ST.

MARY’S UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF WOMEN MANAGERS IN

SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS

BY
RAHEL HAILU

MAY 2013
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA
 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF WOMEN
MANAGERS IN SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS

BY
RAHEL HAILU

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO ST.MARY’S UNIVERSITY COLLEGE,

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

MAY 2013
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

ii
 ST. MARY’S UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
FACULTY OF BUSINESS

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF WOMEN

MANAGERS IN SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS

BY
RAHEL HAILU

APPROVED BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS

Dean, Graduate Studies Signature

Advisor Signature

External Examiner Signature

Internal Examiner Signature

iii
 DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work, prepared under the

guidance of Abebe Mulugeta (PhD). All sources of materials used for the thesis

have been duly acknowledged. I further confirm that the thesis has not been

submitted either in part or in full to any other higher learning institution for the

purpose of earning any degree.

Name Signature

St. Mary’s University College, Addis Ababa May, 2013

iv
 ENDORSEMENT

This thesis has been submitted to St. Mary‟s University College, School of

Graduate Studies for examination with my approval as a university advisor.

Advisor Signature

St. Mary’s University College, Addis Ababa May, 2013

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the almighty God who helped me through out of my life.

For all his sincere and enormous devotion to help me for the accomplishment of this thesis work
and to bring me here from start; much appreciation is expressed for my instructor and adviser Dr.
Mulugeta Abebe.

Acknowledgment is expressed to the respondents of all organizations that this study were
conducted.

Special thanks are due to Dr. Saif A. Musa for his special and unlimited advice in this study. In
addition, the substantial support and contribution of my family, colleagues and friends are deeply
acknowledged and emphasized in all cases of my future live will never be forgotten.

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 ABSTRACT
The present study aimed to investigate and compare the challenges and opportunities, leadership style
practiced, the decision making capabilities of women managers in female and male dominated
organizations.

The policies and strategies that could help women managers in both organizations were insufficient.
Regarding challenges of women managers in both organization is more or less the same however in
women dominated organization still the challenges of women managers is significant than men dominated
organizations.
The leadership styles of women managers in both women and men domination organization was studies
on people oriented and democratic.

The data were gathered using questionnaire and interview. The data obtained were analyzed using both
quantitative and qualitative techniques. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and
independent sample t-test. The qualitative data were analyzed using narration. Comparison made on the
leadership style, challenges and opportunities and decision making capabilities of women managers in
both types of organization.

As research findings show that the policies and strategies that could able to support women managers
were insufficient and there is no any mentorship program incorporated in their organizational policy.
Challenges were found almost the same in both organizations. In both organizations women managers
were good in decision making. The study suggested that organizations to review their policy concerning
women managers, to use the leadership style and sound decision making ability of women managers as it
help the organization.

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS

A.A..............................................................................Addis Ababa
CEDAW.........................................................................Convention for the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women
FDRE….........................................................................Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
MDG...............................................................................Millennium Development Goals

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 - Male vs. Female leadership attributes…………………………………. 10

Table 2 - Women enrolments in higher education……………………………….. 29

Table 3 - Distribution of the population and sample……………………………… 33

Table 4 -Background of the respondents…...........................................................................39

Table 5 - Managers those who have/had a Mentor................................................................40

Table 6 - Organizations policy or Strategy to help women managers …………… 41

Table 7 - Corporate Mentorship Program..............................................................................42

Table 8 - Challenges of Women Managers ………………………………………. 43

Table 9 - Leadership Style …………………………………………………………… 43

Table 10 - Decision Making Capability …………………………………………. 44

Table 11 -Policy or strategy………………………………………………………... 45

Table 12 – Mentorship…………………………………………………………........ 46

Table 13 -Challenges of Women Managers in Male and Female Dominated

Organizations.......................................................................................................47

Table 14- Leadership style of women managers in Male and Female dominated Organizations
………………………………………………………………………… . 49

Table 15 - Decision making capabilities of women managers in Male and Female

dominated Organizations.......................................................................................50

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Sample Distribution.................................................................................38

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the study................................................................................................1

Statement of the problem...............................................................................................2
Research Questions........................................................................................................3
Objective of the Study...................................................................................................3
Definition of Terms…...................................................................................................4
Significance of the Study...............................................................................................4
Delimitation/Scope of the Study....................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Gender Statistics Globally………………………………………………… 6

2.2. Role held by women……………………………………………………… 7
2.3. Leadership Style of men and women……………………………………. 8
2.4. Barriers of gender equality in senior positions…………………………… 11
2.4.1 What is glass ceiling ……………………………………… 12
2.4.2 Gender role socialization…………………………………………. 13
2.4.3 Organizational culture…………………………………………… 13
2.4.4 The division of labor due to gender stereotyping………………… 14
2.4.4.1 Gender Stereotyping………………………………….. 14
2.4.4.2Old Boy‟s Network…………………………………… 15
2.4.5 Women turning against other women…………………………….. 16
2.4.6 Balance between work and home………………………………… 16
2.4.7 Personality traits………………………………………………….. 18
2.5 Strategies to overcome barriers to women in senior positions…………… 19
2.5.1 Breaking through the glass ceiling………………………………………. 19
2.5.2 Adapting to workplace …………………………………………………… 20
2.5.3 Mentoring………………………………………………………………… 21
2.5.4 Succession planning……………………………………………………… 22
2.5.5 Training and Education……………………………………………… 22
2.5.6Networking………………………………………………………....... 23
2.5.7 Family Support………………………………………………………. 23
2.5.8 Challenging Assignments…………………………………………… 23
2.5.9 Family friendly policies…………………………………………….. 24
2.6 Women status in Ethiopia………………………………………………….. 24
2.7 Women in power and decision making in Ethiopia………………………… 26
2.8 Literacy and education in Ethiopia…………………………………………… 27
2.8.1 Enrolments in higher education………………………………………. 28
2.9 Convention for the elimination of discrimination against women…………… 29
2.9.1 The Beijing platform for action……………………………………….. 30

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research design……………………………………………………… 32

3.2. Population and sampling technique ………………………………… 32
3.3 Sampling techniques………………………………………………… 33
3.4. Instruments of data collection………………………………………. 34
3.4.1 Questionnaire……………………………………………………… 34
3.4.2 Pilot study of questionnaire………………………………. 35
3.4.3 Interview…………………………………………………… 36
3.5. Procedures of data collection………………………………………… 36
3.6 Methods of data analysis……………………………………………. 37
3.6.1 Quanitative data analysis………………………………………. 37
3.6.2 Qualitative data analysis……………………………………… 37

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Sample distribution………………………………………………… 38

4.2 Background of the respondents……………………………………. 39
4.3 The opportunities of women managers……………………………. 40
4.4 Policy or strategy formulated to help women managers……………. 45
4.5 Managers who have mentors………………………………………. 46
4.6 Challenges of women managers…………………………………… 47
4.7 Leadership style of women managers……………………………… 49
4.8 Decision making capabilities of women managers………………… 50

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion…………………………………………………………… 52
5.2. Recommendation…………………………………………………… 53
5.3. Limitation of the study……………………………………………… 54

References………………………………………………………………… 55

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents background of the stud, the research problem, objective and significance of
the study. The first section deals with the background of the study followed by a discussion of
the research problems. In the third section research questions are discussed. Objective of the
study, Definition of terms, significance and delimitation of the study are discussed in subsequent
section.

1.1 Background of the Study

Women lives have been shaped for times unrecorded by their ability to raise children, whereas
men are the ones who are responsible and concerned with business and politics. Due to the
societal transformation and technological developments for the last 50 years, women tried to
enter to the labor market and press their role and the importance of their social activities. These
changes have facilitated and confirmed that, besides being mothers and wives women are now
capable to become managers, researchers, politician and many more.

However there are various factors that limit women‟s potential to occupy senior managerial
positions. There is an argument that at the bottom of the constraints that women face is the
patriarchal system where decision making powers are in the hands of males. In the African
context, traditional beliefs, personal and cultural attitudes regarding the role and status of women
in society are still predominant and many women as part of this system find it difficult to
dislocate from this culture and tradition otherwise they could be ostracized. Despite women‟s
education and advancement in the job market, the woman‟s role is typically one of a housewife.
The man, on the other hand, is the bread winner, head of household and has the right to dominate
public life.

Some women were able to cross cultural barriers and rise to managerial positions, but more often
than not, it meant having to manipulate cultural expectations with their managerial roles.

It has been argued that women themselves are often reluctant to run for managerial positions and
this is partly attributed to cultural prohibitions on women going for these positions or going to
public places. Top managerial positions require travel, spend more time on work, go to different
meetings and go into hotels and different public gathering places for women that meant meeting

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with men. All of these activities are not easily accepted for women in many African countries,
Ethiopia not excluded.

Women who strive for managerial positions have to consider the risk of being labeled „loose‟ or
„unfit‟ as mothers and wives, and being socially stigmatized. Even if they are successful with
their family, their life partners will not easily accept such a situation for a long. Such thoughts
make many women to decline such positions that would put them in the public eye.

Although there are a lot of challenges that face women managers, there is also good progress like
government initiatives in adopting different policies and issuing directives to encourage women
to stay and exercise top managerial positions and even in the political arena women are given a
quota to represent their community in different settings.

Therefore, this paper will examine the opportunities and challenges that face women managers in
two selected male dominated and female dominated organizations in Addis Ababa. Moreover, it
will compare the technical, leadership, intrapersonal and environmental skills of female
dominated organization with a male dominated one.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

As Ethiopia moves into a new epoch of democracy, it encounters many challenges. One of these
challenges is to ensure that all disadvantaged citizens are afforded equal right and opportunity.
Women are recognized as part of this disadvantaged group.

In order that Ethiopia has to eliminate poverty and eradicate backwardness, women have to be
given a chance and encouraged to improve themselves in all fields. There is a vital necessity to
understand women's problems, stereotypes and obstacles that women encounter in the corporate
world as women have unique skills and capabilities that can benefit companies in particular and
nations in general.

Challenges are preventing women from advancing in organizations and to compete into jobs that
were previously dominated by men. Government and many corporate organizations are taking
some initiatives and strategies to encourage women to encounter problems in top managerial
positions.

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Although the importance of such research is carried out internationally, there is little comparative
research done relating to women managers challenges and opportunities in the corporate world.
This study is therefore; mean to address this knowledge gap in the Ethiopian context.

1.3. Research Questions

1. What hurdles/ obstacles women managers face realizing their potential?

2. How women exercise their capabilities in making decision and using their discretion?
3. Do women have their own leadership style that the companies need?
4. How far the policies and strategies can support women managers?

1.4. Objective of the Study

1. To examine government and corporate policies that hamper women from realizing their
potential.
2. To understand and investigate the opportunities that women managers have in the course
of managing organizations
3. To suggest mechanisms, solutions, strategies that facilitate the realization of women‟s
potential in the corporate world.
4. To observe the specific leadership style that women are using in their work place and to
determine its effectiveness.

1.5. Definition of Terms

Male Domination: In this study refers to organizations consisting mainly of men in senior
managerial positions.

Female Domination: In this study refers to organizations consisting mainly of women as senior
managers.

Sex: Most of us born either female or male and that designation is called our “sex” which is
dependent upon the biological difference between men and women (Nicholson, 1996; Rapport,
Bailyn, Pletcher& Pruitt, 2002)

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Gender: Gender refers to the socially constructed understanding of what it means to be a man or
woman. Gender is different form sex in that it refers to the social characteristics whereby women
and men exist in a dynamic structural relationship to each other. It is a process through which
social life is organized at the level of individual, family and society and it also plays a crucial
role in the structure of an organization (Nicholson, 1996)

Stereotypes: is the process of simplifying and reducing classes of people to a few characteristics
by which they are generally said to be identifies (The Conference board of Canada Report, 2011)

1.6. Significance of the study

Although there are different initiatives and programs that are considered as opportunities for
women to rise up to top managerial posts there are still insignificant number of women in top
managerial positions in different corporate organizations. This study would help to find out why
those initiatives have not worked as expected.

To show the actual practices and new orientations

This study was targeted to support women in their future struggle.

To contribute a value for policy makers

This study will help other researchers and academician for further research.

1.7. Delimitation/ Scope of the Study

The research was limited to senior managers in the selected organizations which are
organizations dominated by female and male, from public and private organizations. Therefore it
may not represent the current situation of women managers in the whole of Ethiopia. The result
gives insight in the challenges and opportunities that woman in senior managerial position face.

This study is limited to women in senior managerial positions only thus it may not consider
challenges and opportunities that confront women in non-managerial posts.

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The organizations were selected from private and public business organization; hence the study
excludes non-profit organizations.

Although this study touches many issues of women, time factor was a limitation to the researcher
to widen the scope has intended to cover. Besides; the availability of senior managers was
another limitation.

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Gender Statistics Globally

Over the past few decades, changes in demographic, social, economic forces have resulted in a
large increase in the number of women in paid employment around the world. As the role of
women in global economy increases more women are pursuing careers in management (Omar &
Davidson 2001).

The women‟s charter of 1954 properly states that the “The level of civilization which any society
has reached can only be measured by the degree of freedom its member enjoy. The status of
women is a test of civilization” (Marsland, 2004).

Data on trends in economic activity rates shows a steady increase in female labour force
participation over time, alongside as apparent decrease in male rates. In 1960, women constitute
23 percent of labour force. By 1985, this had increased to 36 percent and by 1991 to 41 percent
(Baden, Hasim&Meinjies, 1998). The international Labor Organization (ILO) also concur that
women represent 40 percent of the world‟s labour force; however they hold less than 5 percent
of the top managerial positions worldwide. The progress towards gender equality has been very
slow. Perception, Stereotypes and laws need to be changed to facilitate women to assume
managerial posts (Van der Colff& Van Scheers, 2004).

The proportion of women managers varies significantly in different countries. In the United
States of America the representation of women in management grew from 16% in 1970 to 44%
in 1998, a significant achievement. In countries as diverse as Japan, Turkey and Australia
women‟s representation in management increases by as much as 1 to 25% (Omar & Davidson,
2001).

In Great Britain although women dominate occupations like nursing, teaching and social work,
senior positions are still occupied by men. During a 2000 survey it was confirmed that women

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held only 18% of all management positions. In UK and Canada there has been evidence that this
is moving in the opposite direction (Wilson 2002).

In almost all countries, management is seen as a career suitable only for men and hence
dominated by men. Women are concentrated in a small number of jobs, best described as
“traditionally female”. These so called female jobs include those in education, health services
and finance, banking, communication and personnel service. There are few women managers
gaining entrance into manufacturing and technical based organizations (Omar & Davidson,
2001).

2.2. Roles held by women

Globally, fewer than one in 10 businesses are led by women, indicating that it is even harder for
women to reach the very top of the business world. 9% of businesses have a female CEO,
although this ranges from 15% in the ASEAN region to just 6% in North America. In the Asia
Pacific region, (excluding Japan) and Europe, 13% of businesses are led by a woman, ahead of
Latin America, the Nordic region and the BRIC economies (all 9%) and the G8 (8%).(World
Development Report, 2012)

Australia emerges as the country with the highest proportion of female CEOs; three in 10
businesses are led by women, ahead of Thailand (29%), Italy (24%) and Argentina (23%).
Botswana, Brazil and Japan (all 3%) perform worst on this measure, with the United Kingdom
and the United States (both 6%) not far ahead. (World Development Report, 2012)

Women are best represented in finance and human resources positions. In terms of finance, 13%
of businesses have female Chief Financial Officers (CFO), and a further 13% of businesses
employ women in other senior finance roles such as Corporate Controller. More than one in four
businesses in Asia Pacific (excl. Japan), Nordic and BRIC economies employ a female CFO. At
the country level, businesses in Taiwan (48%), mainland China (39%), Sweden (37%) and
Finland (31%) are most likely to employ a woman as CFO.(World Development Report, 2012)

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A further 21% of businesses employ women in senior Human Resource (HR) roles. These roles
are more common for women in North America (22%) and Europe (21%) than those in finance.
Senior management roles within HR are held by large proportions of women in Poland (39%),
France (37%), the Philippines (34%), Hong Kong and Russia (both33%). A further 12% of
businesses have a female Chief Operating Officer – rising to 45% in mainland China – whilst
just 8% of businesses employ women as their head of sales or head of marketing. (World
Development Report, 2012)

2.3 Leadership styles of men and women

Historically leadership has been construed as primarily a masculine enterprise; however as the
number of female leaders have increased this philosophy has been questioned.

As organizations become more flat and teamwork becomes the norm, management styles that are
aggressive, competitive and task orientated as commonly associated with the leadership styles of
men is giving way to the female styles that are more relation–orientated, nurturing and caring
(Omar & Davidson, 2001; Pounder & Coleman, 2002). The diverse leadership of male and
female managers will now be examined.

Women find participative management more natural than men because they feel more
comfortable interacting with people. Interactive leadership styles utilized by women has been
beneficial as this style encourages participation, information sharing, enhances self-worth of
others and finally energizes others (Appelbaum, Audet& Miller, 2002). Oshagbemi & Gill
(2003) further adds that women‟s cooperative and empowering leadership style fosters team
building.

When employees do not meet expectations, women are more likely than men to buffer criticism
by finding something praiseworthy to say. Women will more likely describe their business as a
family unlike male counterparts. Female managers subscribe to high levels of consultation and
participation. Human resource management and communication is of paramount importance to

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female managers. Appalbaum (2003) further states that women have good listening skills well
developed interpersonal skill and a soft approach to handling people. Therefore women choose a
relationship–orientated leadership style, while men focus on disseminating information and
demonstrating competence (Oshagbemi& Gill, 2003).

Since females have a high degree of relationship-orientated leadership style, their management
styles are described as more transformational. Male leaders, on the other hand, tend to incline
more to transactional leadership where active management by exception is employed and they
place a high reliance on power and position authority (Pounder & Coleman, 2002; Vinnicombe&
Singh, 2002; Eagly&Carli, 2003).

There is a positive correlation between transformational leadership, leadership effectiveness as

well as subordinate commitment and performance (Vinnicombe& Singh, 2002). Women also
tended to score higher on leadership scales measuring orientation towards production and the
attainment of results. In contrast men tended to score higher on strategic planning and
organization vision (Oshagbemi& Gill, 2003). Oshagbemi & Gill‟s (2003) research on men and
women leadership roles found that women managers delegate less than their male counterparts
but their directive, consultative and participative leadership styles were similar.

There are substantial differences between the values men and women have towards work. It can
be concluded that these differences could contribute to the so called gender differences. Men
tended to be more concerned about money, independence, and long term career goals whereas
women tended to be more people orientated, concerned with security and affective values such
as esteem, co-workers, opportunity to interact with people, fair and considerate supervisor
(Elizur, 2001).
Appelbaum (2003) summarized some of the differences between male and female leadership
style as discussed below in Table 1.

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Table 1: Male vs. Female leadership attributes

Male Female
Structure Consideration
Transactional Transformational
Autocratic Participative
Instruction-giving Socio-expressive
Business Oriented People oriented
Leadership and Organizational Journal: Appelbaum (2003:48)

In order to be effective leader‟s, women have adopted an androgynous view of managerial roles
as this is perceived as the most successful preference (Pounder & Coleman, 2002; Vinnicombe&
Singh, 2002; Eagly&Carli, 2003). If a leader possesses both feminine and masculine
characteristics this is a sure recipe to succeed as a leader. Oshagbemi& Gill (2003) state that
although the way men and women lead are different, each of their style is effective in their own
right. It can therefore be concluded that effective management is not the exclusive domain of
either gender and both can learn from each other (Appelbaum, 2003).

However incompatibility between expectations about women and expectations about leaders
underlie prejudice against female leaders. Stereotypes about how a woman should behave
shadow an effective leader (Eagly&Carli, 2003). The socialization process has resulted in
women developing values that are different from the traditional competitive, controlling and
aggressive leadership behaviors of men (Pounder & Coleman, 2002).

It can therefore be concluded that women have the tools to be effective leaders in the workplace
and their transformational leadership style is proving to be an asset.
Nevertheless men and women have to adopt androgynous leadership styles so they are equipped
to manage a diverse multi-cultural society.

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2.4 Barriers to gender equality in senior positions

Women are not found in managerial positions in proportion to their presence in the workforce
due to barriers to women‟s advancement. Whether these barriers are real or imagined, the
structural barriers to women‟s career progress should not be considered as single, isolated ones
but as multi –level impediments that impinge on women‟s progress at the entry level as well as
every occupational/functional and hierarchical level throughout the company. Once one barrier
has been evaded or overcome, others come into play. The situation facing women is thus
complex, multi-dimensional and multi-faceted (Van der Colff& Van Scheers, 2004). These
barriers create a “glass ceiling” for women at their place of work.

2.4.1. What is a glass ceiling?

The glass ceiling refers to barriers that are preventing women from advancing upwards in the
organization. The glass ceiling hinders not only individuals, but society as a whole. It reduces the
pool of potential corporate leaders and withdraws the economy of new leaders, new sources of
creativity and „would be‟ pioneers of the business world. In order to become global contenders
and maintain a competitive advantage organizations must be prepared to dismantle the glass
ceiling (Wrigley 2002).

Women experience unequal workplace experience because they are crossing over clearly laid out
“ideological boundaries” which portray the men as breadwinners and the women as the
caregivers (Gazso, 2004). Cotter, Hermsen JM, Ovedia S &Vanneman R.(2001) argues that the
glass ceiling inequity represents a gender or racial difference that is greater at higher levels of the
hierarchies than at the lower level of the hierarchies. The gender gap not only grows but
accelerates as one move up the hierarchical order.

There has been no scientific evidence reported validating the often made assumption that women
lack the drive to get to the top. In fact no differences between managerial women and men have
been found in level of motivation, no psychological needs and motives such as the need for
achievement or need for power. There has also been no research evidence found that is

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supportive of the commonly held idea that women managers are less committed to their careers
because their primary commitment is to their family and home. A survey conducted by the
American Management Association depicts women as compared to men managers as more
committed to their careers, more willing to relocate and more likely to make their jobs top
priority when family/work conflicts occur (Heilman,1997).

Despite this however, beliefs that there are differences between men and women still obstinately
persist justifying the under-representation of women. The key factor is to understand the barriers
confronting women in the corporate world and also understanding the psychological
phenomenon of sex stereotype

2.4.2. Gender role socialization

Gender role socialization can create many barriers in the organization. The upbringing of a
female and male also contributes to the glass ceiling of an individual. Humans are gendered
individuals that are easily influenced by the perceived gender differences. Women and men do
not leave their gender role socialization at the door when coming to work. Similarly women are
socialized to accept more limited views of success; they are taught that they can achieve only
certain career goals in only limited job titles.

Women freely accept these limitations as the „way things are‟ and seldom challenge the
parameters shaped during those formative years (Wrigley, 2002). This rigid gender role
socialization reinforces the structure of society and of the organization and can create
segregation of labor in the workplace (Ibid, 2002).

2.4.3. Organizational Culture

The organization culture plays a critical role in shaping the behavior of employees and
determining the success of the organization. The culture of an organization can either impede or
promote diversity at the workplace.

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2.4.4. The division of labor due to gender stereotyping

Although there are differences amongst men and women there also exists the division of labor
according to gender stereotyped roles as discussed in the previous section Gender Role
Socialization and Organizational culture.

The gender division of labor is noticeable in many organizations. The employment that are
traditionally occupied by woman are nursing and paramedical occupations, teaching, clerical and
sales job. On the other hand women workers are underrepresented in the following categories
(Flood, Hoosain, & Primo 1997):
• Artisans, apprentices and related occupations
• Transport, delivery, communication occupations
• Registered engineers
• Judges or magistrates

2.4.4.1. Gender Stereotyping

Gender role socialization in the workplace provokes gender stereotypical behavior. Stereotypes
about groups of people are often inaccurate or they are an overgeneralization which does not
apply to the individual group member who is being targeted. Stereotypes thus become the basis
of faulty reasoning, leading to biased feelings and actions, disadvantaging others, not because of
what they like or what they have done, but because of the groups to which they are deemed to
belong. Some of the typical stereotypes are that men are thought to be strong and active and
women are thought to be weak and passive.

Also men are described as decisive, independent, rational, objective and self-confident whereas
women are described as indecisive, dependent, emotional, non-objective and insecure. The traits
associated with men and women are not only different but also are valued differently. Male
values are considered to be more highly valued than those concerned with nurturance and
affiliation typically recognized to women (Heilman, 1997).

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One of the stereotypes held by men is the belief that men are more appropriate to be the primary
breadwinners as women are less suitable to pursue this responsibility. The other stereotype
behavior refers to the characteristics men are thought to have. Some of these characteristics
include competitiveness, lack of empathy and emotional detachment.

The show of emotions and empathy are associated in most work settings with weakness and
dependence and are thus more suited to women and femininity. Conventional stereotypes are
stronger in male dominated work groups as compared to a mixed – sex work group (Bird, 2003).

If women do not mirror the behavior of males then they are judged as incompetent. Women are
not given the liberty to practice their own managerial style and their own individualism (Liff&
Ward, 2001). One of the structures that promote male stereotyping is the „Old Boys Network‟
which is predominately a networking amongst men at work.

2.4.4.2 Old Boy’s Network

Male stereotyping undermines the level of knowledge, skills and attributes a female has and
creates hurdles for the advancement of women. In order to ensure that women are maintained in
the minority, informal structures amongst men known as the „Men‟s Club‟ or „Old Boys
Network‟ were formed. Old boy networks was used to have informal discussions relating to
work where information was shared, particularly up-to-date information The function of the club
was to cement group solidarity amongst men and reinforce predominantly male values (Simpson,
1997). Gendered social structures are regarded as an advantage to men over women, giving men
greater opportunity, power and psychological and emotional rewards (Bird, 2003; Wrigley,
2002). These networks generate „institutional impediments to stall women from advancing in the
organization (Appelbaum 2003).

The social identity theory claims that people identify more with members that have similar
characteristics such as gender, race or ethnicity (Bird, 2003). Men in an all-male group reported
higher levels of comfort, of being themselves, with workmates than men in mixed sex groups

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(Ibid, 2003). Organization needs to ensure that less discriminatory and prejudice policies are
practiced to ensure fair and equal treatment of all employees (Ibid, 2003).

Organizations that value masculinity stereotypes while ignoring the wellbeing of their employees
may affect organizational levels of productivity and effectiveness (Bird, 2003). Once gender
stereotypical behavior is reflected in the workplace structure, women are not able to reach their
maximum output
(Gazso, 2004).

2.4.5 Women turning against other women

Women do not support each other as they reach the higher hierarchies of management. The
stereotypical perception is that women at the top are determined not to see other women
advancing (Wrigley, 2002).

2.4.6. Balance between work and home

“We must move away from the myth of separate worlds, as though life at home has nothing to do
with life in the company”. These two worlds intersect and companies need to take cognizance of
this. People who felt powerless at work took their anger home and those that had problems at
home could not be productive at work (Puffer,
2004). When women opt for careers, they add to their lives new sets of role demand without a
decrease in their traditional roles as wives and mothers (Omar & Davidson, 2001).

Married women with children limit themselves from applying for promotions due to the
challenging roles of managing a family and a high-ranking career. Women work long hours, take
work home and work over the weekends. Women then begin playing a juggling game between
work and home commitments (Liff& Ward, 2001). Women opt out of positions of authority
because they are more likely than men to assume the bulk of the family responsibilities as a
result of this unequal division of labour (Smith, 2002).

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Women still spend far too much time doing domestic labour although there has been an increase
in the number of women entering the labour market (Gazso, 2004). Women on average do about
70% of the housework (Wilson, 2002) These women experience an unequal “second shift” in
their responsibility for family care-giving and they also experience an unequal “third shift”
compared to men, that of managing work/family conflicts. This juggling can actually ensure that
women‟s inequity in the workplace is maintained and that women‟s advancement is stunted
(Wilson, 2002; Gazso, 2004; Krajewski& Burke, 2005).

Women claim that they lack the physical energy to strike a balance between a family and work
life (Vinnicombe& Singh, 2003). Most married women and men see nothing wrong with an
unequal division of labour at home, the unequal division of labour is seen as fair. The proportion
of men‟s time devoted to paid labour hardly changes if they have children; in fact they spend
more time in paid labour when their children are under seven years old. Men spend less time on
housework because they believe that the partner who makes more money has more power and
therefore does less work at home (Wilson, 2002). This view is referred to as the Family Power
Theory which suggests that as one spouse increases resources, his or her power increases. Thus
Family Power Theory claims that household labour is an outcome of differential power between
spouses (Krajewski& Burke, 2005).

As a result women in senior positions are of the impression that starting a family will spell the
end of their career and they are less likely to have children compared to their male counterparts.
In order to reduce the conflict of their dual roles women managers may choose to remain single
and childless (Veale & Gold, 1998; Omar & Davidson, 2001).

There are very few role models of senior managers with children who can motivate other women
that parenthood and professional working life is possible (Wilson, 2002). If they approach their
management regarding reduced working hours this will be portrayed as a lack of commitment
and will result in them being excluded from consideration for promotions (Veale & Gold, 1998;
Wilson 2002).

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Women‟s unequal work experience is also as a result of the occupational choices they make.
Their differing work patterns, namely taking time to have children, working part-time instead of
full time, working shorter hours are choices made as a result of women‟s family responsibilities.
Since women naturally desire to have families, they are naturally different from men and it is this
difference that determines their inequality in the workplace (Gazso, 2004).

2.4.7. Personality traits

Perfectionism was another characteristic that women believe may be holding them back to
advancing. Women have a need to complete a task resembling a high quality output and then this
desire could lead to unnecessary extra time being taken to reach that stage (Vinnicombe & Singh,
2003).

2.5. Strategies to overcome barriers to women in senior positions

2.5.1. Breaking through the glass ceiling

The glass ceiling is costly, resulting in lost productivity by employees who are demotivated due
to lack of advancement in their careers and high turnover costs (Ragins,Townsend&Marttis,
1998).

In order to remove the „glass ceiling‟ that many women stumble upon corporate leaders need to
have a thorough understanding of the barriers faced by women. Further, an understanding of the
organizational environment women work in also has to be taken into consideration when
formulating the strategies. The gender strategies must be formulated with the main priority of
assisting the empowerment of women and assisting them in their advancement (Ragins, 1998).

In order for Employment Equity and all the related initiatives such as succession planning to be
successful, organizations need to implement these strategies organization-wide and not limit
them to certain departments within the organization. They should also be implemented at all
levels (Booysen, 1999a).

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Below are some of the strategies organizations can utilize to assist and develop the female work
force. However none of these initiatives and strategies will be successful unless the following is
adhered to (Booysen, 1999a):
• Senior and top management support these initiatives
• Budget has been allocated to these strategies
• Gender targets are set
• Performance and development are managed
Women are constantly looking for new and innovative ways to adapt to the workplace so that
these barriers are overcome. The various strategies that can be utilized to empower women in the
workplace will now be examined.

2.5.2. Adapting to the workplace

Consistently exceeding performance expectations was the top ranking strategy used by
successful senior executives (Ragins Townsend B &Mattis, 1998; Gazso, 2004). Working long
hours and developing unique skills and expertise are some of the other tactics that were also
used.

Taking work home, waking up early before the children to ensure that reading can be done and
doing homework before going into a meeting are some of the things that women have to do to
ensure that they are perceived to be on a par with their male colleagues (Ragins, 1998). Wrigley
(2002) argues that working hard does not always work but if you want to get ahead of the pack
you have to know and understand the corporate politics.

Women also face the daunting challenge of ensuring that their management style is not
masculine or too feminine. They have to ensure that they have a management style that is
acceptable to their male colleagues, supervisors and subordinates. Women have to find an
appropriate style that will not threaten their male peers or make them uncomfortable (Ragins,
1998).

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However Gazso (2004) argues that in order to break through the gender barriers and thereafter
keep the doors opened in the gendered work culture means women not functioning in a similar
manner to men but also acting like men. Women become more aggressive and competitive in the
workplace and they also try to be “one of the boys”. As a result women in senior management
positions resemble men in their personality and behavior characteristics (Van Vianen& Fischer,
2002).

2.5.3. Mentoring

Mentoring plays an important and critical role in career advancement. Vinnicombe& Singh
(2003) states that mentors can play various roles including career advisor, counselor, friend,
coach on management techniques and advocate. Protégés value their mentor‟s way of helping
them to think through what they want to do instead of telling them and also aligning their
thinking within the strategic context of the organization. Mentors also assist women in
developing their managerial identity.

Individuals who have a mentor are likely to receive more promotions, have more career mobility
and advance at a faster rate than those that lack a mentor (Ragins,Townsend B &Mattis, 1998;
Nicholson, 1996). Mentors that are part of old boy networks can provide valuable information
and contacts to their female protégés and can facilitate access to membership for their protégés
(Vinnicombe& Singh, 2003).However there is a serious shortage of female mentors (Nicholson,
1996; Ragins,Townsend B &Mattis, 1998). It has nonetheless been proven that same sex mentors
are beneficial for the individual and the organization (Nicolson, 1996). If the number of female
role models are increased this will ensure feminine management styles are more acceptable in the
workplace (Vinnicombe& Singh, 2002). Initiatives must therefore be taken increase the pool of
female mentors.

As a result of the limited number of female mentors, male mentors are being chosen. Male
mentors are more influential and can provide greater access to inner power circles while female
mentors will be able to identify and empathize with the barriers faced by women (Ragins,

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1998).In Ethiopia context further obstacle arises with respect to mentoring that is there is no any
female or male mentor to perform this activity and transfer skills.

2.5.4. Succession planning

Succession planning for women employees can be achieved by assisting women to overcome
their lack of confidence. This will improve the number of women in various employment
categories. Companies should be encouraged to introduce development career planning for both
managerial and non-managerial women. These plans should include development, career
planning, workplace culture and flexible working arrangements (Vander Colff& Van Scheers,
2004).

2.5.5. Training and Education

It is the woman‟s responsibility to ensure that she takes the necessary steps to overcome the
deficiencies in her attributes. Hence a group of women who completed their MBA‟s were
analyzed to determine if this qualification had any effect on some of the barriers. The results of
this study proved that men moved into senior positions much faster than females. Men are also
likely to earn higher salaries after the MBA compared to that of female counterparts. Women are
most likely to leave the organization for a promotion due to barriers encountered whereas men
will be promoted within the company (Simpson, 1997).

Training and development must be based on developing skills for the new economy that is
thinking of the future. This training must not only teach women how to think about business but
also how to manage business practically (Simpson, 1997). Management development programs
could also assist women to cope with the problems with their jobs (Veale & Gold, 1998).

Human capital investments are vitally important for ushering females into positions of authority
(Smith, 2002). Therefore corporate organizations need to invest in training and development and
inculcate a culture of lifelong learning.

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2.5.6. Networking

Increased visibility, engaging in more networking, working on a significant project and making
an impact are some of the initiatives females need to take to increase their chances of being
promoted (Liff& Ward, 2001). Having an early opportunity to work close to senior people can
give future female managers access to a network of influential contacts. These contacts can
expose young managers to how an organization operates both on a formal and informal basis,
thus providing valuable business insight. Visibility is a key to more challenging and higher
profile jobs and inevitably opens the doors to many future opportunities (Vinnicombe& Singh,
2003).

Networking amongst women could assist women in their career development as their peers can
provide them with support and guidance and hence breakdown the isolation they feel. The
learning experiences of the senior individuals could also guide the younger managers (Veale &
Gold, 1998).

Women need to think more strategically when developing their circle of influence as these
associates can play a pivotal role in their advancement and success (Volpe & Nicholson, 2004).

2.5.7. Family support

The relationship a female manager has with her partner plays a vital role in her career
development and stress levels (Veale & Gold, 1998). A supportive partner and family will assist
a female manager in balancing the demands of full-time work and child care. It is important for
women to understand that their dual roles need to be managed. As more men share in family and
home responsibilities and more children are raised by women who have professional lives,
gender role socialization will shift to a more androgynous process where boys and girls are
equally introduced to possibilities of their roles in societies (Wrigley, 2002).

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2.5.8. Challenging Assignments

In order for women to be given the required recognition they have opted to take on highly visible
assignments. These assignments will provide them with professional growth and learning
challenges, serve as grooming exercise for succession planning and also give them exposure to
key decision makers and influential mentors in the company. These challenging assignments also
assisted women in expanding and challenging their abilities and to realizing their full potential.
These assignments gave the protégés confidence in their ability as well as increased their
visibility to a wider range of senior managers. Unlike male counterparts who are offered key
assignment women have to convince management that they are ready and able to take on these
assignments (Ragins, TownsendB&Mattis, 1998; Vinnicombe&Singh, 2003).

2.5.9. Family friendly policies

Flexible work arrangements could assist women in overcoming the many obstacles they
encounter at work. Some of these arrangements include flexible working hours, after school
clubs and after care facility (Veale & Gold, 1998). Organizations need to develop more flexible
practices such as maternity and paternity leave and flexible working hours. These family friendly
policies will only assist women in reaching their maximum potential in the workplace
(Vinnicombe& Singh, 2003).

2.6 Women status in Ethiopia

Ethiopian women are actively involved in all aspects of their society's life. Women are both
producers and procreators and they are also active participants in the social, political, and
cultural activities of their communities. However the varied and important roles they play have
not always been recognized. The discriminatory political, economic and social norms and
regulations prevailing in Ethiopia have barred women from enjoying the fruits of their labour.
Without equal opportunities, they have lagged behind men in all fields of self-advancement.

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Economic development is unthinkable without the participation of women. In some economic
sectors women even constitute a proportionally larger group of the labour force than men.
However, because their participation in the economy has not been valued, Ethiopian women
have not received their fair share of the nation's wealth. (The federal democratic republic of
Ethiopia Ministry of Women‟s Affair, July 2007).

Soon after the downfall of the Derg regime, the various political and national organizations,
setting aside their differences, formed a Transitional Government whose principals were set out
in a Charter in which peace was the main principle of governance. This brought a period of relief
to all Ethiopians, especially to women. The democratic process is able to grow and develop
effectively when all people are given equal encouragement to exercise their democratic rights,
and when women can experience the benefits of their labor on an equal basis with men. With this
realization, the government of Ethiopia, both the Transitional Government and the first elected
Government in 1995, have given priority to the speeding up of equality between men and
women.

Although women have made substantial contributions to the struggle Ethiopian people have
waged to ensure their rights and freedoms, their struggle up to now has not been sufficiently
institutionalized. Women issues do not only concern women. Women's problems cannot be
solved by women alone, but by the coordinated efforts of the society as a whole, including
government. Careful planning in full consultation with women is essential, drawing lessons from
past failures and experiences.

Women‟s demand to participate actively in national development and to exercise their right to
enjoy its fruits is now receiving support in government and local communities. One effect has
been the creation of a modus operandi which is increasingly free from partiality and sexual
discrimination. Of course there is still a long way to go (National policy on Ethiopian Women,
Ministry of Women, Youth and Children Affairs 1998).

2.7. Women in power and decision making in Ethiopia

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Due to the various obstacles that women have such as violence against women, lack of education
etc., their representation and participation in leadership and decision making position has also
been limited.

Despite the Government policy of equal opportunity for both men and women to participate in
the democratization of the country; women have not been adequately represented at all levels of
decision-making positions.

Out of 547 seats reserved for parliamentarians in 1995, it was only 15(2.74%) that was occupied
by women. However, by the next round election, an increasing trend of women's participation
has been observed. During the 2000 House of People's Representative elections, about 42 (7.7%)
of the candidates for parliamentary seats were women compared to 2.7% in 1995. (Office of
Council of Ministers, 2004)

Although not satisfactory, women participation in local authorities has further been improved.
With the introduction of a Federal System of Government, in 1991, by devolution of decision
making power and responsibilities to regional states, an increasing trend of women participation
in local authorities have also been observed.

During the 1995 general elections for regional councils, out of 1355 members 77 (5.0%) were
women. This number increased both in terms of membership and number of women in 2000
elections. Thus, in the election held in 2000 for regional councils, while the number of members
increased to 1647, there were 244 (12.9%) women, which has shown an increase by 10%. At the
lowest level of Woreda Council, only 6.6% are women out of the 70,430 council members. At
the lowest administrative unit, the Kebele, women constitute only 13.9% of the 928,288 elected
officials. Further, at the level of international representation, among the 28 ambassadors that
Ethiopia appointed at different mission abroad, only 4 (14.3) are women. (Office of Council of
Ministers, 2004)

In the area of employment, while the number of women in the Ethiopian civil service has been
relatively small, the senior positions are overwhelmingly held by men. According the Federal

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Civil Service Commission recent statistics revealed the fact that the overwhelming majority of
women civil servants are concentrated in positions such as secretaries, cleaners, and other. (A
national report on progress made in the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action
(Beijing +10) Ethiopia, Prime Minister Office/ Women Affairs Sectors, 2004)

2.8. Literacy and Education in Ethiopia

The adult national illiteracy rate is about 59.7%; with a very pronounced gender difference,
where female illiteracy level is 67.6% against 51.9% for males. Furthermore, the gross enrolment
ratio for girls is 52% at primary level and 14% at secondary level. The Ethiopian Education and
Training Policy were approved in 1994 and the overarching goal of the Policy is to provide a
new education system which will achieve the present and future national and social development
goals. The Policy focuses on increasing access to educational opportunities and in particular it
promotes an education system that would remove the cultural and traditional misunderstandings
attached to benefits of female education. The Education Sector Development Program I (ESDP I)
put in place broad participatory and equity approach measures.

ESDP II is meant to build further upon the experiences of ESDP I and pay special attention to
the design of strategies for improving gender equity.
During the implementation of both ESDP I and II a number of positive initiatives were
undertaken to reduce the gender gap in the sector. Number of female teachers increased in
elementary schools. It is estimated that in the period 1996/ 1997 to 2000/ 2001 the gender
disparity in the net intake rate has been reduced from 5.5 percentage points to 3.7 percentage
points between 1996 to 2000. (A national report on progress made in the implementation of the Beijing
Platform for Action (Beijing +10) Ethiopia, Prime Minister Office/ Women Affairs Sectors, 2004)
While significant progress has been made in the promotion of gender equity in the education
sector, some constraints still remain to be addressed. In particular, the rural female dropout rates
have not been reduced significantly mainly due to inadequate sensitization of parents and
teachers to the needs of the girl child in education. Specifically issues of accessibility and
security in reaching and attending schools need for teacher sensitization on gender issues,
positive gender representation in school curriculum and books, as well as addressing attitudes to

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 girls‟ empowerment need to be addressed.(Appraisal Report Institutional support project to the
women‟s affairs office Federal Republic of Ethiopia, 2004).

2.8.1 Enrolments in higher education

As noted in the table below, the total enrollment of higher education institution in all programs
has been increased year to year for the last five years. However the percentage of female students
is still insignificant when compared to male students. The following table will show the higher
education enrollment and the status of women.

Table 2: Women enrolments in higher education

Undergraduate Total Female Post Graduate Total Female

% %
Year Male Female Male Female
1999E.C /2006/07/ 150,530 52,869 203,399 26.0 6,349 708 7.057 10
2000E.C (2007/08) 199,684 63,317 263,001 24.1 6,652 703 7355 9.55
2001E.C (2008/09) 220,510 90,192 310,702 29.0 8,979 1,146 10,125 11.3
2002E.C (2009/10) 306,758 113,629 420,387 27.0 12,469 1,703 14,272 11.9
2003E.C (2010/11) 326,769 120,924 447,693 27.0 17,368 2782 20,150 13.8
Ministry of Education 2003 E.C/2010/11

2.9. Convention for the elimination of discrimination against women

Concerning gender equality, Ethiopia ratified international conventions, and issued laws and
policies. Some of them are presented below. Ethiopia ratified Convention for the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) during the Derg Regime and the issue of gender
equality was included in the 1982 Constitution. However, no significant attempt was made to
promote women‟s participation at macro-economic level (A national report on progress made in the
implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action (Beijing +10) Ethiopia, Prime Minister Office/ Women
Affairs Sectors, 2004). The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has also given due

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consideration to gender equality and ratified International Conventions like the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), and the Beijing Platform of Action.
Article 3 of the CEDAW clearly puts that
Stated Parties shall take in all fields, in particular in the political, social economic and
cultural fields, all appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure the full
development and advancement of women, for the purpose of guaranteeing them the
exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on a basis of equality
with men.
The above article requires member states to take the necessary measures to protect the human
rights of women regarding their equality in all matters with men.

Article 10 also urges member stated to eliminate discrimination against women in education.
This is to say that states have to provide the same conditions for career and vocational guidance,
and access to education at all levels is to be based on equality.

Article 11, Sub Articles b, c and d of the convention clearly indicates what measures the
state and men should take to eliminate discrimination on employment and to ensure
equality of women.

B) The right to the same employment opportunities, including the application of the
same criteria for selection in matters of employment.
C) The rights to free choice of profession and employment, the right to promotion,
job security and all benefits and conditions of service and the right to receive
vocational training and retraining, including, apprenticeships, advanced vocational
training and recurrent training.
D) the right to equal remuneration, including benefits and to equal treatment in
respect to work of equal value as well as equality of treatment in the evaluation of
the quality of work.

2.9.1 The Beijing platform for action

The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 strongly affirmed gender equality is
an issue of human rightsand a prerequisite for social justice. The Platform for Action identified

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critical areas of concern in which action is still needed to achieve gender equality. These areas of
concern are poverty, education and training, health, violence, armed conflicts, economy, power
and decision
making, institutional mechanisms, human rights, the media, the environment and the girl child.
Among these, Ethiopia had identified seven priority areas of focusing in order to ensure gender
equality (The women affairs office, National Action Plan, 2006).
These are:
i. Poverty and Economic Empowerment of Women and Girls.
ii. Education and Training of Women and Girls.
iii. Reproductive Rights, Health and HIV/AIDS.
iv. Human Rights and Violence against Women and Girls.
v. Empowering Women in Decision-making.
vi. Women and the Environment.
vii. Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women

Although the previous Ethiopian Government ratified CEDAW on paper, significant measures
have not been taken towards the application of the Convention. Cognizant of this shortcoming,
the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) has given due consideration and clearly
put it in the constitution. Article 35/3 of FDRE Constitution reads:
The historical legacy of inequality and discrimination suffered by women in Ethiopia taken
into account women, in order to remedy this legacy, are entitled to affirmative measures.
The purpose of such measures shall be to provide special attention to women so as to
enable them compete and participate on the basis of equality with men in political, social
and economic life as well as in public and private institutions. [FDRE 1993]

Having or issuing a Constitution, laws and policies alone is not sufficient. In order to promote
gender equality, gender mainstreaming should be used as a strategy to bring the gender issue in
all aspects of institution‟s policies, programs and projects.

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 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This study was designed to identify the challenges and opportunities of women managers in male
dominated and female dominated organizations in Addis Ababa and compare the existing
challenges and opportunities in organizations. This chapter deals with the methodology and
procedure that were followed to examine the study. The research design, sources of data,
population of the study, sample, sampling technique, instruments for data collection, and data
analysis method are discussed in this chapter.

3.1 Research Design

The goal of this study was to investigate the challenges and opportunities of women managers in
two selected organizations in A.A., to compare the existing opportunities and challenges of
women in higher positions. The organizations are categorized Female and Male dominated
organizations. The study was one of the descriptive studies which is concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group.

3.2 Population and Sampling Techniques

Populations of this study were all the management members in both female and male dominated
organizations in Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa was chosen because all organizations and
respondents are found in the capital. After a thorough a through survey made four private and
four public organizations were chosen. After having a survey, organization were selected
purposively as they have female and male dominated in their managerial posts. These are:
Educational Materials Production and Distribution Agency (Public, Male dominated) has a total
of 20, Awash Wine S.C (Public, Female dominated) has a total of 10,BerhanenaSelam Printing
Agency (Public, Female dominated) has a total of 6, Express Mail Service (Public, Male
dominated) has a total of 4, Enat Bank S.C (Private, female Dominated) has a total of 10, Ayat
Real Estates (Private, Male dominated) has a total of 14, Almaz Zeleke Coffee Exporters
(Private, Female Dominated) has a total of 8 and Addis International Catering (Private, Male

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dominated) has a total of 8 population. The total population of the study equals 80. For more
explanation, look at table 3.

3.3 Sampling Technique

The researcher used purposive sampling technique for this study because of their relevance to the
study and their limited number. Purposive sampling technique was used to include all
respondents that can provide appropriate data for the study. Accordingly, all managers in higher
positions were included in the study. The details are given in Table3

Table 3. Distribution of the population and sample

Kind of Organizations Respondents Population

General Managers 3
Female Dominated Deputy General Managers 1
Organizations Human Resource Managers 4
Finance Managers 4
Plan & Programs Managers 4
Marketing & Customers Service Managers 6
Purchasing & Procurement Managers 4
Production &Operation Managers 4
Sub Total 30

General Managers/ CEO‟s 4

Deputy General Managers 4
Human Resource Managers 4
Male Dominated Finance & Administration Managers 4
Organizations Plan & Programs Managers 2
Marketing & Customer Service Managers 4
Purchasing & Procurement Managers 4
Organizational Development Manager 1

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 Production Managers 2
Loan Manager 1
Export Manager 2
Hygiene & Quality Assurance Managers 3
Others 15
Sub Total 50

Total 80

Source - Survey

3.4. Types of Data and Tools/Instruments of Data Collection

Primary data used for this study were gathered from the management and higher managerial
position members in both female and male dominated organizations in AA. The major sources of
the data were thus, the General Managers, Deputy General Managers, department heads, and
administrative heads and, Supervisors in female and male dominated public and private
organizations.

In order to generate data for this study, two data collecting instruments were used. These are: 1).
Questionnaire and 2). Interview

3.4.1 Questionnaire

The questionnaire was used as a major data collecting instrument due to its convenience to
collect adequate data from a large number of respondents. To make the data manageable close
ended questionnaire was prepared. The questionnaire was prepared in English and self-
administrative; however in some cases the researcher had a brief discussion on the questions with
senior officials. This questionnaire was subjected to factor analysis using equal variances
(weights) as prior communality estimates. The factor analysis was used to address the research
questions.

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In interpreting the rotated factor pattern, an item was said to load on a given factor if the factor
loading was 0.45 or greater for that factor, and was less than0.45 for the other. Using these
criteria, 14 items were found to load on the first factor, which was subsequently labeled
Challenges of Women Managers. 16 items loaded on the second factor, which was labeled
Leadership style. 7 items were found to load on the third factor which was subsequently labeled
Decision making capabilities of women managers. 6 items were loaded on the fourth factor were
labeled on Opportunities of women managers.

3.4.2. Pilot study of questionnaire

All the questions were pilot tested. They were distributed first to 20 Managers‟ in OLAM
International Ltd and Out-span Agri Estates Plc. This was done to make a pilot survey with the
aim of pre-testing the survey questionnaire. In pre testing questionnaire, the main concern was to
detect problems which may cause confusion to the respondents, which is to identify ambiguous
or biased items in the questionnaire for elimination and suitability for collecting the required
data. It was also needed to improve the format of the questionnaire to facilitate understanding
and to check the time needed to respondents to return the questionnaire.

The pilot survey was used to determine whether the words in each question were properly
understood, that each question measured what it was intended to measure, and that the questions
were interpreted similarly by all respondents, and that each question contained an adequate range
of response categories. from the questionnaire and one question was corrected to make clear to
the respondent depending on the feedback obtained, three questions which were not relevant to
the study were omitted.

After correction had been made to the questionnaire, it was distributed to all managers in both
organizations. After two weeks the respondents retuned back the questionnaires and depending
on their response analysis had been made.

3.4.3. Interview

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Semi-structured interview was prepared by the researcher to generate data from managers and
administrators. The prepared interview schedule was verified and checked for its authenticity for
the use in this study by the major advisor. It was used to get supplementary data which would
help the researcher to have a more relevant data for the study. It was used to collect data from
managers, administrators and department heads because they were limited in number and data
can easily be managed. The managers, department heads and administrative bodies were
interviewed on nine questions each. This would help the researcher to counter check the
information obtained by questionnaire.

3.5. Procedures of Data Collection

After submitting the formal cooperative letters from the graduate school, the participants were
requested to complete the questionnaire. The goal of the research and its importance were
explained and appointment was taken to meet senior managers to have discussion for interview
and to collect the distributed questionnaires.

3.6 Methods of Data Analysis

3.6.1. Quantitative data analysis

After the collection of data through questionnaire, the raw data were classified and tabulated
depending on the kind of question to make it easily manageable and understandable. After it was
tabulated, the issues were analyzed and interpreted based on the kind of question. The data
collected through questionnaire to identify the personal characteristics of respondents, such that
age, sex, educational level, and position of work/designation, work experience, marital status
were analyzed using percentage. This method of analysis helped the researcher to easily identify
the characteristics of the respondents.

The data that were collected through questionnaire to categorize the challenges, and
opportunities of the two organizations were analyzed using percentage which helps to identify
the opportunities and challenges that are currently practiced in the organizations. However the

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data gathered to compare the opportunities and challenges of the two kinds of organizations were
analyzed by using mean, the analyses of the data were done using SPSS version 16.

3.6.2. Qualitative data analysis

The data that were gathered through interview from the heads of the male and female
organizations were analyzed by interpretation and using narration.

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 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DUSCUSSION

In this chapter, the results of quantitative and qualitative analyses that were conducted to address
specific objectives of the thesis are discussed. The first section of this chapter provides the
distributed and actually collected quantitative data from both female and male dominated
organizations. The second section discussed the personal characteristics of respondents, and the
challenges and opportunities of women managers in female and male dominated organizations
are discussed in this chapter.

4.1 Sample Distribution

The frequency of both the distributed and collected sample is shown in the following figure.
Figure 1

Source: Survey

The figure above shows that data were collected from 24 and 41 senior managers of female and
male dominated organization even though the proposed and distributed questionnaire was for 30
and 50 respondents respectively. Due to the reason that some of the respondents did not return
the questionnaire even if they were requested repeatedly.

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Interview was also conducted for the public and private organization‟s managers, deputies,
department heads and administrators. There were 65 managers in both organizations, out of them
20 heads were interviewed; 10 respondents from female and 10 respondents from male
dominated organizations.

Table 4 Background of the respondents

Gender Percent
Male 63
Female 37
Age
Less than 30 16.9
30-39 36.9
40-49 23.1
50-58 15.4
More than 58 7.7
Marital Status
Single 40
Married 60
Educational level
Diploma 9
Bachelor Degree 69
Masters and above 22
Work Experience
Less than 5 years 18.5
5-10 years 27.7
10-20 years 27.6
More than 20years 26.2
Organizations
Public 47.7
Private 52.3
Source: Survey

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The above table shows that male respondents were 62% while female are 38% of which the
majority is aged in between 30 to 50% of the respondents are married and their education level is
9% diploma holders, 69% BA degree holder and 22% are those who are completed in post
graduate level (master and above).
Regarding their work experience 27% of the respondents have from 5 to 20 years of work
experience while 26% of the respondents have more than 20 years of work experience. 52% of
respondents were from private organizations while 48% were from public organizations.

4.3. The opportunities of Women Managers

The opportunities of women managers in regarding of mentorship program, policy or strategy

that has been formulated to support women managers are described below by using percentage
analysis. The details of the analysis are given in the following sub heads.
Table5 Managers those who have/had a Mentor
Organizations
Variable Male Dominated Female Dominated
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Yes 18 43.90 9 37.5
No 22 53.66 14 58.33
I don‟t know 1 2.4 1 4.17
41 100 24 100
Source: Survey

Table 5shows that 44% of managers in male dominated organizations had/have mentors at their
current managerial position while 54% and the managers didn‟t have mentor and 2% of the
respondents said that they don‟t know. On the other hand 37% of managers in female dominated
organization said that they have/had mentor in their current managerial position whereas 58% of
managers said that they didn‟t have mentor and 4% of the respondents said that they don‟t know
about it. Hence the table shows that in both organization managers don‟t have mentor at their
current managerial position.

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Table 6 Organizations policy or Strategy to help women managers
Organizations
Variable Male Dominated Female Dominated
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Yes 9 21.95 4 16.67
No 27 65.85 13 54.17
I don‟t know 5 12.20 7 29.17
Total 41 100 24 100
Source: Survey

Table 6 shows that 22% of managers confirmed that their organization has policy and strategy
that could help women managers, however 66% of managers confirmed that their organization
has no policy and strategy, 12% of them didn‟t know about the policy and strategy. 17% of
managers in female dominated organizations said that their organization has policy and strategy
for women managers while 54% of them said that their organization doesn‟t have any policy or
strategy that could help women managers and 29% of the respondents didn‟t know about
whether there is a policy or strategy in their organization or not. Therefore the table shows in
both organizations there is no policy or strategy that could help women managers but still the
policy and strategy about women managers in male dominated organization is more oblivious in
compared to women dominated organizations. The comparative organizational policy and
strategy that could help women managers in both organizations is discussed in Table 11.

Table 7 Corporate Mentorship

Program
Organizations
Variable Male Dominated Female Dominated
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Yes 8 19.51 5 20.83

No 23 56.10 11 45.83
I don‟t know 10 24.39 8 33.33
Total 41 100 24 100
Source: Survey

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Table 7 shows that 20% of managers confirmed that there is mentorship program in their
organization while 56% of the respondents said that the program does not exist in their
organization and 24% of the respondents didn‟t know about the program in their organization.

On the other side 21% of managers in female dominated organizations said that there is a
mentorship program in their organization while 46% and 33% of the respondents said there is no
mentorship program and they didn‟t know about mentorship program in their organizations.
Hence, the unavailability of mentorship program in male dominated organization is still highly
visible than female dominated organizations

Table 8 Challenges of Women Managers

Organizations
Variable Male Dominated Female Dominated
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Strongly Agree 15 36.58 8 33.33
Agree 14 34.15 8 33.33
Disagree 8 19.51 3 12.5
Strongly Disagree 4 9.75 5 20.83
Total 41 100 24 100
Source: Survey
Table 8 shows that 63% of managers believed that there are challenges of women managers in
their organization while 79% of the respondents from female dominated organization said that
there are challenges in their organization. Whereas 38% and 17% of respondents from male and
female dominated organization said that there is no significant challenge in their organization for
women managers. Hence, managers in both male and female organizations confirmed that there
are challenges on women managers in their work place.

However the challenges revealed in female dominated organization aremore than the challenges
practiced in male dominated organizations. The challenge of women managers in both
organizations is discussed in Table13.

Table 9 Leadership Style

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 Organizations
Variable Male Dominated Female Dominated
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Strongly Agree 17 41.46 12 50
Agree 15 36.58 9 37.50
Disagree 6 14.63 2 8.33
Strongly Disagree 3 7.31 1 4.17
41 100 24 100
Source: Survey

Table 9 shows respondents in both colleges believed that the leadership style of women
managers in both organizations was people oriented and transformative such that 78% of male
and 88% female dominated organizations respondents agreed that the leadership style of women
managers was more people oriented and transformative. However only 22% of men dominated
organization respondents and 13% female dominated organization respondents did not agree
with the leadership style of women in their organization.

Hence, women managers in both male and female organizations practiced more people oriented
leadership style which is needed by their organizations.

Table 10 Decision Making Capability

Organizations
Variable Male Dominated Female Dominated
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 13 31.71 10 41.67

Agree 15 36.60 11 45.83
Undecided 0 0 1 4.16
Disagree 11 26.82 1 4.16
Strongly Disagree 2 4.87 1 4.16
41 100 24 100
Source: Survey

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Table 10 shows that 68% and 88% of respondents in male dominated and female organizations
agreed that women in their organization are good in decision making capabilities. Though, 32%
of respondents from male dominated organizations did not agree that women managers are
capable decision makers in their work place.
Therefore, the decision making capabilities of women managers were acknowledge positively in
female dominated organization and male dominated organization.

4.4. Policy or Strategy formulated to help women managers in male and

female organizations

Table 11 Policy or strategy

Variable Organization N M SD SED

Yes/ Male Dominated 41 1.90 0.58 0.16

No Female Dominated 24 2.13 0.68

N = Number of Sample, M = Mean, SD = Standard, SED=Standard Error Difference

Source: Survey

Results given in Table 11, having or not policy and strategy in male and female dominated
organization scores are 1.90 and 2.13 having a standard deviation of 0.58 and 0.68 respectively.
Thus, in male dominated organizations unavailability of organizational policy and strategy that
could help women managers was not significantly different from those at female dominated
organizations.

The result of table 3 also shows that unavailability organizational policy and strategy of the two
kind‟s organization is almost the same. There was no significant difference in unavailability of
organizational policies and strategies that could enable women managers in two kinds of
organizations. Hence, from the table6 and table 11, it could be concluded that both male and
female organizations don‟t have policies and strategies that enhance women managers in their
work place.

The managers in both organizations were interviewed about the policies and strategies of their
organizations that specifically formulated for women managers. In some public organizations,

- 41
interviewee confirmed that though the initiative was not taken by their organization but due to
the national policy on developing women in general they launched secretariat of gender related
issues, however this specific office usually works in conflict resolution activities rather than
women development. Even in some female dominated organizations they already started the
initiative for succession plan but still they don‟t have it in policy and strategy level.

4.5. Managers those who have mentors in Male and Female dominated Organizations

Table 12 Mentorship

Variable Organization N M SD SED

Yes/ Male Dominated 41 1.58 0.54 0.14

No Female Dominated 24 1.67 0.56

N = Number of Sample, M = Mean, SD = Standard, SED=Standard Error Difference

Source: Survey

Results given in Table 12, having or not male or female mentors for women managers in male
and female dominated organization scores are 1.58 and 1.67 having a standard deviation of 0.54
and 0.56 respectively. From the results, it is clear that women managers in female dominated
organizations were manifesting significantly don‟t have mentors for women managers than male
dominated organizations. Table 7 also reveals that the women managers in female dominated
organizations don‟t have mentor in their organization than male dominated.

The interview schedule was also conducted for both male and female dominated organizations.
Five managers from male dominated public and three managers from private; namely General
Managers, organizational development heads, Human resources managers and planning and
programming heads were interviewed.

The General Managers of public organizations stated they used to use on job training that could
help women managers as mentor than assigning mentor as a program. On the other hand five
heads from private, female dominated organization were interviewed unlike the public
organization they were almost new for having mentor at the work place. They manifested that

- 42
most of women managers joined the organization after having a wide range of work experience.
Due to this they didn‟t give much attention to assign mentors for women managers at their work
place.

4.6 Challenges of Women Managers in Male and Female dominated Organizations

Table 13

Variable Organization N M SD SED

Agree/ Male Dominated 41 54.12 12.72 3.28

Disagree Female Dominated 24 49.07 12.83

N = Number of Sample, M = Mean, SD = Standard, SED=Standard Error Difference

Source: Survey

The result given in table 13is the mean challenges of women managers score of the male
dominated organization was 54.12 (SD=12.72) whereas the mean challenges of score of female
dominated counterparts was 49.07 (SD=12.83). Hence, the challenges existence of women
managers in both male and female dominated is more or less the same.
From the mean value, it can be interpreted that women managers in male dominated
organizations face more challenges than their counterpart in female dominated organizations.

Therefore, it can be concluded from table 8 and table 13 that the women managers in male
dominated organizations face more challenges but those of female dominated were relatively
better in regards to challenges.

Table 8 reveal that challenges on women managers in male dominated organizations were having
a higher percent on challenges while in comparison of male counterparts 'infemale dominated
workplace are relatively having a lesser percent. As research shows women do not support each
other as they reach the higher hierarchies of management. The stereotypical perception is that
women at the top are determined not to see other women advancing (Wrigley, 2002).

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Interview was also conducted for both male and female dominated organizations. The women
managers of Enat Bank and Almaz Zeleke Coffee Exporters expressed that the perception of the
community and even their employees is still uncertain about their capability though they are
working in female dominated organizations.

Women managers in male dominated organizations have also been interviewed. They expressed
that in addition to the community and their subordinates even their men colleagues at the work
place in the same position; think that they lack self-confidence and have a tendency not to accept
their ideas and suggestions. The other challenge that women managers, especially in public male
dominated organizations, is the question of freedom of being equally competing and on assigning
in very challenging and knowledge based tasks with those who are affiliated with politics.
Regardless of their knowledge and experience there is a tendency to assign inappropriate person
on some specific tasks and managerial positions. Based on the interview with women managers
in public men or female dominated organization, the organizations that they are working on have
got different trainings called women empowerment. However these meetings had no relation
with the intended agenda rather than pure politics. In general in both organizations women
managers face more or less have the same challenges from their coworkers, community and even
family members‟.

4.7 Leadership style of women managers in Male and Female dominated Organizations

Table 14

Variable Organization N M SD SED

Agree/ Male Dominated 41 26.68 3.9 .09

Disagree Female Dominated 24 27.58 2.7

N = Number of Sample, M = Mean, SD = Standard, SED=Standard Error Difference

Source: Survey

The results given in the table above shows that there is statistically insignificant difference in the
leadership styles of women managers of men and women dominated organizations.

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The mean leadership score of women mangers of male dominated and female dominated
organizations were 26.68 and 27.58 and the standard deviations were 3.9 and 2.7 respectively.

Hence, from table 9 and table 14 it could be concluded that, women in senior positions of male
and female dominated organizations practiced more or less the same type of leadership style, the
people oriented and democratic leadership style as they are a team player and easily cooperate
with the team.

Interview was also conducted from six heads of male dominated organizations and nine
department heads from female dominated organizations. Namely: Directors, Human resource
managers, Organizational development, and different department heads. However most of the
heads from male dominated as well as from female dominated replied that they followed more
participatory leadership style. They think that each individual under them well knows what is
expected of them. Research evidence also shows that the socialization process resulted in women
to have more participative leadership rather than controlling and aggressive leadership styles
(Pounder & Coleman, 2002).

In addition, in both organizations, women managers are known for giving incentives to their
workers under them to work hard. They are very careful in securing their employees financial
needs. They said that every work after the working hours should be paid and this helps the
employees to be motivated to work. They said that they have regular meetings and briefings with
their subordinates.

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4.8 Decision making capabilities of women managers in Male and Female dominated
Organizations

Table 15

Variable Organization N M SD SED

Agree/ Male Dominated 41 21.29 3.08 .90

Disagree Female Dominated 24 20.80 3.31

N = Number of Sample, M = Mean, SD = Standard, SED=Standard Error Difference

Source: Survey

Results given in Table 15 shows, decision capabilities of women managers‟ scores of male
dominated are 21.29 and 20.80, having a standard deviation 3.08 and 3.31 respectively in male
and female dominated organizations.

Thus, a decision making capability of women managers in male dominated organizations was not
significantly different from female dominated organizations.

Hence, from these two tables i.e. table 10 and table 15, it could be concluded that the decision
making capabilities of women managers in both organizations are good.

Based on the interview for managers and heads of female dominated organizations, most of the
managers agreed that women managers tend to pass fairer decisions as compared to their men
counterparts. They said that women process information which contributes to their ability to
make sound decisions.

On the other hand some managers in male dominated organizations confirm that they believed in
the capability of women managers but sometimes they said they will change their decision when
influenced by the opinion of their male coworkers.

- 46
Due to this they confess that they lack confidence in bringing sound justifications, evidences and
convincing logic to authenticate their decision. But still they said that decisions were made in
discussion and also they communicate with their subordinates both formally and informally.

- 47
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Conclusions were drawn on the basis of findings of the data analysis. The opportunities and
challenges, leadership styles and the decision making capabilities of women managers in male
and female dominated organizations in Addis Ababa had been identified and compared.

The conclusions are:

In both organizations, women managers have wider range of work experience in different
levels and they have a better training and education.

The policies and strategies that are considered as opportunities to enhance women
managers to exercise their managerial capabilities were found insufficient in both male
and female organizations.

In both male and female dominated organizations women managers did not have either
male or female mentors that can develop women managers. As mentorship program
would help career mobility and advancement of women managers, organizations did not
give attention and seemed surprised of its mere existence.

Regarding the challenges of women in both male and female dominated organizations,
they face almost the same problems. Women managers‟ respondents said that as the
culture is male oriented, the perception of the community and their coworkers is still
unchanged and they do not believe in women ability at the managerial level. Some
women managers have unsupportive spouses and the whole paternal responsibilities are
laid on them. If these challenges not resisted, women will not be able to exercise their
authority at the work place. Organizations tend to assign men in challenging tasks rather
than women.

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 The leadership styles of women managers in both male and female dominated
organization is more or less the same. In both organizations women tends to practice
democratic, participative and transformative way of leadership styles which is the most
important style of leadership that can help organization in many ways to achieve their
objectives.

As regards to decision making, women in male and female dominated organization have
almost the same capabilities. Sound decisions making needs core values like fairness,
responsibility and trustworthiness, women in both organizations were recognized in this
attributes. These capabilities also can be related to their leadership style. However, as
decision making depends on individual personality, some women are exposed to be
volatile and inconsistent in make a sound decision.

5.2. Recommendations

Keeping in view the findings and conclusions of this research, the following recommendations
should forwarded:

 There must be conscious, legislative supported measures to get women at managerial

posts. Companies, especially, public companies and government institutions should
be forced to assign at least certain percentage of women at their top jobs. Private
organizations should also be encouraged to incorporate in their strategic plans to
include women managers in human resources departments. Freedom is a prerequisite
for personal development. The government should use women associations and
organizations, including the Ministry of Women Affairs, as a tool for woman
empowerment.

 Women face different challenges in different life settings. However, challenges of

women in managerial positions are comprehensive. Families, the community and
women themselves should start to give attention to women. As they play a key role in
organizations' as well as country‟s development.

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 Nowadays, corruption is a critical issue in different countries that hampers
development. However women managers‟ have less exposure in to it as their
leadership style is more participatory and transformative. Therefore organization in
both female and male dominated organizations should benefit from this and increase
the number women in managerial positions.

 Taking a sound decision is a major issue in organization performance. Women

managers are good in this area whether they are in male or female dominated
organizations. Therefore organizations should take women managers‟ decision as a
major element for the effectiveness of their organization's performance.

5.3. Limitation of the study

Finally, this study was limited to investigate intwo kinds of organizations only. It would
be more appropriate if more organizations had been included in the study. Hence further
research is needed in this field to obtain coherent findings.

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APPENDIX – 1

Survey Questionnaire

General Direction

The main purpose of this questionnaire is to study the challenges and opportunities of women
managers in both public and private organization and to make a comparative study in women
against men dominated organization.

The information obtained will help to identify the challenges and opportunities practiced in
organizations. To obtain reliable and valid information for the research, your open and genuine
response is highly appreciated. Do not write your name in the questionnaire.

The questionnaire has two parts: section -A is about your personal and related information,
section –B is about overall opportunities and challenges. Each part has its own instruction. Please
read each item carefully and give your honest response to each item. If you overlook any item
without giving response, it will invalidate the study. So, please check that you have given your
response to all items.

Thank you for your time and cooperation.

SECTION A

The responses to the following questions are meant only for analysis purposes. Please provide your
responses by marking a tick (√) in the relevant boxes.

1. How old are you?

Less than 30□ 30 – 39 □ 40 - 49 □ 50 - 58□ More than 58□

2. What is your gender? Male□ Female□

3. What is your marital status? Married□ single □

4. What is the highest level of education that you have completed?

Less than Grade 12 □ grade 12 complete□ certificate□ Diploma□ Bachelor□

Masters □
5. What is your designation/position now? Please identify:

6. What sector of economy do you work now?

Health care □
Education □
Agriculture □ Government□ Trade □ other
………………….……… (Please specify)

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 7. How many years have you worked?

□ 5 to 10 years□ 10 to 20 years□ More than 20 years□

Less than 5 years

8. From which institution are you? Public □ private □

100 and 101- 501- 1001-5000 5001- More than

less 500 1000 10000 10000

9 Please indicate which of the following best

describes your organization's size.

None 0-2 2-4 5-8 1year More than

1 year

10 During your time (in Months) AT YOUR

CURRENT POSITION, how much time
have you taken off work for child bearing,
child rising, parental care, or similar family
responsibilities?

Yes No Don‟t know

11 Do you have (or have had) a MALE or FEMALE mentor in a

senior position AT THE PLACE YOU CURRENTLY WORK?

12 Is your organization has any policy or strategy that could support

women managers?

13 Is there a corporate mentorship program in place AT YOUR

ORGANIZATION?

None little Somewh Remar Very

at kably much

14 If your company has a mentorship program, to what degree do you

feel women benefit from it?

SECTION B

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 There are some statements about leadership and each statement has two alternatives. Read each
item carefully and put this mark „„√‟‟ under the alternative that best express your feeling about
the statement.

Sr. Item Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

No Agree Disagree

1 I have complete freedom in my work place

2 I am easily approachable to the staffs

3 I am cooperative and team player

4 Do you agree that the leadership style you have is good for
the best performance of your job?

5 Do you agree that women have their own leadership style

that is needed by organizations?

6 I always retain the final decision making authority within

my department or team.

7 I always try to include one or more employees in

determining what to do and how to do it. However, I
maintain the final decision making authority.

8 I and my employees always vote whenever a major decision

has to be made.

9 I do not consider suggestions made by my employees as I

do not have the time for them.

10 I ask for employee ideas and input on upcoming plans and

projects.

11 For a major decision to pass in my department, it must have

the approval of each individual or the majority.

12 When things go wrong and I need to create a strategy to

keep a project or process running on schedule, I call a
meeting to get my employee's advice.

13 I want to create an environment where the employees take

ownership of the project. I allow them to participate in the
decision making process.

14 My workers know more about their jobs than me, so I allow

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 them to carry out the decisions to do their job.

15 Employees must be directed or threatened with punishment

in order to get them to achieve the organizational objectives.

16 I like the power that my leadership position holds over

subordinates.

17 In my organization, women are primarily encouraged to

apply for support roles (such as staff positions,
administrative services...etc.) rather than for operational,
technical and managerial positions.

18 In my organization competitiveness/assertiveness in women

is viewed as a negative trait

19 There pay inequality exists between males and females

managers with the same credential in your work place

20 Greater breadth/variety of work experiences

21 Advanced education

22 Having the “right” connections

23 Being a younger woman (rather than an older woman)

24 Being a single woman (rather than married)

25 Spending time (e.g., socializing) in the workplace with

superiors and influential individuals

26 Retaining femininity but performing against stereotypes

27 Having a senior-level MALE or FEMALE mentor (or

sponsor) in the organization

28 Being politically savvy and skillful in building alliance

29 Willingness to put your family (or family plans) on the back

burner and devoting all your attention to your career

30 Corporate structures and practices that favor male

employees

31 Women‟s lack of sufficient self-confidence and timidity

32 Perceptions that women should not be in a position of

authority over men

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33 Lack of sufficient number of women role models in highest
levels of corporate Ethiopia

34 Women‟s lack of enthusiasm in taking on high-stake and

challenging assignments

35 Having a non-supportive spouse

36 Inadequacy of company programs that make it easier for

women to balance their work and home responsibilities

37 Male domination of senior positions

38 Women not being willing to make the sacrifices needed to

remain in senior positions

39 Inhospitable and discouraging corporate cultures that

impede women‟s career progress

40 Perceptions that women may eventually leave the workplace

to raise a family

41 Management‟s tendency NOT to assign women to

challenging/high visibility projects.

42 Perceptions that men make better managers than women

43 Male managers‟ tendency to be intimidated/threatened by

women superiors

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APPENDIX – 2

Interview questions for the participants

Interview Protocol
Date………………. Time …………………

Organization …………………………………

Position ………………………………………

1. How do you see the unique leadership quality that women senior manager in your
organization? What significant changes brought after women mangers hold positions in
your organization?

2. In decision making capabilities do you think women make a sound decision that makes
the company benefited. (If the company is private how the owners or shareholders accept
any decision that women senior managers made?)

3. Do employees in your organization are willing to obey or perform their duties when their
women managers pass instructions or they are willing to obey to their men managers?

4. How the family pressure, commitment and spouse interest will affect your performance
in your senior position? (for women managers)

5. Regardless of employees in the organization and your family how the community accept
women as a senior managers; since they are exposed to spent most of their time out side
home? Does it encouraging or otherwise?

6. How universities, colleges and organizations ready to develop women as senior

managers? (in order to hire, secession development, training, and others)

7. Do you have mentor in the organization that helps you for your current positions?
8. What do you think the opportunities that are given by the Ethiopian government in
general and in your organization specifically? Do you think they are enough or still need
improvement?

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