CHAPTER 1 DESIGN FOR CIVIL STRUCTURES

The main obstacle for a small-scale hydropower plant is the high development cost. In
this chapter, element technologies are described assuming the need to reduce the
construction cost of civil structures (no description is given for those which equally
apply to the design of an ordinary hydropower plant).

1.Intake weir

1.1Basic types of intake weirs

There are a number of basic types of intake weirs as listed below.

(1) Concrete gravity dam

(2) Floating concrete dam
(3) Earth dam
(4) Rock-fill dam
(5) Wet masonry dam
(6) Gabion dam
(7) Concrete reinforced gabion dam
(8) Brushwood dam
(9) Wooden dam
(10) Wooden frame with gravel dam
Wet masonry dam

Of the above, the basically flexible rock-fill dam and gabion dam, etc. are popularly
used in Southeast Asian countries because of such advantages as (i) little influence by
the conditions of the ground base and (ii) relatively easy repair when damaged.
However, they can be breached by flooding due to their structure and their application
should be preceded by careful examination of the importance of constructing such a
civil structure and the conditions of the downstream.
Table.1.1 Basic types of intake weirs for small-scale hydropower plant and application
conditions
Type Outline Drawing Application Conditions
Concrete Concrete is used for the construction of the Foundations: in principle, bedrock
gravity dam entire body. River conditions: not affected by the
gradient, discharge
or level of
sediment load
Intake conditions: good interception
performance and
intake efficiency

Floating Lengthened infiltration path of the Foundations: in principle, gravel

concrete dam foundations by means of cut-off, etc. to River conditions: not affected by the
improve the interception performance gradient, discharge
or level of
sediment load
Intake conditions: good interception
performance and
intake efficiency

Earth dam Earth is used as the main material for the Foundations: variable from earth to
body; the introduction of a riprap and core bedrock
wall may be necessary depending on the River conditions: gentle flow and
situation. easy to deal with
flooding
Intake conditions: good intake
efficiency because
a high interception
performance is
possible with
careful work
 Type Outline Drawing Application Conditions
Rock-fill dam Gravel is used as the main material for the Foundations: various, from earth to
body. The introduction of a core wall may be bedrock
necessary depending on the situation. River conditions: river where an
earth dam could be
washed away by
the normal
discharge
Intake conditions: limited to the
partial use of river
water due to the
low intake
efficiency
Wet masonry Filling of the spaces between gravel with Foundations: various, from earth to
dam mortar, etc. bedrock
River conditions: not affected by the
gradient, discharge
or level of
sediment load
Intake conditions: good interception
performance and
intake efficiency

Gabion dam Gravel is wrapped by a metal net to improve Foundations: various, from earth to
the integrity. bedrock
River conditions: river where a rock-
fill dam could be
washed away by
the normal
discharge
Intake conditions: limited to the
partial use of river
water due to the
low intake
efficiency

Concrete Reinforcement of the gabion surface with Foundations: various, from earth to
reinforced concrete bedrock
gabion dam River conditions: river where the
metal net could be
damaged due to
strong flow
Intake conditions: applicable when a
high intake
efficiency is
required
 Type Outline Drawing Application Conditions
Brushwood Simple weir using locally produced tree Foundations: various, from earth to
dam branches, etc. gravel layer
River conditions: loss due to flooding
is assumed
Intake conditions: at a site with a low
intake volume or
intake from a
stream to
supplement the
droughty water
flow

Wooden dam Weir using wood Foundations: various, from earth to

bedrock
River conditions: relatively gentle
flow with a low
level of sediment
transport
Intake conditions: a certain level of
intake efficiency is
secured with a
surface coating,
etc.

Wooden frame The inside of the wooden frame is filled with Foundations: various, from earth to
with gravel gravel to increase the stability. bedrock
dam River conditions: river at which a
rock-ddddfill dam
could be washed
away by the
normal discharge
Intake conditions: limited to the
partial use of river
water due to the
low intake
efficiency

1.1 Decision on weir height

As the weir volume is proportionate to the square of the height, it is important to decide
the weir height in view of its minimisation taking the following conditions into
consideration.

(1) Conditions restricting waterway elevation

Study on Rural Energy Supply with Utilization of Renewable Energy Manual for Micro-hydro power Development
in Rural Areas in the Republic of Indonesia Chapter 5

To decide the weir height, it is necessary to take the topographical and geological
conditions of the waterway route into consideration in addition to the conditions at the
weir construction site. Careful examination is particularly necessary at a site where the
waterway construction cost accounts for a large proportion of the total construction cost.

The weir height at a site where the waterway is constructed under an existing road is
often decided with reference to the elevation of such a road.

(2) Possibility of riverbed rise in downstream

As the weir height for a small-scale hydropower plant is generally low, there is concern
that its normal function could be disrupted by a rise of the riverbed in the downstream.

Accordingly, the future riverbed rise should be assumed to decide the weir height if the
planned site falls under any of the following cases.
1) Gently sloping river with a high level of transported sediment
2) Existence of not fully filled check dam, etc. in the downstream of the planned
intake weir
3) Existence of a collapsing site in the downstream with concern in regard to
continuous collapse in the future
4) Existence of a narrow section in the downstream which obstructs the flow of
sediment and/or driftwood

(3) Conditions to remove sediment from front of weir and settling basin by intake
method (Tyrolean intake and side intake)

Under normal circumstances, the weir height should be planned to exceed the calculated
value by the following method to ensure the smooth removal of sediment from the front
of the weir and the settling basin.

1) Side intake

In the case of side intake, the following Case (a) or Case (b), which ever is the
higher, is adopted.

a. Weir height (D1) determined in relation to the bed elevation of the scour gate
of the intake weir
D1 = d1 + hi

-5- 5 -
b. Weir height (D2) determined by the bed gradient of the settling basin
D2 = d2 + hi+ L (ic – ir)

Where,
d1 : height from the bed of the scour gate to the bed of the inlet (usually 0.5 – 1.0
m)
d2 : difference between the bed of the scour gate of the settling basin and the
riverbed at the same location (usually around 0.5 m)
hi : water depth of the inlet (usually determined to make the inflow velocity
approximately 0.5 – 1.0 m/s)
L : length of the settling basin (see Chapter 5-5.3 and Fig.5.3.1)
ic : inclination of the settling basin bed (usually around 1/20 – 1/30)
ir : present inclination of the river

Inlet L

hi

ic
d1

ir
d2

Fig.1.1.1 Sectional view of side intake and weir

-5- 6 -
2) Tyrolean intake

A Tyrolean intake where water is taken from the bottom assumes that the front of
the weir is filled with sediment and, therefore, Case D2 determines the weir height
for side intake.

D2 = d2 + hi + L (ic – ir)
Inlet L

D2 hi

ic

ir
d2

Fig..1.2 Sectional view of Tyrolean intake and weir

(4) Influence on electric energy generated

At a site where the usable head is small or where it is planned to secure the necessary
head by a weir, the weir height significantly influences the level of generated electric
energy. Accordingly, it is necessary to determine the weir height at such a site by
comparing the expected changes of both the construction cost and the generated electric
energy because of different weir heights.

(5) Influence of back water

When roads, residential land, farmland and bridges, etc. exist in a lower elevation area
in the upstream of a planned intake weir site, it is necessary to determine the weir height
to prevent flooding due to back water. Particularly at a site with a high weir height, the
degree of influence on the above features must be checked by means of back water
calculation or other methods.

-5- 7 -
1.Intake

1.1 Intake method

Apart from the ordinary side intake method, there are several types of simple intake
methods which aim at reducing the weir height and omitting the intake gate (hereinafter
referred to as the Tyrolean intake method) for a hydropower plant. Two typical
examples are listed below.

 Bar screen type

 Bar-less type

The details of these two types are shown in Table 1.2..1.

-5- 8 -
 Table 5.2.1 Typical examples of Tyrolean intake methods

Advantages and Problems Found by Actual

Intake Method Outline Drawing Characteristics
Performance Survey
Bar screen  If a screen is installed to cover most of the river < Advantages >
type channel, it is highly resistant to riverbed
fluctuations. A sufficiently wide intake width  A scour gate of intake weir can be omitted.
enables 100% intake of river water. As overflow  A compact intake facility is suitable for a
may occur due to fallen leaves, etc. gathering on narrow or rapid river.
the screen surface, the screen width should have a  Stable intake is possible despite a change of the
sufficient margin. The sedimentation capacity of riverbed upstream.
the weir to deal with sediment inflow should also < Problems >
be analysed.  At the time of flooding or water discharge,
 This type is popularly used and the intake rate is sediment and litter flow into the waterway.
said to be generally 0.1 – 0.3 m3/s per unit width  A screen which is clogged with gravel,
based on a bar installation angle of up to 30, an etc. requires much labour for its removal.
inter-bar space of 20 – 30 mm and a bar length of
-5- 9 -

approximately 1 m.
Bar-less type  The running water usually overflows the fixed < Advantage)
weir top and is guided into the settling basin via an  A compact intake facility is suitable for a
intake channel placed across the river channel and narrow or rapid river.
along the endsill (deflector). With an increase of  Stable intake is possible despite a change of the
the river discharge, the running water overflows riverbed upstream.
the endsill and eventually becomes a rapid flow to  Sediment and litter are discharged naturally at
fly over the endsill, making intake impossible at the time of flooding.
the time of flooding. However, sediment deposited
in the intake channel is washed away towards the < Problem >
downstream of the endsill, making maintenance of  Plenty of sediment and litter inflow to the
the intake channel easier. While the sectional form waterway.
of this type is similar to that of the bar screen type,  Frequently of scouring of settling basin is
the absence of a screen means a reduction of the required.
maintenance cost and labour related to the screen.
 1.1.1Important points for intake design

For the design of the intake for a small-scale hydropower plant, it is necessary to
examine the possible omission of an intake gate and others in order to achieve cost
reduction.

In the case of a small-scale hydropower plant, the headrace tends to be an open channel,
a covered channel or a closed conduit. When this type of headrace is employed, it is
essential to avoid a water inflow volume which considerably exceeds the design intake
volume as it will directly lead to the destruction of the headrace.

Meanwhile, as automatic gate control for a small-scale hydropower plant results in a

cost increase, manual control is opted for. In the case of the intake facility for a small-
scale hydropower plant being constructed in a remote mountain area, a swift response to
flooding is difficult. The following method is, therefore, proposed to control the inflow
at the time of flooding without the use of a gate, etc.

(1) Principle
This method intends the design of an intake which becomes an orifice with a rise of the
river water level due to flooding and is frequently used for a Tyrolean intake or for
small-scale hydropower plants in Indonesia.

The inflow volume in this case is calculated by the formula below.

Flood Water Level

bi
dh Ｂ
sp
hi Ai
Water Level of Spillway H

dh ｈｓ
p
hi → Normal Water Level

Q f= Ai ×Cv × Ca × (2 ×g × H ) 0.5
Where,
Qf : inflow volume of submerged orifice (m3/s)
Ai : area of intake (m2) Ai=bi × (dh + hi) dh=0.10～0.15m

-5- 10-
 Cv : coefficient of velocity: Cv = 1/(1 + f)
f : coefficient of inflow loss (see next
figure) Bsp, hsp: refer to Chapter 5-5.3
Settling basin
Angularity Haunch Rounded

f = 0.5 f = 0.25 f = 0.1 (round)

- 0.2 (orthogon)

Bellmouth Protruding
θ

f = 0.5 + 0.3 cosθ

f = 0.05 – 0.01 f = 0.1 + 0.2 cos2θ
Fig.5.2.1 Coefficient of inflow loss of various inlet form

Ca : coefficient of contraction (approximately 0.6; see the following formula)

0.0418
Ca = 0.582 (Merriman’s formula)
+ 1.1 + d/D

where,
D, d: ratio between upstream flow and downstream flow of contracting flow
when, d << D, Ca = 0.582
H: water level difference between upstream and downstream of the orifice (m)

(2) Equipment outline

The important points for design are listed below.

1) It is necessary for the intake to have a closed tap instead of an open tap so that it
becomes a pressure intake when the river water level rises.
2) The intake should be placed at a right angle to the river flow direction where
possible so that the head of the approaching velocity at the time of flooding is
minimised.
3) As water inflow at the time of flooding exceeds the design intake volume, the
spillway capacity at the settling basin or starting point of the headrace should be
fairly large.

-5- 11-
1.2 Settling basin

The settling basin must have not only a structure which is capable of settling and
removing sediment which is a size larger than the minimum size which could have an
adverse impact on the turbine, etc. but also a spillway to prevent excessive water inflow
into the headrace. The basic configuration of a settling basin is illustrated below.
Dam

Intake Spillway
Stoplog Flushing gate

B Headrace
b

1.0
2.0
Conduit section Settling section
Widening section
Bsp
hsp+15cm
10～15 ｃｍ

Stoplog
Intake

hi h0
hs

ic=1/20～1/30
Sediment Pit
Flushing gate
Ｌｃ Ｌｗ Ｌｓ
bi Ｌ

Fig.5.3.1 Basic configuration of settling basin

[Refference]
In oblong section, uniform flow depth: ho1=H*×0.1／(SLs)0.5
H* : refer to {Ref.5-1}
SLs : slope of top end of the headrace
ho2={(α×Qd2)/(g×B2)}1/3
α=1.1
Qd= Design Discharge (m3/s)
g=9.8

-5- 12-
 B:Width of Headrace (m)
if ho1<ho2, ho=ho1
if ho1≦ho2, ho=ho2
Each of these sections has the following function.

(1) Conduit section

Conduit section connects the intake with the settling basin. It is necessary that the
conduit section should be curtailing its length.

(2) Widening section:

This regulates water flow from the conduit channel to prevent the occurrence of
whirlpools and turbulent flow and reduces the flow velocity inside the settling basin to a
predetermined velocity.

(3) Settling section:

This section functions to settle sediment above a certain size and its required length (l)
is calculated by the following formula based on the relation between the settling speed,
flow velocity in the settling basin and water depth.

The length of the settling basin (Ls) is usually determined so as to incorporate a margin
to double the calculated length by the said formula.
V
l ×hs L s= 2×l
U
Where,

l : minimum length of settling basin (m)

hs : water depth of settling basin (m) ( -see Fig.5.31)
U : marginal settling speed for sediment to be settled (m/s)
usually around 0.1 m/s for a target grain size of 0.5 – 1 mm.
V : mean flow velocity in settling basin (m/s)
usually around 0.3 m/s but up to 0.6 m/s is tolerated in the case where the
width of the settling basin is restricted.
V = Qd/(B×hs)
Qd: design discharge (m3/s)
B : width of settling basin (m)

-5- 13-
(4) Sediment pit:

This is the area in which sediment is deposited.

(5) Spillway

Spillway drains the submerged inflow which flows from the intake. The sizes of
spillway will be decided by following equation.
Ｑｆ= C×Bsp×hsp1.5 →hsp={Qf /(C×Bcp)}1/1.5
Where,
Qf : inflow volume of submerged orifice (m3/s, see Chapter 5-5.2.2 (1))
C : coefficient =1.80
hsp: water depth at the spillway (m, see Fig 5.3.1)
Bsp: width of the spillway (m, see Fig.5.3.1)

-5- 14-
1.3 Headrace

1.3.1 Type and Basic Structure of Headrace

Because of the generally small amount of water conveyance, the headrace for a small-
scale hydropower plant basically adopts an exposed structure, such as an open channel
or a covered channel, etc. Some examples and their basic structures are given in Table
1.4.2 and Table 1.4.2 respectively.

-5- 15-
 Table 1.4.1 Types of headraces for small-scale hydropower plants

Type Outline Drawing Advantages and Problems Typical Structure

Open channel < Advantages >  Simple earth channel
 Relatively inexpensive  Lined channel (dry or wet
 Easy construction masonry lining; concrete lining)
< Problems >  Fenced channel (made of
 Possible inflow of sediment from wood, concrete or copper)
the slope above  Sheet-lined channel
 High incursion rate of fallen leaves,  Half-tube channel (corrugated
etc. piping, etc.)
-5- 16 -

Closed conduit / < Advantages >  Buried tube (Hume, PVC or

Covered channel  Generally large earth work volume FRPM)
 Low incursion rate of sediment and  Box culvert
fallen leaves, etc. into the channel  Fenced channel with cover
< Problems >
 Less easier channel inspection,
maintenance work, including
sediment removal, and repair
 Table 1.4.2 Basic structure of headraces for small-scale hydropower plants
Type Outline Diagram Advantages and Problems
Simple earth < Advantages >
channel  Easy construction
 Inexpensive
 Easy repair
< Problems >
 Possible scouring or collapse of the
walls
 Not applicable to highly permeable
ground
n=0.030  Difficult to mechanise the sediment
removal work
Lined channel < Advantages >
(rock and  Relatively easy construction
stone)  Can be constructed using only local
materials
 High resistance to side scouring
 Relatively easy repair
< Problems >
 Not applicable to highly permeable
n=0.025 ground

Wet masonry < Advantages >

channel  Local materials can be used
 Strong resistance to back scouring
 Can be constructed on relatively high
permeable ground.
 Easy construction at the curved
section due to the non-use of forms
< Problems >
 More expensive than a simple earth
Plastered : n=0.015 channel or dry masonry channel
Non Plastered : n=0.020 (rock/stone-lined channel)
 Relatively takes labour hours.
Concrete < Advantages >
channel  High degree of freedom for cross-
section design
< Problems >
 Difficult construction when the inner
diameter is small
 Relatively long construction period
n=0.015

-5-17-
 Type Outline Diagram Advantages and Problems
Wood fenced < Advantages >
channel  Less expensive than a concrete
channel
 Flexible to allow minor ground
deformation
< Problems >
 Limited use with earth foundations
 Unsuitable for a large cross-section
 Difficult to ensure perfect water-
n=0.015
tightness
 Liable to decay
Box culvert < Advantages >
channel  Easier construction than a Hume pipe
on a slope with a steep cross-
sectional gradient
 Relatively short construction period
and applicable to a small cross-
section when ready-made products
are used
 Rich variety of ready-made products
< Problems >
 Heavy weight and high
transportation cost when ready-made
n=0.015 products are used
 Long construction period when box
culverts are made on site
Hume pipe < Advantages >
channel  Easy construction on a gently sloping
site
 Relatively short construction period
 High resistance to external pressure
 Applicable to a small cross-section
 Elevated construction with a short
span is possible
< Problems >
 Heavy weight and high
transportation cost
n=0.015

-5-18-
1.4.2 Determining the Cross Section and Longitudinal Slope

The size of cross section and slope should be determined in such a manner that the
required turbine discharge can be economically guided to the head tank. Generally, the
size of cross section is closely related to the slope. The slope of headrace should be
made gentler for reducing head loss (difference between water level at intake and at
head tank) but this causes a lower velocity and thus a lager cross section. On the
contrary, a steeper slope will create a higher velocity and smaller section but also a
lager head loss.
Generally, in the case of small-hydro scheme, the slope of headrace will be determined
as 1/500 – 1/1,500. However in the case of micro-hydro scheme, the slope will be
determined as 1/50 – 1/500, due to low skill on the survey of levelling and construction
by local contractor.

The cross section of headrace is determined by following method.

(1) Method of calculation

Qd= A ×R 2/3×SL 1/2 ／n

Qd : design discharge for headrace (m3/s)

A : area of cross section (m2)
R : R=A／P (m)
P : length of wet sides (m) refer to next figure.

Water surface

: P

SL : longitudinal slope of headrace (e.g. SL= 1/100=0.01)

n : coefficient of roughness (see Table 5.4.2)

For instance, in the case of rectangular cross section, width (B)=0.6m, water depth
(h)=0.5m, longitudinal slope (SL)=1/200=0.005, coefficient of roughness (n)=0.015.

A= B×h = 0.6 × 0.5 = 0.30 m2

P= B + 2 × h = 0.6 + 2 × 0.5 =1.60 m
R= A／P = 0.30／1.60 = 0.188 m
∴ Qd= A ×R 2/3×SL1/2 ／n = 0.30 ×1.60 2/3×0.005 1/2 ／0.015 = 1.94 m3/ｓ

-5-19-
(2) Simple method
In order to simplify the above method, following method for determining the cross
section is used in [Reference 5-1 Simple Method for Determining the Cross Section]

This reference will be used in determination of cross section in the following two
sectional forms.

1.0

B=0.6 and 0.8m B=0.6 and 0.8m m=0.5

Rectangular cross section Trapezoid cross section

H* should be calculated on each different slope. For instance, in the case of trapezoid
cross section, design discharge (Q)=0.5m3/s, width (B)=0.8m, longitudinal slope
(SLA,B,C,D)=1/100, 1/50, 1/100, 1/200 which is the gentlest position of the headrace,
coefficient of roughness (n)=0.015.
Water depth (H*) is approximately 0.3m in Reference 5-1 Fig-4. Therefore actual water
depth (H) is
H = H* × 0.1 ／(SL)0.5
HA,C = H* × 0.1 ／(SLA,C)0.5 = 0.3×0.1／(0.01) 0.5 = 0.3
HB = H* × 0.1 ／(SLB)0.5 = 0.3×0.1／(0.02) 0.5 = 0.21
HD = H* × 0.1 ／(SLD)0.5 = 0.3×0.1／(0.005) 0.5 = 0.42

and height of the cross section of Slope A,C is 0.60m(0.3+0.2～0.3),

height of the cross section of Slope B is 0.55m(0.21+0.2～0.3),
height of the cross section of Slope D is 0.75m(0.42+0.2～0.3).

Slope A
Slope B
Slope C
Slope D

SLA = 1/100
SLB = 1/50
SLC = 1/100
SLD = 1/200

-5-20-
1.5 Head Tank

1.5.2 Head tank capacity

(1) Function of headtank

The functions of headtank are roughly the following 2 items.

 Control difference of discharge in a penstock and a headrace cause of load

fluctuation.
 Finally remove litter (earth and sand, driftwood, etc.) in flowing water

(2) Definition of head tank capacity

The head tank capacity is defined the water depth from hc to h0 in the head tank length L
as shown in Fig.5.5.1.

Spillway

Headrace ｂ Ｂ As

1.0
2.0
B-b Ｌ 30～50cm Screen
Bspw

dsc Ht
h0
0.5
SLe h>1.0×ｄ
hc
1.0
d

1.0 30～50cm
20.0
0.5
h0=H*×0.1／（Sle） H*：Refer to 'Reference 5-1'
hc=｛(α×Qd2)／(ｇ×B2)}1/3 α=1.1 g=9.8
S=1～2×ｄ
d=1.273×(Qd／Vopt）0.5 Vopt:Refer to 'Reference 5-2'
Vsc=As×dsc=B×L×dsc≧10sec×Qd
B,dsc:desided depend on site condition.

Fig.1.5..1 Picture of headtank capacity

-5-21-
 Headtank capacity Vsc = As×dsc＝B×L×dsc
where, As: area of headtank
B : width of headtank
L : length of headtank
dsc: water depth from uniform flow depth of a headrace when using
maximum discharge (h0) to critical depth from top of a dike for sand
trap in a headtank (hc)

[Reference]
In oblong section, uniform flow depth: ho=H*×0.1／(SLe)0.5
H* : refer to {Ref.5-1}
SLe : slope of tail end of the
headrace critical depth: hc={(α×Qd2)／(g×B2)}1/3 α: 1.1 g:
9.8

(3) Determine a headtank capacity

The headtank capacity should be determined in consideration of load control method
and discharge method as mentioned below.

a. In case only load is controlled

In the case where only controlled load (demand) fluctuation has been considered,
generally a dummy load governor is adopted. A dummy load governor is
composed of water-cooled heater or air-cooled heater, difference of electric power
between generated in powerhouse and actual load is made to absorb heater. The
discharge control is not performed.
The head tank capacity should be secured only to absorb the pulsation from
headrace that is about 10 times to 20 times of the design discharge (Qd).
A view showing a frame format of load controlled by a dummy load governor is
shown in Fig.5.5.2.
Electric power

Power demand Generated power

Water discharge

Dummy load consumption

Time
Fig.1.5.2 Pattern diagram of dummy load consumption

-5-22-
 b. In case both load and discharge are controlled

In the case of controlled load and discharge, a mechanical governor or electrical

governor is used for load control. These governors have the function of controling
vane operation to optimal discharge when electrical load has changed. Generally a
mechanical governor is not sensitive to load change, and head tank capacity in this
case should be secured 120 times to 180 times of Qd.
On the other hand, an electrical governor is responsive to load change, therefore
head tank capacity is designed about 30 times to 60 times of Qd in many cases.

1.5.3 Important issues for head tank design

The design details for the head tank for a small-scale hydropower plant are basically the
same as those for a small to medium-scale hydropower plant and the particularly
important issues are discussed below.

(1) Covering water depth and installation height of penstock inlet

As the penstock diameter is generally small (usually 1.0 m or less) in the case of a
small-scale hydropower plant, it should be sufficient to secure a covering water depth
that is equal to or larger than the inner diameter of the penstock. However, in the case of
a channel where both the inner diameter and inclination of the penstock are as large as
illustrated below, the occurrence of inflow turbulence has been reported in the past.
Accordingly, the covering water depth must be decided with reference to the illustration
below when the inner diameter of the penstock exceeds 1.0 m.

Vertical angle

Swirly when Q

-5-23-
 h = d2
Where,
h : water depth from the centre of the inlet to the lowest water level of the head
tank = covering water depth (m)
d : inner diameter of the penstock (m)

 Covering Water Depth

The covering water depth at the penstock inlet must be above the following value
to prevent the occurrence of inflow turbulence.

d  1.0 m  h  1.0 d
d > 1.0 m  h  d2

Where,
h : water depth from the centre of the inlet to the lowest water level of the head
tank = covering water depth (m)
d : inner diameter of the penstock (m)

NWL

LWL

d
30～50cm

1～2d

 Installation height of penstock

There are many reports of cases where inappropriate operation has caused the
inflow of sediment into the penstock, damage the turbine and other equipment.
Accordingly, it is desirable for the inlet bottom of the penstock to be placed
slightly higher than the apron of the head tank (some 30 – 50 cm).

-5-24-
(2) Appropriate spacing of screen bars for turbine type, etc.

The spacing of the screen bars (effective screen mesh size) is roughly determined by the
gate valve diameter but must be finalised in consideration of the type and dimensions of
the turbine and the quantity as well as quality of the litter. The reference value of an
effective screen mesh size is shown below.

Effective 50
Screen Mesh
Size (mm)

20

200 400 600 800 1000

Gate Valve Diameter (mm)

Effective screen mesh size (reference)

(3) Installation of vent pipe to complement head tank gate

When a head tank gate is installed instead of a gate valve for a power station, it is
necessary to install a vent pipe behind the head tank gate to prevent the rupture of the
penstock line.

In this case, the following empirical formula is proposed to determine the dimensions of
the vent pipe.
P2・L
d = 0.0068 ( ) 0.273
H2

Where,
d : inner diameter of the vent pipe (m)
P : rated output of the turbine (kW)
L : total length of the vent pipe (m)
H : head (m)

-5-25-
Source: Sarkaria, G.S., “Quick Design of Air Vents for Power Intakes”, Proc. A.S.C.E.,
Vol. 85, No. PO.6, Dec., 1959

(4) Spillway at the headtank

Generally, the spillway will be installed at the head tank so that excessive quantity of
water is discharged to the river safely when the turbine is stopped.
The size of spillway is decided by following equation.

Qd=C×Bspw×h
spw 1.5 → hspw={Qd／(C×B spw)}1/1.5

Qd : design discharge (m3/s)

C : cofficient, usually C=1.8
Bspw : width of spillway (m , refer to Fig 5.1.1)
hspw : depth at the spillway (m)

-5-26-
1.6 Penstock

1.6.2 Penstock material

At present, the main pipe materials for a penstock are steel piping, ductile iron piping
and FRPM (fibre reinforced plastic multi-unit) piping. In the case of a small-scale
hydropower plant, the use of hard vinyl chloride piping, Howell piping or spiral welded
piping can be considered because of the small diameter and relatively low internal
pressure. The characteristics of each pipe material are shown in “Table 5.6.1 – Penstock
pipe materials for small-scale hydropower plant”.

1.6.3 Calculation of steel pipe thickness

The minimum thickness of steel pipe of penstock is determined by following formula.

t = P×d
0
+ δt (cm) and t =≧0.4cm or t ≧(d+80)／40 cm
0 0
2×θa×η

where, t0: minimum thickness of pipe

P: design water pressure i.e. hydrostatic pressure + water hammer
(kgf/cm2) , in micro-hydro scheme P=1.1×hydrostatic pressure.
for instance, if the head (Hp, refer to following figure) from head tank to
turbine is 25m, P=2.5×1.1=2.75 kgf/cm2.
d: inside diameter (cm)
θa: admissible stress (kgf/cm2) SS400: 1300kgf/cm2
η: welding efficiency (0.85～0.9)
δt : margin (0.15cm in general)

1.6.4 Determining the Diameter of Penstock

Generally the diameter of penstock is determined by comparison between the cost of

penstock and head loss at penstock. However a simple method for determining the
diameter of penstock is indicated in [Reference 5-2 Simple Method for Determining the
Diameter of Penstock] .

The diameter of penstock will be determined from “Average angle of Penstock (Ap: see
following figure) “ and “Design Discharge (Qd)”.

-5-27-
 Head Tank

Lp

Hp

Ap = Hp ／
Lp

Power House

For instance, in the case of design discharge (Qd)=0.50m 3/s,length of penstock

(Lp)=60m, height from head tank to power house (Hp)=15m, average angle
(Ap)=15/60=0.25, the optimum velocity (Vopt) is determined as about 2.32 in
Reference 5-2. Therefore the diameter of penstock pipe (d) is

d = 1.273 × (Qd／Vopt)0.5 =1.273 × (0.5／2.32)0.5 = 0.59 m

-5-28-
 Table 1.6.1 Penstock pipe materials for small-scale hydropower plant
Resin Pipe Iron Pipe
Hard Vinyl Chloride
Howell Pipe FRP Pipe Steel Pipe Ductile Iron Pipe Spiral Welded Pipe
Pipe
Characteristics  Most popular  Basically  Plastic pipe  Popular choice to  Often used for water  Some examples
material for a resistant to reinforced by penstock at a supply, sewer, of use for a
pipeline as it is external pressure fibre glass hydropower plant irrigation and pipeline
frequently used but ready-made  Used as an  Reliable material industrial pipes  Mainly used as a
for water supply pipes to resist exposed pipe and due to established  Generally used as a buried pipe for
and sewer lines internal pressure can be made design techniques buried pipe although appearance to
 Effective for a are available lighter than exposed use is also hide a spiral
pipeline with a  Relatively easy FRPM pipe with possible welding line
small discharge fabrication of a thinner wall as  High resistance to  Can be used as
 Rich variety of irregular pipes it is not subject to both external and steel pipe piles
ready-made due to easy external load internal pressure
irregular pipes welding other than snow
 Often buried due  Basically used as
to weak a buried pipe
-5-29 -

resistance to
impact and large
coefficient of
linear expansion

Maximum Pipe Thick pipe: 300 2,000 3,000 approx. 3,000 2,600 2,500
Diameter (mm) Thin pipe: 800

Permissible Thick pipe: 10 2.0 – 3.0 Class A: 22.5 133 approx. 40 15

Internal Pressure Thin pipe: 6
(kgf/cm2)

Hydraulic 0.009 – 0.010 0.010 – 0.011 0.010 – 0.012 0.010 – 0.014 0.011 – 0.015 -
Property (n) (approx. 0.011 in (approx. 0.012 in (approx. 0.012 in
general) general) general)
 Resin Pipe Iron Pipe
Hard Vinyl Chloride
Howell Pipe FRP Pipe Steel Pipe Ductile Iron Pipe Spiral Welded Pipe
Pipe
Workability  Easy design and  Good workability  Good workability  Inferior  Inferior workability  Inferior
work due to light due to light due to light workability to to FRP pipes workability to
weight and rich weight weight and no FRP pipes FRP pipes
variety of need for on-site
irregular pipes welding as a
specially formed
rubber ring is
used for pipe
connection
 Steel pipes are
used for irregular
sections because
of the limited
availability of
irregular FRP
pipes
-5-30-

Water-tightness  Good water-  No problem of  No problem of  No problem of  Good  No problems

tightness as water-tightness at water-tightness as water-tightness as
bonding the joints the joint the joint
connection is connection connection
possible method is method is
established established
1.7 Foundation of Powerhouse

Powerhouse can be classified into ‘the above ground type or the semi-underground
type’ and ‘the under ground type’. Most small-scale hydro power house are the above
ground type.

The dimensions for the floor of powerhouse as well as the layout of main and auxiliary
equipment should be determined by taking into account convenience during operation,
maintenance and installation work, and the floor area should be effectively utilized.

Various types of foundation for powerhouse can be considered depending on the type of
turbine. However the types of foundation for powerhouse can be classified into ‘for
Impulse turbine’ (such as Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine and cross flow turbine) and ‘for
Reaction turbine’ (Francis turbine, propeller turbine).

1.7.2 Foundation for Impulse Turbine

Fig.5.7.1 shows the foundation for cross flow turbine, which frequently is used in the
micro-hydro scheme as an impulse turbine. In case of impulse turbine, the water passing
by the runner, is directly discharged into air at tailrace. The water-surface under the
turbine will be raged. Therefore the clearance between the slab of powerhouse and
water-surface at the afterbay should be kept at least 30-50cm. The water depth (hc) at
the afterbay can be calculated by following equation.

1.1×Qd2
hc=( )1/3
9.8×b2
hc: water depth at afterbay (m)
Qd: design discharge (m3/s)
b : width of tailrace channel (m)

The water level at afterbay should be set higher than the estimated flood water level.

Then in case of impulse turbine, the head between the center of turbine and water level
at the outlet becames the head-loss (HL3: refer to Ref.5-3).
 A
2
hc={ 1.1×Qd
}1/3
9.8×ｂ２

30～50cm Flood Water Level(Maximum)

ｈｃ

HL3
(see Ref.5-3)
30～50cm
A

Afterbay Tailrace cannel Outlet

Section A-A
bo
bo: depends on Qd and He

20cm 20cm
b

Fig.1.7.1 Foundation of Powerhouse for Impulse Turbine (Crossflow turbine)

1.7.3 Foundation for Reaction Turbine

Fig.5.7.2 (a) shows the foundation for Francis turbine, which is a typical turbine of the
reaction turbine. The water is discharged into the afterbay through the turbine.

In case of a reaction turbine, the head between center of turbine and water-level can be
used for power generation. Then it is possible that the turbine is installed under the
flood water level on condition that the following equipment is provided (see Fig.
1.7.2(b)).

1.7.3.1 Tailrace gate

1.7.3.2 Pump at powerhouse
 A
d3
Hs：depens on characteristic of turbine

hc={ 1.1×Qd2
}1/3
9.8×ｂ２
Hs
30～50cm Flood Water Level(Maximum)

20cm
ｈｃ

1.15×d3

HL3
2×ｄ (see Ref.5-
3
1.5×d3 3)
A

Section A-A

1.5×d3

Fig 1.7.2(a) Foundation of powerhouse for Reaction Turbine (Francis turbine)

Flood Water Level (Maxmum)

Pump

Gate
HL3

Fig 1.7..2(b) The way of installation to Lower Portion as an Example