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REPUBLICOf~~

I
 Republic of the Philippines
NATIONAL WATER RESOURCES COUNCIL

ALFREDO L. JUINJO, Chairman

Minister
Ministry of Public Works

JOSE J. LEIDO, JR., Member IMELDA ROMUALDEZ MARCOS, Member

Minister Minister
Ministry of Natural Resource Ministry of Human Settlements

GERONIMO Z. VELASCO, Member GERARDO P. Sf CAT, Member

Minister Minister
Ministry of Energy National Economic and
Development Authority

OSCAR I. ILUSTRE, Member ARTURO R. TANCO, JR., Member

General Manager Minister
Metropolitan Waterworks and Ministry of Agriculture
Sewerage System

GABRIEL Y. ITCHON, Member FIORELLO R. ESTUAR, Member

President Administrator
National Power Corporation National Irrigation Administration

DR. ANGELA. ALEJANDRINO

Executive Director

The National Water Resources Council (NWRC) is the body responsible for coordinating
and integrating all activities related to water resources development and management. Its
principal objective is to achieve scientific and orderly development and management of all
the water resources of the country consistent with the principles.of optimum utilization,
conservation and protection to meet present and future needs.
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CONSTRUCTION
RURAL WATER SUPPLY
AND
INSTALLATION MANUAL
VOLUME II
- •

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

NATIONAL WATER RESOURCES COUNCiL
QUEZON CITY PHILIPPINES

-a
 FOREWORD

The national government is embarking on a massive program to provide water to all

areas of the country by providing technical, financial and institutional assistance to local
communities. This will re~u ire the adoption of appropriate technologies especially for rural
water supply systems and the transfer of such technologies to local engineers that will be
involved in the implementation of projects.
There will be a need to develop local expertise on the technical aspects of water supply
projects to support the program. Local engineers will have to be trained in the design,
construction, operation and maintenance of water supply projects.
With this in mind, the National Water Resources Council, through its Task Force on
Rural Water Supply, undertook studies on rural water supply including the preparation of
a three-volume technical manual. The three volumes are on Design, Construction and Instal-
lation, and Operation and Maintenance.
This manual is intended to be used as reference and training materials for local engi-
neers who will be involved in the construction and supervision of water supply systems
serving a population of not more than 4,000. It discusses the construction and installation
of the different components of a small water supply system.
Although the contents of this manual are the product of many years of experience
of and studies made by the consultants and NW AC, it is felt that there is room for further
improvement and refinement of this manual.
Comments and suggestions regarding the contents of this manual would be most
welcome and should be sent to the National Water Resources Council.
Special thanks and appreciation are due to the World Bank for Supporting part of the
studies on rural water supply and the DCCD Engineering Corporation for preparing the
drafts of the technical manuals.

ANGEL A. ALEJANDRINO
Executive Director

/
vi
 Republic of the Philippines
NATIONAL WATER RESOURCES COUNCIL
Quezon City

2 July 1981

MEMORANDUM

FOR : THE HONORABLE MEMBERS

National Water Resources Council

SUBJECT : Rural Water Supply — Construction and Installation Manual

We are pleased to submit herewith the Rural Water Supply Construction and Instal-
lation Manual which is Volume Il of the three-Volume Technical Manual on Rural Supply
Systems.

This manual was prepared to serve as reference for training local engineers and con-
struction supervisors in the construction and installation of &nall water supply systems.

We hope that it would help the national government in its effort to provide water to all
people by the year 2000.

ANGEL A. ALEJANDRINO
Executive Director

ill
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.01 Planning 1
1.02 Construction Materials and Supplies 1
1.03 Construction Equipment 1
1.04 Labor 1
1.05 Construction Time 2
1.06 Safety and Durability 2
1.07 Simplicity and Economy 2
1.08 Weather 2

2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

2.01 Concrete 3
2.02 Reinforcing Steel Bars and Wire Mesh 6
2.03 Wood and Plastics 7

3 EARTHWORK

3.01 Soil 8
3.02 Excavation of Trenches 10
3.03 Backfilling 15
3.04 Soil Compaction 19
3.05 Soil Stabilization 28
3.06 Slope Stabilization 30
3.07 Drainage 30
3.08 Surface Restoration 31

4 HANDLING AND JOINTING PIPES

4.01 ~Ivanized Iron (G.I.) Pipe 32

4.02 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipe 37
4.03 Polyethylene (PE) Pipe 46
4.04 Polybutylene (PB) Pipes 50

5 INSTALLATION OF PIPELINES, VALVES AND FITTINGS

5.01 Installation of Underground Pipelines 56

5.02 Installation of Pipes Beneath Concrete Roads and
Railroads 56
5.03 Installation of Pipes Across Waterways
5.04 Installation of Pipes Across Culverts 60
5.05 Installation of Thrust Blocks 60
5.06 Service Connections 63
5.07 Installation of Saddles 63
5.08 Installation of Valves 64
5.09 Sanitary Precautions 68

6 IMPROVEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

6.01 General 69

vii
CHAPTER NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
6.02 Improvement of Existing Wells 69
6.03 Construction of New Hand Dug Wells 73
6.04 Construction of New Driven Wells 81
6.05 Construction of New Bored Wells 88
6.06 Construction of New Jetted Wells 90
6.07 Construction of New Drilled Wells 94
6.08 Placement of Well Casing 98
6.09 Checking Well Alignment and Plumbness 99
6.10 Grouting 107
6.11 Installation of Well Screens or Perforated Casings 109
6.12 Construction of Well Apron and Drainage 110
6.13 Well Development 110
6.14 Testing for Yield and Drawdown 116

7 OTHER WATER SOURCES AND COLLECTION STRUCTURES

7.01 Rainwater Catchment and Storage Tank 117

7.02 Springs 119
7.03 Infiltration Galleries 122

8 CONCRETE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

8.01 Important Properties of Concrete 125

8.02 Essentials of a Good Concrete 127
8.03 Preparation of Aggregates 128
8.04 Concrete Proportion and Consistency 132
8.05 Testing of Concrete Mixes 135
8.06 Batching 138
8.07 Mixing 138
8.08 Formwork 140
8.09 Placing of Concrete 145
8.10 Consolidation of Concrete 147
8.11 Construction Joints 147
8.12 Curing of Concrete 148
8.13 Finishing of Concrete Surfaces 149
8.14 Treatment of Surface Defects 152

9 CONCRETE MASONRY

9.01 General 155

9.02 Preparation of Cement Mortar 155
9.03 Cutting of Hollow Blocks 156
9.04 Laying of Blocks 157
9.05 Patching and Cleaning 158
9.06 Plastering and Finishing 160

10 METAL WORKS

10.01 General 161

10.02 Reinforcing Steel Bars 161
10.03 Welding 167

viii
CHAPTER NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
11 CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIRS
11.01 General 173
11.02 Reinforced Concrete Reservoirs 174
11.03 Concrete Hollow Blocks Reservoir 178
11.04 Steel Reservoirs 180
11.05 Ferrocement Tanks 186
11.06 Hydropneumatic Pressure Tanks 195
11.07 Waterproofing of Reservoirs 196
12 CONSTRUCTION OF SLOW SAND FILTRATION SYSTEM

12.01 General 197

12.02 Surface Water Intake Structure 197
12.03 Filter Bed 197
12.04 Filter Controls 202
12.05 Clear Well 203
12.06 Typical Design of Slow Sand Filter 203
13. INSTALLATION OF PUMPING FACILITIES
13.01 General 207
13.02 Installation of Well Pumps 207
13.03 Installation of Booster Pumps 214
13.04 PumpControls 216
13.05 Construction of Pumphouses 127

14 PAINTS AND COATINGS

14.01 General 225
14.02 Painting Materials 225
14.03 Painting Schedule 227
14.04 Preparation of Surfaces to be Painted 229
14.05 Preparation of Paints 230
14.06 Application of Paint 230
14.07 Paint Problems, Their Causes and Remedies 230
15 CLEAN UP, TESTING, DISINFECTION AND START UP

15.01 General 233

15.02 Clean Up 233
15.03 Testing 233
15.04 Disinfection 235
15.05 Start Up 237

16 SITE DEVELOPMENT

16.01 General 238

16.02 Site Grading and Paving 238
16.03 Access Roads 238
16.04 Fencing 238
16.05 Other Improvements 239

BIBLIOGRAPHY 240

Ix
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3 EARTHWORKS

3.01 Construction of Pipeline Trenches 13

3.02 Benching 16
3.03 Trench Wall Support 16
3.04 Backfilling of Pipeline Trenches 18
3.05 Drainrock Layer in Reservoir Underdrain 20
3.06 Manual Compaction Equipment 22
3.07 Compaction of Pipeline Trenches by Hand Tamping 24
3.08 Compaction of Backfill Under Pipe Invert 24
3.09 Field Compaction Test 26
3.10 Slope Stabilization 31

4 HANDLING AND JOINTING PIPES

4.01 Galvanized Iron (Gl) Fittings (Plain Type) 33

4.02 Cutting of Pipe Using a Hacksaw 33
4.03 Cutting of Pipe Using a Wheeled Pipe Cutter 34
4.04 Threading of Pipe 36
4.05 Jointing of G.l. Pipe and Appurtenances 36
4.06 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Fittings 38
4.07 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Fittings 38
4.08 Field Storage of PVC Pipes 39
4.09 Setting of Pipe Inserter 46
4.10 Polyethylene (PE) Pipe Fittings 47
4.11 Polybutylene (PB) Pipe Fittings 51

5 INSTALLATION OF PIPELINES FITTINGS AND VALVES

5.01 Installation of Pipes Beneath Concrete Road 57

5.02 Installation of G.l. Pipe Across aWaterway
(Width of Water is 6.0 M or Lesser) 59
5.03 Installation of G.l. Pipe Across a Waterway
(Width of Water is greater than 6.0 M) 61
5.04 Installation of Metal Pipes in a Wooden Bridge 61
5.05 Installation of Pipes Across a Culvert 62
5.06 Concrete Thrust Blocks 62
5.07 Gate and Globe Valves 65
5.08 Installation of Globe Valve 65
5.09 Air and Vacuum, Check and Angle Valve 67
5.10 Foot and Float Valve 68

6 IMPROVEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

6.01 Improvement of Existing Dug Well (Type 1) 70

6.02 Improvement of Existing Dug Well (Type II) 72
6.03 Improvement of Existing Dug Well (Type III) 74
6.04 Lining Shutter 77
6.05 Detail of Plumbing Pegs and Rods and Trimming Rods 77
6.06 Excavation of Hand Dug Well in Firm Ground
Formation 78

x
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
6.07 Excavation of Hand Dug Well in Loose Ground
Formation 80
6.08 Two Types of Well Points and Driving Cap 82
6.09 Construction of Driven Well Using a Dead Weight 84
6.10 Construction of Driven Well Using a Mallet 86
6.11 Typical Boring Tools 89
6.12 Construction of Bored Wells 89
6.13 Construction of Jetted Wells (Sludger’s Method) 91
6.14 Construction of Jetted Wells (Sludger’s Method) 91
6.15 Construction of Jetted Wells (Conventional Method) 93
6.16 Percussion Type Drill Rig (Truck Mounted) 96
6.17 Manual Percussion Rig Set Up 96
6.18 Drilling Tools 98
6.19 Lowering of Reinforced (AC) Pipe in Dug Well 100
6.20 Lowering of G.l. Pipe or PVC Pipe in the bored
ordrilled Well 100
6.21 Determination of Well Alignment 101
6.22 Equipment Set-Up for Checking Well Plumbness 103
6.23 Determination of Well Plumbness (When Datum
Point is not Shifted) 103
6.24 Determination of Well Plumbness (When Datum Point
isShifted) 104
6.25 Illustrations of Examples6.1 and 6.2 105
6.26 GroutingofShallowWells 108
6.27 Grouting of Deep Wells 109
6.28 Installation of Well Screen 111
6.29 Construction of Concrete Slab and Drainage Canal 111
6.30 Surging by Use of Plunger 112
6.31 Developing of Well by High Velocity Jetting 114
6.32 Developing of Well by Air Surging 115

7 OTHER WATER SOURCES AND COLLECTION STRUCTURES

7.01 Rainwater Storage and Catchment 118

7.02 Details of Spring Intake Box 121
7.03 Location Plan and Detail of Fence and Gate 121
7.04 Construction of an Infiltration Gallery 123
7.05 Details of an Infiltration Gallery 123

8 CONCRETE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

8.01 The Effect of Varying the Ratio of Fine to Coarse

Aggregates on the Workability of Concrete Mix 126
8.02 Identification of the Different Consistencies of
Concrete and Testing for the Presence of Clay
and Silt in Excessive Quantities in Sand 126
8.03 Preparation of Aggregates 129
8.04 Trough for Screening and Washing of Aggregate 129
8.05 Volumetric Measuring Box 133
8.06 Slump Test 137
8.07 Mixing of Concrete 139
8.08 Footing and Wall Forms 143

xi
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
8.09 Form Ties and Forms for Columns 143
8.10 Placing of Concrete 145
8.11 Consolidation of Concrete 150
8.12 Vertical Construction Joints 150
8.13 Reservoir Construction Joints 151
8.14 Reservoir Construction Joints 151

9 CONCRETE MASONRY

9.01 Laying of Concrete Hollow Blocks 156

9.02 Laying of Blocks at the Intersection of Walls 159
9.03 Laying of Blocks at the Intersection of Walls 159

10 METAL WORKS

10.01 Cutting and Bending of Reinforcing Steel Bars 162

10.02 Typical Reinforcing Steel Bar Ties 163
10.03 Typical Lap Joints 165
10.04 Splicing by Butt Welding 165
10.05 Types of Welded Joints 168
10.06 Types of Welded Joints 168
10.07 Acceptable and Defective Welds 170

11 CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIRS

11.01 Schematic Diagram of Different Types of Reservoirs 174

11.02 Ground Level Reinforced Concrete Reservoir 175
11.03 Typical Details of Ground Level Reinforced
Concrete Reservoir 177
11.04 Slightly Elevated Reinforced Concrete Reservoir 177
11.05 Typical Details of Slightly Elevated Reinforced
Concrete Reservoir 179
11.06 Slightly Elevated CHB Reservoirs 181
11.07 Typical Details of Slightly Elevated CHB Reservoir 181
11.08 Steel Tank on Reinforced Concrete Ringwall 183
11.09 Typical Details of Steel Tanks 183
11.10 Steel Tank on Reinforced Concrete Floor Slab 184
11.11 Typical Details of Steel Tanks 184
11.12 Anchor Bolt Plan and Base Plate Detail 185
11.13 Slightly Elevated Steel Tank 185
11.14 Elevated Steel Tank (Capacity = 250 gallons) 187
11.15 Elevated Steel Tank (Capacity = 2,000 gallons) 187
11.16 Elevated Steel Tank (Capacity = 5,000 gallons) 188
11.17 Elevated Steel Tank (Capacity = 10,000 gallons) 188
11.18 Construction Stages of Ferrocement Reservoir 190
11.19 Typical Skeletal Framework of Ferrocement Tanks 190
11.20 Underground Ferrocement Tanks 194
11.21 Schematic Diagram of Hydropneumatic Tanks 196

12 CONSTRUCTION OF SLOW SAND FILTRATION SYSTEM

12.01 Surface Water Intake Structure 198

xli
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
12.02 Stages of the Construction of Intake 198
12.03 Typical Walls for the Filter Box 200
12.04 Filter Underdrain Structural Variations 200
12.05 Slow Sand Filtration Systems 203
12.06 Type I Slow Sand Filter 204
12.07 Type II Slow Sand Filter 204
12.08 Typical Detail of Filter Appurtenances 205
12.09 Type Ill Slow Sand Filter 205
12.10 Type IV Slow Sand Filter 206
12.11 Type V Slow Sand Filter 206
13 INSTALLATION OF PUMPING FACILITIES

13.01 Installation of Reciprocating Pump 208

13.02 Typical Details of Reciprocating Pump Assembly 208
13.03 Installation of Centrifugal Pumps 210
13.04 Typical Details of Centrifugal Pump Assembly 210
13.05 Installation of Jet Pumps 212
13.06 Installation of Submersible Pump Inside Wells 212
13.07 Installation of Submersible Pump in Pressure and
Non-Pressure System 213
13.08 Installation of In-Line Booster Pump 215
13.09 Installation of Sump Pumps 216
13.10 Perspective of Pumphouse 218
13.11 Floor Plan of Pumphouse 218
13.12 Front and Rear Elevation of Pumphouse 219
13.13 Right and Left Side Elevation of Pumphouse 219
13.14 Roof Plan of Pumphouse 220
13.15 Detail of Roofing Connection 220
13.16 Detail of Foundation 221
13.17 Detail of Wall Footing, R.C. Column and Door 221
13.18 Detail of Door 222
13.19 Detail of Window 223
13.20 Another Typical Plan of Pumphouse 224

Xiil
 CHAPTER 1

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.01 PLANNING

Planning is extremely important in all phases of the construction and instal-

lation work. The schedule of work should be well planned so as to complete
the work on time without sacrificing quality. Planning should include the de-
termination of the available local materials and labor, both skilled and unskilled.
Since most of the available labor are not skilled in this type of undertaking, the
work should be so organized that each worker is aware of his duties and respon-
sibilities. Also, in places where there are distinct dry or summer months and wet
or winter months, it will be wise to consider these seasons of the year when plan-
ning.

1.02 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES

The exact requirements for materials and supplies must be anticipated in advance
to assure that these are both available to meet the project’s needs. This requires a
careful study of the quantities and kinds of materials required, sources of supply
available, transportation requirements, priorities of deliveries and .the need for
storage facilities. As much as practicable, the use of locally available indigenous
materials should be maximized. Hence, if bamboo poles or forest wood trunks
could substitute for GI pipes in constructing scaffoldings and head frames, the
former should be used.

1.03 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Because of the prevailing economic condition, it is seldom that construction
equipment normally found in urban sectors are available in rural areas. It is
important that as much as practicable, the use of sophisticated equipment should
be avoided in favor of manual labor. Thus, for example, the use of a hand-
operated pump in jetting a well operation should be resorted to in favor of a
power-driven pump whenever applicable.

1.04 LABOR

The use of local labor

ed sophisticated shouldIt be
machines. is availed of asthere
usual that muchisasanpossible
excess inoffavor of labor
cheap import-
in
rural areas. Trenching operation and mixing concrete should be done by manual
labor instead of mechanical equipment.

This serves a three-fold purpose: (1) it provides employment opportunities to

the otherwise unproductive manpower, (2) it increases economy in costs, and
(3) it provides the users knowledge of the work thereby facilitating operation and
maintenance. Of course, cheap labor should not mean exploitation of labor.

1
1.05 CONSTRUCTION TIME

The significance of time here relates to the need of the community to utilize
the system at the earliest time possible. It has been the experience that people in
the rural areas appreciate more an impact project that benefits them directly. Such
impact projects are better appreciated if people are made aware of it so they can
enjoy the benefits as soon as possible, especially if they have long been suffering
from the lack of water supply. Hence, the construction of the project must not
drag.

1.06 SAFETY AND DURABILITY

This is an important factor to consider in constructing the system. Safety and

durability should not be sacrificed for speed and economy. Because of limited
resources, it is often difficult for rural communities to afford frequent repair
costs, so that as much as possible, all constructed system parts should be durable
enough to withstand rough handling and the elements of nature. This can be
achieved through proper selection of needed equipment and materials and close
supervision during construction.

1.07 SIMPLICITY AND ECONOMY

Simple design, requiring mostly available local construction materials and supplies,
and the minimum of skilled labor should be adopted. During construction, the
types and sizes of wires, lumber and other materials needed should be reduced
to the minimum, but without endangering the safety of workers. Sizes of ma-
terials common in the area should be used. Also re-use of these materials as related
to construction planning should be considered. Drainage should be by open
ditches. Open storage areas should be used as much as the weather, security and
nature of materials to be stored would permit.

1.08 WEATHER

As much as possible, construction should be done during dry season. It has been
the experience that cost of construction is usually higher if it is done during rainy
season due to the following reasons:
1. The materials for construction may be lost or destroyed or contaminated
if not stored and handled properly due to flooding of trenches, etc.

2. Increase in labor cost. The progress of work is usually slower for the same
job item, hence, there is a corresponding increase in labor cost.

3. Increase in energy cost. In pipe laying, it is necessary to render the trench

dry before pipes are laid. Removal of water, usually by pumping, would
entail additional cost.

4. Weakening of structures and foundations.

5. Working conditions are difficult. In the excavation of trenches, it is usually

necessary to provide additional support to avoid cave-ins.

6. Detection of leaks during leakage testing is rendered more difficult.

2
 CHAPTER 2

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Construction materials available in the market today may either be locally made, fabricated
or imported. They are usually identified by various commercial names and trademarks.
Imported materials are rarely available and are very expensive. On the other hand, locally
made or fabricated materials are always handy and most of the time can be obtained at
much lower costs. Hence, as much as possible the size of local or native materials should be
maximized.

2.01 CONCRETE

Concrete is widely used as a construction material for roads, bridges, houses,

pipings, tanks and many others. Concrete is prepared by blending portland
cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and water. Concrete is discussed in
detail in Chapter 8, Concrete Design and Construction.

A. Portland Cement

Portland Cement is prepared by blending and calcining or burning of lime-

containing or clayey materials. Chemically, it consists of four major com-
pounds: tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate and
tetracalcium aluminum ferrate.

1. Type of Portland Cement

Portland cement available in the market today are of two types, name-
ly: General purpose and Hi-Early-Strength Cement.
a. General Purpose or Type I Cement — is the most common type of
portland cement available in the market today and is widely used
for construction of concrete structures. Its required setting time is
28 days.

b. Hi-Early Strength or Type II Cement— High-early strength cement

is employed only when early strength of a concrete structure is
required. This type of cement develops its maximum strength in
7 days and this is achieved by increasing the amount of tricalcium
silicate.

2. Storage of Cement

All cement should be stored in a weather-tight and properly ventilated

structure and should be stacked on pallets or similar platforms. This is
to permit proper circulation of air in the storage area to remove mois-
ture, thus preventing absorption of moisture by the cement which
causes cement hardening.

It is recommended that cement be stacked no higher than 14 bags for a

3
 storage period of less than 30 days and 7 bags for longer storage pe-
riods. Similarly, it is recommended that the oldest stacked cement
found in the storage room be used first. Portland cement should not
be stored for more than 60 days.

B. Aggregate

Aggregateswhichcomprisesabout 75 per cent by weight of a typical concrete

mix include natural sand, gravel and crushed stones. Since it is a major
component, it greatly affects the strength and durability of concrete struc-
tures. Aggregates used in concrete mixes should be clean, strong and proper-
ly graded. Aggregates are considered clean if they are free from excess clay,
silt, chemical salts, organic matter and other deleterious matter. To be
considered adequate in strength, an aggregate should be hard and tough
enough to support the load imposed on it thereby retaining dimensional
stability under any temperature or moisture changes. Also, grading or uni-
formity of particle size has a definite effect on the workability of concrete.
Grading can be improved through screening. Washing improves the quality of
aggregates. It removes chemical salts, fine particles like silt, clay and fine
sand, and organic matter.

1. Fine Aggregates or Sand

Fine aggregates is defined as the aggregates which pass thru Sieve No. 4
(screen opening 4.76 mm). It may be composed of natural sand
grains, manufactured grains obtained by crushing larger size rock
particles, or a mixture of the two. Fine aggregates for use in concrete
mixes should be hard and durable and should not contain excessive
amounts of clay, silt, dust, organic matter or other impurities to such
extent that it is impossible for the concrete to attain the required
characteristics when employing normal proportions of ingredients.

2. Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate is defined as gravel or crushed rock or a mixture of

these two materials whose particle sizes range from 4.76 mm (Sieve No.
4) to 15 cm (6 in). Coarse aggregates used for concrete mixes should be
hard, durable and must be free from deleterious substances such as
clay, silt and other fine materials. Also, gravel or rock fragments which
are friable or which tend to degrade during processing, transporting, or
storage should be avoided.

C. Water

Water is used in making a cement paste which is responsible in gluing the

aggregates together. Water used for mixing concrete should be free of mate-
rials which significantly have hydration reactions with portland cement.
These materials are salt, acids, alkali, sugar, oils and other organic matters.
Water that is fit for drinking can generally be regarded as acceptable for use
in mixing concrete. To determine whether a water contains materials that

4
 significantly affect the strength development of cement, tests should be
made comparing the compressive strength of mortars made with water from
a certain source with that of mortars made with distilled water. If the aver-
age results of these tests on specimens prepared using the water being eva-
luated are less than 90 per cent of that obtained with specimens using distill-
ed water, the water represented by the test sample should not be used for
mixing concrete. These tests are normally done in laboratories of the Minis-
try of Public Works which are located all over the country.

0. Admixtures

Admixtures are ingredients added to a concrete mix before or during mixing

to improve the properties of concrete. It should only be employed when de-
sired characteristics of concrete is not economically attainable by adjusting
the basic mixtures (portland cement, aggregates and water). Also, admixtures
must be used with care since improvement of one characteristic may result
in an adverse effect on other characteristics. Admixtures available in the
market today are identified by various names or trademarks. Generally,
admixtures can be classified into:

1. Water-Reducing and Set Controlling Admixtures This type of admix-

—

ture is employed to reduce the amount of water used in the preparation

of concrete mix and control of setting time. Reduction of the volume
of water is accomplished by covering each cement particle, whose sur-
face may be positively or negatively charged with admixtures causing
the cement particles to repel each other and making it easier for the
water to reach each particle. This water-reducing action produces
greater plasticity and workability in the fresh concrete, improves
impermeability and reduces shrinkage in the hardened concrete.

On the other hand, set retardation is attributed to reaction of the ad-

mixture with portland cement forming an alumina-silica-gel precipitate
which is deposited on the cement particles and slows down the hydra-
tion process. The delay in the setting will ensure sufficient delivery
time, placement and compaction of concrete thereby producing a con-
crete structure with high compressive, flexural and tensile strengths.
2. Calcium Chloride (Cad2) — This type of admixture accelerates the
setting and development of strength of concrete and is employed
oftenly in concreting structures where speeding up of the set and
reduction of protection time is necessary. Test shows that the addi-
tion of 2 percent by weight of CaCI2 causes the reduction of the
initial setting from three to one hour, final setting from 12 to 6 hours
and the doubling of one-day strength. However, the problem associated
with the use of this type of admixture is the impairment of volume
stability due to shrinkage.

3. Pouolands Pozzolands are siliceous substance which react with lime

—

in the presence of water. They are often used in mass concrete applica-
tions where the saving on the cement cost and the reduction in heat

5
 liberation is significant. Disadvantages in the use of this type of admix-
tures are the slow development of final strength, increased drying
shrinkage, and impaired durability.

4. Water-Proofing Admixtures —Water-proofing admixtures are employ-

ed to make the concrete structure impermeable by densifying the mole-
cular structures of concrete by reducing the size of the voids and capil-
liary tracks in the concrete.

2.02 REINFORCING STEEL BARS AND WIRE MESH

A. Reinforcing Steel Bar

1. General

Reinforcing steel bars are employed to increase the tensile and com-
pressive strength of concrete structures thereby reducing the size of
concrete structures. They are also used to control strains due to tempe-
rature and shrinkage, and distribute load to the concrete and other
reinforcing steels.

Steel bars available in the market today are standardized using the
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) Standards as reference.
The ASTM Standard designates a number for a given size of diameter of
steel bars. This number is equivalent to 8 times the diameter of the
reinforcing bar. Shown in Table 2.1 are the different sizes of bars com-
monly available in the market today.

Table 2.1

ASTM STANDARDS FOR REINFORCING BARS SIZES & WEIGHTS

Bar Size Designation Nominal Diameter Weight

Number
Metric English Cm Inches PoFundts/ Grams
5 2 0.635 0.250 0.167 2.48
8 3 0.953 0.375 0.376 5.60
10 4 1.270 0.500 0.668 9.94
12 5 1.587 0.625 1.043 15.52
16 6 1.905 0.750 1.502 22.35
18 7 2.222 0.875 2.044 30.42
20 8 2.540 1.000 2.670 39.73
22 9 2.865 1.128 3.400 50.60
26 10 3.225 1.270 4.303 64.04
28 11 3.581 1.410 5.313 79.07
34 14 4.300 1.693 7.650 113.85
46 18 5.732 2.257 13.600 202.39

6
 2. Handling and Storage

Reinforcing bars should be handled and stored in a manner that they

would not come in contact with mud and other deleterious materials.
If power hoisting equipment is not available, reinforcing bars may be un-
loaded using an inclined plane or ramp which extends from the truck
bed to the ground. When stacking bars on the ground, timber must be
placed under the steel bars to keep them free of mud.

B. Wire Mesh

Wire mesh are usually employed in the reinforcement of ferrocement con-

crete structures, reinforced concrete pipes and floor slabs. Wire mesh consists
of a rectangular grid of uniformly spaced wires welded at all intersections.
Wire mesh offers the advantages of eas~iand fast placement of both longitu-
dinal and transverse reinforcement and as crack control because of high
mechanical bond with the concrete.

2.03 WOOD AND PLASTICS

A. Lumber

Lumber is usually graded commercially to enable the users to buy the quali-
ty which best suit their purpose. The grading of lumber is based on the tex-
ture of the wood; on the number, character and location of strength-redu-
cing features like blemishes and knots; and on factors affecting durability
and utility.

Various technologies have been developed to improve strength and dimen-

sional stability of wood in various service atmospheres. One is the introduc-
tion of preservatives to combat decay and decay-causing organisms. Another
is the modification of the wood structure. This is done by bonding thin
sheets of wood. For further modifications, the bonded thin sheet structure
may be compressed to increase the density or strength. Such treatment im-
proves the chemical resistance, decay resistance and dimensional stability of
wood.

B. Plastics

Plastics or synthetic resins are organic high polymers. Polymers are com-
pounds in which the basic molecular level or sub-units are long-chained
molecules. Plastics are the main components of the many construction
materials found in the market today. For instance, polyethylene, poly-
vinyl chloride and polybutylene pipes are made of plastics.

7
 CHAPTER 3

EARTHWORK

The complexity of structural foundations and the selection and laying of pipe materials for
water distribution systems are greatly affected by the type of soil. In loose ground form-
ation for instance, it may require the driving of piles for support of structures, sheeting or
bracing to prevent cave-ins during excavation and pipe laying, and trench bedding to provide
uniform support for piping. Plastic pipes are usually selected for piping to be laid in acidic
soil because metallic pipes are easily corroded.

3.01 SOIL

Soil is the most common material used in supporting the different components of
the water distribution system. A working knowledge of soil properties and factors
that affect them is essential in order to make the best use of all materials avail-
able at hand. When constructing a base or foundation for structures, the prob-
lems are to determine whether the soil can support such structures and to select
and combine available materials to obtain properties which can provide
satisfactory bedding. Also, in backfilling of trenches, suitable materials should be
selected for backfilling. In any case, it is necessary to know how to identify and
classify soil materials and to understand their engineering significance.

A. Principal Soil Types

Soil is commonly classified into five principal types, namely: gravel, sand,
silt, clay and organic soil. Each type has distinctive properties which can be
readily identified in the field and engineering characteristics which may be of
practical use.

1. Gravel
a. Description and Identification: Gravel is a type of soil whose grain
sizes range from 6.5 mm (0.25 in) to 150 mm (6 in). It is identi-
fied readily by inspection.
b. Engineering Characteristics and Usage: Well graded and compacted
gravel with suitable fines or filler is the most stable natural founda-
tion material, hence, it is normally used as based material for
foundation of structures. Gravel is easy to compact and is very
permeable (allows water to pass through).

2. Sand
a. Description: Sand consists of mineral grains with maximum size of
6.4 mm (Sieve No. 3) and minimum size of 0.053 mm (Sieve
No. 270). Sand particles larger than 0.84 mm (Sieve No. 20) are
called coarse sand while those smaller than 0.18 mm (Sieve No.
80) are called fines.
b. Identification: Sand is identified by visual inspection or by sieve
analysis.

8
 c. Engineering Characteristics and Usage: Well graded sand is a desi-
rable foundation material. It is relatively easy to compact, and is
permeable.

3. Silt

a. Description: Silt consists of mineral grains with maximum size of

0.053 mm (Sieve No. 270). Silt lacks plasticity (plasticity is the
capacity of soils to be deformed rapidly without cracking or
crumbling and then maintain that deformed shape after the force
is withdrawn) and possesses little or no cohesion (do not hold
together) when dry.

b. Identification: Two simple tests can be made in the field to

positively identify silt.

i. Shaking Test. Prepare a pat of wet soil, adding water when

necessary. Then shake horizontally in the palm of the hand.
For typical inorganic silt, such action will cause water to
come to the surface of the sample. In this condition, the
sample appears glossy and rather soft. Squeezing the sample
between the fingers causes the water to disappear from the
surface which seems to dry up. Then the sample stiffens and
finally cracks or crumbles.

ii. Breaking Test. Allow the sample to dry. Test its cohesion and
feel by crumbling with the fingers. Typical silt shows little or
no cohesion when dry, and possesses a smooth feel in con-
trast to the grittiness or roughness of fine sand for which it
is sometimes mistaken. Frequently, silts are misclassified as
clays due to their fineness and color.

c. Engineering Characteristics: All silty soil formations are unstable.

Due to their inherent instability, slight disturbances in the pre-
sence of water (such as traffic vibration) may cause the soil forma-
tion to become loose. Silts are difficult to compact, and not per-
meable (does not allow water to pass through readily).

4. Clay

a. Description: The individual grains of clay are the finest, with parti-
cle sizes smaller than 0.005 mm (0.0002 inch). All clays display
stickiness or plasticity which is used for classification purposes.

b. Identification: The character of clay in its plastic range and its

hardness in the dry state afford means of identification.

i. For examination in the plastic range, a piece of clay is tested

by working it with the fingers, adding water when the stiff-
ness requires it. Under these conditions, its plasticity is evi-

9
 denced by its susceptibility to kneading like a dough or being
rolled like a thread.
ii. Hardness of a dried sample of clay is measured by intensity
of finger pressure required to break up the sample. The force
required to break dry clay is much greater than the force to
break dry silt.

c. Engineering Characteristics: Clays found in beds may range from

hard, medium, soft or very soft depending upon the moisture
content and degree of consolidation or compaction. Hard clay
requires the use of a pick for excavating while soft clay can be
excavated readily by using a shovel. Clays are difficult to compact.

5. Organic Soil

a. Description: Organic soils are of two types: peaty soils, consisting

largely of partly decomposed vegetation and fine grained plastic
and non-plastic mineral sediments containing varying amounts of
finely divided vegetable matter, such as organic sandy silt, organic
silt-clay or organic clay.
b. Identification: Since organic matter in peaty soils is coarse and
fibrous, identification is made by visual inspection. In organic
silts and clay, however, organic matter usually is so finely divided
that it cannot be detected by visual inspection. In many cases, the
organic odor is strong enough to be detected easily. When in
doubt, the odor can be intensified by quickly heating a sample.
c. Engineering Characteristics: All peaty and plastic organic soils are
unsatisfactory when use as a subgrades or bedding material due to
their high compressibility and low resistance to deformation.
In general, organic soils are removed and replaced with selected
soil as bedding or foundation for structures or pipings.

B. Selection of Soil

Soil found in nature often exist as mixtures with varying proportions of the
five principal types. Some combinations are excellent subgrade, base and sur-
facing material for they form a stable formation. More frequently, it is
necessary to combine separate soils to produce a satisfactory combination.
Presented in Table 3.1 is the Unified Soil Classification. It presents descrip-
tions of the different types of soil mixtures and their suitability as cons-
truction materials.

3.02 EXCAVATION OF TRENCHES

Excavation is the removal of materials like soil during construction of trenches for
drainage canals, foundation of structures and bedding and support of pipelines.
The difficulty of the excavation process depends upon the stability of the soil
formation which in turn is primarily dependent upon the type of soil to be exca-
vated. Furthermore, in cases where stability is a problem, benching and/or trench
wall support or bracing would be necessary to prevent cave-ins during excavation.

10
 A. Pipeline Trench Excavation

1. Importance

Trenches are dug so that the proper bedding and cover of pipelines can
be properly piped. The bedding and cover materials distribute the stress
evenly on the pipe thereby protecting it from damage.

2. Location and Alignment

The trench alignment follows the pipeline routes as shown in the work-

ing drawings.

Table 3.1

Unified Soil Classification

Division Typical Names Suitability as
Foundation Material
Gravelly soils — Well-graded gravel-sand mixtures, Excellent
with or without fines.
— Poorly graded gravel and gravel- Good to Excellent
sand mixtures with little or no
fines.
— Gravel with fines, silty gravel, Good
clay type gravel, poorly graded-
sand clay mixtures.
Sandy Soils — Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, Excellent
little or no fines.
— Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands, Good
Little or no fines.
— Sand with fines, silty sands, poorly Fair
graded sand clay mixtures.
Fine Grained — Inorganic silts and very fine sand Fair
clay silts with slight plasticity.
— Inorganic clays of low to medium Good to Fair
plasticity, gravelly clay, sandy
clays, silty clays, lean clays.
— Organic silts and organic silty Fair
clays of low plasticity.
— Inorganic elastic silts Poor
— Inorganic clays of high plasticity, Poor
fat clays.
— Organic clays of medium to high Poor
plasticity, organic silts.
Organic Soils — Peat and other highly organic Not Suitable
swamp soil.

11
3. Trench Depth

The trench depth is the sum of the depth of cover, thickness of bedding
and outside diameter of the pipe. The depth of the cover is dependent
upon the local condition and pipe material while the thickness of the
bedding is greatly influenced by the soil condition. For plastic pipes
installed in heavy traffic roads, depth of trench cover is 0.5 to 0.6
meters. For G. I. pipes installed in areas where no cargo utilities pass,
the depth of trench cover is 0.3 to 0.5 meters.

4. Trench Width

The trench must be wide enough to permit the proper laying and joint-
ing of pipes as well as the compaction of backfill. Presented in Table
3.2 are standard trench widths for laying PVC and G.I. pipes. For PB
and PE pipes, the width of trench is narrower as compared to the width
of trench for PVC and G.I. pipes.

5. Safety When Excavating Trenches

Excavating long stretches of trenches in advance of pipe laying should

be avoided to reduce hazards to traffic and workmen, and to minimize
the possibility of flooding of trenches during rains. It is a good practice
to complete pipe laying (including excavation, laying of pipe in trench-
es and backfilling up to the pipe top) in a day or two. This can be
achieved by proper sectioning of the area under construction and sche-
duling of work.

6. Excavation Tools

a. Pick-axe
b. Pick Mattock
c. Spade
d. Crowbar

7. Procedure for Excavation of Trenches

a. Mark the alignment and width of trench as specified in the plans.

b. Install safety devices (barricades, warning lights, etc.) for the pro-
tection of the public.
c. Excavate to Grade. Trenches should be excavated with vertical
sides wherever possible (Figure 3.01). The trench bottom must be
uniform and must provide good bedding to the pipe, free of
humps, large hard objects and tree roots. To obtain a uniform
trench bottom, trim the bottom using a string line as reference.
It is very important that the pipe bottom is in contact with the
pipe bedding or the ground along its entire length.

12
 •GROUND SURFACE

SAND
c~ADE

TRENCH TRENCH BOTTOM

A. EXCAVATiON IN GOOD SUBSOIL B. EXCAVATION IN ROCKY

Ar~DffsJ POOR SUBS~L

SPECFIED

SHORING SLOPING TRENCH BE NCHING

C. EXCAVATION IN UNSTABLE GROUND

NOMINAL. SIZE TRENCH WIDTH NOMINAL SIZE TRENCH WIDTI1

(mm) (M) (mm) (MI
13 030 - 060 50 030 - 060
19 030- 0.60 63 030 - 060
25 ~30- 060 75 060
31 030 - 0.60 100 060
38 030- 060 150 070

TABLE 3 2
STANDARD TRENCH WIDTH FOR PVC AND GI PIPES

FIGURE 3.01
CONSTRUCTION OF PIPELINE TRENCHES

13
 The depth of trenches excavated as pointed out in sub-section
3.02C is dependent upon the type of soil and existing soil con-
dition. Presented below are the methods of trench construction
for various types of soil:

i. Excavation in Good Soil

In good quality soil containing no rocks or sharp pointed

objects, excavate up to the specified grade (Figure 3.O1A)
as shown in the plans.

ii. Excavation in Rocky Soil

Excavate the trench to at least 6 cm but not more than 10

cm. below the specified grade. Replace the excavated mate-
rial with approved bedding materials up to the specified
grade (Figure 3.01 B) and then compact them by tamping.

iii. Excavation in Poor Subsoil

Where the bottom of the trench is found to be unstable or

contains ashes, cinders, refuse, vegetables and other organic
materials, excavate to at least 6 to 10 cm below the specified
grade. Replace the excavated material with approved bedding
materials up to the specified grade and then compact them
by tamping.

Where the bottom of the trench consists of materials that are

unstable to such degree that in the opinion of the engineer,
it cannot be removed and replaced with an approved material
thorougly compacted in place to support the pipe properly,
construct a concrete foundation.

iv. Excavation in Unstable Ground

Shown in Figure 3.O1C is the correct way of constructing

trenches in unstable ground. It is shown that to prevent
cave-ins, shoring or sloping or benching of trench is required.

8 Stockpiling of Excavated Materials

a. Where space is not available on the sidewalk, place the excavated

material between the trench and traffic.

b. If soil excavated is sandy or fitted to be used as backfill material,

stockpile it separately from other discarded materials.

c. Place excavated materials at least 0.6 meter from the edge of

trench.

14
 B. Excavation of Trenches for Foundation of Structures

The complexity of the excavation works primarily depends on the depth of

the trench and the type of soil formation. If the trench to be excavated
is at least 3.0 M in depth and/or the trench to be excavated is located in
loose ground formations, benching (Figure 3.02) or trench wall support
(Figure 3.03) would be necessary. When the structure to be constructed will
be located in a sidehill, benching should be extensive enough to insure stable
foundation. This is usually accomplished by cutting into the sidehill a depth
of 1.2 meters.

3.03 BACKFILLING

Backfilling is the replacement with approved backfill materials to raise the ground
level to the specified grade (the ground level where the invert of pipelines or the
bottom footing of structures will be supported) to fill the gap between the out-
side wall of structures and soil formation to cover the installed pipes, and to
level the ground. Materials used for backfilling must be free of stones, sharp or
pointed objects, garbage, vegetable and other organic matters. Gravel with fines
and sand are good backfill materials.

A. Care in Backfilling

1. Where the groundwater is high, remove water from the trench before

backfilling. This is usually done by use of a pump.

2. Place the backfill materials evenly and tamp in layers of 10-15 cm.
Avoid direct application of backfill materials on the pipes or on any
structures.

B. Backfilling of Pipeline Trenches

After the pipelines have been laid and tested for pressure and leakage they
should be backfilled immediately to protect them from falling boulders and
to prevent dislocation due to flooding of open trenches and cave-ins should
there be rain. The backfilling process consists of shovelling backfill materials
into the trench and then compacting it. The procedure of backfilling is as
follows:
1. Backfilling Up to the Pipe Top

Using a shovel, put backfill evenly along both sides of the pipe and then
compact the soil by hand tamp ing or through flooding and jetting if
backfill material is sand (Figure 3.04).

2. Backfilling Up to 20 cm Above the Pipe Top

Continue backfilling the trench with the selected material. To get good
results, place backfill materials in 10 cm layers with each layer being
carefully compacted before the next layer is placed (Figure 3.04B).

15
-a

SECTION A

FIGURE 303

TRENCH WALL SUPPORT

 3. Backfilling to the Ground Level

Backfill from 30 cm above the pipe to the ground level with the original
soil free from stones and sharp objects and then compact the backfill
(Figure 3.04C).

C. Backfilling Around and Beneath Proposed Structures

Backfilling Beneath Proposed Structures

Before the bottom slab or footing of structures is constructed on the

soil foundation, it is necessary to even up the trench bottom and if the
trench depth is excavated to greater than the specified grade, backfilling
should be done to bring the trench bottom to the specified elevation.
Also, to insure a good bond between the soil foundation and fill, the
foundation surface should be scarified to a depth of about 15 cm (6 in.)
and watered to the approximate optimum moisture content before the
first layer of fill is placed. Standard specification prescribes that backfills
be placed and compacted in layers not exceeding that which will pro-
vide the specified relative compaction through the full depth of the
layer by the specified compaction equipment to be used. For tamping
by rollers, the thickness of the layer should not be more than 15 cm.
and for tamping using a tamper, the layer should not be more than
15 cm. However, soils vary widely as to the amount of compactice
effort necessary to reach the specified degree of compaction. Wien
difficulty is encountered in obtaining the required compaction, the
first remedial measure to be taken is to reduce the thickness of the
layer since soils compact more readily in thin layers. For foundation
of structures, it is necessary that the soil should be compacted up to
95% of the maximum density.

2. Backfilling Around the Constructed Structures

After the construction of a structure, the gap between the wall of the
structure and trench should be filled. Before starting the backfilling
operation it has to be made sure that the concrete structure has at-
tained sufficient strength to withstand the loads to be imposed.

The backfilling procedure is similar to the procedure discussed in sub-

jection one except that the soil should be compacted up to 90 percent
of the maximum density.

D. Backfilling Beneath and Around Concrete Reservoirs

The backfilling works when constructing reservoirs may be classified as back-

filling beneath and around structures. However, unlike the structures, reser-
voirs have underdrains (Figure 3.05) which requwe a special backfllling pro-
cedure. The underdrain is necessary to prevent uplift pressure from lifting or
dislocating the reservoir when it is emptied say during cleaning operations at

17
 GROUND SURFACE

PIPE
SAND OR SELECTED BEDDING MATERIAL

A. BACKFILLING UP TO THE TOP OF PIPE

SURFACE

-SELECTED BACKFILL MATERIAL

TOP OF PIPE

PIPE
BEDDING MATERLAL

B. BACKFILLING UP TO 20cm. ABOVE THE TOP OF PIPE

ORIGINAL SOIL EXCAVATED WHICH IS

FREE OF STONES AND SHARP OBJECTS

-SELECTED BACKFILL MATERIALS

TOP OF PIPE

-SAND OR SELECTED BEDDING MATERIAL

C. BAGKFILLING UP TO THE GROUND SURFACE

FIGURE 3 04

BIACKFILLING OF PIPELINE TRENCHES

18
 a time when the ground water level happens to be at the reservoir elevation.
The backfilling procedure is as follows:
1. Following foundation grade preparation, excavation and construction
of an underdrain system, 15 cm (6-in) thick layer of drain rock shall be
placed as shown in Figure 3.05. Drain rock shall be clean gravel or
crushed stone 0.6 10 mm in diameter and shall be durable and free
—

from slaking or decomposition under the action of alternate wetting

and drying.

2. The drain rock layer is then compacted and the surface layer immedi-
ately beneath the reservoir is stabilized with hot applied liquid asphalt
or equivalent, after the surface of the drain rock has been graded to
required elevation.
With respect to backfilling around the outside wall of reservoirs, the proce-
dures discussed in backfilling of structures will suffice. Backfill materials
shall be placed in layers not exceeding 10 cm before compaction. The back-
fill shall be brought evenly with each layer moistened and compacted to 90
percent of maximum density. Flooding, ponding or jetting should be permit-
ted. Also, during the entire backfilling process, the reservoir should always
be full of water.

3.04 SOIL COMPACTION

Soil compaction is a process of bringing soil particles closer together thereby
forming a dense closely packed formation. This is usually accomplished by the
application of force or through flooding or jetting when sand is used as back-
fill. The degree of compaction of backfill in trenches must at least be comparable
to the density of the surrounding soil.

A. Moisture Content
Proper compaction of soil depends largely on the moisture content in the
soil. Soil is said to have the right moisture content when it contains enough
water to act as lubricant between soil particles so that during compaction,
these particles will be brought closer together and in the process air is
expelled.
Also, a soil with proper moisture content is moldable by hand and when
dropped should break into a minimum number of pieces (2-4 pieces). Such
soil is suited for compaction. However, if the soil contains too much mois-
ture, it becomes plastic. This is evident when there are traces of moisture left
on the fingers after handling it or when the soil stays in one piece when it
is dropped. Such soil should be dried prior to compaction. On the other
hand, if soil is too dry, the soil mold will break into 5 or more pieces when
dropped. Water must therefore be added before compaction.

B. Thickness of Lift or Soil Layer

Proper compaction also depends on the correct choice of the thickness of
soil layer which usually varies from 10-15 cm depending upon the type of
19

/‘
 40

O5mm.THICK PVC SHEET WITH

SEALED JOINTS SEALING
SHALL BE PERFORMED PER
MATERIAL MANUFACTURER’S
SPEC’S. FOR WATERTIGHT
JOINTS
GRAVEL

TRANSVERSE SECTION AT TRENCH

635mm (1/4 1 HOLES C±159mm (1/16”) TOLERANCE ~

2 ROWS FOR PIPES WITH 100mm 0 OR SMALLER AND
4 ROWS FOR PIPES OF 150mm OR GREATER tHESE
HOLES SHOULD BE STAGGERED AT 76 2 mm (3 1 0 C.

SEC TION THRU PIPE HOLES

FIGURE 3.05

DRAINROCK LAYER IN RESERVOIR UNDERDRAIN

20
 soil and compaction equipment. For instance, when compacting clay soils,
lamination (or splitting of the lift into thinner layers) will occur when the
lift selected is too thick. Water then seeps between the layers making it im-
possible for the soil particles to be bound together.

C. Number of Blows and Passes the Soil is Subjected

Equally important is the number of passes (number of times the roller

is allowed to pass on the surface of the soil to be compacted) if rollers
are used, or blows if rammers or tampers are used in compaction. The num-
ber of passes/blows is determined through a compaction test. It should be
observed that there is a relation between the thickness of the lift and the
number of passes/blows required to achieve a specified density. For 10-15
cm. lift, 20-25 passes or blows are usually required.

D. Compaction Equipment

1. Tamper

Shown in Figure 3.06A is a tamper. It is made of cylindrically-shaped

concrete or wood block with a wooden handle.

Compaction is brought about by raising the concrete or wooden cylin-

der to a certain height and then dropping it to the soil surface to be
compacted.

2. Cy’ndrical Roller

Shown in Figure 3.06B is a roller. It is made of metal or concrete.

Compaction is effected by rolling it on the surface of the lift or layer
to be compacted. The degree of compaction depends on the weight of
the roller and the number of passes.

3. Tamping Bars

Tamping bars (Figure 3.07A) are employed when compacting soil

below and around the pipes. As shown, there are two types of tamp ing
bars, namely: tamping bar with a narrow blade or head, and tamping
bar with a flat head. The first type is employed in compacting soil
under pipes, while the second type is utilized when compacting soil
at the sides and top of pipes.

E. Compaction Methods

1. Mechanical Compaction

Mechanical compaction is effected by applying force or energy using

mechanical compaction equipment (sub-section D) into the soil. This
application of force causes the removal of excess water and closing of
air voids resulting in a denser soil texture. Also, it should be pointed

21
 HANDLE

A TAMPER

METAL CYLINDER
(ROLLER)

HANDLE

B CYLINDER ROLLER

FIGURE 3.06 .

MANUAL COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

22
 out that the key to a good tamp ing job is the proper calculation of the

amount and uniformity of placement of the soil to be tamped.

a. Compaction of Backfill Under and Around Structures

Place the soil in 10-15 cm layers and compact using a tamper or

roller, whichever is appropriate or available. If a roller is used, al-
low the roller to pass on the backfill 20-25 times and if a tamper is
employed, allow 20-25 blows to strike the material to be compact-
ed. Continue the process of alternately placing the backfill in 10
cm layers and mechanical compaction until the specified grade or
ground surface is reached.

b. Compaction of Backfill Under and Around Pipelines

Place the soil in a 10 cm layer and then tamp it using the tamping
bars. When compacting soil under the pipe, use the tamping bar
with a narrow head (Figure 307B) and when compacting soil on
the sides and top of pipe use the flat tamping bar (Figure 3.07).
Compaction employing these bars is effected by alternately raising
and dropping the tamping bars into the backfill until the soil in
the trench is as dense or denser than the soil surrounding the
trench.
Continue the process of alternately placing the backfill in 10 cm
layers and tamping until the ground surface is reached.

2. Flooding and Jetting Method

Flooding and jetting are usually employed when backfill material is

sandy or in trenches where water drains away quickly. However, it is
not recommended in clay soil since clay expands when wet and shrinks
when it dries thereby creating voids.

Procedure:

a. Place backfill materials in layers not greater than 40 cm.

b. Add enough water to settle the backfill. It should be pointed

out that if insufficient water is applied, voids spaces will form.
When the area to be backfilled is sloping, construct a dirt dam.
This will prevent the flow of water with soil to low areas.

c. Alternately, to achieve best results, rodding is employed after

flooding. During the rodding process, avoid contact of the rod
with the pipe as this may damage the latter.

F. Field Compaction Test

Field compaction testing is necessary to determine whether the soil has

23
 1925mm STEEL BAR

25mm STEEL

BEFORE TAMPING AFTER TAMPING

WRONG
—~ND30
BEND 30’ WELD 10
FLAT BAR 50 X 100 TEE AND TWO A TOO MUCH SOIL WAS PLACED BEFORE TAMPING
_.JIOcm LONG TAMPING EAR CANNGT COMPACT BACKFILL PROPERLY
X 25mm NIPPLES E~~ FLAT HEAD UNDER PIPF THUS LEAVING A VOID UNCER THE PIPE
2 3

A TAMPING BARS

BEFORE TAMPING AFTER TAMPING

CORRECT

B JUST ENOUGH BACKFILL MATERIAL WAS PLACED BEFORE

C0M~TION BACKFILL CAN BE TAMPED PROPERLY
B USE-TAMPING BAR 1 AND 2 C USE A TAMPING BAR WITH FLAT UNDER PIPE THUS GETTING A FIRM BED
NARROW HEAD WHEN TAMPING HEAD WHEN TAMPING SOtL AT
SOIL BENEATH PIPES THE SIDES AND TOP OF PIPE

FIGURE ~O7 FIGURE 3 08

COMPACTION OF PIPELINE BACKFILL
BY HAND TAMPING COMPACTION OF BACKFILL UNDER PiPE INVERT
been properly compacted as specified. A soil is said to be satisfactorily
compacted if its density is similar to the density of the undisturbed sur-
rounding soil formation, or better.

1. Procedure:

a. Select an area of 0.25 square meters. Remove all loose soil found
in the selected area with a square pointed shovel. It should be
pointed out that the surface upon which the test is to be made
should be below the level which has been disturbed by compac-
tion equipment.

b. Place a metal plate with a hole cut in the center, on the selected
area (Figure 3.09).

c. Excavate a soil specimen through the test hole. Every particle

loosened in this excavation is removed from the test hole and is
placed in a clean dry container with a tight lid.

d. Fill the test hole with dry sand of known density (D5) from a
container. The weight of sand in the container before and after
the placement of dry sand into the test hole should be noted
down to determine the weight of the sand (W5) consumed to fill
the hole. This will determine the volume of the test hole.

e. Weigh the soil specimen taken from the test hole and then dry
it under the sun for 5-7 hours. After drying, determine the weight
of the sample. The difference in weight is the moisture content
of the soil.

2. Computation Procedure for the Degree of Compaction

a. Calculate the volume of the test hole given the density and weight
of the sand placed in the test hole.
Volume of soil excavated Volume of test hole

Volume of test hole, v~ Weight of Sand, W~

Density of Sand, D~

b. Calculate the field density or the density of soil excavated.

Field Density, Fd Weight of moist soil excavated, Wt

Volume of Soil excavated, V~

c. Calculate the percent moisture of soil specimen

M=mWt~Wd xlOO
Wd

25
 SELECTED
METAL PLATE

TEST HOLE

PLAN

.METAL PLATE

HOLE

SECTION

1/4” PLATE

I SOMETRY

FIGURE 309

FIELD COMPACTION TEST

26
 Where: M % moisture
W~= Weight of moist soil
Wd = Weight of dried soil

d. Calculate the dry density of soil specimen

Dry density, Dd = field density, Fd

1 + M/100

e. Calculate the % compaction of soil specimen

% compaction = dry density, Dd x 100

maximum density, Md

Table 3.3
MAXIMUM DENSITY AND OPTIMUM MOI$TURE CONTENT

Soil Type Optimum Moisture Content Maximum Density

Clays 20 — 30% 1.45 — 1.70 gm/cc

Silty Clays 15 — 25% 1.77 — 1.82 gm/cc

Sand Clays 8 15% — 1.77 2.16 gm/cc —

Example 3.1: Compute the degree of compaction given the following data

obtained during the field compaction test.

Data;

A. Soil Specimen

Weight of soil excavated, W~ 53.5 kg.

Weight of soil after drying, Wtd = ‘~.6kg.

B. Test Sand

Density, D5 = 2.2 gm/cc = 2,200 kg/M3

Initial Weight of Sand + Container, W
5, = 70 kg.

Final Weight of Sand + Container, W~= 10.6 kg.

Solution:

1. Calculate the volume of soil excavated or test hole, V5

W5 = W5~ W~= 70.0

— — 10.6 = 59.4 kg.

27
 vS = D = 59.4 kg
W~ 3 = 0.027 M3
5 2,200 kg/M

2. Calculate the Field Density, Fd

Fd =W~ = 53.5 kg = 1980kg or 1.98 gm/cm3
V 3 M3
5 0.027M
3. Calculate the percent moisture content of soil specimen, M.

M= (Wt—Wtd)x 100 = (53.5—486)x 100

Wtd 48.6
= 10%

4. Calculate the dry density of soil specimen, DD

DO = FD = 1.98 = 1.98 = 18 /cm3
1+M/100 1+10/100 1.10 . gm

5. Calculate the percent compaction of soil specimen

% Compaction = X 100
MD

Where maximum density is taken from Table 3.3

Assume that soil specimen is silty clay, and the MD for this type of
soil is equal to 2.0 gm/cm3 or 2,000 kg/M3.
% Compaction = 1.8 gm/cm3 x 100= 90%
2.0 gm/~3
3.05 SOIL STABILIZATION
Soil formations encountered are not at all times stable and suited for foundation
of structures. In such cases, they should be first corrected prior to usage. Present-
ed in Table 3.4 are typical soil deficiencies, types of failures, the probable causes
of instability and the possible remedies. As outlined in the table, soil for founda-
tion can be altered to conform to desired characteristics through mechanical
and/or chemical stabilization and/or through the provision of drainage to remove
excess water. Provisions for drainage is discussed in section 3.06.
A. Mechanical Stabilization

Mechanical stabilization can be effected by compaction or by blending

different types of soil particles closer together causing them to interlock
and form a denser texture. Compaction is discussed in detail in section
3.04. Blending the different types of soil causes the alteration of the proper-
ties of the individual soil and may be used to obtain a mixture of better cha-
racteristics. For example, loose granular soils can be made suitable as foun-
dation material by mixing/adding clay soil.

28
 Table 3.4

SOIL DEFICIENCIES AND THEIR REMEDIES

Type of Failure It
Soil Probable Causes Possible Remedies
Deficiency May Cause Of Its Instability

1. Slope Insta- SI ides on slopes High moisture content — Drain and/or

bility of soil flatten slope.

Loose granular soil — Compaction

Weak Soil — Mechanical and!
or chemical sta-
bi I ization.
— Sodding.

Mud flow or soil Excessive water — Exclude water

erosion through provision
of drainage.

Slides caused by Toe instability — Chemical stabili-

the movement of zation and drain-
toe. ing ofexcess water
2. Low soil bear- Excessive settle- Saturated clay — Compaction and
ing capacity. ment. draining of excess
water.
Loose granular soil — Compaction and
draining of excess
water, chemical
stabilization,
increase footing
depth.

Weak soil — Mechanical and/or

chemical stabili-
zation.

3. Heaving Excessive rise Expansion of clay — Mix existing clay

soil with granular
like sand and gra-
vel (mechanical
stabilization)
— Drain excess water

4. Excessive Seepage Pervious soil — Mix existing soil

permeability with clay or se-
lected material.
— Mechanical stabi-
lization; Chemical
Stabilization.

29
 B. Chemical Stabilization
Chemical stabilization of soil is brought about by using bituminous or port-
land cement. These stabilizers if used in surface treatment will make the
stability of compacted soil more lasting, while if used for subsurface treat-
ment, will increase the bearing capacity and decrease the permeability of
soil. Surface treatment is accomplished by spreading concrete or bitumen
(asphalt) on the soil surfaces while in subsurface treatment, the stabilizers
are used to fill the voids in soil, to cement the particles together and form
a rock-like structure.

3.06 SLOPE STABILIZATION

When a structure is to be supported on inclined soil strata, the possibility of soil

movement should be considered. Under the constant load due to the structure,
soil on slopes tend to move downward. This movement is however resisted by
passive pressure of the soil below, friction and cohesion between soil particles and
surface elements such as vegetation. When the forces tending to cause movement
exceeds the resisting force, a slide will occur. To prevent sliding, slope stabiliza-
tion is necessary. This can be done by constructing a stone wall or by sodding.

A. Stone Wall
Shown in Figure 3.1OA is a stone wall. It consists of stone 5-15 cm (2-6
inches) in diameter arranged in a manner that they would interlock with
each other. The interlocking between stones is increased by putting cement
mortar in between them.
B. Sodding

All excavations or embankment slopes steeper than three (3) units hori-
zontal to one (1) unit vertical should be stabilized by sodding (Figure
3.1OB). The sods to be used should not be more than three (3) years old,
of sufficient thickness to prevent excessive breakage and must be stripped
in the largest practicable widths and lengths (say 30 cm square or greater).
Sods are upper layer of grassland and include the grass, its roots and earth
where the roots are anchored. The placement procedure is as follows:

1. Make the surface even by using a rake or trowel.

2. Place 10-20 mm layer of graden soil above the evened soil surface.

3. Place the sods and then tamp them in place. All sods not in good
condition after tamping should be removed and replaced.
4. Water the newly planted sods using a sprinkler.

5. Continue daily watering until sods are growing healthy.

3.07 DRAINAGE
Drainage is employed to collect and convey surface water into natural drainage
channels. Removal of excess water preserves the stability of soil formation, hence,
foundation of structures, because strength of soil generally decreases with an in-

30
 SE CT ION ELEVATION

A STONE WALL

~ORORA~E8

SURF~

CE OF SLOPE

B SODDING

F1GL~E 310

SLOPE STABILIZATION

crease in amount and pressure of water in the pores or voids in soil formations.
Also, drainage prevents the flooding of the surroundings of wells and ground level
reservoirs such as spring box, thus, preventing the infiltration of surface water to
these water retaining structures. The essential requirements for drainage are:

1. Transverse slope to allow surface water to flow by gravity into the drainage
canal. The surface of this slope is usually stabilized using puddled clay or by
concreting to prevent soil erosion.

2. Open canals or ditches to collect and remove surface water. The wall of the
canals may be made of cement or stones grouted with cement mortar.
However, if finances will not permit the construction using the above alter.
natives, clay walls may suffice. However, digging deeper canals will be more
frequent.

3.08 SURFACE RESTORATION

After excavation, construction of structures, backfilling and compaction, the
construction area becomes topsy turvy. The soil surface is not level and the area
is littered with broken concrete blocks, wood and other materials. Levelling of
the ground surface and removal of litter is therefore necessary. After cleaning,
make the surrounding area of the structures presentable by landscaping and/or
by planting ornamental plants. This section is discussed in detail in Chapter 16,
Site Improvement.

31
 CHAPTER 4

HANDLING AND JOINTING PIPES

4.01 GALVANIZED IRON (G.I.) PIPE

A. General

Galvanized iron (G.l.) pipes are available commercially in many sizes and in
lengths of 6 M. In rural water supply systems; 13, 19, 25, 31, 38, 50,63. 75
and 100 mm pipes are commonly used. G.l. pipes are joined by the use of
threaded or screwed fittings. The fittings have the female threads while the
pipes have the male threads.

B. G.I. Fittin~

G.l. fittings are of two types; the plain type (Figure 4.01) and the banded
type. The difference between the two is that the banded type has a raised
rim at each end as compared to the plain type which has plain ends. Both
types of fittings are suitable for rural water supply systems but the plain
type is cheaper, hence, it is usually used.

C. Cutting of Pipe

G.l. pipes with diameter of 38 mm and below can be effectively cut using a
hacksaw. For sizes larger than 38 mm, a manually operated heavy duty cut-
ter (3 or 4 wheel type) may be used.

Procedure:

1. Mark the pipe to be cut with a pencil and then place it in a vise (Figure
4.02A). Adjust the jaws of the vise to hold the pipe in place. Alternate-
ly, place the pipe in a miter box (Figure 4.02B) and secure the pipe in
place by a clamp.

2. Cut the Pipe at the Pencil Line

a. Using a hacksaw —Hold the saw at right angles to the pipe at a

rate not greater than 60 strokes per minute. Sawing too fast will
heat the saw causing the softening of the teeth. Cutting a pipe
using a hacksaw is shown in Figure 4.02.

b. Using a Pipe Cutter Set the cutting tool (Figure 4.03) over the
—

pipe with the cutter positioned on the pencil mark. Allow the cut-
ter wheel to get in contact with the pipe by turning the handle.
Swing the tool around the pipe to make an initial cut and check
whether the cutting wheel is on the right track. Continue turning
the cutter around the pipe, tightening the cutter after each turn
until the pipe is cut.

32
 900 ELBOW 900 STREET ELBOW 450 EL~DW

A CUTTING OF PIPE IN A VISE

c~)

TEE CROSS
[lID
COUPLING

~J ED
REDUCER CAP HEXAGON BUSHING
a CUT11NG OF APE IN A MITER BOX

FiGURE 401 FIGURE 402

GALVANIZEDIRON (GI) FITTINGS
(PLAIN TYPE) CUTTING OF PIPE USING A HACKSAW
 TO CUT PIPE

A CUTTING OF PIPE BY WHEELED PIPE CUTTER

B WHEELED PIPE CUTTER

FIGURE 4.03

CUTTING OF G.I. PIPE USING A WHEELED PIPE CUTTER

34
D. Threading of Pipe

Tools Needed

a. Pipe thread-cutter and die set

b. Pipe vise
c. Thread-cutting oil
2. Procedure

a. Check whether the die to be used in threading the pipe is of cor-

rect size, properly adjusted, clean and sharp.
b. Mark the length of pipe to be threaded. The correct length of
thread can be determined by measuring factory cut threads.

c. Set the pipe on the pipe vise.

d. Place the threader on the pipe end and press the die firmly against
it (Figure 4.04). Turn the handle clockwise at the same time keep-
ing the handle perpendicular to the pipe being threaded. Continue
turning the die until the mark length is reached.
e. Remove the die from the pipe and clean the threaded end from
metal chips.

E. Jointing of Pipe

Tools Needed

a. Pipe vise

b. Pipe wrench
2. Procedure

a. Clean and paint with non-toxic paint the entire pipe thread. The
paint will help in sealing the joint and in lubricating the threads.

Fitting threads should not be painted because during the insertion

of pipe into the fitting, the paint may pile up resulting in the
partial closing of pipe.

b. Set the pipe in the vise with threaded end close to the vise.

c. Place the fitting on the pipe and turn the fitting clockwise until it
can no longer be turned. Further tighten the joint by using a pipe
wrench. Avoid overtightening the joint as this may cause the
cracking of the fitting or ruining of the threads. To connect a valve
to a pipe, place a flat.j~wedwrench on the end of the valve next to
the pipe (Figure 4.05) while rotating the pipe clockwise. This
method will prevent the twisting of the valve which might cause
its deformation.

35
 coupuN:

A SCREWiNG OF (,I FITTING TO G I PIPE

VALVE -

ADJUSTABLE
A THREADING OF PIPE SET UP

B SCREWING OF A BRASS VAL’Jh AT THE END OF A PIPB

PIPE THREAD CUTTER

- ADJUSTABLE WRENCH
DIE SET

PIPE
B PIPE THREAD CUTTER AND DIE SET

C SCREWING OF A PIECE OF PIPE INTO A BRASS VALVE

FIGURE 404 FIGURE 405

THREADING OF PIPE UOINTING OF G I PIPE AND APPURTENANCES

4.02 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) PIPE

A. General

PVC pipes which are commonly used in rural water supply systems are 13,
19, 25, 31, 38, 50, 63, 75 and 100 mm in diameter and are commercially
available in lengths of three (3), six (6), and nine (9) meters. PVC pipes can be
joined using the Taper Sized Solvent Welding (TS) Method where pipes are
joined using solvent cement, and the Rubber Ring Method where pipes are
joined using a rubber ring.

B. PVC Fittings

There are three general types of PVC fittings: 1) the plain or TS type which
is used when joining PVC pipe by TS Method, 2) the bell type which is used
when joining PVC pipe by Rubber Ring Method and 3) the threaded type
which is used when joining PVC pipes to G.l. pipes. For rural water supply,
the plain or TS type is normally used. Shown in Figures 4.06 and 4.07 are
the TS type fittings.

C. Handling and Storage

1. Care in Transportation of Pipes

In transporting PVC pipes for short distances, let two persons carry it
on their shoulders, one person at each opposite end. Avoid rolling
or dragging the pipe as this may cause damage. To transport pipe using
a motor vehicle, use a truck with a long body so that the entire length
of the pipe is supported. During loading and unloading, extreme care
should be exercised to prevent contact of the pipes with any sharp
edges that may cause damage.

2. Checking of the Delivered Material

Carefully inspect the delivered materials and see to it that the goods
ordered are complete and as specified.

3. Field Storage

Select a ground surface which is relatively flat and free of stones or

sharp objects. Lay the sleepers on the ground selected and then placed
on these the pipes with packings still intact (Figure 4.08). To prevent
the pile from collapsing, tie a rope around the piled pipes and anchor
the rope to stakes driven into the ground. In addition, protect the pile
from direct heat of the sun by providing an opaque cover. It should be
emphasized that straight lengths should be given adequate support at all
times. They should not be stacked in large piles to avoid distortion of
the bottom pipes. Furthermore, keep PVC pipes in places where they
will not come in contact with compounds that may cause damage such
as gasoline, lubricating oil, muriatic acid, gas or liquid fuels, paint,
solvents, turpentine, etc.

37
 ELBOW 90 ELBOW 90 FLANGE ADAPTOR ADAPTOR SOCKET

TEE 90•, EQUAL TEE 90

REDUCING SOCKET CA P

(0)
TEE.9O~REDUCING ADAPTOR UNION SOCKET ADAPTOR BUSHING

FIGURE 4.06 FIGURE 4.07

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) FITTINGS POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) FITTINGS

 LINE

PILING OF PVC PIPE

i~ .—
PIPE

SiDlED
END PRO1E~R

ci
WEEPER

CHOSS STACKING OF P~tPIPE

FiGURE 4 06
FIELD STORAGE OF PVC PIPES

D. Joining of PVC Pipes

1. Taper Sized Solvent Welding (TS) Method

PVC PIPE

SMOOTHING THE OUTSIDE SURFACE OF THE SPIGOT END.

a. Measure accurately the length needed and mark it with a pencil.

Cut the pipe squarely on the pencil line using a hacksaw. Trim
off any burrs left from sawing with a knife or half round file.

39
 MARKING THE ENGAGEMENT LENGTH

b. Position the spigot end into the socket or any fitting and mark
the engagement length.

ICKET

PIPE

INSERTER

SETTING UP OF PIPE INSERTER

c. Remove with the fitting and set up the pipe inserter. For pipes
with diameter less than 50 mm. insertion of the spigot end to
the socket can be done manually.

CLEANING OF THE SPIGOT END AND FITTING

d. Clean the inside of the socket and the outside of the spigot end
with a dry cloth. If oil and grease are present, remove them with
a cloth wet with acetone or other oil solvents.

40
 -PVC PIPE

‘-SOCKET

APPLYING OF SOLVENT CEMENT

e. Apply so4vent cement evenly to the inside of the socket and the
outside of the spigot end. The cement applied on the inside of
the socket should be thinner than the cement applied to the
outside of the spigot end. Be sure to read carefully the application
instructions printed on the cement container before using.

INSERTING. OF THE SPIGOT END INTO THE SOCKET

f. Align the spigot end of the socket. Using the pipe inserter, push
the spigot end into the socket up to the pre-marked line.

41
 ALLOWING THE CEMENT TO SET

g. Hold the joint together firmly for 1—~2minutes until the cement
starts to set. Wipe off the excess cement. Handle the joint careful-
ly for a few minutes or until the cement has set firmly. Remove
the pipe inserter. Do not disturb the joint for at least thirty (30)
minutes.

2. Rubber Ring Method

TRIMMING AND SMOOTHING SPIGOT END

a. Measure the length required and mark it with a marker pen or

pencil. Cut the pipe squarely at the pencil line with a hacksaw.
Trim and smooth the spigot end with the use of a knife or a half
round file. Cut off any deeply scratched end as this may cause
leakage.

42
 BEVELING
DETAIL OF THE BEVELLED SURFQZ

ISOMETRIC
BEVELLING OF THE SPIGOT END

b. Bevel the outer edge of the spigot end. Bevelling is necessary to

avoid the scratching or twisting of the rubber ring during the
insertion of the spigot end to the socket.

NGAGEMENT LENGTH
GAUGE LINE

1 L
.1 I

DETAIL OF THE SPIGOT END

ISOMETRIC
MARKING OF THE ENGAGEMENT LENGTh

c. Mark the engagement length of the spigot end. The engagement

length will be the length to be inserted into the socket.

43
 ISOMETRIC CORRECT FITTING OF RUBBER RING

REMOVING, CLEANING AND REPLACING RUBBER RING

d. Clean the socket and spigot end from dirt and dust. To clean
the rubber ring, remove it from ring groove. Wipe the adhering
dirt particles with a clean cloth. Replace the ring in the groove
without twisting letting the lip face inward.

APPLYING LUBRICANT

e. Apply lubricant to the spigot end especially on the bevelled edge.

Do not use oil, grease, or other petroleum product, as this will
damage the rubber ring.

I I_____

BY USE OF PIPE INSERTER MANUALLY BY TWO PERSON

INSERTING THE SPIGOT END INTO THE SOCKET

f. Align the spigot end of the socket with the pipe inserter, push the
pipe up to the pre-marked line.

44
 RUBBER RING
BELL.

A 7mm
B 10cm
c 25cm.
:xII~ MATERIAL~O4OmmX225cin
a
TEMPERED SPRING STEEL
- “—SPIGOT
INSERTION OF THE ThICKNESS
GAUGE BETWEEN THE JOiNT
DETAIL OF THICKNESS GAUGE

CHECKING FIELD ASSEMBLY

g. Check whether the length between the rubber ring and the socket
end is uniform over the entire circumference using a thickness
gauge. After jointing, keep the joint from bending and tension as
far as possible.

THE JOINTED PIPE

E. Pipe Inserter

Figure 4.09A and Figure 4.09B show us how to install a pipe inserter when
joining a pipe to socket and pipe to socket-end pipe, respectively. Figure
4.9C shows the feature of the coil-end wire rope.

45
 GAL~EUP~

~tfl~1 Ii ~

rREROP!—’ ‘.—~ ~ ~WE RO~

A. SETTING OF PIPE I~~ER~TW

W~ .‘(INIP4G
PIPE TO SOQCET

Pl~ N~T~

1~f (G&~ UP~

it mr
~L—~C W~E~OPE—.--—-’ _~ WiPE ROPE

B. SETTING OF PIP! INSERTER WI.e~JOINING PIPE TO

~CKE1’!ND PIPE

~P Th~

C. COIL-END W~ ROPE

ROURE 4 09

SETTING OF PIPE INSERTER

4.03 POLYETHYLENE (PE) PIPE

A. General

Polyethylene (PE) pipe is made of flexible but strong materials. It is designed

to withstand soil loads and movements, and can be laid following the con-
tour of the area. It can be bent around obstacles along curves and in trenches.

PE pipes are available in 13, 19, 25, 31, 38, 50, 63, 75, 100, 125, 150, 200,
250 and 300 mm diameter and in rolls of 100 M or longer for the smaller
sizes. PE pipes can be jointed by butt welding method or by the use of
clamps.

B. PE Fittings

PE pipes can be bent and the smaller sizes are available in rolls so that the
number of fittings needed is relatively small. Fittings are necessary when
branching pipes, when changing direction sharply, when joining two PE
pipes, and when jointing a PE pipe to G I. pipe. Shown in Figure 4.10 are the
different types of PE fittings.

46
 TEE REOJcING TEE

ELROW ~.i~~TE) CR~S

GWX’VED FL4iWi TEUP1Jr~3 UMON

FIM.WE 4 0

~LYETI-tYLENE IPE) PIPE FiTTINGS

C. Joining of PE Pipes

1. Butt Welding Method

HACKSA

METAL PLATE
(HEATER)

CLEAN RAGS

BUTT WELDING EQUIPMENT

(IF AVAILABLE)

ASSEMBLING OF TOOLS AND AND EQUIPMENT FOR JOINING PE PIPES

a. Assemble all the needed materials for joining of PE pipes.

47
 HEATING THE METAL PLATE BY ELECTRICITY

b. Measure accurately the length of pipe needed and mark it with a

pencil. Cut the pipe squarely on the pencil line using a hacksaw.
Heat the metal plate using an electrical heater.

U\ITIL THE ENDS SOFTEN

SOFTENING OF THE ENDS BY HEATING

c. Press the heated metal plate at the ends of the PE pipes to be

joined. Continue pressing until the ends soften.

.U~,WELDEDIN PLACE

JOINTED PE PIPE

JOINTING OF PE PIPES

d. Remove the metal plate and press the softened ends together.

48
2. Joining by Use of Clamps

‘/ Al

PE PIPE

FLANGE
a
NUT TEE

MATERIALS NEEDED IN JOINING TWO PE PIPES

TRIMMING OF THE FLARED END

a. Measure accurately the length needed and mark it with a pencil

or marker pen. Cut the pipe squarely on the pencil line using a
hacksaw. Trim off any burrs with a knife.

END

BEVELLING

b. Slightly bevel the inside edge of the ends of the pipes to be joined.

49
 C I t

INSERTION OF CLAMPS

c. Set the clamps at the ends of the pipes to be joined.

V
INSERTION OF FITTINGS

d. Insert the fitting into one of the pipes, then move the clamps
over the tail of the fitting and tighten the screw.

c~
THE COMPLETED JOINT

4.04 POLYBUTYLENE (PB) PIPES

A. General

Polybutylene (PB) pipes are available in diameters of 10, 13, 19, 25, 31, 38,
50 and 63 mm, and in lengths of 30, 60, 90, 150, and 300 M. PB pipes are
joined by flaring and with the use of an appropriate fittings.

B. PB Fittings

PB fittings are of two types: the threaded type and the non-threaded type.
The non-threaded type is made of polybutylene and it requires a male adapter
when jointed by flaring. On the other hand, the threaded type which is
usually made of steel, iron, copper, etc. has a male thread which can be
screwed directly to the flange butt. Figure 4.11 shows the different types
of PB fittings.

50
 FEMALE ADAPTER MALE 90° ELBOW PLUG

FLARE TEE FLARE 900

REDUCING SOCKET FLANGE NUT & MALE ADAPTER

FIGURE 4.11

POLYBUTYLENE(PB) PIPE FITTINGS

51
C. Joining of Polybutylene (PB) Pipes

1. Joining of Two PB Pipes

PB PIPE

0 MALE ADAPTER

Q FLANGE NUT

MATERIALS NEEDED IN JOINING TWO PB PIPES

~RIN~ TOOL

PB PIPE

FLANGE NUT

FLARING

a. Measure the length required and mark it using a pencil or a marker

pen. Cut the pipe squarely on the pencil mark with a hacksaw.
Insert the flange nut at the end of the two pipes to be joined.

52
 INSERTION OF FLANGE NUT

b. Flare the ends after inserting the flange nut.

V
LI~ii~
INSERTION OF THE MALE ADAPTER

c. Insert the male adapter to the end of one pipe and screw it tightly
to the flange nut to hold the flare end of the pipe in place.

SETTING THE OTHER END OF THE MALE

ADAPTER TO SECOND PIPE.

d. Set the other end of the male adapter to the end of the second
pipe. Tighten the joint by rotating the flange nut clockwise.

53

a
 THE JOINTED PIPE

2. Joining a PB Pipe to a Threaded Fitting.

U- I

PB PIPE

—o MALE ADAPTER

Q FLANGE NUT

MATERIALS NEEDED IN JOINING TWO PB PIPES

iNSERTION OF FLANGE NUT

a. Measure the length required and mark it using a pencil or marker

pen. Cut the pipe squarely on the pencil mark with a hacksaw. In-
sert the flange nut at the end of the pipe to be joined.

54
 TOOL

FLANGE NUT

FLARING

b. Flare the end of the pipe after inserting the flange nut.

SETTING OF THE FITTING INTO THE NUT

c. Set the fitting into the end of pipe with flange nut and then
screw the fitting to the flange nut tightly to hold the flare end
of pipe firmly embedded between the inside of the flange nut.

FLANGE

F. THE JOINTED PIPE

55
 CHAPTER 5

INSTALLATION OF PIPELINES, VALVES AND FITTINGS

5.01 INSTALLATION OF UNDEGROUND PIPELINES

Outlined below are the fundamental steps for installing underground pipelines.
The details of each step are either discussed in Chapter 4 or in the following
sections.

1. Preparation of Trenches

The job includes clearing/grubbing of the site, staking, and excavation

works.

2. Setting and Jointing of Pipes

With plastic pipes and small sizes of G.l. pipes, the pipe can be joined
on the ground surface and then lowered into the trench. Where it is
necessary to join the pipe in the trench, the trench should be wide
enough to permit easy handling of the tools so that a good joint can
be made.

3. Measurement of the required pipe length.

4. Construction of pipe supports, thrust and anchor blocks at points

where flow of water changes directions.
5. Partial backfilling and compaction of trenches up to the upper surface
of pipe laid and leaving the pipe joints exposed. The soil will hold the
pipe in place during pressure and leakage testing.

6. Pressure and leakage testing.

Prior to complete backfilling and compaction of backfill, check

whether the pipelines are properly joined.

7. Final backfilling and compaction after all joints are made good.

8. Disinfection of pipelines.

5.02 INSTALLATION OF PIPES BENEATH CONCRETE ROADS AND RAILROADS

A. General

For a rural water supply system, one method for installing pipe underneath
concrete roads or railroads is by pushing a G.l. pipe underneath the concrete
pavement or railway as shown in Figure 5.01. However, if pushing or driving
does not work, bore a hole using an auger. Breaking the pavement should be
done only when all other methods have failed.

56
 PIPE PUSHER

CONCRETE PAVEMENT

-DRIVE SHOE

A USING PIPE PUSHER

CONCRETE F~VEMENT

DRIVE
- - - -DRIVE SHOE

B DRiVING THE PIPE MANUALLY

FIGURE 5.01
INSTALLATION OF PIPES BENEATH CONCRETE ROAD

57
 B. Procedure for Driving Pipes Beneath Concrete Pavement or Roads

1. Determine *he type and density of soil, the load on the pipe, the width
of the road or railroad and the diameter of the pipe to be laid or pushed
under the concrete structure.

2. Assemble all the equipment needed.

3. Excavate a working space about 0.5 M wide and 3 M long to a practical

depth below the pipeline level. This space will be used by the laborer
who will push the pipe from one side to the other site of the road/-
railroad.

4. Attach a drive shoe at the end of the pipe to prevent earth from enter-
ing the pipe while driving.

5. Push the pipe beneath the concrete road or railroad. The depth from
the ground surface to which the pipe will be buried depends upon the
tonnage of vehicles passing on the road. The pipe can be shoved under-
neath the road/railroad by using either a mechanical pipe pusher
(Figure 5.O1A) or by hammering it (Figure 5.O1B) with a sledge ham-
mer. If the latter method is employed, protect the end to be hammered
by putting a driving cap or wood.

6. In case of the installation of PE, PB or PVC pipe, push a G.I. pipe

having an inside diameter large enough to accommodate the plastic
pipe to be installed. For PE and PB pipes, the G.l. pipe may serve as the
permanent casing or support. For G.l. pipelines, a G.(. pipe one size
larger will serve as casing that will allow easy replacement of the line
when necessary some years later.

5.03 INSTALLATION OF PIPES ACROSS WATERWAYS

In cases where the source of water and the consumers are separated by a river or
creek, it will be necessary to install a piping system across the waterway. General-
iy, connecting a water source to consumers separated by a waterway 6 M wide or
greater entails a high investment Cost. Hence, it is usually better to look for a
source near the consumers. However, in cases where installation of pipes across
a waterway cannot be avoided, the following are the guidelines for installation.

A. Width of Waterway is 6 M or Less

1. Construct a concrete pipe support on both banks of the water way

(Figure 5.02). The height of the support should be at least 1.5 M above
the water surface during flooding time.

2. Place the pipe on the concrete support and strap it in place. The pipe
usually used for this purpose is G.l. pipe schedule 80 (Figure 5.02).

58
 -6.1. PIPE, SCM. 80

CONCRETE SUPPORT

FLOOD WATER LEVEL

E~~jI
ALTERNATE CROSS-UNDER’ II I/I
SCHEME

SECTION

PIPE. SCH.80

1~(25.4mm) STRAP

O.I5XOi5M. COUJMN
4(lOmmG) BARS

#2(5mm~)TIE BARS at 0.20 M. 0 C

#2(5mm 0) STIRRUPS Qt 0.3CM. O.C.

O.40M.

DETAIL A

INSTALLATION OF G. I. PIPE ACROSS A WATERWAY

(WIDTH OF WATERWAY IS LESS THAN 6.0 M.)

59
 3. If floodwaters overflow the banks of the waterway, adopt a “cross
under” scheme.
B. Width of Waterway is more than 6 M

1. Construct concrete pipe supports on both banks of the river. The

height of the support should be at least 2.5 M above the flood level.

2. Set the G.l. pipe 1.5 M above the flood water level and strap it to the
concrete supports.

3. Set the cable at the top of the concrete platform. This cable will pre-
vent the pipe from sagging (Figure 5.03).

4. If floodwaters overflow the banks of the waterway, adopt the “cross

under” scheme.

C. Installation of Pipelines in Bridges

The problem of installing pipes across a waterway is simplified where there is

a bridge to serve as support. However, caution should be observed when the
bridge shows signs of weakness. As shown in Figure 5.04, the pipe is held in
place at the side of the bridge above the beams using straps. The straps
should be provided with cushions that will absorb vibration caused by vehi-
cular traffic.

5.04 INSTALLATION OF PIPES ACROSS CULVERTS

There are two ways of installing pipes across a culvert. One way is to install them
below the culvert and the second way is to install them above the culvert. The
installation of pipelines below the culvert (Figure 5.05A) is almost adaptable
to all conditions while the installation of pipelines above the culvert (Figure
5.05B) is applicable only where the depth of the top of the culvert from the
surface of the road is such that enough cover will be left for the installed pipe.
When cover will be less than the minimum depth, concrete cover should be pro-
vided for the pipeline.

5.05 INSTALLATION OF THRUST BLOCKS

Thrust blocks are devices used to prevent movement of the water mains when
subjected to pressure. Thrust blocks are usually provided at all elbows, dead-end
mains, tees, reducers, and crosses (Figure 5.06).

Procedure:

1. Construct a form for concreting.

2. Prepare a concrete mixture consisting of one part of cement combined with

two parts of sand and four parts of gravel.

60
 LOOD WATER LEVEL
DIRT ROAD

~
BAR J~ _—CABLE
SECTION ____~____-

0)
#2 (6 35 mm 0) TIE
BARS ~I 0200 C
~X015M~L

~~4(~oInm~I ~ ~ 05XO~M~

—01 PIPE
~

•‘~ .:
PLAN

DETAIL A DETAIL B DETAIL C

61

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVAT1OI

DETAIL D DETAIL E SECTION

FIGURE 5 03 FIGURE 5 04
INSTALLATION OF G I PIPE ACROSS A WATERWAY
(WIDTH OF WATERWAY IS GREATER THAN 6.0 M.) INSTALLATION OF METAL PIPES IN A WOODEN BRIDGE
 A. INSTALLATION OF PIPE BENEATH THE CULVERT

0)
- ROAD

90°ELBONORBE~

ULVER T

B INSTALLATION OF PIPE ABOVE THE CULVERT

FOR G I PIPE, A~O 30M MINIMUM

PLASTiC fl~C. A~O6oM MINIMUM

45~ELSOW OR BEND
FIGURE 5 05 FiGURE 5 06
INSTALLATION OF PIPES ACROSS A CULVERT C~JCREThTHRUST BLOCKS
 3. Pour the concrete into the form. Make sure that the concrete will not come
in contact with the joints so that maintenance men can get at these later.

4. Allow the concrete to set and harden for 7 days before pressure and leakage
testing.

5.06 SERVICE CONNECTIONS

Service connections are tubes or pipes connecting public and private faucets to
the distribution mains.

A. Galvanized Iron (G.l.) Pipe

G.l. pipes with sizes greater than 100 mm are seldom used for distribution
mains because they are very costly. Distribution mains made of G.l. pipe can
be tapped by using tees or crosses, and if reduction of pipe sizes is necessary,
reducers are installed.

B. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipe

PVC tees with nominal diameters of 75 mm and smaller are available for
service connections. They can be connected to the distribution mains by TS
welding method or by Rubber Ring Method. For sizes greater than 75 mm,
PVC saddles are used.

C. Polybutylene (PB) Pipe

Tapping the distribution main using a PB pipe is accomplished with a tee.

When the street main is larger than 75 mm, saddles are used in tapping.
D. Polyethylene (PE) Pipe

Special PE fittings are available for making service connections. They are
joined by butt welding.

5.07 INSTALLATION OF SADDLES

Saddles are used in making service connections to main lines with diameter of
at least 100 mm. They are made of cast iron, bronze or PVC and are installed
by bolting or by strapping them to the main line.

Installation Procedure

1. Clean the outer surface of pipe where the saddle will be placed from dirt,
grease or oil, and other foreign matter.

2. File this pipe surface to provide a clean and rough surface.

3. Install the saddle in-place and tighten the clamps.

63
 4. Drill an appropriate size outlet in the pipe. In drilling, avoid penetrating the
opposite side of the pipe.

5. Saddles available commercially have female threaded ends. Pipes with male
threaded ends can be connected directly to the saddles by screwing.

5.08 INSTALLATION OF VALVES

Valves are used to control the operation of water supply systems. They consist of
a lid or cover which regulates the flow of water or air in pipelines and reservoirs.
Valves commonly used in rural water supply systems are the following:

A. Gate Valve

A gate valve (Figure 5.07A) is usually employed to control the flow of water
in pipelines with diameters greater than 50 mm. The flow is controlled by
the use of a wedge-shaped gate operated through the valve stem. Closing the
gate stops the flow of water.

Gate valves are normally located at street intersections and adjacent to major
water supply components such as reservoirs, pumping stations, etc., so that
it will be possible to isolate the defective component during maintenance
and repair. They are also placed at every kilometer length of transmission
mains so that breakdown of one connection will not incapacitate the whole
transmission line.

Gate valves with diameters of 150 mm and smaller are available with female
threads while those with diameters greater than 150 mm are available with
flanged ends.

Gate valves are installed in line with the axis of the pipe. The method of con-
nection for valves 150 mm and smaller is similar to that for connecting a
G.l. pipe to a G.l. coupling. For ease in the repair or replacement of the gate
valve when it breaks down, a union is usually placed either before or after
the valve.

B. Globe Valve

A globe valve (Figure 5.07B) performs a similar function and is installed

in similar locations as the gate valve. Compared to a gate valve, a globe
valve is less efficient because greater friction losses are incurred when water
passes through. However, it is cheaper and easier to operate, and in sizes
up to 50 mm, it can be suitably used as a flow regulator.

A globe valve is installed in the run of pipelines with the valve stem in
horizontal position (Figure 5.08A). Installing it in an upright position
will make the draining of water impossible. Also, the inlet side should be
placed in such manner that it will carry the pressure when the valve is
closed.

64
 WRONG
WAY

RiGHT
A GATE ~LVE
WAY

0) A) RIGHT AND WRONG WAY OF PLACING GLOBE VALVES ON HORIZCt~ITALLINES

0~% NUT

WRONG WAY

NUT

INLET— INLET—

B) RIGHT AND WRONG WAY OF CONNECTING GLOBE TYPE

VALVE IN PIPE LINE THE FiGURE ALSO SHOWS THE
RESULT IN REPACKING A WRONGLY CONNECTED VALVE
B GLOBE VALVE

FIGURE 507 FiGURE 5(~

GATE AND GLOBE VALVES INSTALLATION OF GLOBE VALVE
 Placing the outlet side where the inlet side is supposed to be installed will
make repacking difficult. Repacking a wrongly connected valve will result
in water spraying upwards (Figure 5.08B).

C. Check Valves

A check valve is usually placed after the pump to prevent the back flow of
water. It is installed with the flow of water as indicated by arrows in Figures
5.09A, B, and C. Water pressure causes the valve lid to open allowing water
to pass through. Should the flow reverse, the lid closes preventing water
from flowing back.

Figures 5.09A, B and C shows the three types of check valves. The hori-
zontal swing check.valves are installed in horizontal position and the lift
type in a vertical position. Check valves with diameters of 150 mm and
below are available commercially with female threads and those greater
than 150 mm are available with flanged ends. The method of connecting
the threaded valve is similar to that for joining a G. I. pipe to a G.I. coupling.

D. Angle Valves

An angle valve (Figure 5.09D) is a valve with the inlet and outlet sides per-
pendicular to each other. It is used to control the flow of water in pipes
which change in direction by 90°.

E. Foot Valve

Shown in Figure 5.10/k is a foot valve. The operation of a foot valve is

similar to that of the lift-type check valve. It is usually placed with a strainer
at the end of the suction pipe of pumps to prevent water from going back
to the aquifer. The result is that the pump can be operated automatically
and priming will no longer be necessary.

F. Air Valve

An air and vacuum valve (Figure 5.09E) is usually installed at major summits
of transmission mains. Its function is to permit the escape of air during
pipeline filling and to allow air to re-enter immediately after water removal.
In case air is not removed during pipeline filling, the flow of water is restrict-
ed and water hammer is induced.

There are two types available commercially. These are the single and the
double types. In a rural water supply system, the single type is usually
more suitable.

G. Blow-Off Valve

Blow-off valves are globe or gate valves installed at low portions of the water
mains, on tee branches, as well as at dead ends. They facilitate removal of
sediments or water in the lines during repair.

66
 A. HORIZONTAL CHECK VALVE
B. VER1 ICAL CHECK VALVE

-.

C. SWING CHECK VALVE

E. AIR AND VACUUM VALVE

D. ANGLE VALVE

FIGURE 5.09
AIR AND VACUUM, CHECK AND ANGLE VALVES

67
 FEN

A. FOOT VALVE ~ND STRAINER

VALVE SEAT
BELt CRANIC

~ 4

B FLOAT VALVE

I FIGURE 5.10
FOOT AND FLOAT VALVES

H. Float Valve

A float valve (Figure 5.1OB) is usually installed at the inlet pipe of reservoirs.
It is used to automatically shut off the flow of water when the tank is
already full.

5.09 SANITARY PRECAUTIONS

All water mains and service connections should be located as far as possible from
any source of pollution or contamination. For gravity water mains, pipes are
usually installed at least 7.6 m (25 ft) away from ditches or conduits carrying
sewage and from any pools or septic tanks. If it will be absolutely necessary to in-
stall the water supply line close to a source of contamination, extra protection
such as concrete encasement or equivalent, should be provided in the construc-
tion.

68
 CHAPTER 6

IMPROVEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

6.01 GENERAL

A well is a protected hole or a pipe sunk from the ground level to a depth below
the water table or into deep water-bearing strata for purposes of extracting
groundwater. Groundwater is one of the major sources of water supply and is
frequently used for domestic consumption without prior water treatment.

There are several methods of constructing and/or improving wells. The selection
of the appropriate method depends on the type, size and depth of well to be
constructed or improved.

The following sections describe the typical methods of constructing and/or

improving various types of wells. No single method is applicable throughout
the country. The proper procedure depends on geological and other field con-
ditions. In actual construction, it is necessary for the field engineer to modify
some of the standard procedures in order to suit the actual field conditions.
Hence, tools may have to be improvised and certain procedures modified to
maximize work efficiency and minimize cost.

6.02 IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING WELLS

A. Pre-Rehabilitation Phase

Before proceeding to improve an existing well, the following factors will

aid in determining what well accessories are to be repaired or replaced,
and in estimating the cost of the project:

1. The location of existing wells with respect to probable sources of con-

tamination. The well must be situated at least 10 meters away from
probable sources of contamination like ditches, latrines or toilets. Also,
its mouth must be higher than its surroundings to prevent the entry
of contaminated surface water.

2. The existing conditions of well structures. The well cover, lining or

casing and other accessories must be checked for defects and these
defects must be correspondingly repaired or corrected.

3. Yield of Well. The capacity of the well must be ascertained. It must be

capable of supplying the maximum requirement of the users or in-
tended beneficiaries. In cases where the yield is small compared to
the water demand of the community, the well depth must be increased.
If, however, the volume of water produced is still far below from what
is required, alternative sources of water should be investigated to
replace or supplement the yield of existing sources.

69
 4. Water Quality. The water produced by the well must be potable,
otherwise, a new source must be identified. Water treatment is too
expensive and sophisticated for rural water supply systems.

B. Rehabilitation Phase

After the examination and identification of the defects/inadequacies of

existing wells, it is then rehabilitated. Presented below are the different
methods of improving/repairing existing defective wells:

1. Repair of defective existing driven, jetted and drilled wells. This sub-
section is treated in detail in Volume Ill, Section 2.1, Maintenance
and Repair of Wells.
2. This method converts a dug well into a shallow driven or drilled well
as shown in Figure 6.01. The following tools and materials are needed:

Tools Materials

Drive well-point Standard weight casing

Hammer Plastic compound
Drive pipe with cap Cement
Shovel Aggregates
Plastic pail Clay or bentonite
Rope Polyphosphate

WELL

SECTIONAL PLAN
FIGURE 601
IMPROV~IENTOF EXISThG DUG WELL
ITYPEI I

70
 Procedure

a. Using a shovel, clean the bottom of the well of all debris and
undesirable materials. Haul the discarded materials up using the
“pail and rope” system, with one worker at the top of well hauling
the materials.

b. Remove the upper well curbing up to at least one meter below the
ground surface.

c. Install a standard weight casing down through the well bottom

using a drive well-point. The casing should be driven until the
desired depth is reached.

d. Install the well casing or drop-pipe down to the driven depth. The
top of the casing should extend at least 20 cm above the ground
surface or concrete pedestal.

e. Fill the open well space with puddled clay up to the ground level
or top of the well.

f. Provide the well with a strong concrete platform or apron. The

platform should extend at least one (1) meter from the well in
all directions.
g. Seal the space between the casing and the platform using mastic
sealer or asphaltic seal.

h. Install the required pump unit.

i. Disinfect the well as described in Section 15.04.

3. This method is used if the well does not need any further deepening
and requires installing of the necessary well casing and pump only as
shown in Figure 6.02.

Tools Materials

Shovel Standard well casing

Pick-axe PVC or metal screen
Pail Cement
Rope Aggregates
Wash round gravel
Gravel

Procedure

a. Clean the well from silt and other undesirable materials using the
same procedure as in step (1) of Method B.

71
 b. Remove the upper wall curbing up to at least one meter below the

ground surface.

c. Lower a well casing with a screen attached at its lower end.

d. Fill the space around the screen with 6—25 mm washed round
gravel up to the neck of the reducer by using at least 50 mm 0
tremie pipe.

e. Build an impervious concrete layer 10 centimeters thick on top

of the gravel layer.

f. Fill the rest of the open space around the casing with puddled
clay.

g. Follow steps e, f, g, h, and I of Method two.

PLASTIC SEALING CDMP01JND

NEW P C PLATFORM

~
WELL CASING

PULALED CLAY OR EQUIVALENT—

U
POURED CONCRETE

CEMENr GAGS

WATER LEYEL~~~~

R01IUCER FITTING~ — ~ - -

WASHED, RQUND GRAVEL~— ~ç’r~ .

PVC SCREEN

I ~~1j
:s~~
0jY~
_____----I

SECTION

PLAN

FIGURE 6 02
IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING DUG WELL
I TYPE fl)

72
 4. A shallow dug well may be improved by installing a curbing consisting

of concrete culvert pipes as shown in Figure 6.03.

Procedure

a. Clean and deepen the well following the same procedure presented
in Method two and three.
b. Cover the well bottom with loose stones to support the concrete
pipe lining leaving enough space for the pump foot valve setting.
c. Remove the upper wall curbing as described in method three.

d. Line the well with concrete culvert pipes. Seal the joints with
mastic sealer or asphaltic seal.

e. Fill the voids between the removed curbing and the culvert pipe
with puddled clay.

f. Provide concrete platform or cover as discussed in previous meth-

ods. The cover should be provided with an inspection manhole.

g. Set the suction pipe in position.

h. Install pump.

i. Disinfect well.

6.03 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW HAND DUG WELLS

A General

Hand dug .wells are commonly used to extract groundwater in rural areas in
the Philippines. They are circular in shape and vary in size from one to 1.5
meters diameter. The walls are commonly lined with reinforced concrete,
bricks or adobe. Depending on the nature of the aquifer, water enters the
well either through the walls or through the open bottom. When walls are
used, the lining is usually made porous by use of perforated reinforced
concrete pipes. In which case, the bottom is concreted to prevent upward
movement of soil and to facilitate cleaning. However, if water enters through
the bottom, the bottom is filled with gravel or loose stones to a depth of at
least 20 centimeters.

Hand dug wells are simple to construct. The procedures of construction can
be summarized as follows:

1. Prepare the site and set up the construction equipment.

2. Excavate the well hole.

73
 HAND PL~IP

600mm
100mm PIPE, ANCHORED
TO PUMP BASE
PLArFORM

PL~DLEDCLAY

38mm. SUCTION PIPE

0
N)

1200mm REINFORCED W~ERLEVEL

CONCRETE CULVERT PIPE I

LOOSE 9rON~
FOOT VALVE a STRAINER

SOURCE WATER SUPPLY FO~ RURAL AREAS

AND SMPLL COPIMUNITIES
BY E &,WAGIRER & JW LANCIX

FIGURE 6.03
IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING DUG WELL
(TYPE ]lt)

74
 3. Lower the reinforced concrete pipe casing into the excavated hole. In
loose ground formation where cave-ins are imminent, the excavation of
the well hole and lowering of reinforced concrete pipe casing are done
alternately.

4. Check well alignment.

5. Seal the reinforced concrete pipe joints.

6. Lay the gravel layer at the foot of the well.

7. Grout the space between the permanent casing and the surrounding
hole.

8. Build a concrete platform or pedestal and the surrounding drainage

canal.

9. Conduct pump tests to determine well capacity.

10. Install pumping facilities or any appropriate water drawing equipment.

11. Disinfect the well with chlorine.

B. Detailed Procedure for the Construction of Hand Dug Wells

The procedure presented below is typical. Hence, it is up to the well builders

to modify the process to fit the local conditions.

1. Construction Tools and Equipment

a. Digging tools; e.g. spade, shovel, etc.

b. Pump, complete with accessories and with capacity of at least

1.5 times the approximate maximum day demand of the house-
holds to be served.

c. Pipe wrenches of suitable sizes.

d. Pulley system.

e. Bucket or pail.

2. Construction Materials

a. Plumbing rod and pegs.

b. Pre-fabricatedreinforced concrete (RC) pipe.

c. Portland Cement.

d. Lumber.

75
 e. PVC or G.I. Pipes.

f. Aggregates such as sand and gravel.

3. Construction Procedure

a. Preparation of the Site and Setting of Construction Equipment.

i. Clear and grub the site from all big stones and undesirable
vegetation. Provide a working space with a radius of about
5 to 10 meters in the surrounding area.

ii. Mark the diameter of the well on the ground as specified on

the plan using a spade or a shovel.

iii.
Excavate a hole 0.50 meter deep and construct a lining shut-
ter (Figure 6.04). Backfill the gap between the shutter and
the surrounding soil. The lining shutter will remain in place
until the pre-fabricated reinforced concrete pipe casing joints
are concreted. This structure will prevent the top edge of the
well from crumbling, particularly when hit by buckets; serves
as a mound around the well top to reduce the risk of objects,
e.g. tools or stones from accidentally falling into the well
which may injure the workers below; assists in keeping the
well plumb; and serves as a fixed level for taking measure-
ments.

iv. Fix the plumbing pegs, and plumbing and trimming rods
into position (Figure 6.04 and 6.05). This set up will deter-
mine the depth and will check plumbness of hole. During the
excavation process, the trimming and plumbing rod is re-
moved from time to time and is replaced only when checking
the alignment of the well hole.

v. Mount the tripod which will hold the pulley in place, this
pulley system will be used in bringing up the earth to the
ground surface (Figure 6.07).

b. Excavation of Well Hole and Installation of Reinforced Concrete

(RC) Pipe Casing.

1. Excavating of Shallow Wells in Firm Ground Formations

i.1 After site preparation and setting up of equipment,

start the excavation process. The process consists of
alternate loosening of earth and hauling of loosened
earth. (Figure 6.06). Check well alignment for every
meter excavated by lowering the trimming rods.

i.2 Continue excavation until the desired depth is reached.

However, when the ground appears to be unstable

76
 16mm 6 WOODEN RODS

A TRIMMING RODS

16mm0 DRILLED HOLE—

L~ I
i_u
2SmmB WOODEN WOOS
-J
-4
B PWMBING RODS

—16mm 0 PLUMBING PEGS

VARIES
0

C PLUMBING PEGS

FIGURE 6~O5
DETAIL OF PLUMBING PEGS AND RODS AND TRIMMING RODS
 before the desired depth is reached and cave-in is im-
minent, place a wooden support around the walls of
the hole. When water is reached, bail the water out of
the well together with the material excavated. The more
efficient the well is kept dry, the deeper is the penetra-
tion of the well hole into the water bearing stratum.
And therefore, the more water the well will yield.

i.3 When the water bearing stratum is sufficiently penet-

rated, reinforced concrete (RC) pipe casing is lowered
into the hole. At the bottom part of the well, a perfora-
ted AC pipe is installed. The length of the column of
perforated AC pipe depends upon the thickness of the
water bearing aquifer penetrated by the well hole.

ii. Excavating in Loose Ground Formation

In loose ground formation, excavation and sinking of the well

casing can be done as follows: Excavate a 0.50 meter deep
hole and then place one length of reinforced concrete (AC)
pipe. (Note that the first 3 to 6 lengths of AC pipe buried are
perforated depending upon the thickness of the water bearing
aquifer to be penetrated by the well hole.)

78
 After placing the pipe in the hole, excavation commences. As
the excavator goes down, the AC pipe also goes along with
him. When the top-most pipe is about to sink below the
shutter-lined wall, another pipe is added on the top-most
pipe. The alternate digging and adding of the pipe continues
until the desired depth is reached. Figure 6.07 illustrates the
construction of hand dug well in loose ground formation.

iii. Excavation of Deep Dug Wells

In constructing deep dug wells, cribbing and the danger of

cave-in should be carefully considered. The method of con-
struction is very similar to the method used in excavation
of wells in loose ground formations.

i.1 Excavate a hole 0.50 meter deep and set in place one
length of reinforced concrete pipe in it.

12 Allow the pipe to descend under its own weight while

excavation progresses.

i.3 When only about 10 centimeters of the pipe remains

above the ground, or when the top-most pipe is about
to sink below the shutter-lined wall, add another length
of pipe on top of the first pipe.

i.4 Continue the alternate digging and adding of pipe until

the desired depth is reached.

4. Checking of Well Alignment and Plumbness

After installing the reinforced concrete (RC) pipe casing, check the
alignment and plumbness of well by using the trimming rods.
5. Sealing the Joints Between R.C. Pipes

The part joining two R.C. pipes should be sealed to prevent contamina-
tion due to infiltration of surface water. The sealing procedure is as
follows:

a. Chip off the section joining two R.C. pipes together using a cold
chisel to provide a roughened surface where the cement mortar
will adhere.

b. Apply mastic sealer or asphaltic seal on the roughened surface.

6. Laying of Gravel Layer at the Bottom of the Well

Provide the well bottom with a gravel layer 20-30 cm deep consisting
of graded gravel with diameter ranging from 5 mm (Mesh No. 4) to 25

79
 PULLEY

BAMBOO TRIPOD

REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE)TSG

SECTION

CONSTRUCTION OF HAND DUG

WELLS IN LOOSE GROUND FORMATION

80
 mm (Mesh No. 100). The gravel layer is necessary to strain fine sand,
thus, allowing the pump or any water drawing equipment to draw
clearer water.

7. Grouting

Grout the upper three (3) meters of the dug well to protect it from
contamination due to surface water. The detail of the grouting process
is presented in Section 6.10.

8. Building of Well Cover and Pedestal

Provide the well with a strong cover and pedestal made of concrete, or
other construction materials suitable for the purpose. Make provision
for a manhole for maintenance and repair. Dug well covers have the
following features:

a. An impervious clay apron 30-40 cm thick and extending at least

one meter around the edge of the well. The minimum slope of the
apron must be five percent (5 units vertical to 100 units hori-
zonta I).
b. An impervious concrete cover 10 cm. thick and extending outward
at least one meter around the edge of tne well. The minimum
slope of concrete cover must be at least one percent or one unit
vertical for every 100 units horizontal.

9. Installation of Pumping Facilities

The installation of pumping facilities is presented in detail in Chapter

13.

10. Pumping Test and Disinfection

Pumping test to determine the yield and drawdown of wells is discussed

in Section 6.13 and disinfection is treated in detail in Chapter 17, Test-
ing and Disinfection.

6.04 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW DRIVEN WELLS

A. General

Driven wells are constructed by hammering with the use of a mallet or a

dead weight, a pointed strainer called well point, through the ground and
into water-bearing stratum. A well point is a specially made metal tube with
a point at the lower end, and holes or slits in the sides through which water
can enter (Figure 6.08A and B).

Driven wells have diameters which range from 32 to 50 mm depending on

the water demand and can be constructed up to a depth of 15 meters de-
pending on the soil conditions. This type of well is suitable in silt, sand,
gravel and to a lesser extent in clay formations, but not in stone formations.

81
 WELL BPOINTS
NOTE.
WELL POINTS ARE USUALLY MADE
OF FORGED STEEL. STAINLESS STEEL.
OR HARD BRASS.

C
DRIVE CAP

SOURCE RURAL WATER SUPPLY

AND SANITATiON
BY F B WRIGHT

FIGURE 6.08 -

TWO TYPES OF WELL POINTS IAND DRIVING CAP

82
B. Tools

Driving materials, tools and equipment are simple and are generally avail-
able locally. These are:
a. Rig with pulley system. The rig can be fabricated out of bamboo
poles.

b. Drive pipe with cap and well point

c. Mallet or dead weight.

d. Driving clamp.

e. Plumber’s hand tools.

f. Hand digging tools like spade, pick, hoe, shovel, etc.

C. Materials

a. Standard weight pipe casing/drive pipe.

b. Cement and aggregates.

c. Rope.

d. Bamboo poles.

0. Construction Procedure

Preparation of the Site and Setting up of Construction Equipment.

a. Clear and grub the site. Provide a working space with radius of 3
to 5 meters, taking the site of the well hole as center.
b. Mark the center of the well on the ground as specified on the plan
using a spade or a shovel. Dig a small hole 50-80 cm deep and dia-
meter slightly larger than the diameter of well point using a crow-
bar. This hole will hold the drive pipe in place.

c. If the driver to be employed in sinking the well point is a dead

weight, mount the drop weight and pulley system on the tripod
(Figure 6.09).

2. Sinking of Drive Pipe or Well Point

a. Using a Drop Weight The sinking of drive pipe and well point is
—

usually performed by two persons: the first person operates the

drop or dead weight while the second person aligns the drive pipe
with the aid of a pipe clamp. Figure 6.07 shows the set up (the

83
 BAMBOO TRIPOD

DEAD WEIGHT

DRIVE-PIPE

PIPE COUPLING

-DRIVE WELL POINT

FIGURE 609

CONSTRUCTION OF DRIVEN-WELL USING A DEAD WEIGHT

84
 second person is not shown in the drawing). The operation of the
system consists of raising the dead weight by pulling the rope and
then allowing the dead weight to drop hitting the drive cap of the
drive pipe.

Procedure:

i. Set the drive pipe equipped with well point vertically into the
hole.

ii. Put a driving cap (Figure 6.08C) at the top of the drive pipe.
The cap protects the pipe from being damaged due to the
impact of the dead weight.

iii. Drive the well point/drive pipe by alternately pulling and re-
leasing the rope. After each blow, check if the pipe joint is
tight by twisting it. If it is loose, it must be tightened by
means of a pipe clamp and pipe wrench before continuing the
driving operation.

iv. Continue driving until approximately 20 cm. of the pipe top

remains exposed. Remove the drive cap and connect the
second pipe to the first pipe. Replace the drive cap on top
of the newly installed pipe and resume the driving operations.
The driving and pipe jointing operation is repeated until the
desired depth is reached.

v. In case the well point encounters a boulder, it is best to pull

out the pipes already in the ground and try a new spot a little
distance away.

b. Using a Sledge Hammer —Figure 6.10 shows the set-up of sinking

a drive pipe/well point using a sledge hammer. The principle in
sinking the drive pipe using a sledge hammer is similar to the dri-
ving procedure using a dead weight.

Procedure:

i. Set pipe equipped with a well point vertically into the hole.

ii. Put a driving cap or any cushioning material like wood block
on the top end of the drive pipe.

iii. While the drive pipe is held in place by means of a pipe clamp
by the second person, the first person sinks the well point by
hitting the drive cap with the sledge hammer. The portable
platform as shown in Figure 6.10 is used when the height of
the drive cap is quite high from the ground so that it is diffi-
cult for the driver to hit the drive cap. In this case, the driver
stands on the platform while hitting the drive cap.

85
 DRIVE CAP

6
TEMPORARY CASIM3 GUll

DRIVE-PIPE-

DRIVE - PIPE
COUPLING

~oi~rr

DRIVEN WELL

FIGURE 6.10
CONSTRUCTION OF DRIVEN WELL USING A SLEDGE HAMMER

86
 iv. Continue the driving operation until approximately 20 cm of
the pipe top remains above the ground surface. Remove the
drive cap and connect the second pipe to the exposed end of
the first pipe. Replace the drive cap on top of the newly in-
stalled pipe and resume the driving operation. The driving
and pipe jointing operations are repeated until the desired
depth is reached. If during the driving operation, the well
point encounters a boulder or hard rock formation, it is best
to pull out the pipes already in the ground and try a new spot
a little distance away.

3. Checking of Well Plumbness and Alignment

The procedure in checking well plumbness and alignment is presented

in Section 6.09.
4. Grouting

The grouting process is presented in Section 6.10.

5. Building a Concrete Platform and the Surrounding Drainage

Section 6.12 presents the detailed procedure of constructing a typical

concrete apron or pedestal with surrounding drainage canals.
6. Development of Well

Development of a well is a process of opening the water bearing forma-

tion in the vicinity of the well point to increase the water yield. The
different methods of well development are discussed in detail in Sec-
tion 6.13.

7. Pumping Test

Knowledge of the amount of water the well is capable of producing

is important in determining the need for a supplementary source to
meet the water demand of the population to be served and the size of
the pump to be installed. Well yield is determined through a pumping
test. The testing procedure is discussed in detail in Section 6.14.

8. Installation of Pumping Facilities.

The installation of pumping facilities is presented in detail in Chapter

13. -

9. Disinfection

Disinfection of a newly constructed well is necessary before starting the

well drawing operation, to kill disease-causing bacteria. The disinfection
process is treated in detail in section 15.04.

87
6.05 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW BORED WELLS

A. General

Bored wells are constructed by boring a hole using an earth borer or auger.
This type of well is suitably constructed in soft soil and alluvial formations
free of large gravel and stones. They are usually 40 to 80 mm in diameter
and can be installed up to a depth of 15 meters.

B. Construction Tools and Equipment

Shown in Figure 6.11 are typical boring tools for bored well construction.

C. Construction Procedure

1. Prepare working site, tools and materials for construction.

2. Dig a hole 30 to 50 cm deep and of sufficient diameter to allow the

introduction of the borer.
3. Bore a well hole employing an earth auger.

a. In Stable Soil Formation Boring of a hole and removal of

—

loosened soil is accomplished by rotating the earth auger (Figure

6.12A). The shape of the spiral allows the loosened soil or gravel
to rise. To remove the remaining loosened soil, raise the borer out
of the hole with the soil extracted from time to time.

b. In Loose Soil Formation — The principle of boring a well hole

in loose soil formation is similar to the principle in boring a well
hole in stable soil formation except that a pipe casing which goes
down with the earth auger is installed as earth shield to prevent
the cave-in (Figure 6.12B). The borer is operated inside the protec-
tive pipe and is provided with movable side cutters capable of cut-
ting a hole 3.8 cm bigger in diameter than the pipe to allow the
pipe to follow the borer as it descends.

4. When the desired depth is reached, set the well casing and screen in
place and grout the well. In cases where the pipe lowered when boring
in loose soil formation satisfies the requirements, it can serve as well
casing.

5. Build a well apron and drainage canal around the well.

6. Develop the well to increase well yield and conduct pumping test to
determine the amount of water that the well can supply.
7. Install pumping facilities or any water drawing equipment and disinfect
the well including the casing and pump prior to its commissioning.

88
 C

A TOOL FOR BORING IN TOP SOIL,OAY, SANIW CLAY, OR FORMATIONS THAT ARE
NOT TOO HARD OR CAVRG~CUTTER(s)
1 WIDER THAN STANDARDMAY BE AODED TO PERMT BORING UP
SIZE
TO B cm 13In
B SRRAL AUGER
C REGULAR CLUB BIT FOR ~EAKING THROUGH HARD FORMATIOPG, LD~ENING
ROCK AND BREAKING SOFT ROCK
D TOOL FOR BORING IN SOFT,WET, SANDY SOILS

SOURCE WATER SUPPLY FOR RURAL AREAS

AND SRAEL COMMUNITIES
SO E S WNDNER AND J N LNNSW

FiGURE 6 U

TYPICAL BORING TOOLS

6.06 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW JETTED WELLS

A. General

Wells can also be constructed by jetting. A stream of water which is intro-

duced into the well hole loosens the soil and carries it to the ground surface.
Jetted wells are constructed suitably in fine or sandy soil formations but not
in gravel or rock formations. They are usually 40 to 100 millimeters in dia-
meter and can be installed up to a depth of 50 meters. Jetted wells can be
constructed by Sludger’s or by Conventior.al methods.

B. Sludger’s Method

1. Clear and grub the site. Provide a working space of about 5 to 10

meters radius.

2. Build a bamboo scaffolding and a bamboo fulcrum (Figure 6.13A). The

bamboo scaffolding is used as support to enable a person to reach the
upper portion of the pipe when he performs a flap-valve-like operation
with his hands. On the otherhand, the bamboo fulcrum will be used to
support the lever which will be used in moving the pipe up and down,
3. Screw a cutter into one end of a 3M length (Figure 6.138) G.l. boring

pipe. A sharpened coupling may serve as the cutter,

4. Dig a hole about 1 meter square and 0.7 M deep and fill it with water.

5. Hold the pipe in a vertical position and fasten it to a lever with a chain
(Figure 6.14A). The lever is usually manned by 2 to 6 men (diameter
not more than 50 mm) who raise and lower the pipe.

6. Start the sinking of the pipe. The pipe is moved up and down using the
bamboo lever chained to the pipe. While the pipe penetrates through
the earth surface, the soil is loosened and becomes suspended in water.
The soil-water mixture is then raised to the ground surface. This is ac-
complished by a man sitting on a scaffolding operating his hand as a
“flap valve” (Figure 6.14B). As the pipe is being raised using the lever,
the man covers the mouth of the pipe with his hand, and as the pipe is
being dropped, he removes his hand allowing mud and water to rise
and trickle down from the pipe to the shallow water-filled mud hole.
The action of the hand for every upward and downward motion of the
boring pipe creates a vacuum causing the mud to rise.

As the hole deepens and the pipe is lowered, the chain which fastens
the boring pipe and lever together is raised. When the pipe is sunk to its
full length, the lever is disconnected and a new length of pipe is added
at the top. The lever is then fastened using the chain. Also, during the
sinking process, the mud hole must be kept full of water. Add more
water and remove appreciable amount of silt if necessary. During the
progress of the work, soil samp’es should be collected for every meter

90
 A HOLDING OF PIPE IN VERTICAL POSITIOI~J AND FASTENING IT TO A
LEVER USING A CHAIN

Co A BAMBOO SCAFFOLDING AND LEVER

—

WRENCH

B MAN OPERATING HIS HANDS AS A FLAP VALVE

B SCREWING OF SHARPENED COUPLING

FiGURE 613 FIGURE 6 14

CONSTRUCTION OF JETTED WELLS CONSTRUCTION OF JETTED WELLS
(SLUDGER METHOD) (SLUDGER METHOD)
 depth or for every change of formation and analyze. Boring continues
until the desired depth is reached.

7. Insert the pipe casing with screen or perforated pipe attached to its bot-
tom end inside the boring pipe.

8. Withdraw the whole length of the boring pipe piece by piece using the
lever.

9. Check well alignment and plumbness.

10. Develop the well by surging.

11. Determine well yield by pumping test.

12. Complete the construction of well by:

a. Filling the annular space between the well pipe and the earth
hole with compacted impervious clay or concrete to prevent
contamination from reaching the water table through this space.

b. Build a water tight concrete apron or pedestal.

c. Install the pumping facilities or any water drawing equipment.

d. Disinfect the well by chlorination.

C. Conventional Method

1. Clear and grub the site. Provide a working space of about 5 to 10

meters radius.

2. Set up the jetting equipment and tripod as shown in Figure 6.15.

3. Dig a hole 0.5 to 1.0 meter deep to serve as the starting depth.

4. Attach a cutter to one end of the boring pipe (usually thru meter in
length) and a swivel at the opposite end. Suspend the pipe and swivel
in pulley and tripod as shown in Figure 6.15. The swivel joint allows
water to enter the boring pipe at the same time permitting the boring
pipe to revolve without leaking.

5. Start sinking the pipe. The sinking process consists of pumping water
into the boring pipe and at the same time twisting it using a chain
or pipe wrench. Due to pressure of water and the twisting action, the
pipe will start sinking. The more water that can be pumped through the
pipe, the faster the pipe will descend and the more suspended matter
will be washed out of the hole.

When the exposed end of the first 3 meters length of the pipe is about
0.3 to 0.6 M from the ground surface, disconnect the swivel and attach

92
 POINT
DRIVE SHOE

FIGURE 615
CONSTRUCTION OF JETTED WELL IN LOOSE GROUND FORMATION
(CONVENTIONAL METHOD)

93
 the second ipe. Replace the swivel at the top of the second pipe and
start jet bo ing again. This process is repeated untIl the desired depth
is reached.

6. Remove the whole length of the pipe piece by piece taking care that the
hole will not be disturbed.

7. Remove the cutter from the end of the bottom pipe. In its place, install
a screen or a properly slotted PVC pipe.

8. Replace the withdrawn pipes into the hole with the perforated PVC
pipe or screen attached to the first pipe. It should be observed that it is
much easier to lower the pipe this time as the hole has been previously
opened. To hasten the sinking of pipes, repeat the jetting process, this
time using the screen or perforated pipe as the cutter.

9. Check well alignment and plumbness before permanert installation.

10. Develop well through surging until water is sand-free.

11. Determine well yield by pumping test.

12. Complete the construction of the well as follows:

a. Fill the annular space between the well pipe and the earth hole
with compacted clay or concrete to prevent contamination of the
well water through this space.

b. Build a water tight concrete apron.

c. Install the pumping facilities or any water drawing equipment.

d. Disinfect the well by chlorination.

Construction of jetted wells 150 mm in diameter or more will require a

more complicated operation and is not within the scope of this manual.
It is enough to point out that such an operation will involve the construction
of a higher tower and use of bigger pumps. Also, it requires a larger quantity
of water for jetting.

6.07 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW DRILLED WELLS

A. General

Drilled wells can be constructed practically in all types of ground forma-

tions. They are usually 100 to 600 millimeters in diameter and can be in-
stalled up to a depth of 300 meters or more. Drilled wells are generally con-
structed by the use of rigs designed and manufactured for the purpose.

94
B. Equipment

Two types of rigs are used: (1) percussion and, (2) rotary. The percussion
drilling rig, also called the “cable tool” rig, is the more common and simpler
of the two. Figure 6.16 shows a percussion type drill rig. It consists of a der-
rick and a hoisting and control equipment mounted on a truck. The derrick
serves as the tower from which the drilling tools, well casings, screens and all
materials and equipment used to construct the well are suspended and man i-
pulated. The rigs vary in size and are expensive. A small portable percussion
rig powered by a small gas engine is available here in the Philippines at cost
of about P35,000.00. It is easy to operate and can put down a jet or drilled
well 75-150 mm (3-6 in.) in diameter to depths of 50-100 meters depending
upon the diameter and the geology of the areas. Small enterprising well drill-
ers who cannot afford this equipment have devised a simple inexpensive
percussion rig as shown in Figure 6.17. It is fabricated out of bamboo poles
with a pulley system suspended at the top. Drilling is accomplished by conti-
nuous raising and dropping of the drill bit through the manipulation of the
rope.

One advantage that the small portable rigs have over the large truck-mounted
rigs is that they can be used to drill wells in any place; while big rigs are
limited to sites that are accessible to trucks. Whether it be a power driven or
manually operated percussion drill, the principle of drilling is the same. Both
operate on the chiselling action of a tool which is alternately raised and
dropped into a bore-hole.
The rotary type has practically the same features, except that it is equipped
with a rigid drill pipe that is turned by a rotary plate, and a mud pump and a
hose which pumps water or mud down the hole as drilling proceeds. The
loosened materials are bailed out by the flushing action of the water with the
mud. Drilling is accomplished by the rotary action of the drill bit which
loosens the materials encountered. Drilling wells with the use of these expen-
sive rigs is a specialized work and requires experienced and skilled operators.
Hence, this type of rig may not be suitable for rural water supply wstem
constructions where funds are limited.

C. Manual Percussion Drilling

The construction of a drilled well through manual percussion drilling is the

least expensive and the most adaptable process for drilling wells in rural
areas. The procedure is as follows:

1. Prepare the site and set up the drilling equipment as shown in Figure
6.17.

2. Bore a hole with a depth equivalent to the length of the drill bit (usual-
ly ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 meter) with the use of an earth auger to serve
as drilling guide.

Mount the drill stem fitted with a drill bit vertically in a tripod with a
piece of rope and with drill bit centered in the hole.

95
 TOP VIEW

BAMBOO TRIPOD-

Co

ILL BIT

SIDE VIEW

FIGURE 6 16 FIGURE 617

PERCUSSION~~~~IjL
RIG M/~NU1\L PERCUSSION TYPE DRILL RIG SET-UP
(TRUCK
3. Start drilling the well hole. Drilling is accomplished by repeated raising
and dropping of the string of tools with a chopping or drill bit attached
to the lower end. The cuttings remain in the hole until removed by a
bailer or sand pump. The raising and lowering of the drilling bit (Figure
6.18A) is accomplished by a man holding the drill line. To maintain a
round and straight hole, the chopping bit is rotated by a hook racket-
type rope which is mechanically actuated by the raising and dropping
of the drill bit.

The bailer (Figure 6.18C) consists of a length of pipe with a check valve
at the bottom. The valve may be either of a flat pattern (Figure 6.18D)
or a bailer-and-tongue pattern called a dart valve.

Alternately, drill cuttings can be removed using a sand pump (Figure

6.18B) which is actually a bailer fitted with a plunger. When the
plunger is pulled upward, a vacuum is created resulting in the opening
of the valve and the sucking in of the sand or slurried cuttings into the
pipe. The bottom of the sand pump is always a flat-pattern valve.

Furthermore, in drilling through unconsolidated or loose ground forma-

tions, the hole should be encased with a pipe. Drilling is carried out in-
side the pipe casing, and the casing is driven down periodically to
maintain the position of its lower end near the chopping action of the
drill bit. Also, when drilling soil formations which are dry, it is neces-
sary to add water to loosen the soil. Upon reaching the desired depth
clean the hole using the sand pump.

4. Remove the drill bit.

5. Perform preliminary pumping test to check well yield, If found insuffi-

cient to meet water demand, continue the drilling operation.
6. Install the casing and screen or perforated pipe to the desired design
of the well.

7. Check well alignment and plumbness.

8. Make proper well development.

9. Determine well capacity.

10. Complete the construction of the well by:

a. Grouting the upper 3 meters annular space between the well hole
and casing.

b. Building a concrete apron.

c. Installing pumping facilities or other water drawing equipment.

d. Disinfection and completion of the well.

97
 —.-DR1LL LINE

ROPE SOCKET—..

—TOOL JOINT

•—cIBL~LII4G JARS

ENILL
STEM
SQURRE
II FLAP BOTTOM lIALVE
SEE ~TAIL

—IOOL JOU~T C BAILER

Ui
RETER
CQURRE

•—ORILL BIT
D DETAIL OF FLAP 8011W
VALVE

A FOUR COMPONENTS OF THE STRING

OF DRILL TOOLS

B SAND PUMP

FIGURE 618
DRILLING TOOLS

6.08 PLACEMENT WELL CASING

A. General
The pipe casing serves as the lining of a well. Its functions are to prevent
the collapse of the well hole, entrance of dirty undesirable water into the
well, and escape of good water from the well to the surroundings. Well casing
may be made of pre-fabricated reinforced concrete (AC) pipe, galvanized
iron (GI) pipe, steel pipe or PVC pipe. Reinforced concrete pipe is common-
ly used in dug wells while Gl, steel and PVC pipes are often used in driven,
jetted, bored and drilled wells.

Well casings may be installed during or after excavation of the well hole.
In firm ground formation, it is usually lowered after the excavation process
(except in constructing driven wells where the pipe casing goes with the
sinking of the well point). On the other hand, if a well is constructed in
loose ground formation, the permanent or temporary pipe casing is lowered
together with the excavation of the hole to prevent cave-ins.

98
 B. Procedure for Sinking Pipe Casings

1. Sinking of Pre-fabricated Reinforced Concrete Pipe Casing

Shown in Figure 6.19 is the set up for sinking AC pipe casing in dug
wells. The RC pipe is suspended in the tripod using a rope. The pipe is
lowered by slowly releasing the rope while a man is aligning the pipe in
the hole.

Sinking of Gl or PVC Pipe Casing

Shown in Figure 6.20 is the set up for sinking GI or PVC pipe casing.
The principle of lowering the pipe is similar to the principle in sinking
RC pipes. An added feature is the use of either wood or steel clamp to
hold the lowered casings suspended while connecting the next length of
casing.

6.09 CHECKING WELL ALIGNMENT AND PLUMBNESS

A. General

Well alignment and plumbness should be checked to see whether they are
within the allowable limits prior to the installation of pumping facilities.
Alignment is necessary in determining whether a pump of given size can be
installed in the well to a desired depth, If the well bore or well casing is
crooked beyond a certain limit, the pump discharge column and bowl will
simply not go in. A well must also be plumb. Although a pump can be in-
stalled in a well that is aligned but out -of plumb, its efficiency and useful-
ness is reduced significantly. Alignment refers to the straightness or crooked-
ness of the well hole while plumbness is the deviation of the well hole from
the vertical.

B. Checking of Well Alignment

The well alignment can be tested using a set up consisting of a tripod and a
dummy (Figure 6.21). The dummy may be a pipe with diameter slightly
smaller than the well casing (preferably two commercial pipe sizes smaller
than the well casing) and length (normally 12 M) sufficient to detect un-
desirable deviations from the straight line. In general, the well is acceptable
if the dummy move freely throughout the length of the casing or to the
depth the pump column is intended to be lowered.

Procedure:

1. Assemble the tripod and install the pulley system as shown in Figure
6.21.

2. Tie the upper end of the dummy pipe with a rope and suspend it from
the tripod. Make sure that the lower end of dummy pipe is pointing
directly to the center of the well.

99
 REVOLVING HOOK
BAMBOO BAMBOO

-STARE

~1
0
0

BOLT
WELL HOLE

HOLE
CASIKO

A DETAIL OF WOOD CLAMP

MORTAR JOINT IG 620 NOT TO SCALE

SECTI ON

FIGURE 6~!9 FiGURE 620

LOWERING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE CRC) PIPE IN DUG WELL LOWERING OF G.I OR PVC PIPE INTO THE WELL
 BAMBOO TRIPOD

•PULL.EV

HOOK WELOEDI

IN PLACE

COUPUNO -

CASING

FIGURE 6 21
DETERMINATION OF WELL ALIGNMENT

3. Lower the dummy into the well slowly in order not to damage screen
or casing. For a well to be acceptable, the dummy pipe should be able
to reach freely the depth the pump column is intended to be lowered,

C. Checking of Well Plumbness

Well plumbness or the extent of the deviation of the well hole from the ver-
tical can be tested using a plumb bob, The process consists of lowering the
plumb bob into the well and noting the distance between the plumb bob
string and the edge of the top of the casing as the bob strikes the side of the
casing at various depths. The horizontal distance traversed by the plumb bob
is then determined by proportion. It represents the deviation of the well
hole from the vertical. In general, a well to be acceptable should not deviate
more than 0.70 times the casing diameter for each 30 M length.

101
Procedure:

Assemble the tools and equipment in a manner shown in Figure 6.22.

Hang the plun~bbob slightly above the well casing and adjust the plumb
guide until th~plumb bob is on the exact center of the well.

2. Put four marks on the top of the well casing. These marks will serve as
end points of two imaginary perpendicular lines which intersect at the
center of the well and will be used as reference points during the deter-
mination of the direction of the deviation of the well hole from the
vertical. Name the four points south, north, east and west.

3. Measure the vertical distance from the center of the pulley to the top
of the well casing. The center of the pulley is called the datum point.

4. Lower the plumb bob and measure the distance traversed by the plumb
line from the center taking your mark points (north, south, east and
west) as reference points for every meter distance the plumb bob is
lowered. Should the plumb line touch the well casing, shift the point
before taking the measurement.

5. Calculate the deviation of the well hole from the vertical.

a. If the Datum Point is Not Shifted Figure 6.23 illustrates the

—

relative position of the plumb bob and plumb string from the
datum point and line. From the figure it is shown that the devia-
tion of the well hole at point D can be computed by ratio and
proportion (Triangles CAB and EAD are similar triangles). Stated
mathematically.

DE= BC (AC-i-CE)
AC
where DE = Deviation of the well hole from the vertical depth
CE, mm.

BC = Traverse distance of the plumb string at the

mouth of the casing, mm.

AC = Elevation of the datum point, M

CE = Depth, M.

b, If the datum point is shifted. (Figure 6.24), the deviation of the

well from the vertical can be determined by the following equa-
tion.
DE= (AC+CE) (BC+AA’)— AA’
AC

where AA’ = distance the datum point is shifted, mm.

102
 BAMBOO TRIPOD
At

ADJUSTABLE GIJIDE_ . —PULLEY TRIPOD

SEE DETAIL

~-STAXE
WOOD CASING GUIOB

A, VII~” flflVA~C&~O”—~,.--—-.
-, (07511 ~ThIUP#YI”IWI fYI
~~&‘ ~
I) —PUJMB LINE

~—FIRST POSITION CF PLUMB BOB

IOVERSIZED HOLE
BOLT flFoR ADJUSTMENT
I (~I-PUL~ ~—WELL CASINO IL
MDJTH OF ThE CASING

© f~]i~~’ A—SECOND POSITION OF PLUMB BOB — ~ STRING

0
L~A~NUT
—BONE HOLE

ELEVATION
IDISPLACFMENT OF
—WELL SCREEN
‘—~PUA.lB BOB FROM
DETAIL CENTER LINE

A DATUM POINT LOCATED AT THE CENTER OF THE PULLEY

BOLT TO FRAME B POSITION OF PLUMB STRING AT THE MOUTh OF THE CASING
WHEN MEASUREMENT WAS 1~AKEN
¶ _JOVERSIZED HOLE

!
C CENTER OF THE CASINO
~JFOR ADJUSTMENT O POSITION OP THE PLUMB BOB INSIDE THE PIPE CASING
CENTER WHEN MEASUREMENT WAS TAKEN
E POSITION OF PLUMB BOB
AE DATUM LINE
- AC+CE CS DISTANCE TRANSVERSE BY THE PLUMB STRING AT THE
IC AC MOUTH OF THE CASINL,
I~I *~~I~PULLEY DE DIoPLACEP.~NTOF PLUMB BOB FROM CENTER LINE

WASHER
PLAN
DETAIL OF PLUMB BOB
DETAILS OF ADJUSTABLE GUIDE AD

FIGURE 6 22 FIGURE 623

EQUIPMENT SET-UP FOR CHECKING WELL PLUMBNESS DETERMINATION OF WELL PLUMBNESS
(WHEN DATUM POINT IS NOT SHIFTED
 A FE CE’ ~• A . LOCATANI OF OUTIJU POINT YIFORE SOIFTTRN
& A!O ,EO!. CC! A!. LOCATION OF 041115 PONT AFTER SAIIFTTHO
1_C’ B . PosruoN OF TOE PluMS STRING AT 1110
S ~T. ~0ONTHOF TIlE COOlMO AlIEN MEA5UOFMENT
0 DC’. DC A- C - TIlE CAUMIG
IJJBNTTTUTTHO CO 2 11-EQ CDI I POSITiON OF PLUMB BOO IB~E TOE PITt COON)
PA ED 1 5 SIMPLIFY100 THE AlIEN MEA501ESeIT IBIS TRAIN
EMJAI1ON. E ‘ FENTEA OF rIle MAR50
~ot* IACRCE (BC 0 an’) se 00’ OISIDMCETHC OUTUIB POINT IS R1IFrEO
CR • DISTANCE TRANSVERSE RI 11 PLUMB STRING
TIlE BOOTH OF TOE CASABO
01. OIOFLACCMENT OF PLLIRYI RON A-RANt CENTER
USE

1’ ~

FiGURE 8 24
DETERMINATION OF WELL PLUMBNESS
(WHEN DATUM POINT IS SHIFTED)

Example 6.1 After construction, a well was tested for plumbness. Given the

data below, determine whether the constructed well is acceptable.

Data:

Well Diameter = 100 mm.

Depth of well = 30 M.
Elevation of the center of the pulley = 5 M.
Traverse distance of plumb string from center of the mouth of

pipe casing = 2 mm. See Figure 6.25A for details.

Solution:
Calculate the deviation of the well from the vertical.
DE= BC(AC+CE)
AC
where, BC = 2 mm
AC=5M.
CE= 3DM.

104
 A ILLUSTRATION OF EXAMPLE 6 1

~!l

L. ___
B ILLUSTRATION OF EXAMPLE 6 2

FIGURE SON
ILLUSTRATION OF EXAMPLE 6 1 AND 6 2

Substitute the above values and simplify

DE= (2 mm) (5+30) M.

SM

DE = 14mm.

2. Calculate the Allowab’e Deviation

For a well to be acceptable, the deviation from the vertical of the

well hole should not exceed 0.7 times the casing diameter for each 30
M of its length, therefore, the deviation must not exceed (0.7 x 100) =
70 mm.

3. Conclusion

Since the deviation of the constructed well is less than the al’owable
deviation, the well is acceptable.
Example 6.2 A well was tested for its plumbness in Dasureco, Davao. Given be-
low are the test results. Determine whether the well is acceptable
or not.

105
 Data:

a. Before the Shifting of the Datum Point

Well Diameter = 100 mm.

Depthofwell = 30M.

Elevation of the center of pulley = 5 M.

Distance traverse of plumb string from the center of the mouth

of pipe casing = could not be determined for the string touches
the side of the well.

b. After the shifting of datum point until the string barely touches
the side of the well-distance the datum point of well is shifted
= 10 mm. See Figure 6.25B for details.

Solution:

Calculate the deviation of the well hole from the vertical

DE (AC + CE) (BC + AA’) — AA’

AC

where, AC = 5 M.
CE = 30 M.

BC= 50 mm.

AA’= 10mm

Substitute the above values and simplify:

DE = (5 + 30) x (50 + 10 mm) — 10 mm

5M.

=35x 60.- 10=420—10=410mm

5

2. Calculate the allowable deviation

Allowable Deviation = 0.7 x 100 70 mm.

3. Conclusion

Inasmuch as the deviation of the well from the vertical (DE = 410 mm)
is greater than the allowable deviation (70 mm), the well should be cor-
rected.

106
6.10 GROUTING

A. General

Grouting is a process of sealing the space between the pipe casing and the
bore hole to prevent the entrance of undesirable water into the well which
may cause the deterioration of the water quality. If well construction in-
cludes the installation of inner and outer casings, the grouting process in-
cludes the sealing of the space between the inner and outer casings and the
sealing of any opening outside the outer casing. Grouting materials may
be cement or puddled clay. Cement grout is prepared by mixing portland
cement and water at the ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 liter of water per kilogram of
cement. It should be emphasized that a correct water-cement ratio is im-
portant for effective bridging of cement particles. Alternately, puddled clay
may be used as a grouting material provided it is used at a depth where dry-
ing and shrinkage of mud will not occur and where water movement does
not wash clay particles away.

The introduction of grouting material is always started at the bottom of the

space to be sealed using a grout or tremie pipe 19 mm or 25 mm in diameter.
As the grout rises, the grout pipe is raised proportionately. However, its
bottom end should remain submerged in the slurry during the entire time
that the grout is being placed. In cases where operations are interrupted for
any reason, the pipe should be raised above the grout level and should not be
lowered into the slurry to continue grouting until all air and water has been
displaced from the pipe. This process of introducing grout from the bottom
minimizes dilution and has been proven to be effective in distributing
cement grout uniformly around the pipe casing. Also, to have uniform bridg-
ing of cement particles, cement grout should be placed continuously.

B. Grouting of Shallow Wells Using Grout Tremie Pipes

1. Provide the bottom of the annular space to be grouted (usually 3

meters from the ground surface) with a cement basket (Figure 6.26)
which serves as a catch for the grout. The cement basket is installed by
bolting it to the pipe casing prior to its lowering into the well hole. The
cement basket (see detail in Figure 6.26) is fabricated by welding a
6 mm thick x 25 mm wide flat bar into a holder forming a well-like
structure. To seal the joint between bars and to prevent cement from
going farther below the basket, a cover made of sack cloth is provided.

2. Prepare a cement grout slurry.

3. Set up the tremie pipes. The bottom end of the first tremie pipe is
usually installed near the cement basket while of the second pipe is
installed 0.5 meter higher than the first.

4. Start pumping the grout through the first tremie pipe until the bottom
end of the second tremie pipe is reached. Transfer the flexible hose
which is attached to the pump to the second tremie pipe and start the

107
 DETAIL OF CASING GUIDE

DETAIL OF CEMENT GROUT BASKET

SECTION

F(I5UIOL U lb

GROUTING OF SHALLOW WELLS USING IREMIE PIPE

pumping of grout. Also, at that same time, raise the first tremie pipe to
a level 0.5 meter above the second tremie pipe. Continue the alternate
process of raising the tremie pipe and pumping of grout until the entire
length to be grouted is filled up.

5. Allow the grout to set for at least 72 hours before proceeding to the
next operation.

C. Grouting of Deep Wells

Grout Pipe is Placed Outside the Casing

The principle of grouting a deep well is similar to the principle of grout-

ing a shallow well. The casing is driven solidly into the formation at the
bottom of a hole and cement grout is placed directly into the annular
space using a grout pipe (Figure 6.27A).

2. Grout Pipe is Placed Inside the Casing

a. Place a drillable plug at the bottom end of the casing.

108
 b. Place the grout or tremie pipe inside the casing with its bottom
end terminating in cementing shoe (Figure 6.27B). The cementing
shoe (Figure 6.24C) which is fitted tightly at the end of the casing
bottom is equipped with a back pressure valve which prevents the
backflow of grout material.

c. Pump the cement grout into the space to be grouted through the
grout pipe.

d. Remove the tremie pipe after the completion of grouting.

Method one is preferred over method two because well drilling can be
continued within the casing while the cement is hardening, thereby saving
considerable time. Also, the hardening time of cement may be reduced by
addition of certain materials, such as calcium chloride, to the cement slurry.

6.11 INSTALLATION OF WELL SCREENS OR PERFORATED CASINGS

The well screen is the water intake portion of the well, It prevents the entry of
sand into the well while providing an access area for water to enter the well from
the aquifer.

109
 2. Continue pumping until the pumped water is already clear. Stop the
pump immediately. This action causes the forceful introduction of water
back to the
well to suspend clay, silt, sand and other fine particles.

3. to stay idle from 15 to 30 minutes for recovery.

Allow the ~ivell

4. Repeat the above process until the well yields water free of fine mate-
rials. Normally, 5-10 repetitions would be enough to produce the
desired results.

B. Surging by Use of Plunger

1. Introduce a solid plunger which fits the wall of the casing into the
blank casing and lower it beneath the water level or near the screen or
perforated pipe.

2. Attach the other end of the plunger to a tripod as shown in Figure 6.30
and measure the bottom depth.

3. Move the plunger up and down violently. This will cause water to rush
out into the aquifer thereby disturbing the water bearing formation and
suspending the fine materials.

HUMBOO

-—-COCPUSS JOINT

4 !I~çROVE BLOCS

RUBBER RINGS- ‘

w
DETAIL OF S~.IDVALVE
SURGE PLU’JGER

-1GL~E630

SURGING BY USE OF PLUNGER

112
 4. Remove the plunger and install the pumping facilities.

5. Remove the suspended materials by pumping.

6. Repeat the above process until the well yields water which is free of
fine materials. Normally, 5-10 repetitions would be enough to obtain
the desired results.

Surge plungers sometimes produce unsatisfactory results where the aquifer

contains clay streaks or clay balls. The action of the plunger can cause the
clay to plaster over the screen surface thereby reducing the yield rather than
increasing it Also, enough weight should be attached to the plunger to make
it drop readily on the downstroke.

C. Surging by High Velocity Jetting

Generally, this is the most effective method of developing a well. It is simple

to use and is not likely to cause problems from over application of water.

Simple jetting tools together with a high pressure pump and necessary hose
and piping (Figure 6.31) are the principal tools and equipment needed. The
forceful action of high velocity jet working out through the screen openings
agitates and rearranges the sand and gravel particles of the water bearing
formation surrounding the screen. The jetting action breaks up wall cake,
disperses drilling mud, and corrects the damages of the formation which
resulted from excavation or drilling.

The well development procedure consists of training a horizontal water jet

inside the wall in such a way that the high-velocity streams of water shoot
out through the screen openings. By slowly rotating the jetting tools and
gradually raising and lowering it, the entire surface of the screen receives the
vigorous action of the jet. A swivel connection between the hose and pipe
makes the operation easier. Also, a pipe clamp should be provided to aid in
rotating the jetting tools.

Procedure:

1. Assemble the tools and equipment as shown in Figure 6.31.

2. Start the jetting process.

3. Remove the suspended materials by pumping.

4. Repeat the jetting process until the well yields water which is free of
sand or any undesirable materials. Normally, 5—10 repetitions would
be enough to obtain desired results.

0. Air Surging

Compressed air may be used effectively in well development. Shown in

Figure 6.32 is an air surging set up. The compressor to be employed for this

113
 SCREEN DROP PIPE•

JET flNG TOOL SPRAYING DE1AIL OF JET11NG

WATER INTO ThE WELL TOOL
SCREEN

JETTING TOOL

FIGURE 6.31
DEVELOPING OF WELL BY HIGH VELOCITY JETTING

114
 I0
10)
~IU)
II&i
a-
l~
0

OR EDUCTOR PIPE

—WELL CASING

~WATERBEARING STRATA
IOR SAND

SCREEN
.1. I~ ~ i

- ~ ~ A,, ,‘ ,AjA’ -
‘I
F

~-~---~ ~
‘I —
PIPE IN POSITION TO P1W

IN POSITION
BACK - BLOW

FIGURE 6 32
DEVELOPING OF WELL BY AIR SURGING

115
 purpose should be capable of developing a maximum pressure of at least 40
meters (100 psi), and 60 percent of the total length of air line should be
submerged in water while pumping to achieve best results.

Air surging is accomplished by injecting high pressure air from the com-
pressor into the well. This reverses the flow through the screen openings
and towards the water bearing stratum causing its disturbance and the
suspension of fine sand and other materials. These suspended particles are
removed by pumping.

6.14 TESTING FOR YIELD AND DRAWDOWN

Upon completion of well construction, it is important that its capacity to provide

water should be ascertained. The purpose is to have a firm basis for selecting and
purchasing the right size of pump. Measuring well yield may last for 24 hours and
in some cases up to 4 days or even longer depending on the time available, degree
of reliability and rate of well recovery. Because the yield of a new well is about
10 to 30 percent greater than the yield at the same rate of pumping after some
use, pumping tests should be repeated after the well has been in normal use for
several weeks or months. The well pump should be installed with this condition
stipulated.

During the tests, the water level in the well before pumping and after stabilization
should be measured to determine the drawdown. A complete description of the
various methods of measuring water level is presented in Chapter 10 of Volume I:
Design Manual.

116
 CHAPTER 7

OTHER WATER SOURCES AND COLLECTION STRUCTURES

The collection and storage of water from various sources for domestic use involve the
construction and installation of the necessary facilities and appurtenances. The type of facil-
ities to be provided and the construction procedures to be followed depend to a large extent
on the nature of the water source, i.e., rain, groundwater or surface water, the cost and the
availability of local construction materials and skilled labor.

7,01 RAINWATER CATCHMENT AND STORAGE TANK

Rainwater may be used as a source of water supply in places where rain is relative-
ly uniformly distributed throughout the year and where groundwater is not avail-
able. Tapping rainwater for domestic use entails the construction of a storage tank
and a collection system. Shown in Figure 7.01 is a typical rainwater storage and
collection system.

A. Catchment Area

The catchment system may consist of roofs of houses, buildings or barns,

gutters and downspouts, Roofs serve as the main catchment area, the gutter
collects the rain from the roof and conveys it to the downspout while the
downspout transmits it to the storage tanks. The roof can be made of gal-
vanized iron or aluminum sheets or tiles but not of thatch or nipa. The gut-
ter should be installed in a position where it slopes towards the downspout.
The top of the downspout should be screened to keep leaves and other deb-
ris from entering. Ordinary chicken wire with openings of at least 12.7 mm
square can be fashioned out into a ball-shaped screen and fitted at the entry
point of the downspout.

B. Storage Tank or Cistern

The collected water is usually conveyed and stored in a cistern conveniently

located near the house. Cisterns can be made of either reinforced concrete,
concrete hollow blocks (CHB), galvanized metal, steel drums or plastic con-
tainers. The size of the cistern and the type of construction depend primari-
ly on the estimated demand, the available rainfall and the cost of the struc-
ture, The cistern should have the following appurtenances.

1. Downspout with a bypass section to allow wasting of the first 5 to 10

minutes of rain.

2. A flapper valve at the junction about 0.5 meters from the top of the
tank. The function of the flapper valve is to route the first 5 to 10
minutes of rain to the bypass pipe for wasting. The closing and opening
of the valve is accomplished by manipulating a piece of wire or string
attached to it,

3. An overlapping removable cover.

117
5cmXIOcm. DOWNSPOUT
WITH STRAINER ON TOP’

FLAPPER VALVE TO
BYPASS DIRTY WATER

OVERLAPPING COVER -MESH WIRE STRAINER

DEThIL OF STRAINER

~—WIRE
(PULL WIRE
FOR WATER
TO DRUM)

DETAIL OF
FLAPPER VALVE

FLOOR LEVEL

DRAIN CANAL

RAiNWATER CATCHMENT AND STORAGE

118
 4. An overflow pipe situated at least 10 centimeters from the top of the
tank. The overflow pipe may be connected to the downspout portion
leading to the drain,

5. A drain valve which is opened only during cleaning.

6. A delivery pipe fitted with an ordinary faucet.

For constructing an inexpensive household rainwater storage tank, the

following materials are needed:

1. Oil drum, 200-liter (55 gal.) capacity.

2. Wooden platform.

3. Downspout, either PVC pipe or G. I. sheet, gauge 26.

4. G.l. pipe.

5. Globe valve.

6. Faucet.

7. Fittings.

The cistern and the piping system are installed as shown in Figure 7.01.
The tank platform should be at least one meter above the ground level.
The platform must be able to support at least 3—5 oil drums. If two or more
drums are to be used, they can be connected by means of a 13 mm G.l.
pipe installed at least ten centimeters above the bottom of the drums. The
delivery pipe should be installed at least ten centimeters above the bottom
of the drum. A 13 mm 0 ordinary faucet is provided at the delivery pipe
extending inside the house for drawing off water.

7.02 SPRINGS

Springs are outcrops of groundwater and often appear as small water holes or wet
spots at the foot of hills or along river banks. High yielding springs can be tapped
as a source of domestic water supply for a small community. However, before it
can be used as a source it must first be developed to obtain its maximum poten-
tial flow.

A. Developing of Springs

1. Tools and Materials

The following tools and materials will be needed to develop a spring,

including the construction of the necessary spring box,

119
 Tools Materials

Crowbar Cement
Pick-axe and Hammer Aggregates (Sand and Gravel)
Shovel and Pail Form lumber
Pipe wrenches Tie wires
Trowel and Float G.l. pipes
Carpenter’s Level Valves and Fittings
2, Procedure

a, Clean and grub the site of weeds and all undesirable vegetation.

b. Using a crowbar and/or pick-axe, enlarge the “eye” of the spring

by excavating the area around the hole down to the impervious
water-bearing layer. Remove the silt, rocks and other excavated
materials. During the excavation, care must be exercised to avoid
disturbing the underground rock formation as this may deflect the
spring to another direction or rock formation.

c. Pile loose stones against the eye of the spring to prevent the spring
from washing the soil around the eye and also to serve as founda-
tion for the spring box.

B. Construction of Spring Box

The spring box stores and protects spring Water from contamination. It can

be constructed as follows:
1. Construct the spring box using either reinforced concrete or CHB as
shown in Figure 7.02.

2. Provide an access man hole covered with a removable concrete cover.

The manhole should have raised edge to prevent surface water from
entering the box. The top of the box should be at least 0.3 meter above
the highest ground elevation in the vicinity.
3. Provide an outlet pipe above the bottom of the spring box, but below
the eye of the spring, if possible. The end of the outlet pipe inside the
box should be screened to prevent stones, rubbish and sometimes
frogs from blocking the pipes.

4, Provide an overflow pipe fitted with a screen to prevent the entrance of

insects, The pipe must be at least 25 mm in diameter or larger to carry
the maximum flow of the spring during the wet season.

C. Drainage and Protective Structures

1~ Construct a drainage ditch at least 8.0 meters uphill and around the
spring box to intercept surface water and prevent it from entering the
spring box (Figure 7.03). Build a ridge by piling excavated soil on the
downhill side.

120
 ~,0 ~A~cEC~ C0~~TE
10101 ~9AJ~G0I60C B0IWA*’S

— cA~,0GOlt ~I_ASII BL-~(

- _eJr1~I~0u1t0R~’R~I’

-I

N X0.OThM
3PS0IOMX0l~H HINGE
00 X 0 IOVW000EN

OETAIL OF GATE PLAN & ELEVAT1ct4 ~ P~T

3C*L~ I 40N I !O N

FIGURE 702 F4GJ~E 703

DETAILS OF SPRING INTAKE BOX LOCATION PLAN & DETAIL OF FENCE & GATE
 2. Fence the ~rea around the spring box to keep stray animals and people
away. The fence (Figure 7.03) can be made of interlink wire or barbed
wire nailed to wooden posts, It should be high enough to prevent any
animal from leaping over it.

7.03 INFILTRATION GALLERIES

An infiltration gallery is a horizontal well which collects water practically over its
entire length as shown in Figure 7.04 and 7,05. It is a simple means of collecting
naturally filtered water. It consists of perforated pipe collectors and a well. The
collector pipe is closed at one end. The other end leads to a collecting well from
where the water is pumped to a reservoir or directly to the distribution system.
Materials for collector pipes include vitrified clay, and concrete. PVC or G. I. pipes
can also ~e used. They are available in longer lengths.

A Site Location

An infiltration gallery is normally constructed near a lake, river or stream

which feeds the aquifer where the collector pipes are located. Generally, the
collector pipe is installed in a porous formation such as sand and gravel at
a distance of 15 meters or more from the bank of a river. This enables the
collecting system to intercept the groundwater flow to the river. An elevated
site from which the collected water could flow by gravity would also be an
ideal location, An infiltration gallery should be located away from all pos-
sible sources of pollution.

B. Tools and Materials of Construction

Tools and materials needed in constructing a small scale infiltration gallery:

Tools Materials

Crowbar Perforated PVC or G.I. Pipes

Pick-axe Reinforced Concrete (RC) Pipes

Spade or shovel Cement and aggregates

Dewatering Pump

C. Construction Procedure

1. With a crowbar and/or a pick-axe, excavate a trench to a depth of at

least 1,5 meters below the groundwater table. Place some walling
materials such as bamboo to prevent caving-in specially if depth of
excavation exceeds 2.0 meters.

2. Dewater the trench using a powerful dewatering pump. A 50 HP pump

would be sufficient for this purpose.

122
 I ~ STREAM OR LAKE

PERFORATED PIPE DETAIL

635 mn~11/45 HOLES AT 76 2 mm
131 ON CFNTER 4 ROWS PER LENGTH
OF PIPE STAGGERED
DEtAIL OF PIPE COLLECTOR
AND FILTER BED

a02 hR MIN
ABOVE

SE CTIONY L’ V
-1

Ca)

SECTION UX_axa

SAND BANKS BESIDE STREAMS

PERFORATED PiPE SHOULD BE LAID ON A PREFARED
FILTER BED AND MORE FILTER GRAVEL SHOULD BE
PLACED OVER IT GRAVEL
A LAYER OF ROUND STONES, 12-25mm IN DIAMETER
SHOULD BE LAID AROUND THE P1PE COLLECTORS AND
AROUND THE STONE LAYER, A 30—4Dcrn LAYER ISO mm 0 PVC
CONSISTING or GRADED SAND AND GRAVEL SHOULD PERFORATED PIPE
BE PLACED ISee Oat I COARSE OR
STGRE GRAVEL
WELL IN THE MIDDLE OF GALLERY FOR MOUNTING PUMP
AND COLLECTING WATER
WATER TABLE

FIGURE 705
 3, Install a reinforced concrete caisson at least 0.90 meter in diameter.
Seal the bottom of the cylinder by pouring a 10 cm thick concrete slab.

4. Lay the perforated PVC pipes horizontally with the perforated portion
at the bottom side. If two or more pipes are used, they must be con-
nected with open joints.

5. Connect the discharge points of the pipes to the concrete caisson

through pre-cast portholes in the caisson. Figures 7.04 and 7.05 show
the details of the installation,

6. Fill the space around the pipes with round stones or gravel, 12 to 25
millimeters in diameter to prevent fine materials from entering the
pipes,

7, Place 30 to 40 centimeters thick layer of filter sand around the gravel

layer. Backfill with additional sand up to at least 0.30 meter above the
ground water table.

8. Place a layer of puddled clay above the filter sand up to the ground sur-
face elevation.

9, Provide a concrete cover of at least 10 centimeters thick over the well.

The cover can be pre-fabricated or poured in place.

10. Depending on the need to pump the water, a pumping unit can be in-
stalled similar to a well pump as discussed in Chapter 13.

D. Testing and Disinfection

To determine the discharge capacity of the gallery, pump testing similar to

the determination of a well discharge should be conducted. Similarly, dis-
infection of the collection system and the distribution line should be per-
formed before the system is put to service. The disinfection procedures are
similar to that used in well disinfection.

124
 CHAPTER 8

CONCRETE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Concrete is widely used in the construction of various structures used in water supply
systems. It is rocklike mass consisting of aggregates bound together with a hardened paste of
portland cement and water, Aggregates is the inactive part of concrete which provides most
of the volume, while cement is the chemical ingredient which reacts with water to form a
paste which hardens with time and binds the aggregates together.

8.01 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The properties of concrete can be modified to meet the characteristics required

through the manipulation of the proportion of its ingredients. These properties
are as follows:

A. Workability

Workability is a property of concrete which determines its capacity to be

placed and consolidated properly and to be finished without harmful segre-
gation. It determines the compactability which is affected by the grading,
particle shape and proportions of aggregate, the amount of cement and ad-
mixtures and the consistency of the mixture, Figure 8.01 shows the effects
on the workability of concrete when varying the ratio of fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate.

B. Consistency

Consistency is the wetness of the concrete mixture. It is measured in terms

of slump, (slump test is discussed in detail in Section 8.05A), i.e., the greater
the slump, the wetter the mixture. Consistency can be varied to suit con-
struction requirements which are as follows:

1. Stiff consistency for mass concrete, pavements, foundations, floors,

and heavy wall (Figure 8.02A).

2. Medium consistency for reinforced concrete walls, slabs and beams

(Figure 8.02B).

3. Fluid consistency for heavily reinforced sections, thin walls, and

columns, (Figure 8.02C).

Consistency is controlled by the proportion of water-cement paste to be

combined with fine and coarse aggregates.

C. Strength

The strength of concrete depends upon the quality and proportion of

materials used and curing conditions such as age, temperature and moisture.
For a given set of materials and conditions, concrete strength is determined

125
 THIS CONDITION 5 THE RESULT OF HAVING TOO MUCH GRAVEL IN ThE CONCRETE MIX

A STIFF B MEDLUM C. FLUID

CONSISTENCIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

C)

B CONCRETE MIX WITH TOO LITTLE GRAVEL

THIS MIX I~WORKABLE. HOWEVER. THE RESUUT1NG CONCRETE HAS
LOW DENSITY AND IT REQUIRES GREATER AMOUNT OF CONCRETE

D SAND SAMPLE INSIDE E FILLING THE Fl_ASK F IDENTIFICATION OF THE

TI FLASK WITH WATER PRESENCE OF CLAY
AND SLT PARTICLES

C WORKABILITY MIX ~MTHPROPER AMOUNTS OF COARSE AND FIF’E AGGI~GAT~

FIGURE 801 FIGURE 802 IDENTIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT CONSISTENCIES OF

THE EFFECT OF VARYING THE RATIO OF FINE TO COARSE
AGGREGATES ON THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE MIX CONCRETE AND TESTING FOR THE PRESENCE OF CLAY AND SILT
PARTICLES IN EXCESSIVE QUANTITIES IN SAND
 to the net quantity of water used per unit quantity of cement. (The smaller
the water-cement ratio, the stronger is the concrete). The net water content
excludes the water absorbed by the aggregates, It should be noted that 4,2
kg of cement only requires 1 liter of water, Differences in strength for a
given water-cement ratio may be due to the changes in the size grading,
surface texture, shape, strength and stiffness of aggregate particles; differ-
ences in cement types and sources; and the use of admixtures which affects
the cement hydration process. Trial batches should be conducted to deter-
mine the right proportions for vital concrete structures such as reservoirs,
columns and beams. The concrete strength is then determined in the labora-
tory.

0, Durability

Durability refers to the ability of concrete to withstand weathering, chemical

action, and wear when subjected to service. Use of a low water-cement ratio
will prolong the life of concrete by reducing the penetration of aggressive
liquids. Durability may also be enhanced by the use of admixtures which
allows proper workability of the concrete mix at low water-cement ratios.

E. Watertightness

Water-tightness of a concrete structure can be improved by reducing the

amount of water in the mix. Excessive water leaves voids and cavities after
evaporation and if they are interconnected, water can penetrate or pass
through the concrete. The use of admixtures, and prolonged and thorough
curing may increase water-tightness.

8.02 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD CONCRETE

To produce a good concrete of desired uniform quality, the following guidelines

should be observed:

A. Select the Right Materials Properly

1, Portland Cement

Determine the requirements of the concrete structure being built, If it

is required that the concrete should achieve its maximum strength at
the earliest possible time, use High-Early Strength Portland Cement,
otherwise, use general purpose cement.

2. Aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates should be of good quality and uniform in

grade. This is accomplished through proper selection of materials,
screening and proper storage. This subject is discussed in detail in
section 8.03, Preparation of Aggregates.

127
 3, Water

Water used for mixing concrete should be free of substances with

concentrations that prevent the hydration reaction of portland cement.
These substances are salts, oils, acids, alkali and organic matter.

4. Admixtures

Admixtures provide special properties to concrete which can not be

attained during normal combination of the basic ingredients. However,
its use must be carefully evaluated because it may improve one proper-
ty but at the same time it may cause adverse effects to other properties.
Table 8.1 shows the effects of the different types of admixtures on
concrete.

B. Select the right proportion of ingredients to produce a workable mixture

with proper consistency required for a given concrete structure. Also, the
selected proportion should develop the specified strength and durability
upon hardening.

Presently there are two methods of selecting concrete proportions, namely:

the conventional and trial batching methods. The conventional method
employs the rule of thumb volumetric measurement. It is employed where
the concrete structure being constructed is not vital. Trial batching on the
other hand is employed when a structure requires a concrete mix of defined
strength, durability and other properties. This is true in cases of constructing
foundations where the inability to hold the load above them will cause the
collapse of the structure they are supporting.

C. Control the proportion and mixing of the ingredients to produce a homo-

genous mixture and to achieve uniform batches so that all parts of the
structure will be equally strong.

D. Convey and place the newly mixed concrete properly to produce a dense,
well-compacted mass free of honeycombs.

E. Cure the concrete structure until it has aged and attained its maximum
strength. Failure to do so will cause cracking of the concrete structure.

8.03 PREPARATION OF AGGREGATES

Preparation of aggregates consists of making its grading uniform through screening

and the removal of undesirable materials through washing. For small jobs, aggre-
gates may be screened and washed using a portable screen mounted in wood
frame (Figure 8.03A) and wood trough (Figure 8.03B), respectively. If it is
desired to screen and at the same time wash the aggregates, a set up shown in
Figure 8.04 can be employed.

128
 A MANUAL SCREENING OF AGGREGATES
F’)

AND WATER

B MANUAL WASHING OF AGGREGATES

FIGURE 8O3

PREPAR~AT~ON OF AGGREGATES
 Table 8.1
Concrete Admixtures

Admixtures Purposes Advantages Disadvantages

Accelerator Hastens setting Improves cement Permits earlier Increases shrinkage

dispersion and finishing, forms decreases sulfate,
increases early removal, and use resistance, tends to
strength, of the structure clog mixing and
handling equipment.

Air-Entraining Increases work- Reduces segre- Increases work- If excessive will

Agent ability and gation, bleed- ability and reduce strength
reduces mix- ing and incre- reduces finish- and increases slump
ing water. ases strength. ing time, bulk concrete
volume.

Bonding Increases bond Produces a non- Permits a thin Quick setting and
Agent to old concrete dusting slip topping without susceptible to
resistant finish, roughening old damage from fats,
concrete, self- oils, and solvents.
curing.

Densifier To obtain Increases work- Increases work- Care must be used

dense con- ability and ability and to reduce mixing
crete. strength. water-proofing water in propor-
characteristics, tion to amount
used.

Foaming Reduces weight Increases insu- Produces a more Its use must be
Agent lating proper- plastic mix, very carefully
ties, reduces dead regulated follow-
weight loads. ing instructions
explicitly.

Retarder Retards sett- Increases cont- Provides more Requires stronger

ing. rol of setting, time to work and forms.
finish concrete,

Water reducer Increase com- Reduce segrega- Easier to place Performance varies
and retarder, pressive and lion bleeding, and work, pro- with cement use
flexural absorption, vide better in.
strength. shrinkage, and control.
increase cement
dispersion.

130
 A. Fine Aggregate or Sand

The best sand is one which is well graded from fine to coarse; should be
hard; strong and uncoated and the silt and clay contents do not exceed 3
percent of the total weight. Presented in Table 8.02 are the suitable grada-
tion for fine aggregates.

Table 8.02

Grading Requirements for Fine Aggregates

Screen Opening or Aperture % of the total sample

Mesh No.
mm in passing specified sieve

4 6.35 0.250 95 — 100

16 1.19 0.047 45 — 80
50 0.30 0.012 10 — 30
100 0.15 0.006 2 — 10

Clay and silt present in excessive quantities can be detected by conducting the
following tests:

1, Fill a quart jar (1.14 liter) or Erlenmeyer flask (Figure 8.02D) with sand
to a depth of 5.0 cm. (2 in.).

2. ,Add water until the jar or flask is 3/4 full (Figure 8.02E).

3. Shake the contents for about one minute with the last few shakes in a
sidewise direction.

4, Allow the jar to stand idle for 30 minutes,

5. Observe the top of the sand. If there is more than 3.2 mm layer of sediment,
(Figure 8,02F), the sand where the sample was taken is unsuitable for
construction purposes. However, the aggregates in question can be used
after washing and Femoval of undesirable materials.

B. Coarse Aggregate

Proper gradation is more important in coarse aggregates than in the fine

aggregates. The smaller stones should fill the spaces between the larger par-
ticles so as to give a dense mixture. Table 8.03 gives a suitable gradation for
coarse aggregate.

131
 Table 8.03

Grading Requirements for Coarse Aggregates

Screen Opening or Aperture Percent by Weight

Passing Maximum Allowable Size. 95 100
-

Passing one-half of the Maximum 35 - 70

Allowable size.

Passing Sieve No. 4. 0 - 10

Generally, the maximum size of aggregates should be the largest that is

economically available and consistent with the dimensions of the structure.
In no event should the maximum size exceed one-fifth of the narrowest
dimension between sides of forms nor one-third the depth of slabs, nor
three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing
bars. The reason for selecting the maximum size of aggregates is to minimize
the amount of cement mortar, hence, the cost of construction.

8.04 CONCRETE PROPORTION AND CONSISTENCY

The selection of concrete proportions involves a balance between reasonable

economy and requirements for placeability, strength, durability, density and ap-
pearance. The required characteristics are governed by the use to which the con-
crete will be put and by the conditions expected to be encountered at the time of
placement. At present, there are two widely used methods in selecting the right
proportions, They are the conventional or volumetric method, and the trial mix
or batch method.

A. Conventional or Volumetric Method

The volumetric method of proportioning the ingredients is widely used in

rural area in the Philippines. The process consists of measuring the different
ingredients of a concrete mixture using a container of known volume and
then mixing them in a mixer. Figure 8.05 shows a typical volumetric measu-
ring box with a volume of 0.028 M3 (1 ft3) while Table 8.04 shows typical
concrete mixes and their uses.

Example 8.1 Determine the amount of cement, aggregates, and water required for con-
creting a column using the conventional method. The required concrete
volume is estimated to be 50 cubic meters. Other data of the proposed
structure are given below:

Data: Narrowest dimension between sides of forms 152 mm (6 in.)

—

Spacing between individual reinforcing bars 50 mm (2 in.)

—

132
 H

I SOMETRY

TABLE 8.9

CAPACITY INSIDE MEASUREMENTS

LENGTH, L WIDTH, W HEIGHT, H

IN. CM. IN.
FT.3 M.3 IN. CM. CM.

1.00 0.0283 12 30.48 12 30.48 12.0 30.48

1.25 0.0354 15 38.10 15 38.10 9.625 24.45
1.50 0.0425 15 38.10 15 38.10 11.50 29.21
1.75 0.0495 15 38.10 15 38.10 13.50 34.29
2.00 0.0566 18 45.72 18 45.72 10.625 26.99
2.25 0.0637 18 45.72 18 45.72 12.0 30.48
2.50 0.0708 18 45.72 18 45.72 13.625 34.61
2.75 0.0779 18 45.72 18 45.72 14.625 37.15
3.00 0,0849 18 45.72 18 45.72 16.0 40.64

FIGURE 8.05

VOLUMETRIC MEASURING BOX

133
 Table 8.04

Typical Concrete Mixes and Their Uses

Typical Concrete Mixes Quantity of Materials

(in Unit Volume) per M3 of Concrete
Water* Sand Gravel Cement Sand Gravel U S AG E
Bags Vol- (M3) (M3)
ume
(M3)
1.0 0.7— 1.5 3.0 10.4 0.294 0.44 0.88 Foundations
1.0
1.0 0.7 2.0 4.0 7.9 0.223 0.45 0.90 Beams & Slabs
1.0
1.0 0.7— 2.5 5.0 6.5 0.184 0.46 0.92 Columns
1.0
1.0 0.7— 3.0 6.0 5.5 0.156 0.47 0.94 Flooring on fill, and
1.0 pavements,
1.0 0.7— 4.0 8.0 4.8 0.136 0.48 0.96 Big Mass Footings.
1.0
Amount dependent upun the moisture content of aggregates.

Solution:
Determine the maximum size of aggregates. The maximum size of
aggregates should not exceed one-fifth of the narrowest dimension
between sides of forms nor three-fourths of the minimum clear
spacing between individual reinforcing bars.
a. Taking the dimension of the forms as the basis, the maximum
aggregates size is:
Max. aggregate size — 1/5 x 152 30.4 mm.

b. Taking the spacing of the individual reinforcing bars as the

basis, the maximum size is:

Max. aggregate size — 3/4 x 50 mm = 37.5 mm.

The maximum aggregate size selected is therefore 30.4 mm.

2. Determine the Concrete Proportion

From Table 8.04, the recommended concrete proportion for the
construction of column is Class B arid is shown below.
* Computations:

Cement = 0.184 M3 cement x 50 M3 Req. Concrete = 9.2 M3

1 M3 of Concrete

Water = 0.13 M3 Waterx 50 M3 Req. Concrete= 6.5 M3

1 M3 of concrete

134
 Sand = 0.46 M3 sand x 50 M3 Req. Concrete = 23 M3
1 M3 concrete

Gravel = 0.92 M3 Gravel x 50 M3 Req. Concrete = 46 M3

1 M3 Concrete

From Table 8.04 Calculated*

Materials Volume ratio Volume Ratio Amount of Material
(Empirical) Per M3of Con- required

Cement 1.0 0.184 M3 (6.5 9.2 M3 (325 bags)

bags)
Water 0.7 0.13M3 6.5M3
Sand 2.5 0,46 M3 23.0 M3
Gravel 5.0 0.92 M3 46.0 M3

B. Trial Mix or Batch Method

Trial Mix or Batch Method of proportioning materials is employed only if it

is required that the characteristics of concrete should be ascertained. This
is usually true if the concrete structure under construction is vital. An error
in the concrete mix will cause its collapse or failure. This method is, however,
complicated and is beyond the scope of this manual.

8.05 TESTING OF CONCRETE MIXES

A. Slump Test

The slump test is employed to measure the consistency and workability of

fresh concrete. It is usually accomplished using the cone method. The proce-
dures for determining the slump are as follows:

1. Prepare the mold which is fabricated from no. 18 gage galvanized iron,
The mold (Figure 8,06A} is in the form of a frustrum of a cone in
which the diameter of the base is 0.20 M (8 in.), diameter of the top
surface is 0.10 M (4 in.) and height is 0.3 M (12 in.).

2. Dampen the cone and place it on a flat, moist, non-absorbent surface

like concrete slab.

3, Fill the cone with a sample of freshly mixed concrete in three equal
layers and with each layer rodded with 25 strokes using a 16 mm (5/8
in.) diameter, 0.60 M (24 in.) long bullet pointed rod (Figure 8.06B).
Also in filling the cone with concrete mix, move the trowel around the
cone as the concrete slides, in order to insure a symmetrical distribution
of concrete within the cone.
4. After the top layer is thoroughly rodded, scrape off the excess cement.

135
 5. Gently raise he mold vertically and place it besides the specimen. Do
not tilt the cone during the removal process.

6. Measure the difference between the height of the mold and the speci-
men to the nearest 6 mm (Figure 8.06C). This represents the drop of
mass of concrete below the original 0.3 M (12 in.) height, or the slump.
Shown in Figure 8.02A are the illustrations of the consistencies of fresh
concrete,

7, After the slump test, tap the side of the concrete gently with the tamp-
ing rod. This is to determine the cohesiveness, workability and place-
ability of the concrete mix. A well-proportioned, workable mix will
slump gradually while a poor mix will crumble, segregate, and fall apart.

B. Unit Weight Test

The unit weight test is employed to determine the density of the prepared
concrete mix, This is usually done after the completion of mixing.
Procedure:
1. Assemble the Equipment Needed

a. Weighing scale.

b. A container of known volume and weight. Usually, a cylindrical

container 0,014 cubic meter (0.5 cubic foot) is employed for mix-
ing with a maximum aggregate size of 5 cm or less and 0.035
cubic meter (1 cubic foot) if the maximum aggregate size is greater
than 5 cm.

2. Fill the container with the prepared mix until it is half full and vibrate
or rod its contents.

3, Fill the container until it overflows and again vibrate or rod its con-
tents,

4. Scrape off the top or remove the excess concrete mix.

5. Weigh with a scale the container filled with concrete.

6. Compute the density by dividing the weight of concrete by its volume.

Example 8.3 Determine the density of concrete mix given the following data.

Data:

C. Volume of the cylindrical container, Vc = 0.014 M3.

Weight of empty container, Wc = 3 kg.

Weight of container filled with concrete, Ww = 35.2 kg.

136
 10 CM
.08 GAGE GALVANIZED IININ SHEET
318 CAERIVETS. 381CM CR5
RAT INSIDE SOLDER JOINT
$1580

PLA N SE C I I 0 N DETAIL OF -IANDLE

& DETAILS OF ThE MOLD

20CM

B NODDING C MEASL~MENTOF THE SLUMP

FIGURE 806
SLUMP TE5T

8 15

Solution:

Density = Weight of Concrete

Volume of Concrete
Weight of concreteSO W~ Wc = 35.2 — — 3 kg. = 32.2 kg.

Volume of Concrete = Volume of Container = 0.014 M3

Density = 32.2 kg = 2,300 kg/M3 = 2.3 g/cm3 (143.5 lb/ft3)
0.014 M3
C. Strength Test

The strength test is employed to determine the compressive and tensile

strength of prepared concrete mix. The test is usually conducted in the
laboratory.

Procedures:

1. Take 3 random samples from a mixer for a given batch.

137
 2. Mix the 3 collected samples into one uniform sample with a shovel, to
make a composite sample.

3, Fill a mold in 3 equal layers, rodding each layer 25 times. When rodding
the second and the third layer the rod should penetrate the lower layer.
The rod should be 15 mm (5/8 in.) round steel rod, 60cm (24 in.) long
and bullet pointed at one end. Avoid using a reinforcing rod.

4. Scrape off top or excess concrete and cover the mold with a piece of
glass or metal plate to prevent evaporation.
5. Place the sample on rigid horizontal surface free from vibration and

store it for 24 hours; then remove the sample from the mold.

6. Cure the samples for either the 7-day or 28-day test.

7. Send the sample to the laboratory for testing as soon as possible.

8.06 BATCHING

Batching is the preparation of materials to be mixed per batch of concrete. The

process consists of measuring the required amount of aggregates, water and ce-
ment. This is accomplished using a volumetric measuring box (Figure 8.05) if
the proportion of concrete mix is in terms of volume; or a weighing scale if the
proportion of concrete mix is in terms of weight. Batches are usuaJly determined
by whole bags of cement. The use of fractional sack batches is not advisable,
hence, it is seldom practiced.
8.07 MIXING

Mixing is the process of making the mixture of sand, gravel, cement and water
homogenously. It may be accomplished by hand or by machine mixing. General-
ly, machine mixing is superior to hand mixing, both in quality of concrete pro-
duced and in economy of time and labor, hence, it should be employed whenever
a machine is available.

A. Hand Mixing

Hand mixing is usually accomplished in a platform as shown in Figure

8.07A. The mixing box commonly used has an approximate area of 3 square
meters. The volume of batches for hand mixing is usually limited to 0.76
cubic meter (1 cubic yard) or the amount that can be placed in 30 minutes
or less.
Procedure

1. Spread sand evenly to a depth of roughly 9 cm on a water tight plat-

form or mixing box.

2. Spread the cement evenly over the sand and mix until mixture is uni-
form in color. Three turnings are usually sufficient.

138
 A HAND MIXING

DRUM

ENGINE
WHEG.

B PORTABLE ONE BAGGER MIXER

FIGURE 8 07
MIXING OF CONCRETE

3. Add approximately 10-20 per cent of the required quantity of water as

determined by water-cement ratio and mix, If hand mixing is accom-
plished on a concrete pavement form a pond-like hole bounded by
cement sand mixture before adding water. The purpose of impounding
the added water is to prevent its escape into the surrounding and bring-
ing along the cement suspended in it.

4. Allow the water to be absorbed by the mixture and then turn it until a
homogenous mixture is obtained. Usually, three turnings are sufficient.

5. Add coarse aggregate to the water-sand-cement mixture and then add

the remaining 80-90 per cent of the required amount of water, In case
mixing is accomplished on concrete pavements, adding of water should
be carefully regulated to prevent its escape to the surroundings.

6. Turn the mixture three or fod’r times until a homogenous mixture

resu Its.

139
 B. Machine Mixing
Mixers, either run by an engine or by an electric motor, can be employed
in mixing of concrete. Shown in Figure 8.07B is a typical one cubic yard
(0.76 cubic meter) capacity mixer, Mixing is accomplished by revolving or
turning the drum which is equipped with blades. It should be pointed out
that mixers should never be charged more than the rated capacity indicated
by its manufacturer to produce best results and at the same time prolong
their useful lives.
Procedure for Machine Mixing

1. Estimate the amount of materials to be charged into the mixer per

batch. The suitable volume per batch is selected by considering the
rated capacity of the mixer and the amount of mix which can be
placed within 30 minutes. If the rated capacity of the mixer gives a
smaller figure, then use this volume, otherwise the second factor will
govern.

2. Charge the batch into the cement mixer, To avoid balling of the ce-
ment, it is preferable to charge it into the mixer with aggregates and
have it mixed before adding water. In this way, the aggregates tend to
disperse the dry cement into the mixture and to some degree, provide
a protective shroud enclosing the cement during charging. Add approxi-
mately ten per cent of the mixing water first and then add the remain-
ing mixing water continuously during the entire time that the solids
are turning in the mixer.

3, Mix the concrete mixture thoroughly until it becomes homogenous.

Usually the minimum mixing time is 1.5 minutes if the amount being
mixed is 0.76 cubic meter (1 cubic yard) plus 0.5 minute for every 0.76
cubic meter (1 cubic yard) capacity over 0.76 cubic meter after all
materials have been placed in the mixer. In no case should the max-
imum mixing time exceeds three times the minimum mixing time. Over-
mixing may remove entrained air thus requiring more water to maintain
the required workability. Increasing the water-cement ratio decreases
the strength of the concrete.

Concrete should be placed within 30 minutes after mixing. If a batch is kept

in a mixer for more than 30 minutes, it should be remixed prior to discharge
with additional water and cement to restore its plasticity. A batch that is not
used within 1.5 hours should be wasted. Mixer drum must be thorougly
cleaned before shutting down on each run,

This is accomplished by charging aggregates of volume equal to one-half

batch, and then allowing the drum to revolve for about 5 minutes. The mixer
is then flushed with water.
8.08 FORMWORKS

A. General
Forms are employed to mold concrete to a desired shape and smoothness as

140
 specified in the plans. They are constructed so that concrete slabs, walls and
other members will be of correct sizes, dimensions, shape, alignment, eleva-
tion and position.

B. Materials

The selection of materials suitable for formwork should be based on max-

imum economy consistent with safety and quality required in the finished
work, Presented in Table 8.05 are form materials and their usage.

Table 8.05

Form Materials and Their Usage

MATERIALS USAGE
1 Lumber Form framing, sheathing and
bracing.

2. Plywood Form sheathing or lining.

3. Steel Heavy forms and falseworks,

4. Concrete Form footings.

5. Rubber Form lining

6. Form ties, anchors and hangers For securing forms work against
loads and pressures.

7. Coatings Facilitate form removal

For rural water supply system, lumber and plywood are usually employed
for formworks. If lumber is employed, it should be dressed at least on one
side to insure uniform thickness and on two edges to insure light, smooth
form walls. If only rough, non-sized lumber is available, commercial form
liners, sheet metal, plywood and bituminous paper will give a smooth sur-
face and prevent leakage of cement mortar. Forms should be constructed
with a view of using the materials again, either formworks or for other
~urposes.

C. Essential Parts of Forms

1, Form lining or Sheathing. It is the part of the form which is in contact

with the concrete. It is usually made of plywood or lumber.

2. Studs. It supports the linings.

3. Wales. It supports the studs. Wales should be straight, so that every stud
will have full bearing on the walls, otherwise, the pressure caused by

141
 the placing and consolidation of concrete may move the form lining
and detrimentally affect the alignment of the surface of the concrete
structure. For small forms wales are usually deleted.

4. Reinforcement of Forms. This is necessary to maintain the required

dimension and alignment of the resulting concrete structure. This is
usually accomplished through bracing and/or with the use of form ties.

a. Bracing. Footing and wall forms are usually supported using

diagonal bracings (Figure 8.08A), floor forms by the use of
posts and girders, and column forms using yokes and inclined
braces (Figure 8.09).

b, Form Ties. Form ties are used to keep the opposing walls of forms
from spreading under the pressure of fluid mass of concrete.

This is usually accomplished using wire or bolts, which become im-

bedded in the concrete and are cut on the outside when forms are
removed. Wire is fastened to stud supports or wales (Figure
8.08A). To prevent forms from closing together when wired or
when bolts are tightened, spreader or struts are used between forms
and those are removed as the concrete rises. Forms should be
checked for tightness and bulging during pouring operations and
any loose tie wires or bolts should be tightened.

5. Strongback. Strongbacks are employed only when supporting wales for

high walls and long spans.

6. Form Anchors. Form anchors are devices used to secure form on a firm
ground or to a previously placed concrete of adequate strength. An-
chors used may be wooden stake or bolt.
D. Types of Forms
Footing and Wall Forms

Shown in Figure 8.08 are the features of this type of form.

a. Form lining or sheathing may be of 13 mm x 100 mm (1/2” x

4”) lumber or 13 mm to 25 mm (1/2” to 1”) thick plywood.

b. Studs, struts, braces and wales may be made of 25 mm x 75 mm
(1” x 3~1)or 50 mm x 100 mm (2” x 4”) thick lumber. The
selection of appropriate size of materials will depend upon the
thickness and height of the wall or footing.
c. Strongbacks may be made of 50 mm x 100 mm (2” x 4”) thick
lumber.

2. Slab Forms
The lining for the slab forms may be made of 13 mm or 25 mm thick
lumber, Joints are usually supported by adequate anchor supports.

142
 FORM LINING OR SHEATHING

WIRE TIE
~STUDS

STRUT

A FORM TIES

A FORM LAID IN FIRM GROUND

-a

(‘3

B COLUMN FORMS

B FORM CONSTRUCTED ON THE EXISTING CONCRETE STRUCTURE

~IGURE 8O~ FIGURE &09

FOOTING AND WALL FORMS FORM TIES AND FORMS FOR COLUMNS
 3. Earth Fords
Where earth is stable, it can be used for forms for foundations and
similar works.

4. Column Forms

Shown in Figure 8.09 are typical wood column forms. The lining used
may be 25 mm (1”) thick plywood or lumber whichever is readily avail-
able.

E. Preparation of Forms

Prior to placement of concrete, all forms must be cleaned, fixed if they have
some defects and protected from deterioration. The preparation includes:

1. Removal of Debris such as Sawdusts and Shavings

If form material has been used previously, all dry concrete must be
removed from inside of forms.

2. If forms have knotholes, they must be patched up with sheet-metal,

water-proof paper or putty depending upon their size.

3. Application of oil to prevent the concrete from adhering and to aid

in their removal. Oil protects the form from deterioration due to
weather and shrinkage. Oil is usually applied either by spraying or
brushing before the placement of reinforcing bars. It should be empha-
sized that oil must be kept out from construction joint surface or
reinforcing bars because it interferes with the bond.

F, Removal of Forms

If time permits, it is important that concrete should be allowed to harden

sufficiently before the forms are removed. Leaving the forms in place aids
in the hardening process by preventing concrete from drying. Normally,
forms should remain in place longer for reinforced concrete than for plain
concrete and longer for horizontal than for vertical members. Presented in
Table 8.06 are the minimum time required before the removal of forms
if general purpose or standard portland cement is used.

Table 8.06

Time Required Before the Removal of Forms

Structure Time Days

Walls 1~-3

ThinWalls 2-5

Columns 2-4

144
809 PLACING OF CONCRETE
A. Factors to be Considered During Placing of Concrete
Placement and consolidation of concrete affect the appearance, durability
and strength of a concrete structure to a large extent. Presented below are
the factors to be considered during placement:
1. Fresh concrete mix should be of good quality as determined in terms of
water-cement ratio, slump and homogeneity. Separation or clusters of
coarse aggregate are objectionable and should be scattered prior to
placing of concrete to prevent rock pockets and honeycomb in the
completed work.
2. The concrete mix should be deposited at or near its final position
during placement to eliminate the tendency of the coarse aggregate to
separate, On sloping surfaces, concrete should be placed at the lower
portion of the slope first and progressing upwards (Figure 8.1OB).

145
 3. When concreting starts, placing should be continuous until a definite
section is completed. High velocity discharge should be avoided because
it may cause segregation and formation of laitance. Laitance is a
whitish, chalky substance composed of cement particles, silt, and clay
that gathers on the surface of wet concrete mixture. Excess water
and laitance should be drained off,

4, Concrete mix should be placed in horizontal layers not exceeding

60 cm. (2 feet) in depth. Each concrete layer should be placed while
the underlying layer is still responsive to consolidation, and layers
should be sufficiently shallow to permit the knitting of the two
layers together through proper tamping or rodding, or vibration.

B. Preparation of Surface to be Concreted

1. Clean up subgrade steel reinforcements and forms from embedded

items, dirt and other debris. Reinforcing steel should be clean in its
correct position, and well supported and secur~dprior to the start
of concrete placement. It is not necessary to remove tightly adherent
rust and mortar from the reinforcing steel but loose adhering materials
should be removed.

2. Check all bracing. Forms should be strong and tight to prevent loss of
mortar.

3, Wet subgrade and forms to minimize their tendency to absorb water

from the mix. Subgrade should be moistened up to a depth of 15 cm
(6 in.).

C. Preparation of Concrete Slabs

Place concrete mix as close as possible to its final position. If there is an

existing concrete structure, place new concrete against previously placed
concrete and not away from it (Figure 8.1 OC). As each batch of concrete
is placed in the forms, consolidate and work it into all corners and around
the steel by hand spading, rodding or vibrating.

D. Preparation of Concrete Walls and Other Vertical Structures

Start placement of concrete at the opposite ends and proceed to the middle
to prevent water from forming in corners. When placing concrete, the mix
should be directed as close to its final location as possible.
Do not allow mix to bounce off from the reinforcement or forms, As the
desired thickness is reached, consolidate the concrete by rodding, tamping
or vibrating.
E. Bonding of Fresh Concrete to Existing Concrete Structure
In joining fresh concrete to existing concrete structure, the old surface
should be roughened with a pick or cold chisel and all loose materials and

146
 dirt should be removed. The cleaned surface is moistened, then a coat of
water-cement mixture about 13 mm thick is applied and then cover carefully
with a layer of concrete. Placing of fresh concrete may then be resumed.

8.10 CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE

Consolidation of concrete is necessary to bring the concrete particles together

to produce a homogeneous and high strength concrete structure. Consolidation
can be effected through vibration of rodding.

A. Consolidation by Vibration

Vibration is the most effective method of consolidating concrete, permitting

the placement of concrete containing less water than required when concrete
is not vibrated, In addition to improved quality and economy resulting
from these mix proportioning changes, superior appearance and workman-
ship are obtained.

Procedure

1. Insert the vibrator vertically into the newly placed concrete (Figure
8.11) layer allowing it to penetrate through the entire layer of the
newly placed concrete and through the previously placed concrete
to have an effective blending of the two layers. When consolidating
concrete in a sloping surface always start the consolidation from the
bottom of the slope. Vibration is usually indicated by vibrator resuming
normal speed after an initial slowdown.

2. Withdraw the vibrator slowly and reinsert it into the concrete 40 to 70

cm away from the previous point. Avoid dragging it through the con-
crete during the withdrawal and transfer, Continue the above process
until the entire area is consolidated, Vibration is completed when the
surface of concrete has a glistening appearance, the rise of entrapped air
indicated by bubbles on concrete surface ceases and the coarse aggre-
gate blends with the surface but does not disappear. Avoid over-
vibrating the concrete mix.

B. Consolidation by Rodding

Consolidation by rodding is effected by raising a rod up and down through

the layer of newly placed concrete until the entire area being concreted is
covered. The rod should at least penetrate a few centimeters into the pre-
viously placed concrete to produce a monolithic concrete structure,

8.11 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS

Construction joints are usually provided in preparing concrete surfaces where

bonding between two sections of concrete is required or according to plans.
They are usually located in places where they cannot impair the strength of the
structure.

147
 A. Horizontal Construction Joints

Horizontal construction joints are employed when joining two sections of

concrete in floor slabs, beams and other horizontal structures. This is usually
done by extending reinforcing steel across the horizontal joint or by embed-
ding stones half their diameter or by the use of waterstops in concrete reser-
voirs. Construction joints in floors should be located near the center of
spans, slabs, beams or girders.

B. Vertical Construction Joints

Vertical construction joints are required in walls to hold the separately

poured sections in line and to form a monolithic concrete structure. Vertical
construction joints may be accomplished by using a V or a bevelled key
form (Figure 8.12A) or by extending iron bars (Figure 8.12B).

C, Reservoir Construction Joints

Waterstops are usually employed in reservoir construction joints. Shown in

Figure 8,13B are the flat and centerbulb waterstops, and in Figures 8.13C,
8.14A, 8.14B and 8.14C are the manner of installation in floor slabs, wall,
roof slabs and wall-floor construction joints, respectively.

Procedure

1, Install the waterstops as shown in the plans. In cases where bonding

of a waterstop to another waterstop is required, this can be accomplish-
ed by butt welding or by heating their ends to be bonded and then
pushing them together. During heating, extreme care must be taken not
to get the heating iron too hot that it will change the bonding property
of plastic, After welding, every weld should be carefully checked by
visual inspection and by actually bending the joint to check whether
the bond will hold.

2. Examine waterstop after it has been placed and see to it that the hold-
ing devices are placed only on the edge of the waterstop,

3. Place concrete very carefully around the waterstop and be sure con-
crete is satisfactorily vibrated or rodded to eliminate voids and rock
pockets.

8.12 CURINGOFCONCRETE

A. General

Curing is necessary to insure the availability of water for the hydration of

cement and to maintain a temperature within the concrete that will result
in the desired strength gain. Curing can be accomplished by application of
water through ponding or spraying or by providing a moist environment
through the use of saturated cover materials such as burlaps, cotton mats,

148
 rags, earth or hay or by preventing the loss of mixing water from concrete
by means of sealing materials such as impervious sheets of plastic or by
application of a membrane forming curing compound to the freshly placed
concrete.
B. Curing by Direct Application of Water or by Providing a Moist Environment
Curing by direct application of water or by providing a moist environment
is generally considered to be the ideal method. However, these methods are
satisfactory only as long as the presence of water is continuous and there is
no opportunity for the concrete to dry to such degree that the hydration of
the cement ceases. Intermittent wetting and drying especially after an initial
2 or 3 days of satisfactory curing will allow continued strength gain although
not as rapid as continuous curing. Intermittent curing during the early
stages of hardening is likely to result in surface cracks or reduced service
durability,
C. Curing Period
Curing period and materials are dependent upon cost of labor and materials,
the need for early accessibility or protection of a surface during subsequent
construction operations and the desired concrete quality. In no case should
the curing period be less than 14 days. Normally, strength is used to measure
the relative quality of concrete. A specified strength will be attained in the
shortest time by continuous curing. Whenever curing is interrupted before
the desired strength is attained, subsequent curing whether from natural
sources such as rain or artifical application of water will result in further
gain in strength but at a much slower rate.
8.13 FINISHING OF CONCRETE SURFACES

Immediately after the stripping of forms, concrete surfaces must be inspected and
any poor joints, voids, rock pockets and other areas must be repaired and all form
tie fastener holes must be filled. Stripping of forms is usually done after 14 days
of curing.
Procedure
1. Prepare a grout by mixing one part portland cement and one part fine sand
which pass a No. 16 sieve with sufficient water to give a consistency of a
thick paste.
2. Wet the concrete surface to be grouted.
3. Apply the freshly prepared mortar into the concrete surface with a wood
float filling all small air holes.
4. Keep the surface moist for an hour or more until the grout hardens suffi-
ciently and it can be scraped from the surface with the edge of a steel trowel
without disturbing mortar in the air holes.

5, Remove all surface grout using a steel trowel and allow the surface to dry.
After drying, rub it with burlap or cotton rag to remove completely all
surface grout so that there is no visible paint-like film of grout on the con-

149
 OR ROD -VI~ATOROR ROD

CORRECT INCORRECT

STAIT PLACINO AT BOTTOM ~ BI.OPI ID THAT TO BERth PLACING A~TOP OP SLOPE UPPER CONCRETE
COMPACTION IS INCREARED IT WEINAIT OP NEWLY TENOR TO PULl. APART ORPICIAUX WIWN VIBRATED
ADDED CONCRETE VISRAT1OII CONSOLIDATES BELOW AR VIBRATION STARTS PLON AND REMOVER SUP-
PORT FROM CONCRETE AIIO~E

WHEN CONCRETE MUST BE PLACED IN A SLOP1NG LIFT

-—---———-—————WIRE TIE

A VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN WALL WITH KEYWAY

I ________
VIBRATOR OR ROD

COGICRETE LAYR~ J~ ~‘ ;

PREViOUSLY PLACED *
- ‘ CORCRETE LAYER ~
CORRECT INCORRECT
-S

01
0 VERTICAL PENETRATION OP ViBRATOR A FEW
INCHES INTO PREVIOUS LIPT (WHICH SHOILD
HAPHAZARD RANDOM PENETRA11OB IS’ TRE VIBRATOR
AT AU. ANMER AND SPACINGS WITHOUT SUFFiCIENT
MDI YET SI Nisib, AT SYSTEMATIC REOULAR DEPTH TO ARROWS MOROLITWIC COMMBATIOR OP TI~
INTEHALI FOUHO TO DIVE ADEQUATE ~NSOLI. TWO LATERS.
RATION

SYSTEMATIC CONSOLIDATION OF EACH NEW LIFT

CORRECT INCORRECT
SHOVEL ROCKS FROM ROCK POCI(ET ONTO ArTEMPT,No TO CORRICT ROCK POCKET BY
SOPTER,AMPLY SANDED AREA AND ~*A~ HIADVELLIBS MORTAR AND HOn CONCRETE
OR VIBRATE ON IT B VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN WALL BY EXTENDING IRON BARS
TREATMENT OF ROCK POCKET WHEN PLACING CONCRETE
FIGURE 8II FIGURE 8 ~2

CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINTS

 L IpCM I
IS UN ~
~4S.72H

I flDOLD JOSITAPPI.’! 2
Ktsis~ s’issII
L IICOATS OP SURE RREA
Em P ALTEMSATI (~_)=‘ — - * -~ ‘lEER AVID COATING
BARR EACH PACE I , IMUTESOTOP

WALL ROINFOROEMENT ~ EQUAL__j7j~’I ________________ FLAT WATIROTOP AT A FLAT WATERSTOP

IT~CENTER OP WALL

P LAN
15CM - ,~
A WALL VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINI

TOP REDIPORCINS ‘V....

AT CONSTRUCTiON

ROOF SLAB B CENTERBULS WATERSTOP

WATERSTOP AT cENTER

-I
(31

SECTION

B. ROOF SLAB CONSTRUCTION JOINT

CENTER BULB WATERSTOP
S~ WSMUSIVP ON ISH lMUj
RADISH. MU

~DERS1CP AT CENTER OF WALL

IN ALL VENTICAL
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS I

IIRCAI.AJIT ONOOVE
J~CONTINUOUS
~
STALL
ALAS CONS-
TRUCTION JOINTS
~ONTIiR* RROO’.t 10
CENTER OP MULL
MD FILL SUTR SEA-
NOTE IGATERSTOP COU’TIIHI.ARJG IN ALL FLOOR SLAB LANT ORDER WALL
CONSTRUCTIOS (DINT BONDS WUTERATOPC SHALl. OR IN PlACE
V(ATSHSTOPH SHALL BE CONTUUOUB ALL FLOOR JOINTS INTERSECTIONS ST PRIOR ID PLACE~1IT
TIIRIOJSH FLOORS, WALLS AND ROOFS INATINI OP CONCRETE FOR
C FLOOR SLAB CONSTRUCTION JOINT
OF RESERVOIR EXCEPT WHERE OTIMR SELL
WINE SHORN
C. WALL FLOOR CONSTRUCTION JOINT
FIGURE 8 ~3 FIGURE 814

RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION JOINTS RESERVO!R CONSTRUCTION JOINTS

 crete. The entire cleaning operation for any area must be completed the day

it is started and no grout must be left on the concrete surface overnight.

8.14 TREATMENT OF SURFACE DEFECTS

A. General

After the removal of forms, all exposed concrete surfaces must be examined
for defects and any irregularities must be immediately rubbed or ground in a
satisfactory manner with carborundum bricks in order to secure a smooth,
uniform and continuous surface. Plastering or coating of surfaces to be
smoothened usually do not produce a good result, hence, they are not re-
commended. Also, concrete containing voids, holes, honeycombs or similar
depression defects must be completely removed and replaced with a cement
mortar, In no case should extensive patching of honeycombed concrete be
permitted because the bonding of cement mortar to existing concrete will
not be strong and durable.

B. Preparation of Concrete Surfaces to be Repaired

1. Make a thorough examination of the imperfections.

2. Remove all concrete of questionable quality and clean hole thoroughly.

Edges of hole should be cut as straight as possible at right angles to sur-
face or slightly undercut to provide a key for the patch. For holes left
by the tie rods of forms, ream and clean them to make them clean and
rough.

3. Wet the surfaces within the trimmed holes for several hours prior to
placing new concrete, Best method is to pack hole with wet burlap or
cotton rag,

4, Immediately before placing the cement mortar, clean the hole again
so as to leave the surface completely free of chipping dust, dried grout
and all other foreign materials.

C, Treatment of Surface Defects Using a Dry Pack

Dry pack is employed to plug holes with depths equal to or greater than the
least surface dimension such as form tie holes, It is usually not employed
in filling holes wherein lateral restraint cannot be obtained and for filling in
back of considerable lengths of exposed reinforcement.

Application Procedure

1. Brush off with stiff mortar or grout the surfaces of the holes to be
filled. The grout will serve as the bonding agent between the dry pack
and the existing concrete surfaces. The grout is prepared by mixing 1
part cement and 1 part fine sand by volume with sufficient water to
form a consistency of a thick paste. It is not recommended to paint the

152
 surfaces of the holes with neat cement grout as this would make the dry
pack too wet and cause high shrinkage.

2. Prepare a dry pack by mixing 1 part portland cement to 2-1/2 parts of

sand that will pass Sieve No. 16. A trial mix should be prepared to
determine the amount of white cement needed if matching of the color
of the existing concrete is necessary.

3. Place immediately the dry pack into the hole before the bonding grout
has dried, Dry pack should be placed and packed in layers having a
compacted thickness not greater than 9-1/2 mm. Thicker layers will not
be welt compacted at the bottom. After placement of each layer, pack
it by use of a hardwood stick and a hammer. Much of the tamping
should be directed at a slight angle toward the sides of the hole.

4. Finishing is completed by laying the flat side of a hardwood piece

against the pack and striking it with several good blows. A few light
strokes with a rag may improve the appearance.

D, Treatment of Surface Defects by Concrete Replacement

This method of repairing concrete defects is applicable when holes in un-

reinforced concrete are more than 0.10 square meter (1 square foot) in area
and 100 mm (4 in.) Or more in depth or when holes in reinforced concrete
are more than 0.05 square meter (0.5 square foot) in area and deeper than the
reinforcing steel.

1. Preparation of the Concrete Surfaces

Before starting the replacement of concrete, the existing concrete sur-

faces should have the following features:

a. Top edge of hole should be cut fairly horizontal with a 1:3 slope
from back to front. This is essential to eliminate air pockets.
b. The bottom and sides should be cut straight and at right angles

to the face.

C. All interior corners should be rounded,

d. Clearance should be 25 mm around reinforcing bars.

2. Procedure of Repair

a. Construct a form if it is necessary to prevent concrete mortar from

escaping from holes being repaired.

b. Prepare the concrete mix to be applied. The composition of the

mix should be similar to the mix used for the original structure.
Low slump should be used to minimize shrinkage.

153
 c. Place the prepared mix into the hole and consolidate it by tamp-
ing. Wf~enplacing in layers, placement should not be continuous.
A minimum period of 30 minutes should elapse between lifts.

d. Removb the forms the day after casting. After the removal of
forms, scrape the bulging edges and level the surface by use of
steel trowels.

E. Treatment of Surface Defects by Mortar Replacement

This method is used if the holes are too wide to dry pack or too shallow for
concrete replacement, and for all comparatively shallow depressions, large
or small which extend no deeper than the far side of the reinforcing bars
nearest the surface,

1, Preparation of Concrete Surfaces to be Repaired

a. Flare holes outward at 1: 1 slope and round all corners.

b, Remove all loose concrete and other foreign materials.

c. Moist the surfaces to be repaired.

2. Application !roc~dure

a. Mix 1 part cement to 3 parts sand by volume which is well graded

and passing sieve no. 16 with sufficient water to make a con-
sistency of a thick paste.

b. Fill the hole with cement mortar slightly more than full. The
mortar should be applied in layers not more than 19 mm to avoid
sagging and loss of bond. Allow the mortar to harden.

c. Shave off the excess material with a steel trowel to produce a

uniform surface.

154
 CHAPTER 9

CONCRETE MASONRY

9.01 GENERAL

Discussion on concrete masonry in this chapter is devoted to the construction of

concrete structures using concrete hollow blocks (CHB). The construction pro-
cedure consists~ofstaggered placement of courses of blocks, filling of the hollow
portion of the blocks with cement mortar and the placement of mortar on the
upper face of the block to serve as bonding agent between the previously placed
course and the succeeding course. Also, to increase the strength of the CHB struc-
ture, reinforcing bars are embedded at specified intervals between courses and in-
side the hollow portions of the blocks. Concrete hollow blocks are fabricated
by mixing cement and graded sand with sufficient water to form a very dry mix.
The mixture is then fed into a block-forming machine where it is molded under
heavy pressure and vibration. Blocks are then transferred to a curing room and
then to a storage yard.

Concrete hollow blocks commercially available in the market today have the
following standard dimensions.

a. 100 mm x 200 mm x 400 mm (4” x 8” x 16”)

b. 150mm x 200mm x 400mm (6” x 8” x 16”)

c, 200 mm x 200 mm x 400 mm (8” x 8” x 16”)

9.02 PREPARATION OF CEMENT MORTAR

Cement mortar is employed in filling the hollow portion of concrete blocks and
the bonding of CHB courses. Hence, to construct a strong and well-knit wall, a
good mortar is necessary, The strength of the bond is affected by various factors
— the type and quantity of cementing material, the workability or plasticity of
the mortar, the surface texture of the mortar bedding areas, the water retentivity
of the mortar and the quality of workmanship in laying up the units. The type of
concrete mix employed in masonry works depends upon its uses. Masonry or CHB
walls subjected to severe stresses require mortars that are stronger and more
durable than walls that are exposed to ordinary service. Tabulated in Table 9.01
are typical concrete mortar mixes. Mortar should be mixed in power mixers
except for very small jobs where it may be mixed by hand.

155
 ELAN SECTION

FIa~ 9 01

L4~1r4G OF CONCRETE HTLWW BLOCNS

Table 9,01
Recommended Mortar Mixes*
Type of Service Cement Sand

1. For ordinary service 1.0 3.0

2. For structures that are sub- 1.0 2.0

jected to extremely heavy
loads, violent winds, earth-
quakes.
* Proportions by volume

Mortar that has stiffened on the mortar board because of evaporation should
be retempered to restore its workability by thorough remixing and by the
addition of water as required. Mortar stiffened by hydration (setting) should
be discarded. Since it is difficult to distinguish between these two causes of
stiffening, the practical method of determining suitability of mortar is on
the basis of time elapsed after initial mixing. Mortar should be used within
45 minutes after original mixing and any mortar not used after this time
limit should be discarded,
9.03 CUTTING OF HOLLOW BLOCKS

Concrete hollow blocks are usually available in full-length units of 400 mm. To fit
special job conditions, it is sometimes necessary to cut a block. A hammer and
chisel are commonly used to cut blocks. Alternately, the sharp edges of a steel

156
 trowel can be employed. The process consists of scoring or scratching on the
marked line on both sides of the block to obtain a clean break. For fast and neat
cutting, masonry saws are often used, Blocks should be cut dry when masonry
saws are used so as not to increase the moisture content of the block.
9.04 LAYING OF BLOCKS
A. Construction of Foundation
The construction of the foundation of CHB structures consists of the follow-
ing steps:

1. Mark the proposed location of structure by referring to the plans. Mark

the location of the corners of the proposed structure using wooden
stakes. Tie a string to the wooden stakes, connecting them together.
This string will serve as a guide in aligning the trench to be excavated,

2. Excavate a trench approximately 0.6 M deep and 0.45 M wide.

3, Install the steel reinforcements as shown in Figure 9.01.

4. Prepare a Class “A” concrete mix by mixing one (1) part cement to two
(2) parts sand and four (4) parts gravel by volume, with sufficient water
to form a thick mix.
5, Pour the freshly prepared concrete mix into the excavated trench to
serve as foundation. The foundation of structure should be approxi-
mately 0.2 M thick and 0.45 M wide.
B. Laying the First Course of Concrete Blocks
The first course of concrete masonry should be laid with great care, making
sure that it is properly aligned, leveled and plumbed. This is necessary
in building a true straight wall. The laying procedure is as follows:
1. Carefully place the corner blocks before the foundation mix attains
initial set. These blocks will serve as the guide in aligning the center
blocks.
2. Tie a string connecting the two corners together. The elevation of the
string should be equal to the elevation of the upper face of the newly
placed blocks.

3. Start placing the center blocks and align them with the string as guide.

4, Fill all the hollow portions of the blocks with cement mortar.

C. Laying the Succeeding Courses of Concrete Blocks

1. Prepare a concrete mortar with Table 9.01 as reference.

2. Place approximately 9 mm thick mortar layer on the upper face of the

previously laid blocks. This layer will form a bond which will hold in
place the previously placed course and the succeeding course. To assure
a good bond, mortar should not be spread too far of actual laying of

157
 the block or it will stiffen and lose its plasticity. Should there be any
delay long enough for the mortar to stiffen on the block, the mortar
should be removed and reworked on the mortar board to restore
its plasticity.
3. Lay the next course of concrete hollow blocks. Start by placing the
corner blocks which will be used in aligning this course. Also, the joints
of the blocks in this course should be staggered with reference to the
proceeding batch of blocks (Figure 9.01).

4. Check the alignment with the use of a mason’s line or a string which is
aligned with reference to the corner blocks. Make adjustments as found
necessary.

5. Level and align the blocks with reference to the mason’s line by tapping
each block with the trowel handle until they are in the correct position.
These adjustments to final position should be made while the mortar is
still soft and plastic. Any adjustment made after the mortar has stiffen-
ed will break the mortar bond.
6. Remove the excess and extruding mortar from the joints with the use
of a trowel. The removed mortar is usually thrown back into the mortar
board for reworking to restore its plasticity.
7. Repeat the above procedure starting from “B” until the second to the
last course is fixed.
8. Lay the closure blocks. Before towering the closure blocks to their
final place, all of the openings and vertical edges should be buttered
with mortar. Also, if during the laying of the blocks, any of the mortar
falls out thereby leaving an open joint, the closure block should be
removed and fresh mortar should be applied to replace the mortar that
has separated.
D. Laying of CHB at the Intersection of Walls
Intersecting CHB bearing walls should not be tied togetl~erin a masonry
bond except at the corners. Instead, one wall should terminate at the face of
the other wall with a control joint at that point. For lateral support, bearing
walls are tied together with a metal tie bar 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick, 31 mm
(1-1/4 in.) wide and 70 cm (28 in,) long, with 5 cm. (2 in.) right angle
bends on each end (Figure 9.02). These tie bars are spaced not over 1.25 M
(4 feet) apart vertically. The bends at the ends of the tie bars are embedded
in cores filled with mortar or concrete. Pieces of metal lath placed under the
cores support the concrete or mortar filling.
Alternately, a set up shown in Figure 9.03 can be used. It consists of joining
two walls in a reinforced concrete post. The reinforced concrete post may be
either be prefabricated or cast-in-place.
9.05 PATCHING AND CLEANING
After laying of concrete hollow blocks, all holes left by nails, line pins and others
should be patched with fresh mortar. During patching, particular care should be
made to prevent smearing of mortar on the surface of the block for it destroys the

158
 3-#4113mm 0>
BAR
12(6mm 01 TIE BARS~’

4-#4(l3mrfl 0) BARS
EACH WA~
L

4-14(13mm
BARS
TiE BARS AT0)
WiTH 0 VERTICA
#2 3CM
(6mmd~
0 C F~ ________________
070MJ

SECTIONAL ELEVATION
01 SCALE 1 20M
CD

r~i 0 TOM

I SOMETRY

PLAN
SCALE 1 20M

FIGURE 902 FIGURE 903

LAYING OF BLOCKS AT THE INTERSECTION OF WALLS LAYING OF BLOCKS AT THE INTERSECTION OF WALLS
 neat appearance of the finished walt. Also, paint cannot be depended upon to
hide these mortar smears. Likewise during construction, to produce a clean wall,
mortar smears or droppings should be prevented. In case where these can not be
prevented, allow the mortar smears to dry before removing them using a steel
trowel. The remaining mortar not removed by the steel trowel can be removed
by brushing. It is not recommended to remove mortar smears or dropping while
they are still wet.

9.06 PLASTERING AND FINISHING

Concrete masonry walls may be coated with 12 mm (1/2 in.) thick coat plaster
if a plastered finish is desired. This may be done in one or two coatings. Two
coatings is preferable than a single coating as they produce a better finish. Cement
plaster may be prepared by mixing 1 part portland cement to 2-1/2 parts graded
sand by volume with sufficient water to form a thick paste or by making use of
the proportion utilized in bonding the CHB together. Proprietary portland cement
based coating that have been specifically prepared for waterproof basement walls
can also be used as a plastic coat.

A. Plastering of CHB Walls Using One Coating

1. Clean the wall surface from mortar smears and droppings by using a
steel trowel and by brushing.

2. Spray the surface with water to wet it. This will prevent the block from
absorbing excessive water from the plaster and will assure a better
bond,
3. Apply the 12 mm (1/2 in.) thick coat.
4, Keep the surface just applied with plaster moist for 48 hours.
B. Plastering of CHB Walls Using Two Coatings.

1. Follow steps 1 and 2 outlined above for single coating.

2. Trowel firmly the first 6 mm thick coat over the masonry.

3. Allow the p’aster to harden partially and then roughen the surface
to provide a good bond for the second coat.
4. Keep the first coat damp for 24 hours.
5. Apply the second coat, Just before the application of the second coat,
the roughened surface should be dampened with water but not soaked
to control suction for a good bond.
6. Moist-cure the second coat for at least 48 hours after application.
C. Tooted Joint Finishing
Another popular type of finishing is the “tooled-joint” finish. There is no
plastering needed in this type of finish. Each vertical and horizontal joint
in the courses is simply cleaned up, accentuated, and smoothed out with
cement paste using the trowel and a grooving tool. A short piece of 13 mm
reinforcing bar serves as a grooving tool.

160
 CHAPTER ‘10

METALWOR KS

10.01 GENERAL

Metals are widely used materials of construction for water supply systems. They
are often used in making reservoirs, pipes, nails, bolts and as structural reinforce-
ment. With these variety of uses, it is therefore necessary to have a working know-
ledge on how to use metals in construction.

10.02 REINFORCING STEEL BARS

Concrete has high compressive strength but has low tensile strength. For this
reason, it is necessary to add steel rods or bars to concrete structures subjected
to bending. Also, reinforcing bars are added to concrete structures to permit
the use of smaller structural members.

Reinforcing steel bars available in the market today may be round or square
and may be either plain or deformed. Deformed bars usually produce a better
bond with the concrete because it has a rougher surface than plain bars.

A. Preparation of Reinforcing Bars

To insure a good bond between the concrete and the reinforcing bars, it
is recommended that the bars be free of undesirable materials. The cleaning
procedure is as follows:

1, Remove all loose rust and other related materials. Any loose rust and
mill scale that fly off when the bar is bent or struck with a hammer
must be removed. However, if the rusts are firmly attached to the
reinforcements, it is recommended to leave it intact as this may aug-
ment the holding capacity of the bar, thus, increasing the bar-concrete
bond,

Also, if a bar appears to have rusted excessively, and its cross-sectional

area was reduced significantly, it is suggested that it should be rejected.

2. Remove all objectionabIi~coatings such as paints, oils, grease, dried

mud and loose concrete because they tend to decrease the bar-concrete
bond.

B. Cutting and Bending of Bars

Steel bars may be cut and bent to shape as specified in the plans either in
the shop or in the field, Shown in Figure 10.O1A is a typical table for
bending bars. Bending of bars may be done cold or with heating. If bending
and straightening is aided by heating, heat the steel bar in a manner that
the cherry red color is not exceeded, to maintain the structural strength
of the bar. Also, the heated bar should be air-cooled slowly and uniformly.

161
 lEE DITAILY

305M /
SI ~— 1540113 P~!

100405 I0Q,w.

DETAIL ‘X 0 TAIL
A 1ABLE FOR BENDING STEEL REINFORCING BARS

TABLE 10(3
B QJT11NG AND BENDING TOLERANCES

E~~E BAR DIAMETER TOLERANCE

Lii ALL SIZES t2Bmm(I’I~RL
r~ 212mm 04 SI~uiS SISmm (O~J~R L

L
L__~._ 2B4mmOALA~ER ~l5m4I(1
ALL SIZES I~G.,mIDE’) FOR II
SV~Li~ER lOIm” 10 B’l
254mm 04 LARGER l1’l FOAL
S ALL SIXES I 415,~~,,Io
SI FORD
— ~+I5mm(0b~I FOAL
L_~~ ALL SIZES ItI5mmI0E’> F0RW

FIGURE 1001
CUTTING AND BENDING OF REINFORCING STEEL BARS

Furthermore, it is difficult to cut and bend bars exactly as the plans require.
To take care of this problem, tolerances or maximum allowable deviations
are prescribed. These are presented in Table 10.01.
C. Splicing
Splicing is the bonding or jointing of two or more lengths of steel bars.
It is usually employed in the formation of the reinforcement steel net-
work in floor slabs, columns, beams and other structures. Splicing in these
structures is usually located in places where the tensile stress is less than
half the permissible stress. Splicing may be accomplished either by the use
of tie bars or by welding.

1. Types of Ties Using Tie Wires

Tie wires usually employed in tying reinforcing bars are the no. 16
gauge blacks, soft-annealed wires. Heavier gauge such as no. 15 or no.
14 gauge wire may be used when tying bars in heavily reinforced walls
to maintain the proper position of the horizontal reinforcement.

162
 The type of ties to be used when securing reinforcing bars depends
primarily on the type of structure. Presented below are the different
types of ties used in reinforced concrete construction.

a. Snap or Single Tie — Snap or single tie (Figure 10.02A) is used

in flat horizontal work. The tying process consists of wrapping
once around the two crossing bars in a diagonal manner followed
by twisting the ends of wire together until the wound wire has
tightly secured the joint. The excess ends of wire are then cut
using a pair of pliers and then flattened to prevent their protruding
through the top of concrete.

b. Wrap and Snap Tie — Wrap and snap tie (Figure 10.02B) is em-
ployed when tying wall reinforcement to prevent shifting of hori-
zontal bars. The tying process consists of wrapping the wire
around the vertical bars 1-1/2 times and then diagonally around
the intersecting horizontal bars. The end of the tie wires are then
trimmed,

A SNAP OR SINGLE TIE B SNAP AND SHARP TIE

.i:

C SADOLE TIE 0 WRAP AND SADOLE TE

I -~

E DOUBLE STRAND SINGLE TIE F FIGURE EIGHT TIE

FiGURE 1002
TYPICAL REINFORCING STEEL BAR TIES

163
 c. Saddle Tie Saddle tie (Figure 10.02C) is employed in tying rein-
—

forcement in footings or other mats. As shown in the figure, the

wires pass half-way around one of the bars on each side of the
crossing bar, then up and around the first bar where two ends are
twisted together.

d. Wrap and Saddle Tie Wrap and saddle tie (Figure 10.02D) is
—

also often employed in tying reinforcement in footings or other

mats. The tying process consists of wrapping the wire around the
first bar 1-1/2 times and then proceed to the process of tying
wires by saddle method.

e. Double Strand Single Tie Double strand single tie (Figure

—

10,02E) is usually used for heavy works or in flat horizontal

works which are always being subjected to heavy pressure. The
tying process is similar to the single or snap tie except that the
number of wires is doubled.

f, Figure Eight Tie — Figure eight tie (Figure 10.02F) is used in

tying reinforcements to a nail employed as spreader or spacer to
hold bars away from the forms. The tying process consists of
wrapping a wire once around the nail head; then around the out-
side bar of the wall and then drawing the bars securely against the
nailhead by twisting the ends of the wire.

2. Lap Splicing

Lap splicing is employed in jointing two parallel bars together either by

use of tie wires or by welding. The minimum length of the joint should
be 40 times the bar diameter but shall not be less than 30cm (12 in.).

a. Use of Tie Wires —Bars with diameters 3.58 cm. (#1 1) and below
may be spliced by overlapping and wiring them together.

b. Welded Lap Splicing Welded lap splicing is recommended

—

only for 1,59 mm ~ (p5) bars or smaller. It may be accomplished

with or without a back-up plate. Shown in Figures 10.03A and
10,03B is lap splicing without a back-up plate and with backplate,
respectively. Also, for splicing bars in narrow concrete members
where the offset between bars in a single lap splice may buckle the
members, a double lap joint (Figure 10.03C) is recommended.

c. Splicing by Butt Welding Butt welding is one of the widely

—

used methods in splicing. Shown in Figure 10.04 are typical

welded splices. Single-Vee Groove Weld (Figure 10.04A) and
Double-Vee Groove Weld (Figure 10.04B) are employed for
welding horizontal bars together. Single-bevel Groove Weld (Figure
10,04C) for vertical bars and Double-beveled Groove Weld (Figure
10,04D) are used for jointing column verticals.

164
 WELD ONE OR BOTH

TO 60.

~-~_+

A WELDED CONTACT LAP SPLICE

A SINGLE -VEE GROOVE WELL)

TO
WELD

PLATE
4 ±
B DOUBLE—VEE GROOVE WELD

-S
0) MINIMUM’ 30CM
01

B WELDED LAP SPLICE WITH PLATE

WELD—~
___________ (~II~II~-MAINBAR
SPLICE BAR

J
~O~~__WELDS

MINIMUM’ 30CM
SECTION
PLAN

}
C WELDED DOUBLE LAP JOINT

C SINGLE -BEVEL GROOVE WELD D DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

FIGURE 1003 FIGURE 1004

TYPICAL LAP JOINTS SPLICING BY BUTT WELDING
D. Placement of Reinforcing Bars

Placement Tolerance

The strength of the finished concrete depends greatly on the correct

position of reinforcements. For instance, a. 13 mm (1/2 in.) deviation
of bars in a 150 mm (6 in.) deep slab could reduce its load carrying
capacity by 20 percent. Therefore, as much as practicable, reinforce-
ments should be placed as specified. However, wnile it is essential that
reinforcements be placed where called for in the plans, some tolerances
are necessary, Presented below are the allowable placement tolerances.

a. Reinforcement of beams and slabs should be within 6.4 mm

(1/4 in.) of the specified distance from the tension and compres-
sion face. Lengthwise, a placement tolerance of 50 mm (2 In.) Is
normally acceptable. If length of embedment is critical, the length
of bars should be 75 mm (3 in.) longer than the computed mini-
mum to allow for accumulation of tolerances.

b. Spacing of reinforcements in wide slabs and walls may be permit-

ted to vary by 13 mm (1/2 in.) or slightly more if necessary to
clear obstructions so long as the required number of bars are pre-
sent.

2. Distance of Reinforcement From the Concrete Surface

Main reinforcement bars should be at least 25 mm (1 in.) from the

nearest face of the concrete section for slabs or li~itstructural mem-
bers, 38 - 50 mm for heavy structural members, and 50 100 mm for
-

important members exposed to sea or alkaline water.

3. Spacing

Spacing of reinforcements affects the distribution of load throughout

the concrete structure. In case the spacing is unequal, an unequal
distribution of load will resu’t which will eventually cause a crack in
the concrete surface. For reinforced concrete structures, the maximum
spacing of principal slab reinforcements should not exceed 3 times the
slab thickness. Also, the minimum spacing in slabs, beams and columns
should not be less than 63 mm except at laps or intersections.

E. Check List During Bar Placing

After placing the bars and before proceeding to the concreting of the struc-
ture, the following items should be checked:
The number of pieces, sizes, lengths, (if bars are straight), shape (if
bent) and grade of steel for all bars required in each structural member.
2. The proper positioning of bars in each member whether this conforms
to the specified tolerances.

166
 3. The height and location of all bar supports.

4. The location and length of all splices.

5. The location, projection and embedment of all bars.

6. The proper amount of concrete cover space between forms and steel
for all members.
10.03 WELDING
Electric arc welding is commonly used to join metal surfaces. The process con-
sists of melting and fusing of a metal electrode with the contiguous metal sur-
faces to be joined. The welding heat is obtained from the electric arc formed
between the electrode and the parts to be welded. The arc temperature is ap-
proximately 10,000°F.
A. Welding Electrodes
Electrodes are one of the vital elements in welding, hence, they must be
handled in a manner that they will not bend and the coating is kept intact.
Also, they should be protected from wetting due to rain, dew and other
sources of moisture. One way is to limit the number brought out from the
storage area. This number is equivalent to the amount which can be used
in one day. In no case should damp electrodes be used in welding metals,
for when used, a white vapor can be observed and a fierce cracking or
explosive sound can be heard.
Procedure for Detecting Damp Electrodes
a. Pick up 3 to 5 electrodes and then place their ends in a circle made by
placing the tip of the first finger in contact with the tip of the thumb
finger in both hands,
b. Shake them and listen to the rattling sound as the electrodes strike each
other. If a hard shrill metallic sound is produced, the electrodes are dry
or contain little moisture. On the other hand, if a hollow sound is
produced, the electrodes are damp and should be dried prior to use.
B. Type of Welded Joints
The selection of the type of welded joints depends upon the force to which
the joint will be subjected. As a rule, the larger the surface being fused
together, the stronger is the joint. However, the cost of welding also pro-
portionately increases with an increase in the amount of electrodes used and
the power cost. Shown in Figures 10.05 and 10.06 are the different types of
welded joints.
C. Procedure of Welding
1. Gap and Groove Preparation
a. Trim the surfaces to be jointed in accordance with weld ends pre-
paration drawing, This may be accomplished by machining and
grinding or by flame cutting and grinding.

167
 SQUARE BUTT SINGLE VEE BUTT

SQUARE TEE SINGLE BEVEL TEE

DOUBLE U BUTT DOUBLE VEF BUTT

9 C’
DOUBLE BEVEL TEE SINGLE J TEE

SINGLE U BUTT SINGLE FILLET LAP

DOUBLE J TEE CLOSED CORNER IFLUSH) ~X~INT

DOUBLE FILLET LAP STRAP JOINT

HALF OPEN CORNER JOINT FULL OPEN CORNER JOINT

FIGURE 1005 FIGURE 10 OG

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS
 b. Smoothen the surfaces in the welding groove by removing all the
notches and other irregularities.

c. Clean the edges to be welded by removing all grease, oil, rust,

scale and other foreign materials.

2. Welding of Joints

Welding should not be carried out when the surfaces to be welded are
wet or when raining or during high winds unless the work and the
operator are properly shielded.

Procedure:

a. Put the “ground” of the electric welding machine in contact with

the metals to be welded.

b. Allow the contact of the electrode which is connected to the

electric welding machine with metal surfaces in the welding
groove. Upon contact with the metal surface, an electric arc is
generated and the electrode is melted and is fused in between the
two surfaces to be joined. If the desired number of welding layers
is more than one, clean each deposited layer of welded metal
before additional welded metal is applied to its surface.

c. Check the welded surfaces and trim all irregularities. Finished weld
heads should be central to the seam and the finished joint should
be free from depressions, undercut edges, burrs, irregularities and
valleys (Figure 10.07).

D. Causes and Cures of Weld Defects

Outlined below are the different weld defects, their causes and remedies.

Spattering

a, Causes

i, Electric current used is too high,

ii. Electrodes used are faulty.

b. Remedy

i, Whitewash parts in weld area,

ii. Adjust current to proper arc length.

iii. Change electrodes.

169
 _______ 1~C

NOTE THE HEIGHT OF CONVEXITY C SHALL

NOT EXCEED 3.2mm (1/8”)

ACCEPTABLE BUTT WELD

F
INSUFFICIENT THROAT EXCESS CONVEXITY UNDERCUT OVERLAP

UNACCEPTABLE BUTT WELD PROFILE

NOTE CONVEXITY, C SHALL

NOT EXCEED 0 iS +
0.76mm

L
,~s

ACCEPTABLE FILLET WELD PROFILE

INSUFFICIENT THROAT UNDERCUT EXCESS CONVEXITY INSUFFICIENT LEG OVERLAP

UNACCEPTABLE FILLET WELD PROFILE

FIGURE 10 07
ACCEPTABLE AND DEFECTIVE WELDS

170
2. Weld Stresses

a, Causes

i. Faulty welds,

ii. Rigid joints.

b, Remedy

i. Move parts slightly in welding to reduce stresses.

ii, Anneal according to thickness of weld.

3. Distortion

a. Causes

i. Uneven heating.

ii. Deposited metal shrinks.

b. Remedy

i. Form and clamp parts properly before welding.

ii. Distribute welding to prevent uneven heating.

4. Cracked Welds

a. Causes

i. Wrong electrode used.

ii. Welds unbalanced.

iii, Faulty welds.

iv. Faulty preparation,

v. Rigid joints.

b, Remedy

I. Design structure and welding procedure to eliminate rigid

joints.

ii. Adjust weld size to parts size.

iii. Work with amperage that is as low as possible.

171
5, Poor Fusion

a, Causes

i. Current improperly adjusted.

ii. Faulty preparation.

iii. Improper electrode size.

b, Remedy

Adjust electrode and vee sizes.

II. Welding heat must be enough to melt sides of joint.

III. Adjust current to a level enough for the penetration and

deposition of electrode.

iv. Keep weld metal from curling away from plates.

6. Undercutting

a. Causes

i, Faulty electrode manipulation.

ii. Current too high.

b. Remedies

i, Use a uniform weave when welding.

ii, Use moderate current.

iii. Weld slowly.

172
 CHAPTER 11

CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIRS

11.01 GENERAL
A reservoir is a vital element in a water supply system. It is primarily employed in
storing water for use during peak demand periods and in emergencies, and for
equalizing pressure within the distribution system.
Reservoirs may be classified according to their functions or manner of operation,
relative position with respect to the earth’s surface, and as to type of materials
of construction. These could be further subdivided into the following sub-
groupings:

A. Classification According to Function or Manner of Operation

1. For storing water.

2. For equalizing pressure within the distribution system. Under this divi-
sion are the Fill-and-Draw and the Floating-on-the-Line reservoirs
(Figure 11.O1A). A Fill-and-Draw reservoir is employed if the desired
system operation is such that water is pumped or conveyed directly
from the water source to the reservoir and then distributed to the con-
sumers. On the other hand, if the desired system operation calls for the
pumping of water both into the reservoir and to the customers at the
same time, the floating-on-the-line reservoir is employed. Actually, in
the floating-on-the-line reservoir, water enters the reservoir only during
the period of low demand. During the peak demand, the reservoir and
the pump are simultaneously supplying water to the consumers.
3. As sump for booster pumps — Reservoir assumes this function in cases
where the pressure in the water mains from the water source is not
enough to bring water to public taps at a desired pressure. Water is
collected in the sump and is then boosted by pumping to the con-
su mers.
B. Classification According to Relative Position With Respect to the Earth’s
Surface
Illustrated in Figure 11.01 is the schematic diagram of reservoirs classified
according to their relative position with respect to the earth’s surface. If
the reservoir is located above the ground, it is called elevated and if its base
is sitting on or is buried in the ground, the reservoir is called ground level.
In between these two types is the hydropneumatic pressure tanks (Figure
11.01 C) wherein the reservoir is located at ground level, however, the desired
pressure to distribute water to the consumers is obtained by compressing air.

C. Classification According to Materials of Construction

Reservoirs for use in water supply system could be fabricated using a variety
of construction materials. For rural water supply system, only four types

173
 are considered for economic reasons. They are the reinforced concrete, con-
crete hollow blocks, steel and ferrocement.
11,02 REINFORCED CONCRETE RESERVOIRS

Reinforced concrete reservoirs are fabricated of concrete which is reinforced with

steel bars. The process consists of preparing the formworks to serve as mold for
concrete, the positioning of steel bars and construction joints or waterstops,
the pouring of freshly prepared concrete mix into the forms, curing of concrete,
removal of forms, installation of the necessary appurtenances, finishing and water-
proofing.
A. Ground Level Reservoir
Shown in Figure 11.02 is a typical ground level reservoir and its appur-
tenances. The procedure of construction is as follows:
1, Foundation Works
This division of work consists of the preparation of foundation of reser-
voir and it includes the following items:
a, Mark the location of the reservoir as specified in the plans.

b. Determine the bearing capacity of soil to know whether it is capa-

74
 ~ O~OOFLOW—~ ~ / I
C~C OFLASH OLAO~ // I
U,IE OF F~J~OOTIOA— I / SC~~EDVEOI PIP!

00! ~ER—-~ -~—-~ ~‘LcW~

— I

PLAN

SECTION A

F1GPS 1L02
GROUND LEVEL REINFORCED CONCRETE RESERVOIR

ble of supporting the weight of reservoir and its water contents

when it is full. However, if it is found incapable, the following
measure should be taken in decreasing priorities:
Look for a new location of reservoir.
ii. Design the pile foundation and determine whether there is
enough funds for its construction.
c, Start the excavation works, For the detail of the excavation pro-
cess please refer to section 3.02.

d. Prepare the soil foundation and underdrain. Shown in Figure

11.03E is a typical detail of an underdrain. It consists of perfo-
rated PVC, PE or AC pipe surrounded by a gravel blanket, For
small tanks, pipes could be deleted and the underdrain will con-
sist only of a gravel layer properly compacted to support the im-
posed load on it. Underdrain is necessary to drain water at the
base of the reservoir in order to prevent flotation when empty
and the water table is above the base of the reservoir.
2. Construction of the Body of Reservoir and Installation of Reservoir
Appurtenances.
a. Start the installation of forms. The size and shape should con-
form to the prepared plans. In making forms refer to section
8.08,

175
 b. Start the placement of reinforcing bars, waterstops and other
construction joints. The fabrIcation and placement procedure is
discussed in section 10.02 for reinforcing bars and section 8.10
for construction joints.

c. Selection of Concrete Proportion — Refer to section 8.04 for the

selection of concrete proportion and consistency.
d. Batching and Mixing — The volume of materials per batch is pri-
marily dependent upon the capacity of the mixers and the quanti-
ty that can be used within 1-1/2 hours. For details of the proce-
dure, please refer to sections 8.06 and 8.07.

e. Placement and Consolidation of Concrete — Sections 8.09 and

8.10 discuss the procedure for the placement and consolidation
of concrete, respectively. It is suggested that the contractor
should refer to these sections before starting the work.

f. Curing of Concrete — To achieve a durable and strong concrete

structure, it is suggested that the concrete be cured continuously
for 28 days. The curing procedure is discussed in section 8.12.
g. Placement of Appurtenances —After at least 14 days of conti-
nuous curing, the forms should be removed and the appurtenances
shown in Figure 11,03 be installed. The process consists of chip-
ping off of the concrete before it had hardened, the placement of
the appurtenances as indicated in the plan and then securing it in
place by use of a cement mortar or by use of an asphaltic seal.
Alternately, the appurtenances could be installed before the pour-
ing of concrete, during formworks or placement of reinforcing
bars.
h. Finishing — After the removal of forms, all concrete surfaces
should be examined for structural defects such as honeycombs,
rock pockets, faulty construction forms, etc. These areas should
be repaired in accordance to section 8.14.

i. Waterproofing — Waterproofing of reinforced concrete structures

could be accomplished in a variety of ways. The most commonly
used are the waterproofing admixtures, membranes and external
coating. The detailed application procedure is presented in Section
11.07: Waterproofing of Reservoirs.
B. Elevated Reservoirs
Shown in Figure 11.04 is a typical elevated reinforced concrete reservoirs. It
is constructed using two pre-fabricated reinforced concrete pipe, the first
pipe is slightly buried and filled with earth and gravel and the second pipe
is placed at the top of the first pipe and their joints are cemented, The de-
tailed construction procedure is as follows:
1, Foundation Works
a. Excavate a trench, 110 cm in diameter and 20-30 cm in depth.
This will serve as the foundation of the tank.

176
 • 0.5005505 NANKOL!
• AIR VENT WITH INISCE SCREEN

hAS WL

DETAIL OF MANHOLE (‘~~\DETAIL OF AIR VENT

03 NOT TO SCALE ~~JI03) NOT TO SCALE MIII WL’

3175,001 STEEL PLATE COVERTh ~1~RESERvOIR COLUMN

1001n S 2001.1, 0400

VERTICAL BARS~ I
~ COMCRE1! HOLLOW BLOI
LI, ~ ~ PIPE NOTE SONCRETU SIXTURE

SECTION’~A I NOR OP
-.1 SCALE 1 25M
-4 ES CU FT OF SAIl!
0-0 Cu FT Off HRAV!L
00 HAL OF WATER I SIN I

DETAIL OF OVERFLOW PIPE ___________________________

~F\~II~) NOT TO.. SCALE DETAIL OF CHB VALVESCALE
BOX
- - - - NOT TO

AIR VEOT WITh IISECT HOMIER

.11, • OVERFLOW

*4 EXTRA

P LAN
SCALE 1 25M
\~Ø ivy NOT TO SCALE SECTION THRU PIPE 1-IOLE

FiGURE II 03 FiGURE 1104

TYPICAL DETAILS OF GROUND LEVEL SLIGHTLY ELEVATED REINFORCED CONCRETE RESERVOIR
REINFORCED CONCRETE RESER~J(R CAPACITY • 527 LITERS(22O GALLONS)
 b, Consolidate and level the soil at the bottom of the trench and
pour a Class C concrete mix until the concrete layer formed is
around 10 cm thick.
c. Place the first reinforced concrete pipe on the concrete foundation
and grout it in place using a cement mortar which is prepared by
mixing 1 part of cement to 2 parts sand. Allow the concrete to
harden for 1 day.
d. Fill the pipe with earth and gravel up to the level shown in Figure
11.04. This pipe will serve as the platform or support of the
reservoir.

2. Construction of the Body of the Reservoir and Installation of Reservoir

Appurtenances.
a. Position the outlet pipe as shown in Figure 11.04 and detail

(Eli 1.05).
b. Position the reinforcing bars of the reservoir floor.

c. Prepare a Class A concrete mix and pour it into the pipe until
the thickness of the concrete layer form is approximately 15
cm, This concrete layer will serve as the floor of the reservoir.
d. Place the second pipe at the top of the first pipe and then sealed
their joints using a mastic sealer or asphaltic seal.
e. Install all the necessary appurtenances of the reservoir as shown
in Figure 11.04. The .details of these appurtenances is illustrated
in Figure 11.05.
f. Construct a reinforced concrete reservoir cover equipped with
manhole provided with cover. Alternately, a pre-fabricated rein-
forced concrete slab could be employed.
g. Repair all structural defects of the constructed reservoir and then
make it watertight. The waterproofing procedure is discussed in
detail in section 11.07.
11.03 CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS RESERVOIR
Concrete hollow blocks IS one of the most commonly used materials of construc-
tion when building reservoirs for rural water supply systems. The process includes
excavation and foundation works, placing of CHB wall, pouring of reinforced
concrete floor slab, placement of appurtenances, patching and plastering, curing
and waterproofing. The details of the above-mentioned works is presented in
Chapter 9, Concrete Masonry.
A, Ground Level Reservoir
Ground level CHB reservoir has similar features as the reinforced concrete
reservoir as illustrated in Figure 11.02. The construction procedure are as
follows:

1, Foundation Works

178
 SI SAN
HANDLE
•~~~__.___
NIPPLE

~ liNDE STEEL

~ E~ ~ -
NI~ r.o I PIPZ—
111 ç—TEP HP HPSEEYOIE

__________
A
OAk I

DETAIL ~ MANHOLE
S4IIDI.flI SWAT
OESOE.
c$N.

B
1
1k•\__.JlUoR US

DETAIL OF AIR VENT

DUO) SD? TO ~aLO US HOT TO WILE

tHeme STEEL P1_CE

t
AL HPE
BYESP

ASOIOR HOLY
O~LDW ma REOfl~CI
.*IcOWSTE

OFOOENF1ØNM~ O DETAIL OF PIPE SU~RT

LYE NOT TO SALE

REIHOVADLE tUTTLE ———IS US H DEjPUIO

NOTTOS o~OEWEn~TI ___-_-__LIFI100 0Mw

~d~1T1 -:
~I
UI
U HU~ EL~E

E OEIAU.. OF~Z~&NLE
MPPLE
A sni WAT~ TO SCALE

FIGURE 1105
TYPICAL DETAILS OF SLIGHTLY ELEVATED
REINFORCED CUIICRETE RESER~CIIR

The work included in this subsection is similar to those described in

foundation works for the construction of reinforced concrete reservoir
as presented in section 11.02.
2. Construction of the Body of Reservoir and Installation of Appur-
tenances.
a. Start building the walls of the reservoir. With respect to the pro-
cess of laying CHB, refer to section 9.04.
b. Position the reinforcing bars for the reservoir floor.

c. Prepare a Class A concrete mix and pour it on the floor of the

reservoir until the thickness of the concrete layer specified in the
plan is reached.
d. Install all the ncessary appurtenances as illustrated in Figure
11.02. The details of these appurtenances is illustrated in Figure
11.03.

e. Stan patching the holes and plastering of CHB wall using a con-
crete mortar prepared by mixing 1 part of cement to 2 parts of
graded sand.

f. Construct reinforced concrete reservoir cover equipped with man-

holes provided with cover. Alternately, a prefabricated reinforced
concrete slab could be employed.

179
 g. Make the reservoir watertight. The waterproofing procedure is
discussed in detail in section 11.07.
B. Elevated Reservoirs
A typical elevated concrete hollow blocks reservoir is shown in Figure 11.06.
The construction procedure is as follows:

1. Foundation Works

a. Mark the location of the proposed reservoir and start digging a

trench of 0.6 meter deep and 0.3 meter wide. This will serve as
the foundation of your reservoir.
b. Start laying concrete hollow blocks for the wall of the reservoir.
The laying procedure is discussed in detail in section 9.04.
c. Fill the part enclosed by the CHB wall with sand and gravel up
to the level shown in Figure 11.06 and then consolidate the fill.
This portion will serve as the platform or support of the reservoir.
2. Construction of the Body of the Reservoir and Installation of Reservoir
Appurtenances.
a. Position the outlet pipe as shown in Figure 11.06 and detail
(A/i 1.07).
b. Position the reinforcing bars of the reservoir floor.
c. Prepare a Class A concrete mix and pour it on the compacted
gravel and sand layer until the thickness of the concrete layer
formed is approximately 15 cm. This concrete layer will serve
as the floor slab of the reservoir.
d. Install all the necessary appurtenances as shown in Figure 1 1.06.
The details of these appurtenances is illustrated in Figure 11.07.

e. Provide the reservoir with a reinforced concrete cover.

f. Start the patching and plastering works. For details of the proce-
dure, please refer to sections 9.05 and 9.06.
11.04 STEEL RESERVOIRS
Steel reservoirs for use in rural water supply system are usually fabricated using
3 - 10 mm thick steel plate and anchored in place using a reinforced concrete
foundation. The work necessary consists of two stages: the building of the reser-
voir steel body and reinforced concrete foundation, and the placement of the
reservoir body on the foundation.

The building of the reservoir body consists of cutting the steel plate, molding it
into the desired reservoir shape and then jointing the metal plates. Jointing may
be accomplished either by welding or by rivetting. On the other hand, the rein-
forced concrete foundations may be either prefabricated or cast-in-place. In both
cases, it should be designed to take care of the weight of the reservoir and its
contents when it is full of water.

180
 166mm ThK MANHOLE STEEL PLAT SEE DEIAIL
CQVER WiTH #3(10mm
LIFTING HANDI.E ~ VENT WITH INSECT SCREEN
0 50~C0 50M OPENINO

DETAIL OF REMOVABLE NIPPLE DETAIL OF PIPE SUPPORT

F~GlI~~~J
NOT TO SCALE / NO I TO - - SCALE

-N

#41 l3mmG) VERTICAL

BARSGtO400C

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCI<J

3-#4(I3mm~) CON
BARS WITIf*2(GmmG)
TIE OARS at 0 30 0 C

DETAIL OF MANHOLE
PART PLAN/ PART SECTIONAL PLAN NOT TO SCALE DETAIL
NOT TO FOOTI(’4G
OF SCALE
SCALE I 25 N

FIGURE 1W6 FIGURE 1(07

SLIGHTLY ELEVATED CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS STORAGE TANK TYPICAL DETAILS OF SLIGHTLY ELEVATED
CAPACITY’ 1690 LITERS (450 GALLONS I CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS RESERVOIR
A. Ground Level Reservoir

Illustrated in Figures 11.08, 11.10 and 11.13 are three typical assembly of
ground level reservoir, Its appurtenances and foundations. The construction
procedures are as follows:
Prepare the foundation of the reservoir. It should be observed that the
foundation of these reservoirs are reinforced concrete, therefore, it is
suggested that Chapter 8, Concrete Design and Construction should be
referred to before starting the job. Presented in this manual are three
ways of supporting a steel ground level reservoir. They are:

a. Using a Reinforced Concrete Ring Wall — This type of foundation

is illustrated in Figure 11.08 and detail (F/11.09). The reservoir
body and the foundation is secured-in-place using a cement grout.

b. Using a Concrete Floor Slab — This type of foundation is illus-

trated in Figure 11.10 and detail (A/11.10). The reservoir body is
secured-in-place using a cement grout.

c. Using Reinforced Concrete Footing and an I-Beam. This type of

foundation consists of an I-Beam welded to a base plate which is
bolted into a reinforced concrete footing as shown in Figures
11.12 and 11.13, and detail (K/11.11). The reservoir body is
connected on the foundation by welding-in-place or by bolting the
base of the reservoir to the I-Beam support.

2. Assemble the reservoir body in accordance with Figures 11.08, 11.10

and 11.13. The assembly process consists of cutting the steel plate, the
molding of the steel plate into the desired reservoir shape and the joint-
ing of the metal plates either by welding or rivetting.
3. Place the reservoir body on the prepared foundation using the rope and

pulley system or by use of a crane.

4. Secure it in place by any of the following methods:

a. If the foundation used is the type shown in Figures 11.08 and

11.10, the reservoir body could be secured in place by the use of
a cement grout.

b. If the type of foundation used is similar to what is shown in

Figure 11.13, the reservoir body could be secured by the use of
bolts and/or by welding. Illustrated in Figure 11.12 is the anchor
bolt plan and base plate detail.

5. Install the reservoir appurtenances as shown in figures 11.08, 11.10 and

11.13. The detail of the installation is shown in Figures 11.09 and
11.11.

6. Paint the steel surface with anti-rust paints. The type of paint to be
used should be the type which does not impart odor and taste to water,
and should not be toxic.

182
C’)

FIG~E 1108
STEEL TANK ON REINFORCED CONCRETE RINGWALL
CAPACITY 18,925 LITERS I5,O~XtGALLONS)
-A

a
 N /~><
7

//
-N

(71
/
QO4~
A ANCHOR

OI3M
234M
N
BOLT PLAN

OO4~
PLATE

0
0

—020 N O2OM XEOmrn BASE PLATE

14316mn~S N T~M At~NORBOLTS

0
1- BEAM IALTERNATE)

0
0

~ ~_-~Q__~ B DETAIL OF BASE PLATE

FIGURE 1112 FK3UF~(113

ANCHOR BOLT PLAN AND BASE PLATE DETAIL SLIGHTLY ELEVATED STEEL TANK
CAPACITY 9,463 LITERS (2,5U0 GAL I
 B. Elevated Steel Tanks

Elevated steel tanks essentially consists of four main parts, namely founda-
tion, reservoir tower or supporting structure, reservoir body, and appur-
tenances. Illustrated in Figures 11.14, 11.15, 11.16 and 11.17 are four
typical assemblies of an elevated steel tank. The construction procedure is
as follows:

1. Construct the Foundation of Reservoirs

Shown in detail (K/i 1.11) and Figure 1 i.~12 is a typical detail of a

reinforced concrete footing, and anchor bolt plan and base plate
detail for use as foundation, respectively. The size of the footing
foundation is dependent upon the dead load consisting of the reser-
voir body and supporting steel columns and the live load which is
dependent upon the total capacity of the reservoir.

2. Construct the Supports or Columns

Shown in Figures 11.14 to 11.17 are typical details of the steel columns
and bracings. The columns may either be an angle of an I-beam. The
thickness of these steel members depend primarily on its live and
dead loads. These steel members are usually assembled b~bolting
or by welding.

3. Assemble the reservoir body in accordance with Figure 11.14 or 11.15

or 11.16 or 11.17, whichever is selected.

4. Place the assembled reservoir body on the prepared foundation and

steel column or support using rope and pulley system or by use of a
crane, whichever is available.

5. Secure the reservoir body to the supporting steel tower by bolting

and/or by welding.

6. Install the appurtenances as shown in the drawings. The detail of the

installation is shown in Figures 11.09 and 11.11.

7. Apply waterproofing materials to make the reservoir watertight by use

of a brush or by spraying or by any appropriate tools.

8. Paint the steel surfaces with anti-rust paints. The type of paint to be
used should be the type which does not impart odor and taste to
water, and should not be toxic.

11.O~ FERROCEMENTTANKS

A. General

Ferrocement is a composite material consisting of concrete reinforced by a

number of layers of wire mesh with or without skeletal steel. Ferrocement
structures can be cast with or without the use of forms.

186
—1

FiG1~E1115
ELEVATED STEEL TANK
CAPACITY 7,570 LITERS (2,000 GALLONS)
 61 320pk NI
— —AN VENT W/SCREEN

r ~—~——COVERPLATE 45mm 111K

—060MB MANHOLE

/ /SHELL PLATE 45mm 111K

/ SEE DETAIL
~j~sEE DETAIL (~
______________ —TAPD< LADDER
FiB

BOTTOM PLATE 6mm 111K

~~‘HANDRAIL~-EOmm N 50mm N 3mm

7
H

CO
IO
C,,

±~— lOmmO RAILINGS

0 —CIRCULAR GUARD lIlt

CE
N SEE DETAIL L
Cu
~INLET-OUTLET PI~

— ANGULAR STRUTS/O-5Omm 5 50mm 56mB

g 0
0,
N / CROSS BRACIM3S IS mm SW’ TU~
BUCKLES

PLATE 9 mr~tth

-J
0,
0 STEEL COWMNSWF lBS
“5
ANCHOR BOLTS
‘><\~GUSSET COLUMN BASE PLATE

0 NISH GROUNDLINE
I.,
- ,~ , N-C FOOTING
SEEDETAIL(~~

ELEVATION

FIGURE 1(17
ELEVATED STEEL TANK
CAPACITY 37,95~L(TEV~S (10,000 G4LLONS(
 The technology for the construction of ferrocement tank is still at its infant
stage. Studies conducted reveal that ferrocement structures possess com-
parable mechnical properties or better as compared to reinforced concrete.
This could be attributed to the addition of closely spaced steel reinforce-
ment or wire mesh which has substantially larger surf~ce area where the con-
crete could be bonded. Also, these studies indicate that the construction of
ferrocement structures requires relatively low material cost, however, it
requires fairly high labor cost for there is an extensive hand work involved.

B. Technical Specifications for the Construction of Skeletal Framework.

1. Materials
a. Wire Mesh —The wire mesh reinforcement may be either galvan-
ized welded or woven square mesh, or hexagonal mesh or chicken
wire. The diameter of the wire should be limited within the range
from 0.5 mm (0.02 in) to 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) and size of mesh
opening from 5 mm (0.2 in.) to 25 mm (1 in.).
b. Reinforcing Steel Bars —
Reinforcing steel bars placed along side
with mesh reinforcement is necessary to improve the strength and
deformability of ferrocement structure. Steel bars prescribed
either by ASTM A-615 and A-616 may be used
c. Concrete Spacers —Concrete spacers are precast concrete with
composition or mix design similar to the ferrocement material
used in making the body of the tank. It has the dimension of 25
mm x 25 mm x 6 mm (1” x 1” x 1/4”). Concrete spacers are
employed to make a spacing between the floor and the bottom
of the steel frameworks.

2. Thickness of Ferrocement Structures

The thickness of ferrocement structures are determirled by the number
of layers of wire mesh and steel reinforcements, and the thickness of
concrete cover.
a. For a cylindrical wall, the thickness per wire mesh layer should be
limited within the range of 25 mm to 40mm (Figures 11.18B and
11.19B).

b. For the reservoir base, the thickness per wiremesh layer should be
limited within the range of 38 mm to 63 mm(Figuresl 1.18D and
11.19B).
c. For the protection of reinforcements, a concrete cover with
thickness limited to within the range of 2.0 mm (1/12”) to 4.0
mm (1/6”) should be provided. It is not recommended that con-
crete cover be more than the prescribed maximum because it may
cause cracks which will expose the reinforcements to the corrosive
environment,

3. Splicing

Jointing of wire mesh is accomplished by lap splicing with the length

189
 B PART WALL AND PART BOTTOM
A SKELETAL FRAMEWORK SLAB SECTION

-I
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS
Co DIMENSIONS THICKNESSES NO OF W1REMESI-t
0 IN METERS INmm LAYER

TJA0~
VOLUME WALL
CU M D H BOTTOM WALL
3 2
2 160 120 381 1905
361 1905 3 3
3 200 120

500 254 3 3
4 200 ~5O
500, 25 4 3 4
5 225

NOTES
I WIRE MESH SHALL BE BWG * 20 10 869mm 01 WITH IS 7 5 127mm SQUARE GRID
2 REINFORCEMENT FOR BOTTOM SLAB SHALL BE 953mm 0 AT 0 30M 0 C 8W AND
63mm 0 AT 030M 0 C BW FOR WALLS
3 PROVIDE SPAcER BETWEEN WIRE MESH

FIGURE 1119
TYPICAL SKELETAL FRAMEWORK OF FERROCEMENT TANKS
 of overlap not less than 10 cm (4”). In cases where the thickness of
wall or floor requires two or more layers of wire mesh reinforcements,
the joint of one layer should be staggered or displaced relative to the
Joints of the other layers. With respect to the splicing of reinforcing
bars, refer to section 10.02.

4. Fabrication of the Skeletal Framework with Reinforcing Bars

a. Measure, cut and bend the reinforcing steel bar to the desired
shape as shown in the plans. For circular structures, a steel pattern
illustrated in Figure 11.18A could be employed.
b. Form the steel framework as specified in the plans. vvltn respect to
the procedure of splicing, refer to Chapter 10.

c. Measure the required dimension of wire mesh, mark it and then

cut it on the mark line. The length cut should be equivalent to the
diameter of the reservoir plus an allowance for overlapping which
should not be less than 10 cm (4 in.).

C. Mortar Preparation

Materials

a. Cement — Portland cement conforming to ASTM C-150 is em-

ployed in mortar preparation. This portland cement may be the
ordinary type or the Hi-Early or Rapid hardening type.

b. Fine Aggregates — The aggregates to be used for mortar prepara-

tion should pass sieve no. 8 and retained in sieve no. 100 or have
the particle size range of 0.149 mm to 2.38 mm.

c. Admixture — Admixtures may be used for meeting special needs

such as for improving the workability of the mix, for accelerating
or retarding the setting time, and for increasing the resistance to
sulfate attack. Presented in Table 8.01 are the different types of
admixtures and their usage.

d. Water — Water should be clean, fresh and free from injurious

amounts of oil, acids, alkalies, salts, organic materials and other
substances deleterious to concrete and steel.

2. Mortar Mix Proportion

The selection of mortar mix proportion depends primarily on the
strength of the required mortar. For ferrocement structures, it is recom-
mended that cement/sand ratio by weight be within the range of 2 to
3 and the water/cement ratio be within the range of 0.35 to 0.65. It
should be pointed out that water/cement ratio is one of the important
factors which determine the strength of the ferrocement structure,
hence, it should be properly regulated. This could be accomplished by
proper estimation of the moisture content of sand and the amount of
water to be added.

191
 3. Mixing

Mixing of mortar should be done properly for if it is not done satisfac-

torily, shrinkage and eventually cracking may result. Mixing of mortar
is usually accomplished in rural areas by hand mixing. However, for big-
ger projects or for a number of small projects, it is suggested that a
paddle type mixer designed especially for mortar mixing by purchased
be the water agency concern.
D. Plastering of Mortar

Plastering with Formworks

This type of classification is often employed in the construction of

underground reservoirs and to a lesser extent in the construction of
above ground structures.

Procedure:

a. Prepare the Formworks. For underground reservoirs, the surround-

ing earth wall of the excavated hole may be serve as the form. For
above ground reservoirs, weave a circular wall from pitpit, wild-
cane or bamboo.

b. Apply a thin coat of mortar prepared by mixing one part of

cement to 6 parts of sand to give the rough formwork a smooth
finish. The plastering should be accomplished in tiers of 60 cm -

100 cm starting from the bottom advancing upwards.

c. Allow the applied mortar to stiffen for 1 to 2 hours.

d. Apply 2.0 cm to 4.0 cm thick layer of mortar prepared by mixing

a part of cement to 3 parts of sand. This should be done in tiers of
0.6 M to 1.0 M from the bottom progressing upwards.

e. Allow it to stiffen for 2 to 3 days.

f. Place the skeletal framework as indicated in the plans.

g. Continue plastering using the mortar with mix ratio of 1:3 until
the desired thickness is reached or until the point where the
second wire mesh should be placed (Figure 11.18B).

2. Plastering Without Formworks

This type of plastering procedure is usually employed in the construc-
tion of above-ground reservoir.
a. Prepare the skeletal structure of the reservoir as indicated in the
plans or as illustrated in Figures 11.18 and 11.19.
b. Prepare a mortar mix by mixing one part cement to three parts
sand with sufficient water to make a consistency of a thick paste.

c. Start the plastering of mortar. The application of mortar is ac-

complished manually using a trowel and in tiers of 0.6 to 1.0 M.

192
 The process consists of forcing the mortar from the outside to
the inside where it can be finished off to a smooth surface. Under
no circumstances should the inside mortar be applied until the
outside has fully penetrated the wire as this will result in the
entrapping of air between layers. Also, the plastering from both
sides should never be done as this will yield the same defects.
d. Apply the finishing coat. The final coat should be applied before
the initial set of the main plaster has taken place.

3. Plastering at the Construction Joints

Plastering operation should be completed if possible in one day to
avoid construction joints. However, if it is not possible, the following
plastering technique is recommended.

a. Remove laitance before the mortar has finally set. This can he
accomplished by spraying the exposed edge of the mortar with
fine jet of water. This is usually done six to ten hours after the
placement depending upon the temperature. The removal of the
laitance will provide a relatively rough surface of exposed sand
grains.
b. Prepare a portland cement grout by mixing one part cement to
three parts sand with sufficient water to provide a creamy con-
sistency.
c. Place the mortar on the construction joints. Alternately, apply
epoxy resin glues to the joints to ensure perfect jointing.
E. Curing
Cure the structure continuously by spraying of water for the first seven
days after placement if the cement used is the ordinary type and 3 days
if the cement used is the Hi-Early type. For detail of the curing procedure,
refer to section 8.12.

F. Installation of Appurtenances
Install all appurtenances as shown in the plans. This is accomplished by
chipping off with the use of the chisel the area where a certain appurte-
nance is to be placed, placement of the appurtenance, and the sealing of the
construction joints between the concrete and appurtenant structure.
G. Finishing of Concrete Structure
Check the surfaces for defects and then patch it using a concrete mortar.
The composition of mortar for this purpose should be similar to that used
in making the body of the reservoir.

H. Waterproofing
After finishing, the contractor should see to it that the reservoir is water-
tight. This could be accomplished by the addition of appropriate water-
proofing materials.

193
I. Procedure for the Construction of Underground Reservoir

1. Foundation work

a. Excavate a hole of dimensions specified in the plans.

b. Construct the underdrain of the reservoir as shown in Figure
11.20 and detail E/i 1.03.
2. Construction of the Base of Reservoir.

The base of the reservoir may be a reinforced concrete slab or ferro-

cement concrete structure. In this manual, we are recommending a
reinforced concrete base.

3. Construction of the Reservoir Walls

The ferrocement concrete wall could be constructed using the proce-
dure outlined in section 11.050.1. Plastering of mortar with form
work.

S E CTI ON

PLAN

FICIJRE II 20
UNDERGROUND FERROCEMENT TANK

194
 4. Construction of the Reservoir Cover
a. Bend the reinforcing bars as illustrated in Figure 1 1.18C.

b. Construct the form which will support the cover to be casted.

A typical form is illustrated in Figure 11.18C.

c. Apply a thin coat of weak mortar prepared by mixing one part

of cement with 6 parts of sand to give the rough formwork and
a smooth finish. Allow it to harden for 1 to 2 hours.
d. Prepare the skeletal framework of the reservoir as shown in the
plan.

e. Apply mortar until the desired thickness is reached.

5. Sealing of Construction Joints.

The sealing procedure is outlined in section 11 .05D.3.

6. Cure the concrete structure, install the appurtenances, repair the

surface defects detected and apply waterproofing materials.

J. Procedure for the Construction of Above-Ground Reservoir

1. Excavate a hole of dimensions specified in the plans and construct the

underdrain of the proposed reservoir as shown in Figure 11.02 and
detail (E/11.05).

2. Construct the reinforced concrete base of the reservoir.

3. Construct the ferrocement concrete walls. The construction procedure

is outlined in section 11.05.D.2: Plastering of Mortar Without Form
work.

4. Construct the reservoir cover according to the procedure outlined in

section 11.05.1.4: Construction of Reservoir Cover for Underground
Reservoir.

5. Seal the construction joints according to the procedure outlined in

section 11.05.0.3.

6. Cure the concrete structure, install the appurtenances, repair the sur-
face defects detected and apply waterproofing materials.

11.06 HYDROPNEUMATIC PRESSURE TANKS

Hydropneumatic pressure tank can be bought in the market by package deal.

The package consists of a steel tank either horizontally or vertically mounted,
pressure regulator, pumps, valves and other minor appurtenant structures. Shown
in Figure 11.21 are typical installations of hydropneumatic pressure tanks.

195
 A HORSCII1AL HYORcPIEIJMETIC 74811

S VERTICAL RVDROP#EUMKTIC TANK

FISURE 1121
SCHEMATIC DIAGRN~1 OF HYDROPNEUMA11C
STORAGE TANKS

11.07 WATERPROOFING OF RESERVOIRS

Reservoirs could be made watertight by adding or application of water-proofing
materials. These materials are available in the market today under various trade
names. Generally, waterproofing materials could be classified into three general
categories, namely admixtures, membranes and coatings.

A. Admixtures
Waterproofing admixtures are prepared by mixing water repellant and dis-
pensing compounds. it is applied by blending it with the concrete mix, Its
incorporation creates a chemical change wherein a non-wettable lining is
formed on the side walls of all pores and voids in the concrete making them
water repellant. Also, the addition of the admixture resulted to the forma-
tion of a dense, hard and impermeable concrete structure. For details of the
application procedure, it is recommended that the contractor consult the
brochure which always accompany the purchased product.
B. Membranes
Membranes are very thin plastics used to form a barrier between water and
the concrete structure. It is applied by pasting it to the concrete surfaces to
be waterproofed. For details of the application procedure, refer to the pro-
duct brochure.
C. Coating
The principle in making a reservoir watertight using coating materials is
similar to the principle in making a reservoir watertight using membranes.
Coating materials are derivatives of silica and cement. They are applied
by use of steel trowels. For detail of the application procedure, it is recom-
mended that the user will refer manufacturer’s manual of the product
selected,
196
 CHAPTER 12

CONSTRUCTION OF SLOW SAND FILTRATION SYSTEM

12.01 GENERAL
The slow sand filter is considered as one of the cheapest means of purifying sur-
face water. For treatment of rural water supplies, it is usually selected not only
because it is simple to operate but also because it can be constructed using indige-
nous materials.
The slow sand filtration system is composed of four main parts, namely: surface
water intake structure, pumping or water conveying system, filter system and
storage.

12.02 SURFACE WATER INTAKE STRUCTURE

Illustrated inFigure 12.01 is a typical surface water intake structure. The instal-
lation consists of a delivery pipe and well. The delivery pipe is equipped by a
float and perforated pipe which serves as the water inlet. The well on the other
hand may be equipped with a pump depending on its elevation relative to the
filter,
Construction Procedure:
1. Construct a hand dug well approximately, 2-4 meters from the stream or river
(Figure 12.02A). The well may be made of reinforced concrete pipe. For the
construction procedure, refer to Chapter 6.

2. Cut a trench as shown in Figure 12.02B.

3, Drive a metal pipe from the bank of the river towards the constructed well,
(Figure 12,02C), For the pipe driving procedure, refer to section 5.03.
4. Install the float intake structure (Figure 12.02D).

5. Backfill the excavated trench with earth and then line the bank with stones
grouted with cement mortar. This is necessary to prevent soil erosion.

6. Deepen the well further to increase its water holding capacity.

12.03 FILTER BED
The purification process takes place in the filter bed. Organic and inorganic mat-
ter found in raw water are removed as it passes through the bed. The filter bed
consists of the following parts; namely: filter box, sand and gravel bed, and
underdrains.

A. Filter Box

The filter box houses the underdrains, sand and gravel bed and the super-
natant water reservoir. The height of the box usually ranges from 2.5 to 4.0
meters.
Filter boxes may be circular, rectangular or any shape depending on the
configuration of the ground available and may be made of reinforced con-
crete, concrete hollow blocks or ferrocement. The sides or walls may be

197
 0
z HIGH WATER LEVEL
4 SEE DETAIL
w
WI-
O-J LoM~

0 SEE DETAIL~~,~

-~ —CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

2 GUIDE POLES BARREL

FLOAT
I~8EIION~ ‘. .-.—— / PLAN
WITH CEMENT
ST WATERGROIJTEO
LEVEL A EXCAVATE WELL

CUT TRENCH

- L0~ST WATER LEVEL ,‘~‘

~RETEWaL~:

DROP PIPE
OI( I — _)

38 mm ORIVEN PLAN

FLEXIBLE JOINT MADE FROM TRENCH

SEE DETAIL A RUBBER OR PLASTiC HOSE
-I
Co
03 SECTION

fl3mm (1/8’) HOLES AT Scm

01 METAL PIPE
10 C STAGGERED

~0 0

I 0 0
FL A N
L 20cm

A DETAIL OF FLEXIBLE JOINT B DETAIL OF PERFORATED PIP~

FIG 1W1 NOT TO SCALE FIG 1201 NOT TO SCAL

C DETAIL OF BARREL FLOAT

FIG iaoi NOT TO SCALE D FILL TRENCH, INSTALL FLOATING INTAKE, DEEPEN AND LINE THE WELL, AND LINE
TUE RANI( WITU VTn~JrE NIna C.RflIITINfl CEMENT

FIGURE 12 01 FIGURE 12 02

SURFACE WATER INTAKE STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION OF INTAKE

 vertical or sloping depending on the bearing capacity of soil and available
space,

1. Vertical Walls
Shown in Figure 12,03A and B are typical vertical filter box walls.
Illustrated in Figure 12,038 is a wall shaped like a ladder step. This
second type of vertical wall is constructed with provisions against
short circuiting or the passing of water round the edges instead of
through the sand bed. Short circuiting may occur if the sand bed
shrinks away from a vertical wall.

2. Sloping Walls
Illustrated in Figure 12,03C and D are typical sloping walls for filter
boxes. Figure 12.03C shows a wall made of reinforced concrete while
Figure 12.030 shows a wall made of ferrocement. The construction of
sloping sides is usually cheaper than the vertical sides since the ground
takes the thrust of the water pressure and the wall functions only as a
lining material required for water tightness and not for structural
strength, hence, the wall thickness is minimum. However, when this
type of wall is employed, provisions should be made against unequal
settlement. Furthermore, this type of box requires more space since the
critical area is the top of the filter surface.
B. Underdrain

The underdrain serves as support of the filter media and provides outlet for
the filtered water. It may be constructed by laying bricks on edge (Figure
12.04A), using bridge-shape porous concrete blocks (Figure 12.04B), using
perforated half round tiles (Fig, 12,04C) or using perforated pipes (Figure
12.04D). The underdrain may have a height ranging from 15-20 cm., depend-
ing on the type of materials selected.

C. Placement of Filter Materials

1. Materials Specifications
a, Filter Gravel — Gravel for use in slow sand filter should consist of
hard round stones having a diameter ranging from 2.4-19 mm. and
specific gravity not less than 2.5 and should be visually free from
shale, sand, silt, clay, dirt and other organic or inorganic impuri-
ties,
b. Filter Sand — Sand to be used as filter should consist of hard
durable grains of siliceous materials with effective size ranging
from 0.25 to 0,35 mm, with uniformity coefficient ranging from
2,0 3.0 and should be free from dirt, loam, clay and other
-

organic materials. Effective size is defined as the sieve opening

through which 10 per cent of the material will just pass while the
uniformity coefficient defines the size distribution of sand parti-
cles and is the ratio of the sieve opening which allows 60 per cent
of the materials to pass to the effective size.

199
 A STRAiGHT VERTICAL WALL B STEPPED VERTICAL WALL

A BRICKS LAID ON EDGE B BRIDGE-SHAPED POROUS CONCRETE BLOCKS

GRAVEL

0
0

C. REINRRCED CONCRETE SLOPING WALL

STRUCTURE

FLOOR OF FILTER BOX

PT PEG

C PERFORATED HALF-ROUND TILES D PERFORATED PIPE

D FERROCEMENT CONCRETE SLOPING WALL

‘RON BICLOWCAL F1LTERO ,WORLD

HEALTH ORGANIZATION
FiGURE 1203 FIGURE 1204
TYPICAL WALLS FOR THE FILTER BOX FILTER UNOERDRAIN STRUCTURAL VARIATIONS
2. Preparation of Filter Box

a. Clean the filter box thoroughly from undesirable materials,

b. Mark a continuous level line representing the top elevation of each

gravel or sand layer on the inside of the box.

3, Placement of Gravel Bed

The entrance of gravel into the underdrain and the penetration of sand
into the gravel layer should be prevented as much as possible. This can
be achieved by proper placement of gravel layers and the proper selec-
tion of sizes of particles for each layer. Outlined below is the procedure
for placement of gravel bed,
a. Technical specifications for the construction of gravel bed.

i. Gravel particles within each layer should have fairly uniform

sizes. Outlined below are the suggested size ranges of gravel
to be placed from the underdrain to the top of gravel layer.

ii 38-19 mm (1112” — 3/4”)

i,2 25-13mm (1”— 1/2”)
i,3 19-9,5 mm (3/4” — 3/8”)

i,4 9.5-4.8 mm (1/2” — Sieve No. 4)

i.5 2,4-4,8 mm (Sieve No. 4 — Sieve No. 8).

ii. Minimum particle size of any layer should be as large as the

maximum particle size in the layer above.

iii. Within any layer, the maximum particle size should not be
more than twice the minimum particle size.

b. Procedure for the Placement of Gravel Layers

Place the bottom layer carefully to avoid damaging the filter

underdrain, Screen the top surface to bring it to a true
level plane and check the elevation of its top surface by f ill-
ing the filter box with water up to the marked level or by
measuring from a straight edge laid across the top of the filter
troughs.

ii, Place the succeeding gravel layers. In placing, care should be

exercised to avoid disturbing the surface of the layer beneath,
Also, screen the surface of each layer placed to bring it to a
true level and then check the elevations.

201
 iii. After all filter gravel have been placed and before the filter
sand is placed, wash the filter for 5 minutes at the maximum
available rate but not to exceed 6 liters per square meter per
second of filter area,

4. Procedure for the Placement of Sand Layers

The procedure for the placement of sand layers is similar to the

placement of gravel layers. The top surface of the filter material,
after initial washing, should have the height equal to the finished
elevation plus the layer of sand to be removed by scraping.
Furthermore, during first washing of the filter bed, it expands
due to the segregation of particles, Hence, provisions should be
made to take care of this expansion. It is usually accomplished
by placement of sand up to a level which is approximately 10
percent of bed thickness below finished elevation. Also, to avoid
the removal of an excessive amount of material by scraping which
may result in a coarser filter than was intended, no material
shall be placed in the filter in excess of that necessary to produce
the finished surface elevation.

12.04 FILTER CONTROLS

The ideal way of operating a slow sand filter is to maintain without interruption a
constant rate of flow at all times through the sand bed. The rate of flow through
the bed can be controlled either by manipulating the water level above the filter
bed or the outlet control structures to regulate the outflow of filtered water,

A. Water Inlet Structures

The choice of the type of inlet structure depends primarily on the elevation
of filter bed with respect to the raw water source and the economy of its
construction, Raw water can be conveyed from the raw water source to the
filter either by gravity, if the location of water source is higher than the high
water level of the slow sand filter (Figure 12.05A), or by pumping (Figure
12.05B) if it otherwise. Also, if the latter system is selected and at the same
time it is desired that pump operating time is minimized and partial removal
of suspended solids is necessary in intervening settling tank/reservoir should
be provided (Figure 12.05C). The low water level of this reservoir should at
least be at the same level of the water level in the supernatant water reservoir
in the filter so that water could continually flow through the filter. With
respect to the inlet controls, this could be done automatically using a float
valve or manually using a gate valve.

B. Outlet Structure
Filter outlet control is employed to regulate the flow of filtered water, Al-
lowing the outflow of water more than the design capacity of the filter will
result in a poor quality filter effluent. Filter outlet control can be accom-
plished using a gate valve, overflow weir or by use of an adjustable overflow
tubes,

202
12.05 CLEAR WELL

Clear well is sometimes referred to as a filtered water reservoir or pump sump. It

can be constructed using reinforced concrete, concrete hollow blocks, ferro-
cement and other indigenous materials. A clear well is employed to collect and
store filtered water before it is conveyed to the main storage tank and/or to con-
sumers.
12.06 TYPICAL DESIGN OF SLOW SAND FILTER
Illustrated in Figures 12.06, 1207, 12.09, 12.10 and 12.11 are different features
or designs of a slow sand filters, Tabulated below are their respective characteris-
tics.

Figure Type of Wall of Type of Under~ lniet Control Outlet Control

No. Filter Box drain

12 06 Stepped vertl Perforated pipe Float valve Gate valve with

cal wall plezometer
tube

1207 VertIcal wall Perforated pipe Gate valve Gate valve with
with inlet outlet weir
weir

12 09 Sloping wall Bricks laid on Pump Gate valve

edge

12 10 Grouted sloping Perforated half- None Water level in

wall round tiles clear well

12 11 Vertical wall Perforated PIPG Pump Water level in

clear well
I

203
0

GEE DETAIL ~

TYPE U
INLET -
COWTR~. OAT! VOLVE WiTH
INLET W~R
SECTION 8 OUTLET CONTROL - OAT! SLIME WiTh
OUTLET WEIR

FiGURE 1207
TYPE IL SLOW SAND FILTER
 175 mo,11/8I STEEL PLATE COVER
AT 7R 2~O~
(XI ON CENTER 4 ROWS PER
I LENUTH OF PIPE STAUGERLO

H2(6mm 6) VERTICAL BARS

7—-
‘2I6rnmOIVERflCAL BARS 00’ 5’

So’ V 5’
~lI/4,IHOLEO

EEIII~ DETAIL
NOT OF
TO VALVESCALE
BOX
B
IG 120
DETAIL OF
NOT
PERFORATED PIPE
TO SCALE

835 r,.o(1/4I HOLES ATT822n,S

IS”I ON ~RTER 4 ROBS PER
LENGTH OF PIPE, STAGGERED

CONCRETE WALL

~~~~PERFORATED PIPE

0
C),

C DETAIL OF UNDERDRAIN PIPE 0 DETAIL OF INLET PIPE

16 IGO NOT TO SCALE FIG 120 NOT TO SCALE

PIPE ~

SI P1PE—~-

ANCHOR BOLT
CONCRETE WALL\
DETAIL B

PLAN

E DETAIL OF FLOAT VALVE

1 NOT TO SCALE DETAIL
NOT OF TOPIPE SUPPORT
SCALE
DETAIL A

TYPE III SLOW SAND FILTER

0
 CHAPTER 13

INSTALLATION OF PUMPING FACILITIES

13.01 GENERAL
Pumping equipment forms an important part in the transmission and distribution
systems, It serves as the heart of the whole water supply system for it controls the
amount of water to be transmitted and distributed. To properly determine the
capacity and head of pumping facilities, a detailed hydraulic analysis should be
conducted. The result of the analysis should then be correlated with the design
and installation of the system.
Pumping facilities used for rural water supplies could be classified into two major
categories, namely: well pumps and booster pumps. Well pumps are employed
in pumping water from the well to the reservoir and/or directly to the distribu-
tion system and to the consumers. On the other hand, booster pumps are used to
boost pressure in cases where the pressure available is below the minimum re-
quired pressure. This usually happens when the source is far from the consumers
or when the elevation of the source is lower than that of the end users.

13.02 INSTALLATION OF WELL PUMPS

Installation of well pumps follows after well is completely developed and tested.
In the design and installation of pumping facilities, friction losses should be mini-
mized as much as practicable. This could be accomplished by making suction
piping direct and short as possible and by proper selection of suction pipe and
strainer, Usually, the selected pipe diameter for the suction line is one or two
commercial pipe sizes larger than the pump suction connection. In which case, an
eccentric reducer (with the pipe crown aligned) is required to eliminate the
accumulation of air in the suction line which may lower the pumping efficiency.
With respect to the size of the strainer, it should be 3 to 4 commercial pipe size
larger than the suction line but at least one or two commercial pipe sizes smaller
than the well casing.

A. Reciprocating Pumps

Shown in Figure 13.01 is a typical installation of a reciprocating pump.

The assembly consists of a plunger rod holding the tubular well cylinder
which is the water drawing part of the pump and the driver which composed
of a flywheel driven by a motor and a handle for manual operation in case
of power failure.

Installation Procedure:

1. Construct a concrete foundation as shown in Figure 13.01.

2. Install the pump arm, pivot (detail B/13.02), handle (detail A/13.02),
and the motor assembly.

3. Lower the drop pipe with a strainer and foot valve attach to its bot-
tom end using a pulley system. The final position of the strainer should

207
 PLAN

BEARING

TO DOLT

PIPE
‘I —P13100

— COLINVOR
ROD

-..JPLUNO(0 WITH
1LATHCRS AND VALVE.

—FOOT VALVE
H ESA 0ON A L

~AIL
PLUNGER ROD-ARM CONNEC11CtJ

ANCHOR
TO

0 HOLE FOR
LEVEL DOUNDING

(NT

OAR
WELL CAGING

WELL CASING GUIDE

SCALE

SECTION OF WELL S~AL

TO
DETAiL OF TUBULAR WFI.L CYLINDER
SCALE 1’ SC~LE
FIGURE 13 01 FIGURE 1302 -

iNSTALLATI ON OF RECIPROCATING PUMP TYPICAL DETAILS OF RECIPROCATING PUMP ASSEMBLY

 beat least one meter above the well screen or perforated pipe but below
the pumping water level.

4, Connect the tubular well cylinder to the piston or plunger rod together
with the drop pipe and then insert them into concrete casing.

5. Fix the end length of the drop pipe in the well seal (see detail D/13.02).

6. Bolt the upper end of the plunger rod to the arm (see detail C/13.02).
7. Connect the well arm to the flywheel of the motor assembly.

8. Install all the necessary valves and other appurtenances as shown in

Figure 13.01.

9. Test and disinfect the newly installed assembly.

B. Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps are employed in shallow well installations, It is employed

only if the pumping water level is less than six meters.

Installation Procedure:
1. Construct a concrete foundation as shown in Figure 13.03 and detail
(A/i 3.04).
2. Lower the suction line with foot valve together with the strainer
attached to its lower end, The detail of foot valve and strainer is illus-
trated in detail C/13,04.

3, Fix the drop pipe using a well seal (see detail D/13.02).

4. Install pump and motor.

5. Connect the drop pipe to the suction of the pump as shown in Figure
13.03.
6. Install all the necessary valves and all other appurtenances as shown in
Figure 13.03.

7. Test and disinfect the newly installed well pump assembly.

C. Jet Pumps

Jet pumps are installed in wells where the pumping water level do not
exceed 20 meters. Shown in Figure 13.05 is a typical installation of a jet
pump. The installation procedure is as follows:

1. Construct a concrete pump foundation and then allow a curing period

of 28 days if standard Portland Cement is used or 7 days if Hi-Early
Strength Portland Cement is employed.

2. Lower the drop pipe with foot valve, strainer and jetting equipment at-
tached to it.

209
 — .__JRECTARGULAR HOLE
FOR BOLTS AND NUTS

— —C-CHANNEL STEEL BASE

—CONCRETE FOUNDATION

PLAN
-C-CHANNEL STEEL BASE

-A
0

SECTION
DET~)L OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION
~NOT TO SCALE

4 VALVE

B DETAIL OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP C DETAIL OF FOOT VALVE AND STRAINER

S 1304 NOT TO SCALE IS 1304 NOT TO SCALE

FIGURE 1304
TYPICAL DETAILS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP ASSEMBlY
 3. Fix the drop pipe at the mouth of the well using a well seal clamp (see
aetail A/13,05).

4. Install pump and motor.

5. Connect the drop pipe to the suction of the pump.

6. Install all the necessary valves, controls and other appurtenances as

shown in Figure 13.05.

7. Test and disinfect the newly installed assembly.

0. Submersible Pumps
Submersible pumps are designed so that the pump motor and bowl are
placed in the well below the water level. Shown in Figure 13.06 is a typical
installation of a submersible pump in a deep well. The depth of submergence
shall be such that there is sufficient net positive suction head (NPSH) avail-
able for the particular pump selected. Usually, the pump bowl is set at ap-
proximately 5-8 meters below the anticipated pumping water level.

Installation Procedure:

1. Prepare all parts and accessories of submersible pumps as indicated

in Figures 13.06 and 13.07.

2. Inspect pump rotating elements. Open the pump and turn the end shaft
with a screw driver to be sure that the rotating elements turn counter
clockwise without binding. Replace all the dismantled parts.

3. Connect cable to the motor.

a. Cable Connector to Motor is of screw or thread type

i, Remove the cable guard with a screw driver and the plastic
plug from motor connector socket
ii, Insert connector end of cable into motor connector socket.

iii. Thread connector jam nut into motor socket to seal the
cable.

b. Cable Connector to Motor is of Splice Type

i. Cut the cable ends in a manner that the joints will be stagger-
ed 50 mm apart. Take care to match wires by colors; that
black to black, red to red, and yellow to yellow.
ii. Trim the insulation back 13-19 mm from the end of each
wire and then carefully clean off all insulating varnish from
exposed copper.

iii. Connect the cable to the motor terminals and cover the joint
tightly with either No. 33 or No, 88 Scotch waterproof
tape. Stretch tape and wrap each wire and joint tightly for
a distance of 38 mm on each side of the joint until four lay-

211
 cOJPLIRa

IDOUBLE IMPELLED
CENTRIFUGAL PIJMP 13mm THICK V(E1~I~

SLJHMERE~Ii SEAL PLATE

RISER PIPE
CA OLE

“~~‘DETAIL OF WELL SEAL

TO SCALE
~ UOMERSIHLS CABLE
WW~ AND UPPER
ELECTRODE MIRE
CABLE CLAMP ISCREN
CABLE CLOMP TYPE. EVERY 1 EM
SEE DETAIL 0 INTERVAL)

— COUPLING
ELECTROO?~OOP_
RISER PIPE
-
M
-A
p’)
- B DETAIL OF CABLE CLAMP
G13 NOT TO SCALE

DETAIL OF WELL SEAL CLAMP

C DETAIL QE ~OrTOMcAp
0 13 NOT TO SCALE

SECTION
 ers of tape are wound tightly about the joint. The edges of
the tape should be pressed down solidly onto the wire.

4. Test the motor as well as the joints by connecting the unit to power
supply. During the testing, the pump and motor should be submerged
by at least 10 cm in water. Also, provide a pipe connected to the pump
discharge to direct pump water back into the testing tank. During the
test run, do not allow pump to run dry even for a few seconds. Further-
more, to determine whether the joints are grounded or not, an ohm-
meter is oftenly employed.

5. Lay cable flat against pump and install cable guard protecting cable
from any sharp edges.
6. Connect the first length of riser pipe to the pump and start the lowering
of the pump slowly with the aid of a tripod, pipe holder, chain block,
pulley and pipe clamps. As lowering of the unit progresses, other
sections are added until the unit is completely submerge in water,

During the lowering of the pump, the cable is secured in the riser pipe
at every 3 meters interval with a cable clamp, As the cable is attached
to the riser pipe, examine it for insulation breaks, Any damaged spots
on the cable should be cleaned carefully and sealed with a waterproof
electrical tape. Also, during the lowering operation, avoid using pump
cable to support the weight of the unit,

213
 7. Repeat checking the cable for “ground” using an ohmmeter. If it is
found to be grounded, check the cable joints and seal it.

8, Continue the lowering of the pump until the desired pump submer-
gence (usually 5-8 meters below the pumping water level) in the well is
reached and re-checked the assembly for “ground”.
9, Fix the drop pipe at the mouth of the well casing using a well seal
(see detail A/13.06).

10. Connect the cable line into the pump control box. The connection
should be done in accordance to the specification of the pump manu-
factu rer.

11. Test the unit by connecting it to the power supply and observing its
discharge rate, If the rate is below the specified pump capacity, im-
mediately stop the pump and check the electrical connection, During
the test, never allow the pump to run dry even for a few seconds nor al-
low it to run in a reverse direction for several minutes.

12. Install all valves, controls and other appurtenances. If submersible

pump is employed in hydropneumatic pressure system, install appur-
tenances as shown in Figure 13.07A while if it is used in open tank
system, install appurtenances as shown in Figure 13.07B.

13. Install a lightning arrester on the incoming line to the control box or
magnetic starter to protect the pump from lightning.

13,03 INSTALLATION OF BOOSTER PUMPS

Booster pump is employed either to increase head or pressure in the pipelines or

to increase its carrying capacity or both. It is particularly useful in boosting the
pressure in the transmission of water whose source is far from the consumers and
where there is not enough distribution pressure or as a means of supplementing
the supplies to isolated areas where the growth of consumption over a period
of years has exceeded the capacity of the existing water supply system.
Boosting can be accomplished by either using an In-Line Booster Pump or Sump
Pump. Booster pumps are usually operated automatically, Their operation may
either be based on the rate of flow and head downstream, by time controls or by
pressure if a pressure tank is employed. If the latter type of control is used, the
pump is started and stopped by means of a pressure operated switch.

A. In-Line Booster Pump

Illustrated in Figure 13.08 is a typical assembly of an In-Line Booster Pump.

The installation procedure are as follows:

1. Determine where the pump will be located.

2. Construct the pump concrete foundation and allow the concrete to

harden,

3, Install the pump on the concrete foundation.

214
 FIPE SUPPORT

I,
PROM GR0000 TO SYSTEM

P LAN

PUMP

PIPE

4 10 SYSTEM

GROIN 0

SECTION
FIGURE 13 06
INSTALLATION OF N-LINE BOOSTER PUMP

4. Connect the suction side of the pump to the water main coming from
the water source and the discharge side to the water main distributing
water to the consumers.

5. Install all the appurtenances shown in Figure 13.08.

6. Test and disinfect the assembly before commissioning.

B. Sump Pumps

Illustrated in Figure 13.09 is a typical installation of a sump pump. The as-

sembly consists of a sump, flow control valves and pump controls. The sump
may be constructed using reinforced concrete ferrocement or concrete hol-
low blocks while the pump maybe of centrifugal, vertical or submersible
type. The procedure of sump pumps are as follows:

215
 PLA N

SEC TON

FIGURE 1309
INSTALLATION OF SUMP PUMPS

1. ConstructaSump,

The sump should have a volume equivalent to at least the volume of

water the pump could convey in 20 minutes. Also, in designing the
sump, the amount of water coming into the sump as well as the water
demand of the consumers should be carefully considered.
2. Install the pump and its appurtenances as shown in Figure 13.09.

The type of pump illustrated in the figure is the submersible type.

3, Test and disinfect the assembly before commissioning.

13.04 PUMP CONTROLS

Pumping facilities may be operated manually or automatically. Manual control
consists of a switch which starts and stops the motor of the pump as desired. On

216
 the other hand, pumps could be operated automatically using a pressure switch

or electrodes or flow switch.

A. Electrodes
Electrodes are installed at the minimum and maximum water level of the
reservoirs. The electrode -set at the minimum water level starts the pump
automatically while the electrode placed at the maximum water level stops
the pump motor automatically.

B, Pressure Switch

This type of control is used only when the pump is operated in conjunction
with the hydropneumatic pressure tank. The pump meter is started when
the pressure in the tank is the minimum pressure set and is stopped when the
pressure is the maximum pressure set.

C. Flow Switch
A flow switch is installed at the discharge of each pump to cause the motor
to stop automatically when flow ceases when the reservoir is already full.

13.05 CONSTRUCTION OF PUMPHOUSES

Pumphouses are primarily constructed to protect pumping facilities and to serve

as the operator’s quarter and oftice and storage for spare parts of equipment and
tools for the operation and maintenance of the water supply system. Illustrated
in Figure 13.10 to Figure 13.19 are plans for the construction of typical CHB
pumphouse. In the selection of construction materials, indigenous materials
should be given the first priority.

Construction Procedure:

1. Measure the area where the pumphouse Will be located with reference to
the plans and drawings, and stake it.

2. Clear and grub the proposed site of pumphouse.

3. Excavate the area that will serve as the foundation.

4. Install the reinforcing bars.

5, Construct the form for columns or posts,

6. Concrete the foundation and columns,

7. Put up the CHB walls and partitions.

8. Concrete the floor.

9. Construct the roof support structure,

217
co

FLOOR PLAN OF PUMP HOUSE

SCALE 1:50 MTS
 FLOOR LINE

GROUND

LEFT SIDE ELEVATION

SCALE I ~O M

CD

-FIN FLOOR LINE

GROUND

RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION

SCALE 150M

FIGURE 13 13

RIGHT AND LEFT SIDE ELEVATION OF PUMP)—OJSE

 PURLIN

DETAIL
~SC~M

50rpmX
50mm X

50mm X

25mm X 300mm FASCIA

0 E T A L
015,,) SCALE I

FIGURE 13 15

DETAIL OF ROOFING CONNECTION

 100 mm THICK CHB WALL mmSXlZOcm 4T O~0M OC
WITH SOrmo PLASTER
CEMENT FINISHING SF

• ___

—10mm 0 HORIZONTAL CONTINOUS

-2-lOrmn 0 CONTINOUS BARS

10mm 0 TIE BAR AT 0 4OM 0 C

-10 mm 0 HORIZONTAL CON11NWS

SECTION C
SCALE I 20M

BARS WITH 6mm 0

ATO2OM Oc

OF P C COLUMN
1 20 M

O9OM I

~‘. L>
0 1
/
/
/

PLA N
SECTION SCALE 1 40M
SCALE 1 20 N

DETAIL OF FOUNDATION
 ~OOmmTHICK CrIB WALL WITH
13mm THICK OP PLASTER
OPMENT FiNISHING

50mm X5Orrmr DOOR FRAP~WI

lDOmmT)IICE
MORTAR T~T~— 25mmX 5On~nNAILER

)IjNGE (100mm), JAMB 6mmTW TAMPERED LA~Nrr

SECTION Zr

50mm), lOUm
T}WI E AD ER

FRAME
ErmnTHK TAMPEPED L~ANIT(SF)

•2SryGo X ~mm NAILER

SECTION V

50mm X 50mm DOOR FRAME (/~_OO0R HANDLE

SECTION X~

FIGURE 13 18

DETAIL OF DOOR

10. Fasten the corrugated G.l. sheets to the roof structure.

11. Proceed with the finishing operations which include the plastering of CHB
walls with concrete mortar, putting up of windows, doors and other neces-
~ry items as shown in the plans,

12, Paint the pumphouse.

The size and finishing of pumphouse is usually dictated by the amount of funds
available for its construction and the size of the water supply system. An alternate
design of pumphouse is shown in Figure 13.20. It is smaller in dimension as com-
pared to the design shown in Figure 13.10.

222
 CASEMENT WINDOW WOOD TYPE WITH MULLION
AT MIDPOINT OF OPENING PROVIDE STIFFENER.
(SET

F- 045M.

FIXED

0
ID
/

//
/
/

CASEMENT WINDOW WOOD TYPE WITH

MULLION AT MIDR~1NT OF OPENING
(SET)

LONG GALVANIZED
BARREL AND BOLT

TIIK. TAMPERED LAWANIT

(SINGLE FACED)

25mm X 50mm NAILER FOR W’I ONLY

SECT ION liwu’

FIGURE 13.19
DETAIL OF WINDOW

223
 -5X5cmPURLJNS
FACIA

WOOD

G.E DOWNSPOUT

PRESSURE
TANK

Cl-fB WALL

CONcRETE SLAB

WELL
SECTION

PERSPECTIVE

FiGURE 13’20

TYPICAL PUMPHOUSE FOR A PUMP INSTALLATION

224
 CHAPTER 14

PAINTS AND COATINGS

14.01 GENERAL

Paints and Coatings are employed to protect the exposed surfaces of materials
from immediate deterioration. For instance, painting protects the wood from the
attack of termites carpenter ants and other boring insects; and metals from cor-
rosion, Also, paints and coatings are used to improve the appearance of these
materials, making them pleasant to look at.

14.02 PAINTING MATERIALS

Painting materials may be generally classified as primers and finishing paints.

Primer paints are usually employed as the primary or first coat while the finishing
paints are employed for the body or second coat and finishing or third coat.

A. Finishing Paints

Finishing paints may be classified according to usage and composition.

Presented in Table 14.01 are the different types of paints classified ac-
cording to their composition and usage. Also, paints may be classified as
gloss and fiat if the bases of classification is the brightness of the surfaces
painted. Gloss paints produce a bright painted surface while flat paints
give a dull surface.

B. Primers and Sealers

In any painting job, primers and/or scalers are usually employed as the pri-
mary or first coat to provide the body and finishing coats a good base to
adhere. Also they are employed to stop surface suction, thereby reducing
the amount of finishing paints to be used in the succeeding coats. Some-
times, primers/scalers are used in filling holes and dents, thereby providing
a smoother surface, Presented below are some common primers/scalers:

1, Red Lead and Red Oxide Primer

Red lead and red oxide primer are general purpc~seprimer paints for
interior and exterior used on iron and steel surfaces. They are highly
recommended for use as coat primer providing metals long lasting pro-
tection against corrosion. However, they contain a very toxic pigment,
hence, they are not recommended to be used in the painting of the in-
side surfaces of reservoirs or any other surfaces in contact with the
water supply.

2. Epoxy Paint Primer

Epoxy paint primer is non-toxic, hence, it is employed as the first coat

when painting metals in contact with water supply.

225
 Table 14.01

CLASSIFICATION OF PAINTS ACCORDING TO USAGE AND COMPOSITION

Classification According to Usage

Name of Paints Wood Masonry Metals
Exterior Interior Exterior Interior Exterior Interior

1. Acrylic emul-
sion latex
paint. X X X X

2. Shertex tex-
tured white
paint. X X X X

3, Gloss latex
white. X X

4. Flat paste
paints. X X

5. Semi-gloss
latex white. X X

6. FlatwalI ena-
mel white, X X

7. Exterior gloss
paint. X

8. Quick drying
enamel, X X X X

9. Semi-gloss
enamel. X X X X X X

3. Wood Primer and Sealer

Wood primer and sealer is a specially formulated material for use as
first coat when painting wood surfaces. It possesses excellent adhesion
properties and dries to a hard film, stops the surface suction, thereby,
reducing to a great extent the amount of paint to be used in the suc-
ceeding coats. In addition, it is also good as a sealer.
4. Masonry Sealer
Masonry sealer is employed as the primary coat when painting masonry
and concrete surfaces, It is employed as a barrier against moisture and
salt found in concrete which may cause efflorescence damage or erup-
tions.

226
 C. Accessories

The items mentioned herein are materials used in conditioning the surfaces
to be painted.

1. Concrete Neutralizer or Surface Conditioner

Concrete neutralizer is a very reactive solution to be used on new

masonry or concrete surfaces to neutralize alkalies, thus insuring good
adhesion of paint to the substrate or concrete.

2. Metal Treatment Solution

Metal treatment solution is a concentrated mixture of acids for cleaning

and degreasing metal surfaces prior to application of paint system. It
also acts as phosphating agent, and being acidic in nature, it functions
both as an etching and a mild rust removing compound, thereby, im-
proving adhesion of painting systems.

3. Wood Preservatives

Wood preservatives are applied before the application of primary

coat to protect the wood against fungi, moisture, rot, termites, car-
penter ants, toredo worms and other boring insects.

14.03 PAINTING SCHEDULE

Materials to be painted are usually classed as architectural or non-architectural

items. Unless otherwise stated or specified, painting of materials are usually
accomplished in three coats, namely: first coat, primer paint; second and suc-
ceeding coats or finishing paints. Also, in selection ol the color of the paint, the
painter must see to it that the color of the primary coat must be lighter than
the body coat and the color of the body coat must be lighter than the finished
coat. Whenever it is possible, the first and body coat, should preferably have the
same shade as the desired finish coat. Outlined below are the different painting
schedules.

A, Architectural Items

In rural water supply system, architectural items may include the pump
house, reservoirs, operator’s room office furniture and Iandscapings that
may be effected to improve the appearance of the system.

1, Exterior Finishes

a. Concrete Surfaces

i, First Coat : Masonry Sealer

ii. Body Coat : Concrete Masonry Paint
iii. Finishing Coat : Concrete Masonry Paint

227
 b, Wood Surfaces

i, First Coat Exterior Wood Primer

ii. Second Coat Exterior Wood Paint (Enamel paint
preferred),
iii. Third Coat Exterior Wood Paint (Enamel paint
preferred),

c. Unprimed Ferrous Iron Surfaces

i. First Coat Rust inhibitive metal primer

ii. Second Coat Exterior metal paint (enamel paint
preferred).
iii. Third Coat Exterior metal paint (enamel paint
preferred),

2. Interior Finishes

a. Concrete Surfaces

I. First Coat Masonry Sealer

Masonry paints (enamel undercoater
ii, Second Coat preferred).
iii. Third Coat Masonry paints (interior semi-gloss
enamel preferred).

b, Wood Surfaces

i, First Coat Interior Wood Primer

ii. Second Coat Interior Semi-gloss enamel
iii. Third Coat Interior Semi-gloss enamel

c. Unprimed Ferrous (Iron) Surfaces

i, First Coat Rust inhibitive metal primer

ii, Second Coat Interior enamel paint.
iii. Third Coat Interior enamel paint.

B. Non-Architectural Items

In rural water supply system, non-architectural items may include valves,

pipings and equipment. In the selection of the color of paints for these
items, provisions should be made so that the color selected must match
the color of architectural items.

1, Galvanized Iron Pipes and Other Galvanized Metal Surfaces

a, First Coat Galvanized metal primer

b. Second Coat Interior semi-gloss enamel

228
 2. Ungalvanized Metals
a. First Coat Rust inhibitive metal primer

b. Second Coat Interior semi-gloss enamel.

14.04 PREPARATION OF SURFACES TO BE PAINTED

Surfaces to be painted should be thoroughly smoothened, cleaned and dried

before any painting job. This could be achieved by repairing all surface defects,
levelling all the depressions and patching all cracks with plaster.

A. Preparation of Concrete and Masonry Surfaces

1. Cure all concrete and masonry surfaces for at least 30 days prior to
painting.

2. Inspect the cured surfaces for defects like holes, cracks or depressions.
Should any of the above-mentioned is detected, they should be neatly
filled with patching plaster. Allow the plaster to dry and then smoothen
with a sand paper No. 00.

3. Remove all dirt, dust, loose plaster and other deleterious matter which
would prevent good paint adhesion from the rest of the surfaces to be
painted.

4, Apply concrete neutralizer or masonry surface conditioner to neutralize

alkalies, to remove excess oxides on new concrete and milde’s from
old surfaces to insure good adhesion of paint to the substrate.

5. Apply the first coat of paint.

B. Preparation of Metal Surfaces

1. Remove all dirt, scales and rusts by scraping, wire brushing or sanding.

2. Remove oil and grease with appropriate solvents.

3, Treat the surfaces with metal treatment solution or with any approved
phosphoric acid etching cleaner in accordance with manufacturers’
recommendation to produce a chemically clean surface.
4. Apply the first coat of paint.

C. Preparation of Wood Surfaces

1. Check the wood surfaces to be painted for cracks, depressions, knots,

nail holes and other defects.

2. Fill with putty or other equivalent filler and nail holes, cracks and
depressions, and clean the surfaces from knots, sap streaks and other
defects.

229
 3. Smoothen the surface of the wood to be painted using a No, 00 sand-
paper.

4, Remove all dusts and dirts,

5, Apply wood preservatives and then the first coat of paint.

14,05 PREPARATION OF PAINTS

Paints available in the market today are concentrated, hence it is usually neces-
sary to dilute it to the desired consistency prior to application. The dilution
ratio depends primarily on the type of paint. It is suggested that the painter
must refer to the manufacturer’s recommendation before making the dilution.
After the addition of paint thinner, the mixture should be stirred thorougly
until it is homogenously mixed.

14,06 APPLICATION OF PAINT

The quality of the finished surfaces primarily depends upon the skillfulness
of the painter handling the job, the thoroughness of the preparation of the sur-
faces to be painted and the climate or temperature. For instance, painting should
not be done when the temperature is greater than 32°C (92°F) or when the
weather is damp.

Procedure of Application:

1. Prepare the painting materials needed for the painting job with reference
to the painting schedule which is presented in section 14.03.

2. Apply the primary or first coat evenly, free of laps, sags and cut sharply
to the required lines using a brush or spray.

3. Allow the primer paint to dry for no less than 24 hours.

4. Sand the surfaces using a sandpaper with gauge no. 00. This is necessary
so that the succeeding coat will have a good bond with the preceeding
coat.

5. Apply the second or body coat evenly to have a uniform thickness.

6. Allow it to dry for at least 24 hours and then roughen the surface using
a sandpaper no. 00.

7. Apply the third and final coat.

14.07 PAINT PROBLEMS, THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES

Outlined in Table 14.02 are the common problems which may be encountered
during the performance of painting jobs.

230
 Table 14.02

PAINT PROBLEMS, THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES

Problem Causes Remedies

1. Blistering and peeling, Coat of paint develop bubbles Check probable sources
with trapped water that later of moisture like seepage
burst, This happens when ex- or leaks from eaves, roofs
cessive moisture in and under- and plumbing, Seal all
neath the siding is drawn out these sources of moisture,
to the surface by the heat of and provide vents for
the sun, interior moisture.

Sometimes on low
weather, blistering occurs
during or right after paint-
ing. Unevaporated solv-
ent is trapped in deep
surface pores, When ex-
posed to the heat of the
sun, it vaporizes and
ruptures the dried sur-
face film, This happens
most often with dark
color paints which ab-
sorb more heat than
lighter colored ones. To
minimize solvent entrap-
ment, paint while in the
shade,

2. Flaking and cracking, Occurs when the wood swells Use well dried wood and
and shrinks due to wetting keep wetting. Have a
and drying out. good surface preparation
and nave proper sealing.

3. Intercoat peeling. Occurs when there is no ad- Sand the problem area
hesion between coats, with sand paper no. 00.
Repaint with one or two
coats of paint under-
coater and then apply
two coats of finishing
paint.

231
4. Alligatoring Due to faulty application of Follow manufacturers’ re-
paint surface, coat dries faster commendation/instruc-
and harder than the coats tion as to type and dry-
underneath. As the material ing time of the under-
under the surface film dries coater and the spreading
and hardens, it shrinks causing rates of the materials,
the already hardened surface
to pucket and wrinkle, If the
surface film is not elastic
enough, it will crack under this
tension.

5. Wrinkling Usually results when thick Follow manufacturers’ re-

heavy films of paint are commendations on pro-
applied in cold weather. per spreading rates and
favorable painting tempe-
ratures. When repainting
over wrinkled surfaces
the old surface should be
sandpapered to eliminate
the irregularities.

6. Suction spotting. This is caused by inadequate The entire job should be

priming of porous wood given another coat of
surfaces, This leads to finish paint. The correct
abnormally high absorption use of a high quality
of the binder by certain primer or sealer espe-
porous areas of the substrate. cially formulated for use
These areas will now experi- with its companion top
ence excessive chalking (due coat is the best insurance
to the decreased amount of against this problem.
binder in the film) and weather
away exposing the wood surface
underneath to more serious
problem.

232
 CHAPTER 15

CLEAN UP, TESTING, DISINFECTION AND START UP

15,01 GENERAL

Following the completion of the construction and/or installation of the different

elements of the water distribution system, it is necessary to condition the system
prior to its full scale operation, Conditioning may include clean up or removal of
undesirable materials, testing to determine whether the efficiency of operation
conforms to the design efficiency before turning it to the water cooperatives and
disinfection of the different components to kill all disease-causing bacteria.

After conditioning, the system is now ready for the start up. To fully understand
the manner of operating the different component of the system the operator is
advised to study the Volume Ill: Operation and Maintenance Manual.

15,02 CLEAN UP

After the systematic putting up of the different components of the system, it is

now the time to remove all eye sores and to develop the site, The cleaning process
consists of the hauling to the storage area all tools and excess materials, stripping
of temporary makeshifts or structures used during construction, levelling of the
ground and sweeping of all rubbish and dirt to the dumping site. The storage area
is usually located in the pumphouse.

15.03 TESTING

Testing is a way of determining whether the different elements of the systems

were installed properly. This is usually indicated by the system providing ade-
quate volume of water to the consumers at a minimum possible operational cost,

The testing process usually consists of the testing of the different parts of the

system separately and the testing of the system as a whole,

A. Pressure and Leakage Testing of Pipelines

Pressure and leakage testing is employed to determine the fitness of pipe-

lines for the transmission or distribution of water supplies. The process con-
sists of determining the amount of water leaking through a section of the
distribution system and comparing it to the allowable leakage.

Leakage in pipeline testing is defined as the quantity of water that must be

supplied into the newly laid pipe or any valved section thereof to maintain
the specified leakage test pressure after air in the pipe lines has been expelled
and the pipeline has been filled with water,

233
Testing Procedure:

1. Preparation of the Pipelines to be Tested

a, Allow the elapse of the following curing periods before starting the test.

i. If the pipeline is jointed with solvent cement, allow a curing

period ~f at least 2 days to elapse.

ii. If any section of the pipeline is provided with concrete backing or
thrust olocks, allow a curing period of at least 7 days to elapse
if standard portland cement was employed and 36 hours if Hi-
Early Cement is utilized.

b. Isolate the section to be tested by closing appropriate valves if available

and/or by placing bulk heads at any predetermine section of the pipe-
lines.

c. Flush the pipelines with clean water.

2. Visual Determination of Leakages

a. Fill the pipelines slowly with water at elevated points and allow the
removal of air through the air vents which is usually located at all
high points.

b. Apply a slight pressure after the line or section has been completely
filled. Let the system stand in that manner for at least 48 hours to
allow the escape of air from air pockets and to allow the pipelines and
their joints to absorb as much water as possible.

c. Examine all exposed pipes, fittings, valves, joints and couplings for visi-
ble leaks during this 48 hours period. Should a defect was detected,
repair or replace that particular part with sound material,

3, Start the pressure and leakage testing. The test pressure is 10.6 kg/sq.cm.
(150 PSI) and the test duration is 2 hours.

a. Pump water into the pipelines until the minimum pressure within the
section tested is 10.6 kg/cm2. Hold the test pressure for a minimum of
two hours. Should the pressure goes down, activate the pump and start
pumping water until the test pressure is restored to 10.6 kg/sq. cm.
The reduction of the pressure is an indication of the presence of leak-
ages.

b. Measure the amount of water pumped into the pipeline within the two
hours period with any suitable measuring device, The amount of water
leaking through the pipeline is equivalent to the amount of water
pumped to the system to restore the pressure of the system to the
required test pressure.

234
 c. Compare the amount of water the meter has registered with the al-
lowable leakage, The allowable leakage is 1.85 liters per mm diameter
of pipes per kilometer of pipelines per day.

d. Locate and repair or replace the defective pipe, fitting, joints or other
appurtenances should the test of the section disclose that the leakage is
greater than the allowable leakage.

e. Repeat the test until the leakage is within the permissible level,

B. Leakage Testing of Reservoirs

1. Elevated Reservoirs
The testing of the leakage of elevated reservoir is very simple. The pro-
cedure consists of filling up the reservoir with clean water and then
visually observing the outside surfaces for the presence of leaks,

2. Ground Level or Underground Reservoirs.

There are two simple ways of checking for the presence of leakages in

reservoirs which are sitting on the ground. These two methods are:
a. Method A — Close the discharge control valve. Fill the tank with
water up to a certain level, mark the water level on the wall of
the reservoir and then close the inlet control valva. After two days,
check the water level. Should there be an appreciable decrease in
water level, the reservoir has leaks. During the entire process,
both the inlet and outlet control valves should be tightly closed.

b. Method B —If the tank has an underdrain, observe the discharge

in the underdrains, Should there be an appreciable discharge, the
tank has leaks.

15,04 DISINFECTION

Before the commissioning and the turning of the newly constructed water supply
system to the owners, all of its parts which will be in contact with the water
supply should be disinfected to to kill all the disease-causing bacteria,

The disinfection process consists of subjecting all the above wetted parts with 50
mg/I chlorine solution for 24 hours and the testing of the concentration of chlo-
rine after the disinfection period. If the test results reveal that the chlorine con-
tent is lesser than 25 mg/I, the disinfection process should be repeated.

A. Disinfection of Wells and Well Pumps

The procedure of disinfection is as follows:

1. Pour 50 mg/I chlorine solution into the well and start the pumps, Open
the nearest outlet valve and try to smell the odor of chlorine. When

235
 chlorine odor is noticeable, close the valve and stop the pump. A more
convenient procedure is to determine the amount of chlorine solution
necessary to produce 50 mg/I in the well and then pour the required
amount of chlorine solution into the well.

2. Allow the well to stand idle for at least 24 hours.

3. Pump water to waste until the odor of chlorine disappear. During the
first 30 minutes, return the heavily chlorinated water back to the well
via the space between the casing and the drop pipe to disinfect this
area.

4. The well is now ready for service.

B. Procedure of Disinfection of Reservoirs and Storage Tanks

1. Clean the reservoir by brushing all adhering dirt particles.

2. Disinfect the tank by any of the following methods:

a. Fill the tank with 50 mg/I chlorine solution and allow the solu-
tion to stand for 24 hours before draining it to waste. Check the
concentration of chlorine in the drained solution. Should it be less
than 25 mg/I, repeat the chlorination process.

b. Alternately, prepare a thin paste by mixing bleaching powder and

water in a pail or bucket. Apply the thin paste vigorously using
a brush on the interior surfaces of the reservoir. Allow one hour to
pass before rinsing the tank with clean water.
3, Flush the tank with clean water

When disinfecting pressure tanks, it is necessary to open the air relief

valve at the highest point so that air is released and the tank should
be completely filled with heavily chlorinated water.

In all cases, the test should show a distinct residual chlorine (approxi-
mately 25 mg/I in the water drained out of the tanks. This is evidenced
by a very slight odor of chlorine in the water, If there is no residual
chlorine, the disinfection process should be repeated,

During the disinfection process, all the working men must be equipped
with breathing apparatus and full protective clothing. In case where
bleaching powder solution accidentally gets in contact with the eyes,
immediately wash eyes with clean water. After the disinfection job, all
men involved in the work must take a bath.

C. Disinfection of Pipelines

The procedure for the disinfection of pipeline is as follows:

1. Introduce a 50 mg/I chlorine solution into the pipelines to be disin-

fected until they are full. The preferred point of application is at the

236
 beginning of the pipeline extension or valve section or through corpora-
tion stops inserted on top of the laid pipe.

2. Allow the pipelines to stay idle for 24 hours, During this 24 hours con-
tact period, all valves and appurtenances should be operated.

3. Drain the chlorine solution through the draw-off valves and then flush-
ed the pipelines with clean water. After flushing, the residual chlorine
should be less than 0,75 mg/I but more than 0.2 mg/I. This is measured
roughly with the aid of a chlorine pumphouse residual test kit.
15.05 STARTUP
After making sure that the installation of the different elements of the system is
sound, start up and/or the testing of the operationality of the whole system
follows.

A. Start Up of the Pumping System

The mode of the start up of the pumping system depends upon the type of
the pump installed. The operator is advised to refer to the manufacturers
instructions on its operation or to the Operation and Maintenance Manual.

B. Start Up of the Distribution System

Allow the entrance of water to the distribution system from the source
by opening the appropriate valves. Allow 10-20 minutes for the stabiliza-
tion of the pressure throughout the pipelines and then observe the pressure
at the pressure gage installed at the selected points. For the system to be
acceptable, the pressure in all water mains should not be less than 3 meters.

C. Start Up of Slow Sand Filter

1, Introduce water at the bottom of the filter through the outlet cham-
ber, The purpose of adding water from the bottom is to get rid of
all entrained air in the sand pores and in the underdrainage system
which may cause air binding. Filling should continue until water begins
to show on the filter surface,
2. Level the top of the sand by ranking.

3. Continue adding water through the outlet chamber until the water
level is at least 10 cm above the sand bed. The purpose of raising
water up to this level is to protect the sand surface from being scoured
out of level when water is introduced from above.

4. Open inlet valve and start feeding water slowly from the top until the
maximum water level in the supernatant water reservoir is reached.

5. Open the outlet valve and waste the filtrate until the filter gives clear
water.

6. Allow the filter to ripen for at least one or two weeks. Ripening is
the process of allowing the growth of biological or slimy layer at the
surface of the filter bed.

237
 CHAPTER 16

SITE DEVELOPMENT

16.01 GENERAL

After the construction and installation of the different elements of water supply
system, the construction site should be cleaned from all eye sores and be made
pleasant to look at. The development process may consist of the grading or level-
ling of the ground, landscaping and the planting of ornamental plants.

The pumphouse or station is one of the few components of water system which
will be ultimately left visible to the general public, Hence, it should be designed
and constructed properly to make it attractive to look at. A little extra amount
spent on its building and its surrounding is generally worthwhile and compensated
by the respect and patronage of its consumers, This is because its orderliness and
cleanliness reflects to a great extent the quality of the management running the
system.

In general, there is no single rule to be followed in the development of the site.

The extent of the development usually depend on the existing condition of the
proposed site, the type of materials and equipment installed, the condition of
the surrounding neighborhood and the budget for the site development.

16,02 SITE GRADING AND PAVING

Site grading and paving is the process of levelling the ground to desired grade.
It consists of filling of low area with earthfill and the removal of solid from high
or protruding areas to make the ground area fairly level or uniform. After level-
ling, all fills should be compacted. If ornamental plants is to be planted in the
graded site, garden soil should then be added after compaction.

16.03 ACCESS ROADS

If pumphouse is not located along any street, access roads should be built. These
access roads are necessary for the operation and maintenance of the system.

The access roads to be built should be wide enough to accommodate the passing
of a cargo truck, A minimum width of 35 meter is recommended. Also, the ac-
cess roads should be well drained and constructed of materials that do not need
too much maintenance. If finances permit, access roads should be asphalted or
cemented.

16.04 FENCING

Fences should be provided around pumping stations to prevent the entrance

of unauthorized persons and stray animals who may destroy the equipment
and other items, and/or contaminate the water supplies, To serve the above
mentioned purposes, fences should therefore be unclimable and strong. Also,
they should be attractive and the materials used should have a long life and

238
 requires minimum maintenance. Fences made of barbed wire or cyclone wire
fixed on concrete posts may serve the purpose, To improve its appearance, hedges
may be planted along the fence,

16.05 OTHER IMPROVEMENTS

Surroundings of the pumphouse could be improved by landscaping and by plant-

ing of ornamental plants. The configuration of the landscape will depend primari-
ly on the existing configuration of constructed pumphouse and the terrain. In
order that it will be effective, it should harmonize and blend with the existing
structures. Also, the type of ornamental plants to be used will depend primari-
ly on the variety which is available locally, its suitability or blending with the
landscape and its cost.

239
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241