Multiprocessors A shared-memory multiprocessor (or just multiprocessor henceforth) is a computer system in which two or more CPUs share full access to a common RAM. A program running on any of the CPUs sees a normal (usually paged) virtual address space. The only unusual property this system has is that the CPU can write some value into a memory word and then read the word back and get a different value (because another CPU has changed it). Mewor Multiprocessing ArchitectureTypes of Multiprocessors There are mainly two types of multiprocessors i.e. symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessors. Details about them are as follows: *Symmetric Multiprocessors Oln these types of systems, each processor contains a similar copy of the operating system and they all communicate with each other. All the processors are in a peer to peer relationship i.e. no master - slave relationship exists between them. OAn example of the symmetric multiprocessing system is the Encore version of Unix for the Multimax Computer. *Asymmetric Multiprocessors Oln asymmetric systems, each processor is given a predefined task. There is a master processor that gives instruction to all the other processors. Asymmetric multiprocessor system contains a master slave relationship. UAsymmetric multiprocessor was the only type of multiprocessor available before symmetric multiprocessors were created. Now also, this is the cheaper option.Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems There are multiple advantages to multiprocessor systems. Some of these are: QMore reliable Systems In a multiprocessor system, even if one processor fails, the system will not halt. For example: If there are 5 processors in a multiprocessor system and one of them fails, then also 4 processors are still working. So the system only becomes slower and does not ground to a halt. QEnhanced Throughput If multiple processors are working in tandem, then the throughput of the system increases i.e. number of processes getting executed per unit of time increase. If there are N processors then the throughput increases by an amount just under N. QMore Economic Systems Multiprocessor systems are cheaper than single processor systems in the long run because they share the data storage, peripheral devices, power supplies etc. If there are multiple processes that share data, it is better to schedule them on multiprocessor systems with shared data than have different computer systems with multiple copies of the data.Disadvantages of Multiprocessor Systems There are some disadvantages as well to multiprocessor systems. Some of these are: Olncreased Expense Even though multiprocessor systems are cheaper in the long run than using multiple computer systems, still they are quite expensive. It is much cheaper to buy a simple single processor system than a multiprocessor system. QComplicated Operating System Required There are multiple processors in a multiprocessor system that share peripherals, memory etc. So, it is much more complicated to schedule processes and impart resources to processes, than in single processor systems. Hence, a more complex and complicated operating system is required in multiprocessor systems. OLarge Main Memory Required All the processors in the multiprocessor system share the memory. So a much larger pool of memory is required as compared to single processor systems.Coupling of Processors Tightly Coupled System - Tasks and/or processors communicate in a highly synchronized fashion - Communicates through a common shared memory - Shared memory system Loosely Coupled System - Tasks or processors do not communicate in a synchronized fashion - Communicates by message passing packets - Overhead for data exchange is high - Distributed memory systemInterconnection Structure The components that form a multiprocessor system are CPUs, IOPs connected to input-output devices, and a memory unit. The interconnection between the components can have different physical configurations, depending on the number of transfer paths that are available o Between the processors and memory in a shared memory system o Among the processing elements in a loosely coupled system There are several physical forms available for establishing an interconnection network. 10 Time-shared common bus 20 Multiport memory 30 Crossbar switch 4o Multistage switching network 50 Hypercube system1.Time Shared Common Bus A common-bus multiprocessor system consists of a number of processors connected through a common path to a memory unit. o Only one processor can communicate with the memory or another processor at any given time. o As a consequence, the total overall transfer rate within the system is limited by the speed of the single path A more economical implementation of a dual bus structure is depicted in Fig. below. Part of the local memory may be designed as a cache memory attached to the i Fig: Time shared common bus organization2.Multiport Memory A multiport memory system employs separate buses between each memory module and each CPU. The module must have internal control logic to determine which port will have access to memory at any given time. Memory access conflicts are resolved by assigning fixed priorities to each memory port. Adv.: © The high transfer rate can be achieved because of the multiple paths. Disadv.: © It requires expensive memory control logic and a large number of cables and connections3.Cross Bar Switch fig. shows the functional design of a crossbar switch connected to one memory module. Consists of a number of crosspoints that are placed at intersections between processor buses and memory module paths. The small square in each crosspoint is a switch that determines the path from a processor to a memory module. Adv.: o Supports simultaneous transfers from all memory modules Disadv.: 0 The hardware required to implement the switch can become quite large and complex.4.Multiprocessor architectures Shared memory (b) (©) Figure 8-1. Three bus-based multiprocessors. (a) Without caching. (b) With caching. (c) With caching and private memories. (a) Two or more CPUs and one or more memory modules all use the same bus for communication. When a CPU wants to read a memory word, it first checks to see if the bus is busy. If the bus is idle, the CPU puts the address of the word it wants on the bus, asserts a few control signals, and waits until the memory puts the desired word on the bus.(b)Problem to previous approach, If the bus is busy when a CPU wants to read or write memory, the CPU just waits until the bus becomes idle. The cache can be inside the CPU chip, next to the CPU chip, on the processor board, or some combination of all three. Since many reads can now be satisfied out of the local cache, there will be much less bus traffic, and the system can support more CPUs. (c) in this each CPU has not only a cache, but also a local, private memory which it accesses over a dedicated (private) bus. To use this configuration optimally, the compiler should place all the program text, strings, constants and other read-only data, stacks, and local variables in the private memories. The shared memory is then only used for writable shared variables.Parallel Computers = Flynn's classification * Based on the multiplicity of Instruction Streams and Data Streams * Instruction Stream — Sequence of Instructions read from memory * Data Stream — Operations performed on the data in the processor Number of Data Streams Number of Instruction StreamsInstruction stream Characteristics - Single computer containing a control unit, processor and memory unit - Instructions and data are stored in memory and executed sequentially ~ may or may not have parallel processing - parallel processing can be achieved by pipeliningData bus Instruction stream Le] Processor units Memory modules Characteristics - Only one copy of the program exists - Asingle controller executes one instruction at a timeMISD Data stream Instruction stream Characteristics - There is no computer at present that can be classified as MISDMIMD Interconnection Network Shared Memory Characteristics - Multiple processing units - Execution of multiple instructions on multiple data Types of MIMD computer systems - Shared memory multiprocessors - Message-passing multicomputersPipelining A technique of decomposing a sequential process into sub operations, with each sub process being executed in a special dedicated segment that operates concurrently with all other segments. - It is the characteristic of pipelining that several computations can be in progress in distinct segments at the same time. - Each segment performs partial processing dictated by the way the task is dictated - The result obtained from computation is in each segment is transferred to next segment in the pipeline - The final result is obtained after data has been passed through all segmentPipelining Simplest way to understand pipelining is to imagine that each segment consist of input register followed by combinational circuit. The o/p of combinational circuit in a segment is applied to i/p register of next segment A,*B,+C, fori=1,2,3 Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 RIA, R2—B, Load A andB, R3<—R1*R2, R4<—C, Multiply and load C, RS — R3+R4 AddDesign of a basic pipeline *In a pipelined processor, a pipeline has two ends, the input end and the output end. Between these ends, there are multiple stages/segments such that output of one stage is connected to input of next stage and each stage performs a specific operation. Interface registers are used to hold the intermediate output between two stages. These interface registers are also called latch or buffer. *All the stages in the pipeline along with the interface registers are controlled by a common clock.Pipeline Stages RISC processor has 5 stage instruction pipeline to execute all the instructions in the RISC instruction set. Following are the 5 stages of RISC pipeline with their respective operations: Stage 1 (Instruction Fetch) In this stage the CPU reads instructions from the address in the memory whose value is present in the program counter. Stage 2 (Instruction Decode) In this stage, instruction is decoded and the register file is accessed to get the values from the registers used in the instruction. Stage 3 (Instruction Execute) In this stage, ALU operations are performed. Stage 4 (Memory Access) In this stage, memory operands are read and written from/to the memary that is present in the instruction. Stage 5 (Write Back) In this stage, computed/fetched value is written back to the register present in the instruction.Operations in each Pipeline Stage Al*B1 C1 A2*B2 C2 *B1+C1 A3*B3 C3 *B24+C2 Aa*Ba C4 *B3+C3 AS*BS CS Ad*BA+C4 AG*BE C6 *B5+C5 B7 C7 AG* BB +6 AT7*B7+ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9General Pipeline General Structure of a 4-Segment Pipeline lock ™ | : Space-Time ‘Clock cycles Segment 1| T1 pea Pai 4 T1172 74 | 75 | T6Pipeline SpeedUp n: Number of tasks to be performed Conventional Machine (Non-Pipelined) t,: Clock cycle (time to complete each task) 1: Time required to complete the n tasks Ten*t, Pipelined Machine (k stages) t,: Clock cycle (time to complete each suboperation) 1; Time required to complete the n tasks 1, =(k+n-1) *t, Speedup S,: Speedup *t, (kn -d)*t,Pipeline SpeedUp As n becomes very larger than k-1 then k+n-1 approaches to n Then: S=tn/tp If we consider time taken to complete a task is same in both circuits then tn=ktp and speedup reduces to S= Ktp/ta = k i.e. maximum theoritical speedup pipeline can provide is k.Micro-architecture An ISA describes the design of a Computer in terms of the basic operations it must support. The ISA is not J concerned with the implementation specific details of I a computer. It is only concerned with the set or —— collection of basic operations the computer must.) support. For example the AMD Athlon and the Core 2 t Duo processors have entirely different = implementations but they support more or less the same set of basic operations as defined in the x86 jaa Instruction Set. Sequential Micro architectural level lies just below the ISA level soot and hence is concerned with the implementation of the basic operations to be supported by the Computer as defined by the ISA. Therefore we can say that the AMD Athlon and Core 2 Duo processors are based on the same ISA but have different microarchitectures with different performance and efficiencies. Instruction Set Architecture Increasing Level ‘of AbstractionGraphics Processing Unit *Like a motherboard, a graphics card is a printed circuit board that houses a processor and RAM. It also has an input/output system (BIOS) chip, which stores the card's settings and performs diagnostics on the memory, input and output at startup. *A graphics card's processor, called a graphics processing unit (GPU), is similar to a computer's CPU. A GPU, however, is designed specifically for performing the complex mathematical and geometric calculations that are necessary for graphics rendering. Some of the fastest GPUs have more transistors than the average CPU. A GPU produces a lot of heat, so it is usually located under a heat sink or a fan. *A GPU however is more dedicated in function. It takes that same function that a CPU was processing and completes it all at once. The specified function requested of a GPU enters the GPU’s hundred’s of cores, and processes all at a single point in time, where it handles each process parallel to the next. *The GPU has become the most powerful processing unit of the system, especially since organizations are beginning to rely more on the processing power of a GPU rather than a CPU for the single fact that it can process more at a single point in time faster than a CPU.There are two different types of GPUs: «Integrated GPUs are located on a PC’s CPUand share memory with the CPU processor. *Discrete GPUs live on their own card and have their own video memory (VRAM), so that the PC doesn’t have to use its RAM for graphics. Why a GPU GPU fat) Corea Rm DY overseers CM CLd acyProcessors on Handheld devices ARM processor *An ARM processor is one of a family of CPUs based on the RISC (reduced instruction set computer) architecture developed by Advanced RISC Machines (ARM). *ARM makes 32-bit and 64-bit RISC multi-core processors. RISC processors are designed to perform a smaller number of types of computer instructions so that they can operate at a higher speed, performing more millions of instructions per second (MIPS). *By stripping out unneeded instructions and optimizing pathways, RISC processors provide outstanding performance at a fraction of the power demand of CISC (complex instruction set computing) devices. *ARM processors are extensively used in consumer electronic devices such as smartphones, tablets, multimedia players and other mobile devices, such as wearables. Because of their reduced instruction set, they require fewer transistors, which enables a smaller die size for the integrated circuitry (IC). *The ARM processor's smaller size, reduced complexity and lower power consumption makes them suitable for increasingly miniaturized devices.System on Chip (SoC)based architectures *Mobile device processor architecture became simple with SOC designs. Real time responsiveness in mobile devices can be managed by using an enhanced DSP hybrid chip. Lowering the voltage of the chip enables low power operation in mobile devices. *Qualcomm Snapdragon Processors Snapdragon is a family of mobile system on a chip (SoC) processor architecture provided by Qualcomm. Scorpion, the original snapdragon CPU had many features similar to ARM Cortex-A8 core based on ARMv7 instruction set, but with an added advantage of higher performance utilizing SIMD operations. Smartphone Hardware Architecture Every modern smartphone today uses a System on a Chip (SoC) Architecture with the following 3 primary components: - Application processor executing the user's application software with instructions from the middleware and the operating system (OS) - A baseband (or modem) processor with its own OS components performing baseband radio transmission and reception of audio, video and data - Various peripheral devices for the user interfaceBasic Smartphone architecture Cellular Baseband Application Processor bsp MCU MCU [nom | [Raat row] | kaw | Cellular Bluctooth WLAD RF Radio 1-Rx Radio TeeRx Transceiver [ cu