 9 & 10 Relational Model and Algebra The database information contains the global conceptual schema. In this context, it is important to note how the database relations are connected to one another with joins. In relational model, these relationships are depicted as relations. Relational database systems are expected to be equipped with a query language that can assist its users to query the database instances. There are two kinds of query languages; Relational Algebra Relational Calculus Example: STUDENT Relation
In the given table, NAME, ROLL_NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS, and
AGE are the attributes. The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples. t3 = <Qasim, 33289, 8583287182, Rawalpindi, 20> Properties of Relations: Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations.
Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single) value
Each attribute contains a distinct name
Attribute domain has no significance
tuple has no duplicate value
Order of tuple can have a different sequence
Procedural Languages: These are those languages in which what to do and how to do on the database is required. It means whatever operation is to be done on the database that has to be told that how to perform. Non -Procedural Languages: These are those languages in which only what to do is required, rest how to do is done by the manipulation language itself.
Structured query language (SQL) is the most widely language used
for manipulation of data. But we will first study Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus, which are procedural and non – procedural respectively. Relational Algebra Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes instances of relations as input and yields instances of relations as output. It uses operators to perform queries. An operator can be either unary or binary. They accept relations as their input and yield relations as their output. Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and intermediate results are also considered relations. Relational algebra operations work on one or more relations to define another relation leaving the original intact. It means that the input for relational algebra can be one or more relations and the output would be another relation, but the original participating relations will remain unchanged and intact. Both operands and results are relations, so output from one operation can become input to another operation. It means that the input and output both are relations so they can be used iteratively in different requirements. Allows expressions to be nested, just as in arithmetic. This property is called closure.
So, we can say Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It
gives a step by step process to obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to perform queries. Fundamental Operations of Relational Algebra:
• Selection (Select Operation),
• Projection (Project Operation), • Cartesian product (Cartesian product), • Union (Union Operation), • Set Difference (Set Difference), • Rename (Rename Operation), • Selection (Select Operation): The select operation is performed to select certain rows or tuples of a table, so it performs its action on the table horizontally. The tuples are selected through this operation using a predicate or condition. This command works on a single table and takes rows that meet a specified condition, copying them into a new table. As a result of this operation all the attributes of the resulting table are same, which means that degree of the new and old tables are same. Only selected rows / tuples are picked up by the given condition. While processing a selection all the tuples of a table are looked up and those tuples, which match a particular condition, are picked up for the new table. The degree of the resulting relation will be the same as of the relation itself. The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate. It is denoted by Lower Greek letter sigma (σ). σ is used for selection prediction. r is used for relation. p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like: AND OR and NOT. These relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤
Output: Example-2: For example there is a table STUDENT with five attributes. The following is an example of select operation on the table STUDENT.
The components of the select operations are clear from the above example; σ is the symbol being used (operato), “curr_sem > 3” written in the subscript is the predicate and
STUDENT given in parentheses is the table name. The resulting
relation of this command would contain record of those students whose semester is greater than three as under: Output Relation of a Select Operation
