Morality in Indian Tradition

(PCE3061/PCE7061)

Morality in Indian tradition is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses various aspects of
ethics, values, and conduct. It is influenced by the teachings of ancient scriptures, the practices of
different religions, the customs and traditions of diverse cultures, the roles and expectations of different
genders, and the education and awareness of individuals. Morality in Indian tradition is not static or rigid,
but dynamic and adaptable, reflecting the changing social and historical contexts of the country.
What is morality?
Morality is the behavior and beliefs that a society deems acceptable. It can be influenced by external
factors, such as culture, religion, and laws.
What is difference between morality and ethics?
Morality is a personal sense of right and wrong, and ethics as a set of principles or rules that are agreed
upon by a group or society. For example, you may have your own moral views on adultery, but the ethics
of adultery may vary depending on the culture or religion you belong to. Morality is more subjective and
individual, while ethics is more objective and collective.
What is Indian?
Indian is an adjective that describes something or someone that is related to India. India is a South Asian
nation that is officially known as the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya). The name India comes from
the Indus River, which was called Hindus in Old Persian and Sindhu in Sanskrit. India is also known as
Hindustan, which means the land of the Hindus in Persian. This name was used for a region that included
northern India and Pakistan before 1947. India is also called Bharat, which is derived from the ancient
Indian scriptures, the Puranas. They refer to the land that comprises India as Bharata Varsam, which
means the country of Bharata’s descendants. Bharata was a legendary king who founded the Bharata
dynasty and was an ancestor of the Pandavas and Kauravas in the Mahabharata. He was the son of King
Dushyanta of Hastinapur and Queen Sakuntala. There is a verse in Sanskrit that describes Bharata Varsam
as follows:

उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रे श्चैव दहिणम् । वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र संतहतिः ।।

The country that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bharatam; there dwell
the descendants of Bharata.
It is amazing that Bharata Varsam or India covers the present-day territories of Pakistan, Afghanistan,
China, Iran, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, North-West Tibet, Nepal and
Bangladesh.
What is tradition?
Tradition is the process of passing down beliefs or customs from one generation to another, or the fact
that they are passed down in this way. Tradition is also a set of established or customary ways of thinking,
acting, or behaving that are inherited from the past.

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So, Morality in Indian tradition refers to the ethical beliefs that originate from the Indian
subcontinent and are transmitted from one generation to the next.

Unit I
1. Metaphysical Presuppositions of Indian Moral Thinking
2. Freedom of Will and Moral Agency
3. Law of Karma and Its Moral Implications
4. Cardinal Values Emanating from Indian Culture: Varṇa, Āśrama and Puruṣārthas

Metaphysical Presuppositions of Indian Moral Thinking

What are Metaphysical Presuppositions?

Metaphysical is an adjective that describes something that relates to metaphysics, which is the branch of
philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality. Metaphysics deals with questions such as what
exists, what is the nature of existence, what is the relationship between mind and matter, and what are the
principles of causation and possibility. Metaphysical can also mean something that is very abstract,
subtle, or difficult to understand. For example, some metaphysical concepts are being, time, space,
identity, and change.
Metaphysical presuppositions are the basic assumptions or principles that underlie a certain field of
inquiry or discourse. They are often derived from the metaphysical views of reality, self, causation, and
liberation that each school or tradition holds.

Indian Moral Thinking

Indian philosophy is a rich and diverse tradition of thought that has developed over thousands of years.
One way to classify the schools of Indian philosophy is based on their acceptance or rejection of the
authority of the Vedas, the ancient scriptures of Hinduism. The schools that accept the Vedas as the
source of knowledge and truth are called Āstika, while the schools that reject the Vedas are called
Nāstika.
The Āstika schools are sometimes referred to as orthodox, and they include six main branches: Nyāya,
Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. These schools share some common metaphysical
presuppositions, such as the existence of a universal moral order (dharma), the law of cause and effect
(karma), the cycle of birth and death (samsara), and the possibility of liberation (moksha). However, they
also differ in their views on the nature of reality, self, knowledge, and God.
The Nāstika schools are sometimes referred to as heterodox, and they include three main branches:
Buddhism, Jainism and Chārvāka. These schools challenge the Vedic worldview and offer alternative
perspectives on the nature of reality, self, knowledge, and liberation. They also emphasize the importance
of rationality, experience, and ethics over ritual, authority, and tradition.
Some metaphysical presuppositions of Indian moral thinking are:
1. Moksha is the ultimate goal of human life in Hindu philosophy. It means spiritual liberation and
enlightenment. Attaining moksha involves achieving freedom from the cycle of birth and death
(samsara) and realizing the ultimate reality (Brahman). It is the realization of one’s true self
(atman) and the unity of the individual soul with the universal consciousness (Brahman). Moksha
is one of the four goals of human life (purusharthas) in Hinduism, along with dharma

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 (righteousness), artha (wealth), and kama (pleasure). Moksha is considered the highest and most
desirable goal, as it ends the suffering and ignorance caused by samsara. Moksha can be attained
through various paths, such as jnana (knowledge), bhakti (devotion), karma (action), and yoga
(meditation).
2. The existence of a universal moral order or law (dharma) that governs the actions and
consequences of all beings.
3. The belief in the law of karma, which states that every action has a corresponding effect, either in
this life or in future lives, and that one’s present condition is the result of one’s past actions.
4. The recognition of the cycle of birth and death (samsara), which is characterized by suffering
(dukkha) and ignorance (avidya), and the possibility of escaping from it through spiritual
liberation (moksha, nirvana, etc.).
5. The importance of renunciation (tyaga), detachment (vairagya), and discipline (tapas) as means of
purifying one’s mind and attaining liberation.
6. The value of compassion (karuna), non-violence (ahimsa), and service (seva) as expressions of
one’s moral duty and respect for all forms of life.

Moksha (Liberation) in Indian Philosophy

Moksha (Liberation) is the highest purpose of life in the Hindu religion. It is also known as mukti
(release), and it means the final state of Hindu thought where one’s soul breaks free from the karmic
suffering of the worldly cycle. In higher Hindu philosophy, it is the ascent of one’s being above the
phenomenal realm, and the freedom from all the limitations of physical existence, such as time, space,
and causation (karma). It signifies the cessation of the sense of self as an egoistic person—the
elimination of conditioned mind and body or nama-rupa (name-form). In moksha, one achieves self-
realization and full awareness of the ultimate reality. Hinduism provides various spiritual paths for a
seeker to attain moksha, allowing for different types of people. However, it is said that moksha is very
rare and takes many lifetimes for a person to reach this state of spiritual perfection. Some Hindu schools
restrict moksha to males only, while others say that moksha is available to anyone who demonstrates
the requisite effort and/or devotion. The Hindu concept of moksha is somewhat similar to the Christian
idea of salvation, but they are not compatible because they are based on different assumptions about
reality. History Early Vedic Hinduism concentrated mainly on maintaining order in this world through
ritual offerings to the gods, but this practice changed around the time of the Upanishads (c. 600 C.E.)
with the focus turning inward to the goal of personal liberation. The Upanishads taught that the true self
(atman) could be released from suffering when it realizes its inherent unity with Brahman. While the
early Vedas dealt with worldly matters in relation to the devas (gods) without offering any lasting
changes of a metaphysical or psychological nature, the Upanishads encouraged inner sacrifice and
abstract introspection. The philosophical Upanishads claimed to lead followers to advanced states of
consciousness, and placed great importance on knowledge (jnana) as a path to ultimate liberation.
Along with these developments in Indian thought, the doctrines of karma and samsara, advocated by
the Buddhists and Jains, also contributed to the rise of the concept of moksha. Eventually, these three
ideas became inseparable. The possibility of an endless cycle of births, deaths and rebirths motivated
Hindu religious thinkers to devise some ways to break this cycle and find spiritual emancipation. The
Upanishads established moksha as the ultimate goal of all Hindu religious activity, and this idea
continued to influence almost all forms of later Hinduism. Eventually, the concept of moksha became
widely recognized as one of the four Vedic goals of life, or purusarthas, discussed below. The Four Goals

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of Life (Purusarthas) In classical Hinduism, higher-caste Hindus were encouraged to follow four goals of
life known as the (purusarthas). These four goals consisted of wealth (artha), pleasure (kama), right
conduct (dharma), and liberation (moksha). They were usually understood in a hierarchical way, with
the practitioner moving upward from the lower more self-centered goals to the higher spiritual goals of
life. The first and second goals allow for pursuits such as material wealth and are most commonly
associated with what is known as the householder stage of life. However, higher still is the goal of
dharma (right conduct) that is considered to be a prerequisite for the pursuit of spiritual liberation.
Finally, a Hindu can seek the highest goal of moksha (liberation) if one so wishes. The Hindu texts
instruct that one should pursue this goal when one has retired, or when one becomes a sanyassin
(renunciate), one who is completely dedicated to attaining liberation.

Universal moral order or law (dharma)

Dharma is a key concept in Indian philosophy and religion, especially Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
It means the moral order or law that governs the actions and consequences of all beings. It is derived from
the Sanskrit root ‘dhr’, which means ‘to hold’ or ‘to support’. Dharma is the law of being that sustains the
harmony and balance of the universe, and the duty of human beings to uphold and maintain this order by
following their dharma.

धमो रिहत रहितिः( Dharmo rakshati rakshitah) - This shlok means “Dharma protects those who protect it”.
Dharma can be classified into two types: samanya dharma and vishesha dharma.
1. Samanya dharma means the general or universal dharma that applies to all human beings,
regardless of their caste, gender, age, or occupation. It consists of the basic ethical principles and
values that are essential for human welfare and harmony. Some examples of samanya dharma are
truthfulness, non-violence, compassion, self-control, purity, and service. Samanya dharma is also
known as sadharana dharma or nitya dharma.
2. Vishesha dharma means the specific or particular dharma that applies to different individuals,
depending on their varna (social class), ashrama (stage of life), svadharma (personal duty), and
desha-kala (place and time). It consists of the specific rules and obligations that are prescribed by
the scriptures, traditions, and customs for different roles and situations in life. Some examples of
vishesha dharma are the duties of a brahmana (priest), a kshatriya (warrior), a vaishya (merchant),
or a shudra (worker); the duties of a student, a householder, a retiree, or a renunciant; the duties
of a husband, a wife, a parent, or a child; and the duties of a citizen, a ruler, a teacher, or a
disciple. Vishesha dharma is also known as varna-ashrama dharma or naimittika dharma The
concept of dharma in Indian tradition is based on the idea that there is a natural and cosmic order
that sustains the harmony and balance of the universe, and that human beings have a
responsibility to uphold and maintain this order by following their dharma. By performing their
dharma, human beings can achieve happiness, peace, and liberation in this life and the next.

The law of karma

The law of karma is a concept that is common to many Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism. It refers to the principle of cause and effect, which states that every action has a
corresponding consequence, either in this life or in a future one. The law of karma implies that one’s
moral choices and behavior determine one’s destiny, and that one can achieve liberation from the cycle of
birth and death by acting in accordance with one’s true nature and purpose.
Some of the main aspects of the law of karma are:

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 ➢ Karma is not a punishment or a reward, but a natural law that operates impartially and
inexorably3.
➢ Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic, but allows for human agency and free will. One can
change one’s karma by making positive choices and cultivating virtuous qualities4.
➢ Karma is not linear or simple, but complex and multifaceted. One’s karma is influenced by
various factors, such as one’s past actions, present intentions, environmental conditions, and
collective karma.
➢ Karma is not individualistic or isolated, but interdependent and relational. One’s karma affects
and is affected by others, and one can share or transfer one’s karma with others.
The law of karma is a powerful and profound teaching that can inspire one to live a moral, compassionate,
and meaningful life. By understanding the law of karma, one can take responsibility for one’s actions,
learn from one’s mistakes, and strive for spiritual growth and happiness.

Rebirth and reincarnation

Rebirth and reincarnation are two concepts that have fascinated and puzzled many people for centuries.
They are both related to the idea that life does not end with death, but continues in some form or another.
However, they are not exactly the same thing. Rebirth is the concept that a living being can be born again
in a new form after death, while reincarnation is the belief that a soul or a consciousness can be
transferred to a new body after death.
Many Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, share the concept of rebirth,
but they have different views and terms for it. For example, Hinduism uses the term punarjanman
(Sanskrit for ‘rebirth, transmigration’), while Buddhism uses the term punarbhava (Sanskrit for ‘re-
becoming’). Jainism uses the term punarjīvātu (Sanskrit for ‘re-living’), while Sikhism uses the term avtār
(Punjabi for ‘incarnation’).
These religions also believe that rebirth is influenced by karma, which is the law of cause and effect.
According to karma, one’s actions and intentions in this life will determine the quality and condition of
one’s next life. For example, if one acts virtuously and compassionately, one will be reborn in a higher
realm, such as heaven or as a human. If one acts wickedly and selfishly, one will be reborn in a lower
realm, such as hell or as an animal.
Rebirth is also a way of explaining the diversity and inequality of life. It suggests that one’s present
situation is the result of one’s past actions, and that one’s future situation will depend on one’s present
actions. Rebirth also implies that there is a possibility of liberation from the cycle of birth and death,
which is seen as a source of suffering and ignorance. These religions call the liberation by different
names, such as moksha (Hinduism), nirvana (Buddhism), mukti (Jainism), and kaivalya (Sikhism).
However, not all Indian religions agree on the concept of reincarnation. Reincarnation is more associated
with some Hindu sects, Sikhism, and some New Age movements. Reincarnation suggests that there is a
core essence or identity that persists across lifetimes, such as a soul or a consciousness. Reincarnation
also implies that one can remember or access one’s past lives, either through meditation, hypnosis, or
other techniques.
Reincarnation is often challenged by the concept of not-self (anatman), which is a key teaching of
Buddhism. Not-self denies the existence of a permanent and independent self that survives death. Instead,
it proposes that what we call the self is a collection of impermanent and interdependent phenomena, such
as the body, the mind, the feelings, the perceptions, and the mental formations. These phenomena are

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constantly changing and influenced by causes and conditions, and they have no inherent essence or
identity. Therefore, there is nothing that can be reincarnated or transferred to a new body after death.

2. Freedom of Will and Moral Agency

Freedom of will and moral agency are important topics in Indian philosophy, but they are not always
discussed in the same way as in Western philosophy. Different schools of Indian thought have different
views on the nature of the self, the role of causation, the possibility of liberation, and the ethical
implications of human actions. Here is a brief overview of some of the main perspectives:
1. Sāṃkhya and Yoga: These schools hold that there are two fundamental realities: puruṣa
(consciousness) and prakṛti (matter). Puruṣa is eternal, unchanging, and free, but it becomes
entangled with prakṛti, which is dynamic, mutable, and bound by natural laws. The goal of
Sāṃkhya and Yoga is to detach puruṣa from prakṛti and attain kaivalya (isolation). In this state,
there is no agency or will, only pure awareness.
2. Buddhism: Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent, independent self (ātman) and instead
analyzes the person as a stream of interdependent phenomena (skandhas). According to
Buddhism, all phenomena are conditioned by causes and conditions, and thus there is no ultimate
free will. However, Buddhism also teaches that there is a relative level of freedom and
responsibility, based on the law of karma. Karma is the principle that actions have consequences,
both for oneself and others. By cultivating wisdom and compassion, one can overcome ignorance
and attachment, and achieve nirvāṇa (cessation of suffering).

3. Jainism: Jainism affirms the existence of an eternal, individual self (jīva) that possesses free will
and agency. However, the jīva is also subject to the influence of karma, which is a subtle form of
matter that accumulates on the soul due to its actions. Karma obscures the true nature of the jīva
and causes bondage and suffering. The aim of Jainism is to purify the jīva from karma and attain
mokṣa (liberation). This requires following a strict code of non-violence, truthfulness, non-
stealing, chastity, and non-attachment.

4. Nyāya and Vaisheshika: Nyāya is a school of logic and epistemology that also deals with
metaphysics and ethics. Nyāya accepts the existence of a self (ātman) that is distinct from the
body and the mind, and has the capacity to act and know. Nyāya also accepts the existence of
God (Īśvara) as the creator and sustainer of the world, and the source of moral law. Nyāya argues
that human beings have free will and moral agency, but they are also accountable for their actions
and subject to the law of karma. Nyāya advocates the use of reason and evidence to attain valid
knowledge and liberation.

5. Mīmāṃsā: Mīmāṃsā is a school of exegesis and ritual that focuses on the interpretation and
application of the Vedic texts. Mīmāṃsā assumes the existence of a self (ātman) that is eternal
and independent, but also dependent on the performance of duties (dharma). Mīmāṃsā does not
accept the existence of God or the authority of any other scripture besides the Vedas. Mīmāṃsā
maintains that human beings have free will and moral agency, but they are also bound by the
rules and obligations of the Vedic injunctions. Mīmāṃsā emphasizes the importance of action
(karma) and its results (phala) as the basis of ethics and salvation.

6. Advaita Vedānta: Advaita Vedānta is a school of non-dualism that identifies the self (ātman)
with the supreme reality (brahman). Advaita Vedānta holds that the apparent diversity and

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 multiplicity of the world is an illusion (māyā) caused by ignorance (avidyā). The true nature of
the self is pure consciousness (cit), bliss (ānanda), and being (sat). Advaita Vedānta denies the
reality of free will and moral agency, as they are based on the false sense of individuality
(ahaṃkāra) and doership (kartṛtva). Advaita Vedānta teaches that the only way to attain liberation
(mokṣa) is to realize one’s identity with brahman through knowledge (jñāna).
These are some of the main schools of Indian philosophy that have addressed the issues of freedom of
will and moral agency. There are also other schools, such as Vaiśeṣika, Dvaita Vedānta, Kashmir
Śaivism, Rāmānuja, Madhva, and Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava, that have their own views on these topics.

3. Law of Karma and Its Moral Implications

The theory of Karma is a fundamental doctrine in Hinduism. Karma (Sanskrit: , "act, action,
performance") — is a noun-form coming from the root kri meaning "to do," "to make." The term Karma
literally means action, work or deed. Any kind of intentional action whether mental, verbal, or physical, is
regarded as Karma. It covers all that is included in the phrase "thought, word and deed". Involuntary,
unintentional or unconscious actions, though technically deeds, do not constitute Karma, because volition,
the most important factor in determining Karma, is absent.
The term ‘karma’ is used to refer to volitional acts as well as the forces that arise from these acts. In its
ultimate sense Karma means all moral and immoral volition. Karma is the sum total of our acts both in the
present life and in the preceding births. Karma means not only action, but also the result of action. The
consequences of an action are not a separate thing. It is a part of action and cannot be divided from it. The
whole life centers on karma. No one lives without doing karma. Human beings are bound by work. If you
are born, you have to perform karma. Karma is not optional, it is spontaneous. We are because of our
karma. Karma embraces the whole meaning of living. Karma is associated with earthly existence.
The doctrine of karma implies that, every soul embodied in a human being has the will to make decisions
and choose what actions to take. Those decisions and actions generate karma. The word ‘karma’ may
appear to be small, but its meaning is profound. It has neither beginning, nor end. Just life is beginning
less, karma to without beginning. Law of karma occupies central position in Indian philosophy. A
common theme to theories of karma is its principle of causality. The concept of karma in Indian
philosophy and religion is inextricably associated with the doctrine of rebirth. Karma is responsible for
the entire chain of causes and effects.
The concepts of rebirth, moksha and samsara are closely associated with the principle of karma. Rebirth,
or saṃsāra, is the concept that all life forms go through a cycle of reincarnation that is a series of births
and rebirths. It is considered as an impersonal law that cannot be abrogated by any person, but may be
mitigated by God. The law of karma is not imposed from without; it is worked into very nature of human
being. The human mind is unable to set him free from the effects of their very actions. The doctrine of
karma provides causal explanations for the phenomena of life. Karma does not necessarily mean past
actions. It embraces both past and present deeds. It serves as a foundation for ethical and religious
understanding.
The law of karma governs the universe and all beings within it; it acts impersonally and binds each atman
(inner Self) to the world and in addition to the cycle of transmigration. According to the law of karma, a
person’s individual and collective actions determine the nature of his or her future existence in the present
life or in a future life. The effects of our karma may be experienced immediately or some later time in the
life of an individual, or may accumulate and manifest themselves in some future rebirth. The past is the

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initiation of the present and the future. There is no escape from the results of karma. Everything we do,
say or think, gives rise to an effect, which in due time will return to us. Therefore the vents of our future
do not arise coincidentally; it is actually caused by the effect of our past and present actions. Our destiny
is predetermined by our karma. If we understand this we can no longer blame anybody for what happens
to us. It is not punishment, but simply an extended expression of natural acts.
Karma distinguishes one person from another. Good intent and good actions contribute to good karma
and future happiness, while bad intent and actions contribute to bad karma. Karma is a store of good and
bad actions, accumulated over many lives. It binds one to phenomenal existence. Karma is one of the
important spiritual laws that govern our life experiences through principle of cause and effect, action and
reaction, total cosmic justice and personal responsibility. Karma is not fate. The eastern people believe in
fatalism. Fate is an overmastering power that predetermines the actions of man. Fatalism saps the very
foundation of morality. Fatalism is the negation of morality. This doctrine undermines the freedom of the
will. One can't use the word "pre-destination" or "fate" to substitute with Karma because they do not
mean the same. Karma is not pre-destination. Karma is the underlying principle between Pre-destination
and Freewill. You have free will. Karma works to develop our ability to handle free will responsibly.
Karma operates impersonally, giving us the opportunity at every moment to become open to greater levels
of love and compassion. No God or external force is controlling one’s life. It is our own karmic creation.
We are bounded by Karma in this and other lifetimes until we understand the complete consequences of
all our actions. Every person is responsible for his or her acts and thoughts, so each person's karma is
entirely his or her own. As a man sows, he shall be reaping. This is the law of karma. Whatever you show
by your actions come back to you. Your action in the past is responsible for your present condition. By
free righteous actions men acquire merits. By free unrighteous men acquire demerits. They perform
righteous and unrighteous actions freely. If the karma of an individual is good enough, the next birth will
be rewarding, and if not, the person may actually devolve and degenerate into a lower life form.
According to the Indian scriptures, Karma can be divided into four parts called Sanchita Karma,
Prarabdha Karma, Kriyamana karma and Agama karma.
1. Sanchita Karma: Sanchita Karma is the sum of all our karma in previous lifetimes, which set the
stage for our condition in the current life. It is the aggregate sum of yet unseen Karmas committed
during innumerable previous existences. Sanchita Karma is the vast store of piled-up Karma
accumulated in the preceding and in all or you is reducing this cosmic debt. It is waiting to be
fulfilled in your future births. So unless and until the Sanchita Karma of a Soul is zeroed, it keeps
on birthing in new physical bodies, in order to exhaust its balance Sanchita Karma.
2. Praarabdha Karma: That portion of the Sanchita Karma destined to influence human life in one
or the present incarnation is called Praarabdha. In other words, Praarabdha Karma is Karmic
Template (of that portion of Sanchita Karma) that is ripe enough to be experienced by you and
allotted for this lifetime for you to work on. If you work down you‟re agreed upon debt in this
lifetime, then more past debts will surface to be worked on. And that much Sanchita Karma gets
dissolved. Good deeds or positive karma can also help offset negative past karma.
3. Aagami Karma: Aagami Karma is the Karmic Map that is coming, as a result of the merits and
demerits of the present actions of your current birth. In other words, it is the portion of Karma
that is created because of the actions in the present life and that will be added to your Sanchita
Karma. If you fail to work off your debt, then more debts are added to Sanchita Karma and they
become more Karmic Seeds and are served to you in more future lives. Aagami karmas are the
actions in our present lifetime that will affect our future lives or incarnations. Positive actions,
following the precepts, charity, compassion, and practice all accumulate for optimum karma in
future incarnations.
4. Kriyamana Karma: Kriyamana Karma is the daily, instant Karma created in this lifetime and
that we create in our life because of our free actions. Kriyamana karma is the most intense form

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 of karma, the one we see in our daily lives, where our current actions (good and bad) result in
immediate consequences. Negative actions may result in retribution. Positive actions may, in this
lifetime, be returned in kind. Kriyamana is the instant daily karma that is being created in this
lifetime for the future. The way our thought works in this life will affect our future life and
incarnations. Kriyamana can be altered by correct attitude, as well as by particular rites. It is also
known as immediate karma.

Here an important question could be raised, that if the law of karma is indomitable and every karma has
its result, then Indian moralists has to face one important question- how can the liberation be achieved?
Those who believe in law of karma , they think liberation is the highest purushartha that a man can
achieve; but if karma is resultant then birth and rebirth must obviously be seen, and men can never
achieve liberation. Just as an evil person has to take rebirth for his evil deeds, likewise an honest man too
has to take rebirth for his honest deeds. So if the law of karma indomitable then a honest person too
cannot escape from birth and rebirth and get liberation or salvation. So one question obviously comes to
the mind that is the law of karma inconsistent with the concept of moksha? To give the answer of this
question we have to admit that there are two types of karma: Sakama karma and Niskamaa karma.
1. Sakama karma: The first stage of karma is doing sakama karma. It simply means that you do
karma with the result in mind. Most of the human being lives in the world of sakama karma.
Whole concept of samsara is based on the debits and credits of sakama karma. It binds us to the
wheel of death and rebirth. Material desires, expectations, emotions make an average individual
prone is doing sakama karma.
2. Niskama karma: The literal meaning of niskama karma is selfless action that means action
performed without desiring or fearing the consequences; action performed with indifference to
the outcome. It's used to describe the practice of doing actions without any expectation of the
fruits (results or reactions or effects). Niskama Karma has been variously explained as 'Duty for
duty's sake' and as 'Detached Involvement', which is neither negative attitude nor indifference.
"Niskama Karma" is the central message of Bhagavad Gita.

The bhagavat-Gita is one source for hindu ethics of performing your duty without attachment to the fruits
of your action. In the Gita Lord Krisha advocates 'Niskama Karma Yoga' (the Yoga of Selfless Action) as
the ideal path to realize the Truth. Niskama Karma is another name for Karma Yoga. Karma Yoga
prepares the mind for the reception of light and knowledge. When a man resolves to attain God-
realization, his attachment and attraction for the world being to disappear. Attachment to pleasure and
prosperity is the main obstacle to the attainment of a resolute intellect. Karmayoga expands the heart and
breaks all barriers that stand in the way of oneness or unity. Karma Yoga is an effective Sadhana for
Chitta Suddhi or purity of heart. A common man performs actions in order to fulfil his desires, which
binds us to this world and it leads to rebirth. Actions which are prompted by desires, leads us to the bonds
of karma. But a true karma-yogi performs actions having the aim of renouncing attachment. Attachment
is the root of all vice. There are no opposition between the path of true knowledge and the path of duties.
They are depending upon them. True knowledge is supported by right performance of duties. Without the
practice of karmayoga it is very difficult to succeed in the practice of jnanayoga.
There is nothing as pure as knowledge. He who has controlled his senses, who has true faith on God and
who attached to God, secures peace. The true knowledge of God destroys all karma in the sense that he
who has perceived and realized the true nature of all things in God cannot be attached to his passions and
desires as an ignorant man would be. In the discipline of action Bhagavat Gita‟s main principal is “Action
is superior to inaction”. ‘I have to do nothing’-this is also an action. The life of action is preferred by Lord

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Krishna. It was feared that Arjuna‟s sudden reluctance to fight and his decision to run away from the
battle field was due to an attachment to a-karma. Bhagavat Gita propounds the philosophy of action.
Krishna told Arjuna that even if one wishes to give up action, one cannot do so, because every man is
bound by his own nature to perform action. If Lord Krishna argues for non-action, he would not have
taught Arjuna the philosophy of karmayoga. Karmayoga consist in practice of the philosophy of niskam
karma. Niskam karma is selfless or desire less action, which is performed without any expectation of
fruits. Nothing is gained by the performance of such acts, but it is the incumbent duty of human beings to
perform them. In this context it is necessary to mention that the karma doctrine of the Bhagavat Gita was
entirely directed against the Buddhist tradition. To achieve the goal of freedom Sramans had rejected to
perform the Vedic rituals and choose the life of non-action. The Sramans think that the renunciation from
action is the only way to achieve freedom. Sramans thought that desire generates actions to obtain results
which generate further desire that is thirst. From thirst to bondage again, that is the cycle of birth and re-
birth. To break the cycle of birth and re-birth one should practice to give up desire to achieve the state of
non-action. But the Bhagavat Gita supported the performance of Vedic rituals.
The good of the society is sustained by the ritual acts. The renunciation of action consists in the giving up
of action and giving up of action is equivalent to non-action which the Bhagavat Gita does not propound
anywhere. When an action is performed, for the welfare of others without any selfish motive, it is called
Karmayoga or the Discipline of action. In Karmayoga action is performed for the welfare of others, while
Yoga is for one’s own self. When a person performed actions for himself, he is attached to the actions and
their fruit. But when he performs these for others, actions and their fruit are related to others, while he is
related to God. He realizes his real relation with God, the eternal. God-realization is the aim of human
life. Action which is performed in order to attain an aim cannot be called an action with desire for fruit.
The practice of Niskama karma yoga destroys sins and impurities of the mind and causes chitta suddhi or
purity of the antahkarana. When he surrenders himself, his all, including his so-called mind and intellect
etc.,are naturally surrendered to God. When all is surrendered to God, then all does not persist but only
God remains-‘Vasudevah sarvam’. In this way the salvation of a man is ensured even through mere
disinterested action, much more so when Devotion is added to it.

4. Cardinal Values Emanating from Indian Culture: Varṇa, Āśrama and Puruṣārthas

These three concepts (varṇa, āśrama and puruṣārthas) form the basis of the cardinal values of Indian
culture, which shape the way individuals live, think, and engage with the world. They also reflect the
diversity and richness of Indian philosophical thought, as different schools of thought have different
interpretations and applications of these concepts.
The cardinal values emanating from Indian culture are based on the concepts of varṇa, āśrama and
puruṣārthas. These are briefly explained below:
Varṇa, in the context of Hinduism, refers to a social class within traditional Hindu society, epitomized in
texts like Manusmriti, which delineates four varnas and prescribes their respective duties or Dharma.
1. Brahmins: Vedic scholars, priests, or teachers.
2. Kshatriyas: Rulers, administrators, or warriors.
3. Vaishyas: Agriculturalists, farmers, or merchants.
4. Shudras: Artisans, laborers, or servants.

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This hierarchical structure is distinct from the nuanced Jātis, analogous to the European term "caste." The
concept traces its roots to the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rig Veda, further elaborated in post-Vedic texts
like the Mahabharata and Puranas.
The Manusmriti commentary on the Varna system is frequently cited, yet many Hindu texts challenge its
social classification. Communities within the four varnas are termed savarna Hindus, while those outside,
like Dalits and tribals, are avarna.
Etymology and Origins: The term "varna" originates from the Rigveda, signifying color, race, tribe, or
species. It contextualizes as color in the Mahabharata and relates to social classes in the Manusmriti.
Vedas and Upanishads: The Purusha Sukta in the Rigveda divides Purusha into varnas, while the
Upanishads connect varna to actions in previous lives.
Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita: The Mahabharata presents color-coded varnas and behavioral
models. The Bhagavad Gita defines duties and qualities based on gunas (qualities) for each varna.
Puranas and Dharmashastras: Puranas associate varna mixing with hell, and Dharmashastras
extensively discuss the system. Recent scholarship challenges modern caste associations, emphasizing
individual purity rather than group-based purity.
Varna and Jāti: Varna (occupational classification) differs from jāti (caste), with varnas being
theoretical and jātis representing endogamous community groups.
The historical and scholarly perspectives on the varna system vary, with some considering it an idealized
social structure and others questioning its historical accuracy.

Āśrama (Sanskrit: आश्रम )stands as a profound system delineating the stages of life within Hindu texts
from ancient and medieval eras. Comprising four distinct phases, these asramas guide individuals through
a holistic journey of self-realization and spiritual growth. The Āśrama system intertwines with the
Dharma concept in Hinduism, embodying ethical principles in Indian philosophy. It seamlessly blends
with the four Purusharthas, encompassing life's goals of fulfilment, happiness, and spiritual liberation.
Beyond its religious significance, the four asramas construct a life-span model deeply ingrained in
indigenous developmental psychology, influencing the aspirations and objectives of countless individuals,
particularly in India.
Under the Āśrama system, the human lifespan unfolds in four distinctive periods, each dedicated to the
fulfilment and development of the individual. The classical interpretation, found in the Āśrama
Upanishad, Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra, and later Dharmashastra, portrays these stages as a sequential
progression with recommended entry ages. In contrast, the original presentation in the early Dharmasutras
offers the Asramas as four alternative ways of life, neither strictly sequential nor bound by age
recommendations.
1. Brahmacharya (Student's Life)
Age (years): Till 25
Description: Brahmacharya signifies the bachelor student stage, emphasizing education and celibacy.
Students engage in Gurukul life, living with a Guru, acquiring knowledge in science, philosophy, and
scriptures, practicing self-discipline, and earning dakshina for the guru. Rituals include Upanayana at
entry and Samavartana at exit.
2. Grihastha (Household Life)

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Age (years): 25–50
Description: This phase encapsulates the individual's married life, focusing on maintaining a household,
raising a family, and leading a dharmic social life. It is considered pivotal sociologically, as individuals
not only pursue virtue but also contribute significantly to societal sustenance. The stage involves wedding
rituals at entry.
3. Vanaprastha (Retired Life)
Age (years): 50–75
Description: Vanaprastha marks the retirement stage, where individuals hand over household
responsibilities, adopt an advisory role, and gradually withdraw from worldly affairs. It signifies a
transition from material pursuits (Artha and Kama) to an emphasis on spiritual liberation (Moksha).
4. Sannyasa (Renounced Life)
Age (years): 75-100 (or anytime)
Description: This stage involves the renunciation of material desires and prejudices, leading to disinterest
and detachment from material life. Sannyasa focuses on Moksha, peace, and a simple spiritual existence.
Individuals can enter this stage after completing the Brahmacharya phase.
In essence, the Āśrama system provides a comprehensive guide to navigating the various stages of life,
promoting individual development and spiritual evolution.
Puruṣārtha, a Sanskrit term derived from Purusha (spirit) and Artha (purpose), embodies the
foundational principles in Hindu philosophy. Comprising four distinct goals, it is integral to leading a
fulfilling and purposeful life:
1. Dharma: Representing behaviors in harmony with cosmic order (rta), Dharma encompasses
duties, rights, laws, virtues, and the right way of living. It forms the moral and religious duties
individuals must follow to sustain harmony and order in the world. Dharma aligns with one's
nature and true calling, contributing to the cosmic concert.
2. Artha: Signifying the means of life, Artha involves activities and resources enabling an
individual to achieve their desired state. This includes wealth, career pursuits, and financial
security, emphasizing the importance of economic prosperity as a vital aim in Hindu life.
3. Kama: Focused on desire, passion, and the aesthetic enjoyment of life, Kama involves emotional
and sensory pleasures. It is understood as a form of love that, when aligned with Dharma and
Artha, contributes positively to an individual's journey towards spiritual liberation (moksha).
4. Moksha: The ultimate goal, Moksha denotes emancipation, liberation, or release. It signifies
freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth (saṃsāra) in some Hindu schools, while in others, it
represents freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization, and liberation within one's current life.
These four aspects collectively known as Chaturvarga encapsulate the Puruṣārtha concept, outlining a
holistic approach to leading a balanced and purposeful life in Hinduism.

Interconnection among Varṇa, Āśrama, and Puruṣārthas

The relationship among Varṇa, Āśrama, and Puruṣārthas is complex and deeply interwoven, with each
element influencing and supporting the others to create a comprehensive life framework.
Varṇa and Āśrama: Societal and Individual Duties

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The Varṇa system prescribes specific duties and responsibilities for each class, ensuring societal stability
and harmony. These duties align with the stages of the Āśrama system, where individuals fulfill their
roles according to their life stage and varṇa. For example, a Brahmin in the Grihastha stage focuses on
teaching and maintaining dharma, while a Kshatriya may concentrate on protection and governance. This
integration ensures that all societal functions are covered and that individuals contribute according to their
abilities and life phase.
Varṇa and Puruṣārthas: Social Roles and Life Goals
The concept of Puruṣārthas transcends the boundaries of Varṇa by emphasizing that the ultimate goal of
life, Moksha, is attainable by all, regardless of social class. However, the pursuit of Dharma, Artha, and
Kama is often influenced by one's varṇa, with societal roles guiding how an individual seeks prosperity,
fulfills desires, and adheres to moral duties. The interplay between varṇa and the first three Puruṣārthas
underscores the balance between social obligations and personal aspirations.
Āśrama and Puruṣārthas: Stages of Life and Life Goals
The Āśrama system provides a structured approach to pursuing the Puruṣārthas. The Brahmacharya stage
emphasizes learning and discipline, laying the foundation for Dharma. The Grihastha ashrama allows for
the pursuit of Artha and Kama within the framework of Dharma, focusing on family and societal
contributions. Vanaprastha marks the transition towards detachment, preparing for the pursuit of Moksha.
Finally, Sannyasa is dedicated to spiritual liberation, transcending worldly attachments.
Rinas and the Āśrama system

In Hindu philosophy, "Rina" refers to debts or obligations that an individual is born with. These are often
categorized into three main types: Deva Rina (debt to the gods), Rishi Rina (debt to the sages and seers),
and Pitri Rina (debt to the ancestors). The concept of Rina is deeply intertwined with the Āśrama system,
as each stage of life offers a pathway to fulfill these obligations and eventually become free from them.
An individual becomes free from different Rinas primarily in the third and fourth stages of the Āśrama
system:
Vanaprastha (The Hermit Stage): This stage traditionally begins after one has fulfilled their duties as a
householder, including procreation, rearing children, and providing for the family, thereby addressing the
Pitri Rina (debt to the ancestors). The transition to Vanaprastha involves gradual detachment from
worldly life and material possessions, including the relinquishment of social and familial responsibilities.
In this stage, an individual retreats into a more secluded life, possibly to a forest, to focus on spiritual
practices and studies. This shift reflects a move towards fulfilling the Rishi Rina (debt to the sages and
seers) through the pursuit of knowledge and spirituality.
Sannyasa (The Renounced Stage): In the final stage of life, an individual formally renounces all worldly
ties and responsibilities, dedicating their life entirely to spiritual pursuits and the quest for Moksha
(liberation). At this point, the individual seeks to transcend all Rinas, including Deva Rina (debt to the
gods), by living a life of austerity, piety, and devotion. The Sannyasa stage represents the ultimate
freedom from all debts, as the individual relinquishes personal identity, social obligations, and material
attachments, focusing solely on the spiritual and the eternal.
It's important to note that the fulfillment and liberation from Rinas are not just about the passage through
life stages but also involve the conscious fulfillment of duties and responsibilities associated with each
stage. Moreover, the path to liberation from Rinas can be individual and nuanced, with some texts and

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traditions suggesting that sincere spiritual pursuit and devotion can lead to liberation from Rinas,
potentially bypassing the traditional progression through the Āśrama stages.
The Vanaprastha and Sannyasa stages of life are primarily associated with the liberation from various
Rinas, as they involve renunciation of worldly life and a deep dive into spiritual practices aimed at
transcending earthly debts and obligations
The systems of Varṇa, Āśrama, and Puruṣārthas form a comprehensive framework that guides individuals
in their societal roles, personal development, and spiritual aspirations. While Varṇa outlines societal
structure and roles, Āśrama delineates the stages of individual life, and Puruṣārthas define the ultimate
goals of existence. Together, these systems create a holistic approach to life that balances material
responsibilities with spiritual growth, aiming for the harmonious functioning of society and the liberation
of the individual soul. This intricate interrelation underscores the depth and complexity of Hindu
philosophy, offering a unique perspective on life's purpose and the path to fulfillment and liberation.

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