Source: Design of Steel Structures, 1st Edition

ISBN: 9781260452334
Authors: Jay Shen Ph.D. P.E. S.E., Bulent Akbas Ph.D., Onur Seker Ph.D., Mahmoud Faytarouni Ph.D.

8. Introduction to Connections

8.1. Introduction
Steel structures consist of structural components that have distinctive features. So far, we have discussed the behavior and
associated limit states of individual structural components such as beams, columns, etc., and how to design them in
accordance with the current design specifications. Nevertheless, to form any type of steel structure, either building or non-
building, these structural members should be connected. This section will present a brief overview of the common connection
types.

Due to their crucial role, connections in structural systems are intended to be "protected." The reason is that the limit states
related to connections (e.g., bolt or weld failure) are often brittle (i.e., sudden failure). Furthermore, depending on the connection
type, connection failures may endanger the stability of structural systems, let alone overall strength and stiffness loss due to
the disruption to the load transfer between the connected structural members. In other words, a structure can only be as strong
as its connections. The design intention is, therefore, to prevent premature connection failures. This design philosophy is
traditionally implemented primarily by ordering the expected failure modes by a hierarchical chain based on the inherent
ductility level of each limit state. This aspect will be further discussed in the subsequent sections after digesting the basic
definitions.

8.2. Overview of Common Connection Types in Framed

Structures
In framed structures, the most common connection type is beam-to-column connections. Beams and columns are connected
with various elements and fasteners since the connection between these two main load–carrying structural components is of
great significance to withstand and transfer loads as desired. Hence, cost, performance, and safety aspects are often taken
into consideration simultaneously for the design and fabrication of beam-to-column connections. Accordingly, beam-to-column
connections in the primary structural systems may differ according to the system which is designed predominantly to resist
lateral forces or gravity loads. In proportion to the amount of the bending moment transferred from beam to column, these
connections can be divided into three groups in general:

Fully Restrained Moment Connections: Both beam flanges, through which a major portion of the bending moment is
transferred, are connected to the column flange. These connections are deemed to provide sufficient restraint against the
rotation of the connected beam relative to the column and, therefore, referred to as rigid or fully restrained moment
connections. Rigid connections are frequently used to connect beams and columns in moment frames to resist lateral
loads as well as to provide stability to the entire building consisting of the slab, moment, and gravity-only frames. Relatively
speaking, rigid connections can be costly due to the additional labor and inspection cost of on-site welding, which requires
qualified workers. A typical example of a rigid beam-to-column connection is depicted in Fig. 8.1, where the beam flanges
are connected to the column through groove welds while the web is connected with a shear tab bolted and welded to the
beam web and column flange, respectively.

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 Partially Restrained Moment Connections: In lieu of welding the flanges directly, beam flanges are connected by means of
additional elements with flexibility such as bolted angles or T-stubs. Deformation of the connectors between the two flanges
provides certain flexibility to the relative movement of the beam flanges and accordingly reduces the moment transfer from
beam to column as the applied deformation increases. Therefore, these connections are called semirigid or partially
restrained moment connections. Even though semirigid connections require additional steel shapes, bolts, and drilling for
connecting the flanges, fabricating and assembling semirigid connections are usually less labor-intensive compared with
the rigid connections. Figure 8.1 demonstrates a semirigid beam-to-column connection with top and seated angles and a
bolted web angle.

Shear Connections: Shear connections, also known as simple or pin connections, are such that beam and column flanges
are not connected at all. Beam web can be attached to the column by different shapes (e.g., single or double angles, shear
tab, end plate). Figure 8.1 shows a common shear connection with double web angles. These connections are flexible, and
traditionally, assumed to carry shear force only, even though a certain amount of bending moment can be transferred
because of the inevitable resistance against relative rotation. The amount of the neglected bending moment may vary based
on the shapes and fasteners used to connect the web. As the name suggests, simple connections are easy to make and are
employed to join beams and columns that are part of gravity load–carrying frames.

Figure 8.1 Typical beam-to-column connections in framed structures.

Besides the above-described beam-to-column connections in moment and gravity frames (i.e., rigid, semirigid, and simple
connections), beam-column-gusset connections in braced frames are also very common in steel structures. When braced
frames are utilized as a lateral force–resisting system, conventionally, gusset plates are used to connect beam, column, and
bracing members, as shown in Fig. 8.2. Gusset plates are responsible for distributing the axial force developed in the
connected bracing to the adjacent beam and column. Therefore, the size and geometry of gusset plates are dependent on
many parameters, such as the connector type (i.e., weld or bolt), expected limit state and capacity of the bracing (e.g., tensile
capacity), special detailing requirements, and so on. Besides, the design and detailing of gusset connections might as well vary
according to the desired ductility level, as indicated in Fig. 8.2. Ductile connections, for instance, are detailed to accommodate
in-plane or out-of-plane buckling of the bracing while nonductile (or low-ductility) detailing is not concerned with the post-
buckling deformations. That is, connection design does not solely involve the selection of the elements that transfer forces
from one member to another but also requires designers to consider deformation capabilities.

Figure 8.2 Typical beam-column-gusset assemblies in concentrically braced frames.

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To comprehend connection design in accordance with the codes and specifications, first, general failure modes will be
discussed. Then, we will cover each limit state through worked examples.

8.3. General Failure Modes

To learn how to design a connection in accordance with the codes and specifications, general failure modes should be
understood first. In order to describe each limit state within a particular group, general failure modes could be related to the
connectors or the connected elements, as shown in Fig. 8.3. Since structural members are connected with either bolts or welds
or a combination of both, the failure modes associated with the connectors can be categorized as bolt-related and weld-related
failure modes (Fig. 8.3). Some of the failure modes, such as block shear and tensile rupture, have already been covered in
Chapter 3. The rest of the limit states will be discussed in what follows.

Figure 8.3 Classification of general failure modes.

8.4. Bolted Connections

8.4.1. General Remarks
We use bolts to assemble almost all structural member types, such as tension or compression members (Fig. 8.2), members
for flexure and shear (Fig. 8.1), splices, and column bases. Figure 8.4 shows a typical structural bolted plate connection
consisting of a bolt with threads, a hexagonal nut, and a washer. As shown in Fig. 8.4, bolts are used to connect two or more
parts with holes by clamping them between bolt head and nut. Notice that washers are placed between the surfaces to evenly
distribute the pressure.

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 Figure 8.4 Typical fastener components (bolt, nut, washer) and bolted plates.

Bolt and bolted connection types used in steel structures differ in terms of material and force transfer mechanisms. Commonly
used bolt types are common bolts and high-strength bolts. Common bolts (also known as unfinished or black bolts) made of
ASTM A307 are often used to connect members that are not subjected to reversed cyclic loads or vibrations (i.e., connections
under static loads). The nuts on common bolts are tightened by a worker using an ordinary wrench (e.g., stubby or open-ended),
which produces small friction force between the surfaces. Common bolts are only permitted for the connections where
pretension is not required. The use of high-strength bolts is necessary when a pretension is specified. High-strength bolts, such
as ASTM A325 (Group A) or A490 (Group B) bolts, cost more than common bolts and require less labor than installing rivets or
welding. These bolts, when pretensioned, provide higher resistance to fatigue and loosening, along with rigid joints without
slippage due to the frictional force induced between the connected elements. Turn-of-nut and calibrated wrench–tightening
methods can be utilized for installing high-strength bolts.

Typical bolt sizes are ranged between ½ and 1½ inches in diameter. Bolt holes can be standard, slotted, or oversized,
considering the connection type as well as the manufacturing tolerances. Standard hole diameters are usually one-sixteenth of
an inch larger than the bolt diameter for the bolts with a diameter of less than 1 inch whereas hole diameters are made 1/8 ''
larger than those of the bolts for the bolt diameters equal or greater than 1 inch. To accommodate adjustments, enlarged holes
are also permitted in some cases. Limitations on the use of the three types of enlarged holes and the maximum nominal hole
dimensions per the Specification, Table J3.3 are given in Table 8.1.

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Table 8.1 Maximum Nominal Hole Dimensions

Bolt Standard Oversized Short-slot (width × length) Long-slot (width × length)

diameter hole hole
diameter diameter

*d b: Nominal bolt diameter; NP: Not permitted.

1 / 2 ′′ 9 / 16 ′′ 5 / 8 ′′ 9 / 16 ′′ × 11/ 16 ′′ 9 / 16 ′′ × 1 1 / 4 ′′

5 / 8 ′′ 11/ 16 ′′ 13/ 16 ′′ 11/ 16 ′′ × 7 / 8 ′′ 11/ 16 ′′ × 1 9 / 16 ′′

3 / 4 ′′ 13/ 16 ′′ 15/ 16 ′′ 13/ 16 ′′ × 1 ′′ 13/ 16 ′′ × 1 7 / 8 ′′

7 / 8 ′′ 15/ 16 ′′ 1 1 / 16 ′′ 15/ 16 ′′ × 1 1 / 8 ′′ 15/ 16 ′′ × 2 3 / 16 ′′

1 ′′ 1 1 / 8 ′′ 1 1 / 4 ′′ 1 1 / 8 ′′ × 1 5 / 16 ′′ 1 1 / 8 ′′ × 2 1 / 2 ′′

≥ 1 1 / 8 ′′ db + 1 / 8 ′′ db + 5 / 16 ′′ (db + 1 / 8 ′′) × (db + 3 / 8 ′′) (db + 1 / 8 ′′) × 2.5 db

Restrictions None NP in Long side of the slot should be Permitted in only one of the parts being connected. Long
bearing- perpendicular to the loading side of the slot should be perpendicular to the loading
type direction in bearing-type direction in bearing-type connections
connections connections

Illustration
of hole type

The Specification specifies the spacing between the holes (s ) and minimum and maximum edge distance (e) for the bolted
connections to facilitate construction as well as to consider the bearing and tearout strength requirements. Table 8.2 presents
a summary of these requirements for various bolt diameters. The center-to-center distance between the holes of all types (i.e.,
standard, slotted, oversized) should be greater than 2 2/3 times the nominal bolt diameter (d). Note that the distance between
the centers of holes (s) is typically taken no less than 3d for the ease of bolt tightening. The maximum spacing varies
depending on whether the elements consist of two shapes or not, according to the Specification, Section J3.5. The minimum
edge distance, e, is also dependent on the nominal bolt diameter, as listed inTable 8.2, whereas the maximum edge distance
from the hole center is a function of element thickness and given as the smallest of 12 times the thickness of the connected
part and 6-inch distance. The limitation on the maximum edge distance intends to prevent corrosion while limiting the minimum
distance aims to provide for the standard of workmanship.

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Table 8.2 Spacing and Edge Distance for Bolts

Example

Example 8.1

Check bolt spacing and edge distances for the connection shown inFig. 8.5. The connection consists of two plates
connected with ½-inch-diameter bolts.

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 Figure 8.5 Example 8.1.

Solution:

Per the restrictions given in the Specification, J3.3, J3.4, and J3.5, the limiting edge distance and fastener spacing can be
summarized for the given connection:

Min. edge distance, emin = ¾ʺ for ½-inch bolts (Specification, Table J3.4)

Max. edge distance, emax= 12 times the thickness of the connected part ≥ 6 in. (Specification, J3.5)

Min. spacing between holes, s min = 22/3 times the nominal bolt diameter (Specification, J3.3)

Max. spacing between holes, s max = 24 times the thickness of the thinner part ≥ 12 in. (Specification, J3.5a)

⎧ emin = 3/4′′ < e = 2′′ < emax = 12 × 1/2 = 6′′ ⎫

Longitudinal direction → ⎨ ⎬
⎩ s min = 2 2 × 1/2 = 1.34′′ < s = 3′′ < s max = 24 × 1/2 = 12′′ ⎭
3
⎧
⎪
3 ′′ ⎫
⎪
⎪ min ⎪
e = 3/4 ′′ < e = 1 < emax = 12 × 1/2 = 6′′
Transverse direction → ⎨ ⎬
4
⎪
⎩ s min = 2 × 1/2 = 1.34′′ < s = 2
2 1 ′′
< s max = 24 × 1/2 = 12′′ ⎪
⎭
⎪
3 2

Thus, bolt and edge spacing are adequate.

8.4.2. Bolted Joint Types

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In general, we can classify a joint that is loaded with shear or tension, or a combination of both either as non-pretensioned or
pretensioned. When pretension is not required, a group of bolts in a joint can be tightened enough with an ordinary spud or
impact wrench so that the plies are brought into firm contact. We refer to this non-pretensioned connection type as a snug-
tightened joint. In this case, the load is resisted by bearing stress-induced against the plies and shear stress of the non-
pretensioned bolts used in the shearing connection. There is no upper or lower tension requirement for snug-tight bolts.
Comparatively speaking, snug-tightened joints are easy to design, install, and inspect and can be used in most structures where
slippage is allowed, and pretension is not required. Snug-tightened joints involving A325 bolts in direct tension are also
permitted for statically loaded applications, while neither bolts under nonstatic tension load nor A490 bolts under any type of
tension load is permitted.

When pretension is necessary, but slippage is not a design consideration, high-strength pretensioned bolts can be used. Per
Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts (RCSC, 2014), besides code-specified requirements, pretension is
required when

Load reversal is significant.

Fatigue load exists (without reversal of loading direction).

A325 bolts that are subject to tensile fatigue are used.

A490 bolts that are subject to tension or combined tension and shear are used.

In addition, according to the Specification, for reasons other than slip-resistance, pretension is also required for several
connection types, such as buildings with cranes over 5-ton capacity, members that provide bracing to columns, etc.

Slip-critical connections, where a slip of a bolted joint under service loads is undesirable, would be required in certain cases. For
instance, joints that are subject to fatigue load should be designed as slip-critical, given that slippage increases the possibility
of fatigue failure. Slip-critical joints are also required when oversized or slotted holes are utilized; potential slip between the
faying surfaces has an influence on structural performance or at the joints where welds and bolts are sharing the load. These
connections can be considerably expensive compared with other joint types due to the additional cost of faying surface
preparation as well as rigorous installation and inspection requirements. A summary of the joint types is presented in Table 8.3.

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Table 8.3 Summary of Bolted Joint Types (RCSC, 2014)

Joint type* Remarks Load transfer

* Design, installation, and inspection requirements can be found in RCSC (2014) Sections 4.1 through 4.3.

Snug- Plies are expected to bring into firm contact. Load is resisted by shear/bearing.
tightened
Bolts are tightened using a spud or impact wrench. Provide resistance to shear load only, static tension
load only, or combined shear and static tension load.
No pretension is applied.

Both common and high-strength bolts can be used.

Easy to design, install, and inspect.

Pretensioned Bolt pretension is required when joints are subject to Load is resisted by shear/bearing.
significant load reversal, fatigue load, and so on.
Provide resistance to shear load only, tension load only,
Slippage is not of concern. or combined shear and tension load.

Only high-strength bolts are used.

Slip-critical Bolts are fully pretensioned to cause a clamping force on the Load is transferred by the friction between the bolted
faying surfaces between the connected components. components.

Slippage is not permitted. Provide resistance to slippage, shear, or combined

shear and tension.
Required when reversed fatigue load exists.

Only high-strength bolts are used.

Preferred when joint slippage is detrimental to the

serviceability of the structure.

More expensive.

8.4.3. Limit States

Besides the previously discussed limit states, which are block shear rupture and tensile rupture in the net section, the possible
failure modes possible in several bolted connection types are listed as follows:

Bolt failure under shear

Bolt tension fracture

Bolt failure under combined shear and tension

Bearing/tearout at bolt holes

Shear yielding or rupture of connected parts

Before attending to specific bolted connection types, we need to examine and understand the basics of the above-listed limit
states. Note that some of the possible limit states will not be covered in detail, such as fatigue-related limit states and the limit
states under concentrated forces.

8.4.3.1. Bolt Shear

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Shear failure of a fastener that connects two or more elements, such as plates as demonstrated inFig. 8.6, physically occurs
when a fastener is fractured from the plane along the contact surface between the connected plies. Although a failure due to
pure shear is an idealization, the internal force developed in each failure plane of an individual fastener would be estimated as
the product of gross area and the average shear stress. Using the free-body-diagram shown in Fig. 8.6 (left), the shear strength
of a bolt in a lap-joint can be expressed by

P = FvAb

(8.1)

πd2b
Ab =
4

(8.2)

where P is the load per fastener, Fv is the average shear stress over the failure plane, Ab is the gross cross-sectional area of an
individual bolt, and db is the nominal bolt diameter. This case, where shear failure could only occur in a single plane, is named as
"single shear." In some cases, a fastener may clamp more than two plates creating two planes of shear failure, as depicted in
Fig. 8.6 (right). Considering the free-body-diagrams of a failed bolt shown inFig. 8.6 (right), the applied load can be related to
the average shear stress as

P/2 = FvAb

(8.3)

Figure 8.6 Bolted shear connection: single shear (left) and double shear (right).

In this double-lap-joint case, the total applied load is shared by force induced in two shear planes, and therefore this loading
case is referred to as "double shear."

For design purposes, shear failure limit state is assumed to take place when the average shear stress,Fv uniformly distributed
over the cross-section attains the nominal shear strength, Fnv. Thus, the nominal shear strength per bolt per shear plane will be

rn = FnvAb

(8.4)

The nominal shear strength of a connection becomes

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Rn = rn × {number of shear planes} × {number of bolts}

(8.5)

Nominal shear strength, Fnv values adopted from the Specification, Table J3.2 are summarized in Table 8.4 for common and
high-strength bolts. The nominal shear strength for the same high-strength bolt type (e.g., A325 or A490 bolts) varies depending
on whether the threads are in the shear plane or not. Given the threaded portion has a smaller area than that of the shank (i.e.,
unthreaded part), the reduction in the bolt diameter is accounted for by decreasing the shear stress by about 20%. These
connections that the threads are included in and excluded from the shear plane are illustrated in Fig. 8.7, respectively. Note that
it is better to be on the safe side by assuming that threads are included in the plane if the thread length is not known when
designing a bolted connection for shear.

Table 8.4 Nominal Shear Strength of Various Fasteners in Bearing-Type Connections

Bolt description Nominal shear strength, F nv (ksi)

*Fnv = 0.563Fu when threads are excluded.

**Fnv = 0.45Fu when threads are not excluded.

A307 bolts 27

A325 bolts (threads are not excluded from shear planes) 54

A325 bolts (threads are excluded from shear planes) 68

A490 bolts (threads are not excluded from shear planes) 68

A490 bolts (threads are excluded from shear planes) 84

Figure 8.7 Bolted connection: threads are not excluded (left), and threads are excluded (right).

Example

Example 8.2

A double-shear bolted connection consisting of three rectangular plates and six 5/8 '' A325 bolts (threads are not in the
shear planes is shown in Fig. 8.8). Find the nominal strength of the connection, considering the shear failure of the bolts
only.

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 Figure 8.8 Example 8.2.

Solution:

Since threads are excluded from the shear planes, Fnv = 68 ksi (Specification, Table J3.2)

π × 5/8 2
πd2b
Nominal bolt area, Ab = = = 0.307 in.2
4 4
Number of bolts = 6

Number of shear planes = 2

2 2
Nominal shear strength per bolt per shear plane, rn = FnvAb = 68kips/in. × 0.307in. = 20.86 kips

Nominal shear strength of the connection, Rn = rn × {number of shear planes} × {number of bolts}

Rn = 20.86kips × 2 × 6 = 250.4 kips Ans.

8.4.3.2. Bearing/Tearout at Bolt Holes

Movie 8.1 Bearing of a bolted steel plate.

This video shows the simulated bolted steel lap-joint to demonstrate the
bearing of a connecting plate at a bolt hole.

2021

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Stress developed at bolt holes due to the contact pressure between the bolt, and the connected part is called bearing stress. To
better visualize this, the bearing of a connecting plate at a bolt hole is demonstrated by the simulated bolted lap-joint shown in
Movie 8.1 and Fig. 8.9. The joint is subjected to ever-increasing axial load, P (Fig. 8.9a). As demonstrated by the excessive
bearing deformation at the individual bolt hole shown in Fig. 8.9c, bearing limit state is associated with the connected parts and
therefore influenced by the geometric parameters (e.g., plate thickness or bolt diameter) along with the strength of the
connected material. Note that even though bending deformation due to the eccentricity between the two plates also seems
dominant in this case, the interaction between shear and tensile deformations will not be discussed here (Fig. 8.9b).

Movie 8.1 Bearing of a bolted plate. (To view the entire movie, go to www.mhprofessional.com/design-of-steel-structures.)

Figure 8.9 Illustration of bearing deformation at a hole: (a) Typical bolted lap-joint. (b) Deformed
shape. (c) Bearing deformation at a hole.

The nominal bearing strength for a joint at each bolt hole can be expressed as the product of the bearing stress and bearing
area. Given that estimating the actual stress distribution around the hole as well as the area in contact can be quite
complicated, we tend to simplify the nominal bearing strength calculations. We usually use a uniform bearing stress distribution
based on the average stress acting on the projected bolt area, as illustrated in Fig. 8.10. Thus, the bearing area is expressed as

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Bearing Area = thickness of the connected material × bolt diameter = db × t

(8.6)

Figure 8.10 Bearing deformation against a hole.

The nominal bearing strength against each bolt hole will be

rn = C × (db × tmin) × Fu

(8.7)

in which C is a constant having 2.4 or 3.0 depending on whether the local bearing deformation at service load is a concern or
not, and Fu is the ultimate stress of the connecting element. The governing bearing stress has been experimentally determined.
Extensive experimental research (Kulak et al., 1987) pointed out that a hole could attain a bearing strength of around 2.4 times
the product of bearing area and ultimate stress of the connected material when a reasonable bearing deformation of ¼ʺ is
expected. A bearing constant of 3.0, on the other hand, corresponds to a total standard hole elongation equal to the bolt
diameter (Kulak et al., 1987).

Bolts might thrust through the edge or adjacent bolt hole, forcing the connected material to rupture, if bearing deformation at a
hole is significant. This type of shear failure is called "tearout" failure. Similar to the assumptions in the bearing strength
formulation, the shear failure plane, in this case, is idealized to be straight lines for the sake of simplicity. As shown in Fig. 8.11,
the nominal tearout strength at each bolt hole can be computed by considering the clear distance from hole to the edge, Le for
exterior bolts or hole-to-hole clear distance, Lc for interior bolts. Clear distances, indicated in Fig. 8.11a, for tearout strength
calculations, can be determined by subtracting the nominal bolt diameter, dh from center-to-center distances as follows:

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 Figure 8.11 Dimensions and strength formulation for interior and exterior bolts for tearout limit
state: (a) Dimensions. (b) Failure plane for edge bolt. (c) Failure plane for interior bolt.

For exterior bolts → Le = e − dh/2

For interior bolts → Lc = s − dh
Using the idealized shear rupture paths shown inFig. 8.11b and c, tearout strength for each exterior and interior bolt can be
determined as total shear area times shear fracture stress, 0.6Fu:

For exterior bolts → rn = 2 × (Le × t) × (0.6Fu) = 1.2FutLe

(Fig. 8.11b)

For interior bolts → rn = 2 × (Lc × t) × (0.6Fu) = 1.2FutLc

(Fig. 8.11c)

For standard holes, if we substitute C values back into Eq. (8.7) and consider both tearout and bearing strengths, we get

1. When the deformation of the bolt hole at service load is a design consideration:

rn = 2.4dbtminFu ≥ 1.2LctFu
2. When the deformation of the bolt hole at service load is not a design consideration:

rn = 3.0dbtminFu ≥ 1.5LctFu

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The nominal bearing strength for a joint is the sum of the bearing (or tearout strength, whichever is smaller) of individual bolts,
and can be calculated as

Rn = rn × {number of bolts}

(8.8)

It is important to notice that according to the Specification, Eq. (8.8) assumes that each bolt resists the applied force equally
regardless of the fastener shear strength or presence of threads.

Example

Example 8.3

Determine the nominal strength of the joint shown inFig. 8.12 considering shear, bearing, and tearout limit states. Assume
that bearing deformation is a design consideration.

Figure 8.12 Example 8.3.

Solution:

Nominal shear strength:

Threads are included in the shear planes, Fnv = 68 ksi

πd2b π × 3/4 2
Nominal bolt area, Ab = = = 0.442 in.2
4 4
Number of shear planes = 2 (three plies)

Number of bolts = 6

= FnvAb = 2 × (68kips/in. × 0.442in. ) = 60.1 kips/bolt

2 2
Nominal shear strength per bolt, rn

Nominal shear strength of the connection, Rn1 = 60.1 × 6 = 360.6 kips

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 Nominal bearing/tearout strength:

Bearing limit state:

3
Nominal bolt diameter, db = in.
4
Ultimate strength of A36 plates, Fu = 58 ksi

⎧
⎪
3 1
( + ) ⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪ 8 2 ⎪
⎪ 7
Thickness for projected bearing area, tmin = ⎨ or ⎬ = in.
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
8
⎪1 1
⎩ ⎪
⎭
8 min

3 7
Nominal bearing strength per bolt hole, rn = 2.4dbtminFu = 2.4 × × × 58 = 91.4 kips
4 8
Tearout limit state:

1 1 3 1
Clear distance for exterior bolt → Le = e − dh/2 = 1 − × ( + ) = 0.84375 in.
4 2 4 16
1 3 1
Clear distance for interior bolts → Lc = s − dh = 2 − ( + ) = 1.6875 in.
2 4 16
Nominal tearout strength per exterior bolt

→ rn = 1.2LetFu = 1.2 × 0.84375 × 7/8 × 58 = 51.4 kips/bolt

Nominal tearout strength per interior bolt

→ rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2 × 1.6875 × 7/8 × 58 = 102.8 kips/bolt

Bearing strength per exterior bolt is greater than its tearout counterpart, whereas the tearout strength for the interior bolts is
larger than their bearing strength. Therefore, the bearing limit state governs for the two exterior bolts while the available
strength of the four interior bolt holes is controlled by bearing limit state. Thus, the nominal bearing/tearout strength of the
connection will be

Rn2 = (2 × 51.4) + (4 × 91.4) = 468.4 kips

Based on the limit states under consideration, the nominal strength of the connection is the smaller of the nominal
capacities obtained from shear and bearing/tearout limit states. Therefore, bolt shear failure governs

Rn = {Rn1;Rn2}min = {360.6kips;468.4kips} = 360.6 kips Ans.

min

8.4.3.3. Bolt Tension Fracture

Tensile strength of a bolt is a function of its ultimate tensile strength and the cross-sectional area of the threaded portion. The
area of the threaded portion, which is dependent on the thread size, is typically 75% of the nominal bolt area. We account for this
reduction in the area by using 75% of the ultimate tensile strength per unit area. Table 8.5 summarizes the nominal tensile
strength, Fnt for a common, and the two conventional high-strength bolt types.

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Table 8.5 Nominal Tensile Strength of Fasteners

Bolt description Nominal tensile strength, F nt (ksi)*

*Fnt = 0.75Fu to roughly account for the ratio of the effective tension area of the threaded portion to the area of the shank.

A307 bolts 45

A325 bolts 90

A490 bolts 113

According to the Specification, the nominal tensile strength of a bolt is

Rn = FntAb

(8.9)

where Ab is the gross cross-sectional area of the shank. It is essential to note that the tensile capacity of a bolt is independent
of the joint type. Therefore, the tensile capacity remains virtually unchanged whether or not pretension is applied. On the other
hand, depending on the connection type, the additional tension force resulting from a potential prying action should be included
in the tensile strength as per the Specification, J3.6. If the legs of the connecting element had sufficient stiffness, the tension
force in the bolts would be equal to the applied load. Otherwise, prying action causes a compression force near the tip of the
outstanding leg, which increases the tension force in the bolt. Prying action only applies in bolted construction and for tensile
bolt forces, such as bolted hanger connections with a tee-shape or angle. According to the AISC Manual (AISC, 2011), the
thickness required to prevent prying action is

tmin = √
4Tb′
ϕpFu

(8.10)

where

Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the connecting element (tee or angle)

T = required strength per bolt
d
b′ = b − b
2
b = for a tee-type connecting element, the distance from bolt centerline to the face
of the tee stem; for an angle-type connecting element, the distance from bolt
centerline to centerline of angle leg
p = tributary length (maximum 2b but should be less than s)
s = bolt spacing
ϕ = 0.9
If the fitting thickness is equal to or greater than tmin, the additional force in bolt becomes negligible. Hence, a prying action
check is not necessary.

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8.4.3.4. Tension and Shear Interaction in Bearing-Type Connections
At the ultimate limit state, failure of a fastener in a bearing-type connection would take place by shear or tensile failure if the bolt
is loaded only with shear or tension. In many cases, however, shear and tension forces are simultaneously experienced. Based
on the experimental tests (Kulak et al., 1987), the interaction between shear and tension has been defined by an elliptical
relationship as follows:

2
fv 2
( ) +( ) = 1.0
ft
ϕFnt ϕFnv

(8.11)

where ft and fv are the required tensile and shear stresses, respectively. The elliptical representation can be replaced with a
similar relationship consisting of three straight lines as follows:

fv
when ≤ 0.3 → ft = ϕFnt
ϕFnv
(8.12a)

⎧
⎪ ⎫
⎪
f
⎪ ⎪
0.3 ≤ v ≤ 1.0
⎪ ϕFnv ⎪
when ⎨ and ⎬ → ( ϕF ) + ( ϕF ) = 1.3
ft fv
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ 0.3 ≤ ft ≤ 1.0
⎩ ⎪
⎭
nt nv

ϕFnt
(8.12b)

ft
when ≤ 0.3 → fv = ϕFnv
ϕFnt
(8.12c)

The straight-line representation given in Eq. (8.12) not only accurately approximates the original elliptical interaction curve in
Eq. (8.11) but also neglects the adverse impact of combined effects when the required stress is equal to or less than 30% of the
corresponding available design stress.

According to the Specification, Section J3.7, the nominal tensile strength of a bolt subjected to combined effects of shear and
tension is

Rn = Fnt
′ A
b

(8.13a)

′ = 1.3F −
Fnt
Fnt nt f ≤ Fnt
ϕFnv rv

(8.13b)

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where

′
Fnt = nominal tensile stress modified to include the effects of shear stress
Fnt = nominal tensile stress
Fnv = nominal shear stress
frv = required shear stress

Example

Example 8.4

A column-to-bracing connection is shown in Fig. 8.13. Diagonal bracing made with double-channels welded to a tapered
gusset plate. The gusset plate is also welded to an end plate while the column and the gusset assembly are bolted together
with eight ½ʺ A490 bolts. Factored axial load Pu is estimated as 75 kips. Threads are included in the planes, and the bolts
are snug-tightened. Determine the nominal tensile strength of each bolt.

Figure 8.13 Example 8.4.

Solution:

The bolts are subjected to combined tension and shear. Since the longitudinal axis of bracing coincides with the center of
gravity of the bolt group, each bolt will share the tension and shear load equally.

For ½ʺ A490 bolts:

Nominal tensile stress, Fnt = 113 ksi

Nominal shear stress, Fnv = 68 ksi

π × 1/22
πd2b
Nominal cross-sectional area of each bolt, Ab = = = 0.196 in.2
4 4

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 Required shear stress for each bolt is

Pu sin 450 75 × sin 450

frv = = = 33.8 ksi
nAb 8 × 196

The modified tensile stress becomes

′ = 1.3 × 113 −
113
Fnt × 33.8 = 72 ksi ≤ Fnt = 113 ksi
0.75 × 68

Thus, the nominal tensile strength of an individual bolt will be

rn = Fnt
′ A = 72 × 0.196 = 14.1 kips
b

8.4.3.5. Slip Prevention in Slip-Critical Connections

Slip-critical connections are designed considering the strength limit states applicable to bearing-type connections as well as to
prevent slip at working loads. To satisfy the serviceability requirement, it is assumed that the load is transmitted solely through
the friction-induced between the faying surfaces under service loads. In other words, if properly pretensioned, slip-critical
connections are unlikely to subject to bearing or shear, although they are designed to have sufficient shear and bearing
strength.

For design purposes, the foregoing slip-resistance is provided by the friction force resulting from the applied bolt pretension-
induced contact pressure. Figure 8.14 illustrates how the load is transmitted from one member to another. To determine the
slip-resistance limit on the applied force on the simple slip-critical joint shown in Fig. 8.14a, we should recognize the force
transfer as well as the interaction between bolt assembly and plates. Subsequent to applied pretension, T b the clamping force
develops washer-to-plate and plate-to-plate contact (Fig. 8.14a). As demonstrated by the free-body-diagram of the pretensioned
bolt shown in Fig. 8.14b, the total contact force, N, produced between the washer below the bolt head and the top plate has to
balance the internal bolt tension force, T b. If we transfer the total pressure, N to the top plate, as shown in Fig. 8.14c, we can
easily associate the pretension force, T b to the applied force, P. Satisfying the vertical and horizontal force equilibrium of each
plate using the free-body-diagram given in Fig. 8.14c indicates that the force on the connection, P should not exceed the
following to avoid slippage in theory.

P ≤ F = μN = μTb

(8.14)

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 Figure 8.14 Load transfer in slip-critical connections: (a) Slip-critical joint. (b) FBD of bolt
assembly. (c) FBD of plates.

Per the Specification, Section J3.8, the nominal slip-resistance per bolt can be determined as follows:

rn = μDuhfTbns

(8.15)

where

Du = a multiplier to account for the mean installed bolt pretension to the specified
minimum bolt pretension ratio, can be taken as 1.13
Tb = minimum fastener pretension listed in Table 8.6
hf = 1.0 for one filler between connected parts, 0.85 for two or more fillers between
connected parts
n s = number of slip planes
μ = mean slip coefficient, 0.3 for Class A surfaces (e.g., unpainted clean steel) and
0.5 for Class B surfaces (e.g., unpainted blast-cleaned steel surfaces)

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Table 8.6 Minimum Bolt Pretension (kips)

Bolt diameter A325 Bolts A490 Bolts

1 / 2 ′′ 12 15

5 / 8 ′′ 19 24

3 / 4 ′′ 28 35

7 / 8 ′′ 39 49

1 ′′ 51 64

1 1 / 8 ′′ 64 80

1 1 / 4 ′′ 81 102

1 3 / 8 ′′ 97 121

1 1 / 2 ′′ 118 148

The Specification also recognizes that the clamping force due to applied pretension would be reduced when a tensile load is
acting on a connection. Reduction in the net clamping force is considered by introducing an additional factor, ksc. The nominal
slip resistance per bolt, therefore, should be multiplied by ksc factor, which is a function of the ratio of the factored tension force
on the connection and the modified pretension force. ksc factor can be computed as follows:

Tu
ksc = 1 − ≥0
DuTbnb

(8.16)

in which T u and nb are the required tension force and number of bolts carrying the applied tension, respectively.

Example

Example 8.5

Rework Example 8.3 by assuming that the connection is slip-critical and find the nominal slip-resistance of the connection
given in Fig. 8.12. Surfaces are unpainted mill scale.

Solution:

Du = 1.13

T b = 35 kips for ¾ʺ A490 bolts

hf = 1.0

ns = 2

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 μ = 0.3

Each bolt can resist

rn = μDuhfTbns = 0.3 × 1.13 × 1.0 × 35 × 2 = 23.73 kips/bolt

There are six bolts. Therefore, nominal slip-resistance of the connection is

Rn = rn × number of bolts = 23.73 × 6 = 142.4 kips

Ans.

Example

Example 8.6

Rework Example 8.4 by assuming that the connection is slip-critical and find the nominal slip-resistance of each fastener
given in Fig. 8.13. Surfaces are unpainted blast-cleaned.

Solution:

Given the slip-critical connection is subjected to shear combined with tension, the reduction in the clamping force should be
considered by introducing the reduction factor, ksc given in Eq. (8.16). Required tension force, T u will be the horizontal
component of the total factored axial load, Pu:

Tu = Pu cos 450 = 75 × cos 450 = 53.03 kips

The rest of the parameters needed for ksc calculation are

Du = 1.13

T b = 15 kips for ½ʺ A490 bolts

nb = 8

Thus, the reduction will be

Tu 53.03kips
ksc = 1 − =1− = 0.609
DuTbnb 1.13 × 15 × 8

Since hf = 1.0, ns = 1, m = 0.5 (Class B surface), the nominal slip-resistance of each bolt is

kscrn = kscμDuhfTbn s = 0.609 × (0.5 × 1.13 × 1.0 × 15 × 1) = 5.16 kips/bolt Ans.

8.5. Welded Connections

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8.5.1. General Remarks
Structural welding, in general, is a fabrication process during which two or more metal structural parts, such as steel gusset
plate and beam or column, are melted together to join with the addition of molten filler material between them using heat
treatment. Welding has a wide range of applications and can be preferred in many structural applications, such as industrial or
multistory buildings, for their advantages over bolting:

1. Welded connections are more rigid because of the absence of additional flexible connector elements often needed for
bolted connections.

2. Likewise, the direct connection between the welded parts requires no or fewer connector elements (e.g., angles, plates, etc.)
and therefore welded connections reduces the overall steel weight, as well as the labor cost of hole drilling and bolt
installment, not to mention complete exclusion of bolt cost.

3. Elimination of the area reduction and associated limit states due to the drilled bolt holes.

4. Welding offers the possibility of joining a much wide range of shapes, including hollow shape-to-hollow shape connections.

Still, there exist certain difficulties in making welded connections, primary of which are as follows:

1. Welded connections require skilled workers that are certified.

2. Minor flaws may result in serious problems, such as cracking under load reversals. Therefore, quality control is very
important but usually difficult and would necessitate inspection techniques other than visual inspection, such as ultrasonic
testing or radiographic procedures.

3. Employment of qualified welders and inspectors would bring in a significant additional cost.

4. Heat treatment during the welding process generates residual stresses (we discussed the potential issues associated with
residual stresses in Chapter 4) along with distortion, and alters the mechanical properties or microstructure of the material
in the vicinity of the welded base metal.

Prequalified welding methods that are recognized by the American Welding Society (AWS) are shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and flux-cored arc
welding (FCAW) (AWS, 2000). SMAW and SAW, however, are more common than the other prequalified welding processes.
SMAW process, also known as "stick welding," is common for both on-field and shop applications. This process uses an
electrical circuit to form an arc between a covered electrode and the base metal. The electrode core, which acts as a sole filler
material and fills the gap between the base metal and electrode, is covered with shielding. This protective coating is used as
"shielding" to prevent (or reduce) the welded area from oxidation and contamination (AWS, 2000). Due to its simplicity, SMAW
process has been one of the most popular welding processes in steel construction (Weman, 2003). Similar to SMAW, SAW is an
arc welding process that uses electricity to create enough heat to melt metal. However, the SAW is often an automated shop-
welding process rather than manual. Instead of a shielded electrode, the molten weld metal and the arc are shielded by a
blanket of granular flux (AWS, 2000). Although it requires relatively complex equipment compared with the SMAW process, the
SAW provides deeper weld penetration, faster, and ductile and corrosion-resistant welds.

8.5.2. Weld Types and Symbols

We usually divide the weld types into two broad categories as fillet welds and groove welds. However, despite that they are not
as common as fillet and groove welds, plug and slot welds are also used in certain cases when it is not adequate to use fillet or
groove welds. These four weld types and their symbols are illustrated in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16, respectively.

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 Figure 8.15 Classification of structural welds: (a) fillet-welded lap-joint; (b) complete-joint-
penetration (CJP) groove welds; (c) partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove welds; (d) plug and slot
welds.

Figure 8.16 Weld symbols: (a) fillet weld; (b) CJP groove weld; (c) PJP groove weld; (d) plug weld;
(e) slot weld.

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Selection of proper joint-weld type may not always be an easy task because of the quality, and constructive considerations need
to be taken into account in advance during design and fabrication. One of such considerations that we recognize besides the
strength requirement when detailing is lamellar tearing where the anisotropy of the material due to the rolling process results in
separation of base metal. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 8.15, depending on the position of the adjoining members with respect to
each other, different welded connections can be used in several joint types. Still, most welded connections are made with fillet
welds, which have, in theory, right-angled triangular cross-sections, as demonstrated in the typical lap-joint shown Fig. 8.15a.
The fillets of these triangular cross-sections can be either concave or convex and are defined by their leg size, which
determines the throat size and the strength of the connection consequently (Fig. 8.15a). If the angle between the legs is less or
greater than 90 degrees, the welds are called skewed fillets. It is permitted for legs of a fillet weld to intersect at angles within
60 and 120 degrees. The welds are considered to be groove welds if the angular limits are exceeded.

Groove welds are the welds made in the groove between the pieces to be joined. This welding type can be, therefore, more
suitable in butt or tee joints, as illustrated in Figs. 8.15b and c. Butt joints can be either single- or double-beveled with various
configurations, such as V, U, or J grooves. For detailed information on how a joint with groove welds should be detailed, readers
should refer to AWS D1.1 (AWS, 2000). Depending on the penetration required, groove welds can be further categorized as
complete-joint-penetration (CJP) or partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove welds. A groove weld is named as CJP when full
penetration throughout the depth of the workpieces is achieved, as demonstrated in Fig. 8.15b. Thus, the thickness of the
thinner of the connected pieces can be taken as the throat size of a CJP weld for strength calculations. But, in some cases, a
joint does not require full penetration strength. In those cases we employ PJP instead of CJP welds. Typical examples of joints
with PJP welds are shown in Fig. 8.15c. The depth of the groove can be roughly considered as the effective throat when PJP
welds are used. PJP welds are preferable for their cost-efficiency compared with CJP welds. In general, unless CJP welds are
required by design codes, or PJP (or fillet) weld strength is not sufficient to transfer loads, CJP groove welds should be avoided
because of their high-cost.

Plug welds are made in circular holes drilled or punched in the adjoining member, whereas slot welds are similar but made in
slotted or elongated holes. The holes formed in plug and slot welds are completely or partially filled with the filler material
deposited during welding. These weld types should not be mixed up with a fillet-welded hole or slot. Plug and slot welds are
shown in Fig. 8.15d.

8.5.3. Strength of Welded Connections

Welds can be loaded in any direction, but are weakest in shear and are therefore assumed to fail in shear. Hence, we determine
the nominal weld strength by considering the shear stresses on an effective weld area. Considering the limit state of weld
rupture, the nominal strength, Rn, for a linear weld group with a uniform leg size, loaded through the center of gravity is as
follows as per the Specification, J2.4a:

Rn = FnwAnw

(8.17a)

where Awe is the effective area of weld, which is the product of the effective length and the effective throat. Thus, considering
the throat size of the right triangle shown in Fig. 8.17a, the effective area of a fillet weld is

Anw = teff × weld length = 0.707tw × weld length

(8.17b)

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 Figure 8.17 Fillet weld strength: (a) effective weld thickness; (b) weld orientation.

As previously mentioned, the effective throat size of groove welds can be taken as the thickness of the thinner workpiece.
Therefore, the effective area of groove welds can be computed in the same manner with fillet welds as the length of the weld
multiplied by the effective throat. It should be noted that the effective throat of a PJP weld might be dependent on the process
used and the weld position (AISC, 2016).

According to the Specification, J2.4b(1), for a linear weld with uniform leg size group loaded in the plane of the weld, loaded
through the center of gravity, the nominal weld strength in shear is

Fnw = 0.60FEXX (1.0 + 0.50sin1.5θ)

(8.17c)

where

FEXX = electrode (filler metal) strength in ksi

θ = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis
As depicted in Fig. 8.17b, the angles for the weld groups with respect to the direction of loading are 0 and 90 degrees,
respectively, for the transversely and longitudinally oriented fillet welds. According to the Specification, J2.4b(2), when
concentrically loaded fillet weld groups with a uniform leg size are oriented both longitudinally and transversely to the direction
of applied load, the combined strength, Rn, of the fillet weld group should be determined based on strain compatibility.
Therefore, the combined strength, Rn, can be determined as the greater of Eqs. (8.18a) and (8.18b):

Rn = Rnwl + Rnwt

(8.18a)

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Rn = 0.85Rnwl + 1.5Rnwt

(8.18b)

where

Rnwl = total nominal strength of longitudinally loaded fillet welds

Rnwt = total nominal strength of transversely loaded fillet welds
A welded connection can be as strong as its weld material and base metal. Thus, the nominal strength of a welded joint is
determined as the lower of the weld and base metal strengths. The base material strength can be determined according to the
limit states of tensile rupture and shear rupture as follows:

Rn = FnBMABM

(8.19)

where FnBM and ABM are the nominal stress of the base metal and cross-sectional area of the ruptured base metal, respectively.

In addition to the strength criteria, the limitation on the minimum fillet weld size is summarized in Table 8.7. The maximum fillet
weld size cannot be greater than the thickness of the material if the material is thinner than ¼ʺ. If the material thickness is equal
or greater than ¼ʺ, a clearance of 1 /16ʺ should be left from the edge. Likewise, the weld length should not be less than four
times the weld size, tw. Even though there is no upper limit on the weld length, the actual length is reduced to an effective length
by multiplying the actual length by b when the weld length exceeds 100 times the weld size (tw). The reduction factor b is
defined as a linear function of weld length and size:

β = 1.2 − 0.002 (Lw/tw) ≤ 1.0

(8.20)

Table 8.7 Minimum Fillet Weld Size

Material thickness of thinner part joined Minimum fillet weld size

tmin ≤ 1 / 4 ′′ 1 / 8 ′′

1 / 4 ′′ < tmin ≤ 1 / 2 ′′ 3 / 16 ′′

1 / 2 ′′ < tmin ≤ 3 / 4 ′′ 1 / 4 ′′

3 / 4 ′′ < tmin 5 / 16 ′′

When the length of the weld exceeds 300 times the leg size,tw, the effective length is taken as 180tw.

Example

Example 8.7

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 Design the welds to develop the full strength of the angles L7 × 4 × 1/2 and minimize eccentricity for the connection shown
in Fig. 8.18. A36 steel and E70 (FEXX = 70 ksi) electrodes are used. The strength of the connection T r = ϕtAgFy of the tension
member. Gusset plate is designed to be stronger than the weld or the angle. Thus, all possible limit states come from the
weld and angle. Ag = 5.25 in.2 for L7 × 4 × 1/2.

Figure 8.18 Example 8.7.

Solution:

Design strength of the connection is based on the gross section yielding limit state as follows:

Tr = ϕ tFyAg = 0.9 × 36 × 5.25 = 170 kips

Since the minimum thickness is greater than ¼ʺ, the fillet weld size, tw, can be determined as

1 ′′ 1 1 7
tw = tmin − = − = in.
16 2 16 16

Nominal shear rupture strength of the 7 /16-in.-thick weld with FEXX = 70 ksi per unit length is

7
rn = (0.6FEXX) teff = (0.6 × 70) (0.707 × ) = 13 kips/inch
16

There are two lines of longitudinal fillet welds with lengths ofL1 and L2 . Therefore, we can eliminate the eccentricity due to
the applied tensile load by selecting two different lengths considering the load distribution among them. By satisfying the
longitudinal force and the moment equilibrium, we can get L1 and L2 as follows:

∑ Flong = 0 → ϕ trnL1 + ϕ trnL2 = Tr ⎫

⎬ ⇒ L1 = 11.5 in. and L2 = 6 in.
∑ M = 0 → (ϕ trnL2) × 7 − Tr × 2.4 = 0 ⎭

After calculating the weld lengths to eliminate eccentricity, the limit state of base metal rupture needs to be checked to
make sure that the yielding in the gross section governs.

1
ϕ tRn = ϕ t0.6FuAnw = 0.75 × 0.6 × 58 × ( × (11.5 + 6)) = 228 kips > Tr = 170 kips
2

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Example

Example 8.8

Determine the design strength, T r, of the fillet-welded connection shown in Fig. 8.19. E70 electrode is used. Plates are made
of A36 steel.

Figure 8.19 Example 8.8.

Solution:

The design strength of the connection will be controlled by the limit state with the smallest strength. Therefore, each limit
state should be investigated one by one.

The design strength of the connection based on the gross section yielding limit state is

1
ϕ tTn = ϕ tFyAg = 0.9 × 36 × ( × 8) = 129.6 kips
2

The minimum weld size for ½ʺ-thick plate is 3 /16ʺ. The minimum thickness is greater than ¼ʺ; the maximum fillet weld size,
tw, can be determined as

3 3 1 ′′ 1 1 7
tw,min = in. < tw = in. < tw,max = tmin − = − = in.
16 8 16 2 16 16

Thus, the fillet weld size is within limits. Note that there is no need to reduce the strength of the fillet weld since the length
does not exceed 100 times the weld size (Lw = 12ʺ < 100 × 3/8 = 37.5ʺ).

The design strength of the 7 /16-in.-thick weld with FEXX = 70 ksi is

3
ϕ tRn = ϕ tFnwAnw = 0.75 × 70 × [2 × (0.707 × ) × 12] = 334 kips
8

The design strength based on the limit state of base metal rupture will be

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 1
ϕ tRn = ϕ t0.6FuAnw = 0.75 × (0.6 × 58) × (2 × × 12) = 313 kips
2

The limit state of gross section yielding governs. Thus, the design strength of the connection is

ϕ tRn = {129.6; 334; 313}min = 129.6 kips

8.6. Design Procedures for Common Beam-to-Column

Connections
Design of a moment connection is based on the types of lateral loads acting on the moment frame, as follows:

For wind load or low-seismicity demand, the frame is expected to remain elastic, and the moment connection only needs to
meet requirements in Chapter J, AISC 360.

For high-seismicity demand, the frame is expected to sustain large inelastic deformation, and the moment connection needs
to meet requirements in both AISC 360 and the seismic provisions in AISC 341 and AISC 358.

Typical fully restrained beam-to-column connection details for wind or seismic applications are shown inFig. 8.20a and b. In the
welded-flange bolted web moment connection, beam flanges are directly connected to column flange through CJP groove
welds, as indicated in Fig. 8.20a. Web of the girder, however, bolted to a web plate, which is shop-welded to column flange F
( ig.
8.20a). This moment connection is rigid and relatively easier to make but requires on-site welding, which would not be
preferable to ensure the quality of groove welds at flanges. With the bolted flange plate (BFP) connection, on the other hand,
field welding can be avoided. Typical BFP connection, shown in Fig. 8.20b, consists of flange plates shop-welded to the column,
bolted to beam flanges and a single plate for web connection. Two identical plates are bolted to top and bottom flanges,
respectively, as "Flange Connections." A shear tab plate is bolted to the beam web and fillet welded to the column flange as
"Web Connection." This connection is more flexible and can be employed for lateral force–resisting systems that resist wind,
low- and high-seismicity. However, the necessity of incorporating additional components (i.e., top and bottom flange plates)
might not enhance the attractiveness of BFP connections.

Figure 8.20 Common connection types: (a) welded-flange bolted-web (FR); (b) bolted flange plate
(FR); (c) all-bolted double-angle shear connection; (d) coped beam-to-beam connection.

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Simple connections given in Fig. 8.20c and d are typical examples of column-to-beam and girder-to-beam shear connections,
respectively. In the all-bolted, double-angle column-to-beam connection shown in Fig. 8.20c, web angles are shop-bolted to the
column and field-bolted to the girder. All-bolted double-angle connections are quite flexible to accommodate end rotations but
require more components than other options, such as single-angle or shear tab connections. Shear tab or single-plate
connections, either column-to-beam or beam-to-beam, are simpler, stiffer, and require fewer components compared with their
double-angle counterparts. Two examples of simple beam-to-beam connections with the shear tab are demonstrated in Fig.
8.20d. These shear tabs are shop-welded to the supporting girder and field-bolted to the supported secondary beam. Since top
flanges of both members connected (i.e., girder and beam) have to be at the same floor level, the supported beam should be
either single- or double-coped depending on its depth, as presented in Fig. 8.20d.

Basic design assumption for a fully restrained (rigid) connection is that shear force is resisted solely by the web connection
while the bending moment is resisted solely by the flange connection. Likewise, a shear connection, unless it is coped, is
designed considering only the limit states associated with shear force. Design procedures for the commonly employed fully
restrained and shear connections will be presented in detail in what follows along with the worked examples.

8.6.1. Bolted Flange Plate Connections

Typically, ASTM A992 steel is used for beam and column sections and A36 for plates. Fully pretensioned high-strength A325 or
A490 bolts designed for bearing are used to connect the web plate and beam web, whereas the A36 web plate is fillet-welded to
the column flange usually using 70-ksi electrodes. Consistent with the preceding design assumptions, the design of the fully
restrained BFP moment connection, illustrated in Fig. 8.21b, can be classified as a two-phase procedure: (1) design for bending;
and (2) design for shear. Therefore, the limit states can also be divided into two categories based on the associated demand-
type as follows:

Figure 8.21 Concentrated design load on the flange plates.

1. Design for bending:

a. Tensile rupture of tension flange

b. Gross-section yielding in flange plate

c. Net section fracture in flange plate

d. Block shear in flange plate

e. Bearing/tearout at flange plate

f. Weld failure at flange plates

g. Block shear in beam flange

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 h. Bearing/tearout at beam flange

i. Shear failure in flange bolts

j. Limit states associated with concentrated forces

2. Design for shear:

a. Shear tab plate yielding in shear

b. Shear tab plate fracture in shear

c. Block shear of shear tab

d. Shear tab bearing/tearout

e. Weld failure at shear tab

f. Shear failure in web bolts

g. Beam web bearing

Step-by-step design procedure for BFP moment connections is summarized in what follows.

A. Design of flange plates based on bending moment-associated limit states

Step 1. Determine design load

Design load can be determined by converting the required bending moment, Mr, to a force couple using the free-body-diagram
given in Fig. 8.21. Thus, the design load is

Mr
Fr =
db

(8.21)

Step 2. Check tensile rupture of the tension flange

For BFP connections, the flexural strength of the beam is reduced due to the presence of holes at the connection.The
Specification, Section F13 specifies that the nominal flexural strength should be limited according to the limit state of tensile
rupture of the tension flange:

a. When FuAfn ≥ Y tFy Afg, the limit state of tensile rupture does not apply.

b. When FuAfn ≥ Y tFy Afg, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, at the location of the holes in the tension flange should not be
greater than

FuAfn
Mn = Sx
Afg

(8.22)

where

= gross tension flange area

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Afg = gross tension flange area
Afn = net tension flange area
Yt = 1.0 for steel with Fy/Fu ≤ 0.8, 1.1 otherwise

Step 3. Determine number and diameter of bolts

Since the design load Fr has already been determined, if Fnv and bolt diameter, db (with common sizes of ½ʺ, ¾ʺ, 7 /8 ʺ, and 1ʺ)
are known, the number of bolts, N can also be calculated considering bolt shear failure as follows:

Fr ≤ ϕ t [N (FnvAb)]

(8.23a)

Fr
N≥
ϕ t (FnvAb)

(8.23b)

Note that two bolts per row (one on each side of the beam web) should be used. Therefore, N has to be an even whole number.

Step 4. Determine the plate dimensions, bPL and tPL, based on the limit state of yielding in gross area

After selecting the flange plate thickness, tPL, which can be slightly larger than beam flange thickness, to ensure a proper
yielding of gross area strength, the plate width can be selected using the following inequalities:

Fr ≤ ϕ tFy,plateAg,plate = ϕ tFy,plate (bPLtPL)

(8.24a)

Fr
bPL ≥
ϕ tFy,platetPL

(8.24b)

Note that the flange plate width, bPL, should be equal or less than the column flange width, bcf (Fig. 8.22).

Figure 8.22 Gross area of the flange plate.

Step 5. Check fracture of effective net area in the tension plate

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If design strength based on the limit state of net section rupture is smaller than the design load,Fr, fracture in the net flange
plate will govern, and thus the design should be altered.

Fr ≤ ϕ tFuAe

(8.25a)

Plate net area, An (shown in Fig. 8.23), which is equal to the effective net area, Ae, in this case, can be computed as follows:

1 ′′
Ae = An = Ag − 2tPL (db + )
8

(8.25b)

Figure 8.23 Net area of the flange plate.

Step 6. Check block shear for flange plate and beam flange

Under the tensile force Fr, two-block shear failure cases might occur in the plate (indicated in Fig. 8.24a). One case of block
shear failure might occur in the beam flange (Fig. 8.24b) since the beam web would not allow the block within the bolt rows to
separate.

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 Figure 8.24 Possible block shear failure modes: (a) top flange plate, (b) beam flange.

Step 7. Check flange plates and beam flange against bearing/tearout

Bearing at flange plate and beam flange should be checked considering the upper limit based on the limit state of bolt tearout.
Clear distance between the interior bolt holes, Lc, and clear edge distance, Le, are demonstrated in Fig. 8.25a and b,
respectively, for flange plate and beam flange.

Figure 8.25 Clear hole-to-hole distances: (a) top flange plate; (b) beam flange.

Step 8. Check weld fracture for the top flange plate

There are two options for the welded connection between the column flange and the top and bottom flange plates. These
connections can be made either with two-sided fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 8.26a, or using CJP groove welds (Fig. 8.26b), even
though using CJP groove welds is more preferable. Thus, adequacy of the welds can be examined using the following
depending on the weld type:

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 Figure 8.26 Welded-flange plate-to-column flange connection options: (a) CJP groove welds; (b)
two-sided fillet welds.

For CJP groove welded option shown in Fig. 8.26a:

Fr ≤ ϕRn

(8.26a)

Rn = 0.6FEXXtPLbPL

(8.26b)

For fillet-welded option shown in Fig. 8.26b:

Fr ≤ ϕRn

(8.27a)

Rn = 2 × [0.6FEXX (0.707tweld) bPL]

(8.27b)

B. Design of web plate based on shear force–associated limit states

Step 1. Determine number and diameter of bolts

With nominal shear strength, Fnv, and bolt diameter, db, the number of bolts, N, required to transfer the shear force, Vr, can be
determined considering bolt shear failure as follows:

Vr ≤ ϕ [N (FnvAb)]

(8.28a)

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 Vr
N≥
ϕ (FnvAb)

(8.28b)

Web-plate geometry is illustrated in Fig. 8.27. The typical 3-in. spacing between bolts can be used for all bolted plates, and edge
spacing is taken as 1-½ in. unless specified otherwise. Note that the web-plate length, Ls, should be smaller than the T distance,
which can be computed by subtracting two time the fillet size, k, from the beam depth, db (Fig. 8.27) so that the plate can be
installed.

Figure 8.27 Web-plate geometry.

Step 2. Yielding of gross web-plate area in shear

Design strength based on the limit state of shear yielding in the gross web-plate area (Fig. 8.28) should be greater than the
required shear force, Vr.

Vr ≤ ϕ t(0.6Fy,plate)Ag,plate = ϕ t(0.6Fy,plate)(LstPL)

(8.29)

Figure 8.28 Gross area of shear tab.

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Step 3. Fracture of net area in shear

Design strength based on the limit state of fracture in the net web-plate area under shear (Fig. 8.29) should be greater than the
required shear force, Vr:

Vr ≤ ϕ t0.6FuAe

(8.30a)

1 ′′
Ae = An = Ag − Ntp l (db + )
8

(8.30b)

Figure 8.29 Net area of shear tab.

Step 4. Check block shear

Block shear failure could only take place in the web plate under the shear forceVr. The shaded portion to be sheared off is
indicated in Fig. 8.30.

Figure 8.30 Block shear under Vr.

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Step 5. Check bearing/tearout

Limit state of bearing/tearout at shear tab and beam web should be checked. Clear distance between the interior bolt holes,Lc,
and clear edge distance, Le, are demonstrated in Fig. 8.31 for the shear tab.

Figure 8.31 Bearing/tearout at web plate.

Step 6. Fillet weld rupture in web plate

Based on the limit state of weld shear rupture, the two-sided fillet welds that connect shear tab to the column flange should
satisfy the following:

Vr ≤ ϕRn = 2 × ϕ [0.6FEXX (0.707tweld) Ls]

(8.31)

Example

Example 8.9

Design of a fully restrained BFP moment connection to support the factored bending moment of 1000kip-ft and factored
shear force of 80kips due to wind and gravity loads. Use 3-in. spacing between the bolts, and 1-½ in. edge spacing. The steel
grade is A992 for the W24 × 162 beam and W14 × 132 column and A36 for the steel plate. Use FEXX = 70 ksi electrodes and
7 / ʺ A490 bolts (threads excluded) for the flange plate (F = 84 ksi), ¾ʺ A325 bolts (threads included) for the shear tab F
( nv
8 nv
= 54 ksi).

Solution:

Geometric and material properties of the beam, column, and plates are summarized below.

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 Section and geometric properties:

Beam: W24×162 (Z x = 468 in.3 , bbf = 13ʺ, db = 25ʺ, tbf = 1.22ʺ, tbw = 0.705ʺ, k = 1.72ʺ)

Column: W14×132 (bcf = 14.7ʺ)

Material properties:

Beam: W24×162 (ASTM A992, Fy = 50 ksi and Fu = 65 ksi)

Column: W14×132 (ASTM A992, Fy = 50 ksi and Fu = 65 ksi)

Plates: ASTM A36, Fy = 36 ksi and Fu = 58 ksi

Design of flange plates

Step 1. Determine the design load

Mr 1000 × 12
Fr = = = 480 kips
db 25

Step 2. Check tensile rupture of the tension flange

Afg = tbfbbf = 1.22 × 13 = 15.86 in.2

7 1
Afn = Afg − ∑ Aholes = 15.86 − 2 × [1.22 × ( + )] = 13.42 in.2
8 8
Yt = 1.0 for A992 Grade 50 Steel

}FuAfn = 872.3 kips ≥ YtFyAfg = 793 kips

FuAfn = 65 × 13.42 = 872.3 kips
YtFyAfg = 1.0 × 50 × 15.86 = 793 kips

Thus, the limit state of tensile rupture does not apply.

ϕ bM n = ϕ bFyZx = 0.9 × 50 × 468/12 = 1,755 kip-ft. > M r = 1,000 kip-ft. Adequate.

Step 3. Determine the number of flange bolts

⎫
⎪
⎪
πd2b π × 7/82
Ab = = = 0.601 in.2
⎬N ≥
4 4 480
= 12.7
Fnv = 84 ksi ⎪
⎪
⎭
0.75 × (84 × 0.601)
ϕ t = 0.75

Use N = 14.

Step 4. Determine the plate dimensions, bPL and tPL, based on the limit state of yielding in gross area.

Assume tPL = 1.25ʺ

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 Fy,plate = 36 ksi ⎫
⎪
⎬bPL ≥
Fr 480
⎭
= = 11.85′′
⎪
tPL = 1.25 ′′
ϕ tFy,platetPL 0.9 × 36 × 1.25
ϕ t = 0.9

The plate width, bPL, should be equal or less than the column flange width bf = 14.7ʺ. Thus,

Use Pl. 13ʺ × 1.25ʺ for flanges (Fig. 8.32).

Figure 8.32 Flange plate dimensions and connection configuration.

Step 5. Check fracture of effective net area in the tension plate

Fu = 58 ksi
Ag = tPLbPL = 1.25 × 13 = 16.25 in.2
1 ′′ 7 1
An = Ag − 2tPL (db + ) = 16.25 − 2 × 1.25 × ( + ) = 13.75 in.2
8 8 8
U = 1.0
Ae = UAn = 1.0 × 13.75 = 13.75 in.2
Fr = 480 kips < ϕ tFuAe = 0.75 × 58 × 13.75 = 598 kips Adequate.

Step 6. Check block shear

Since the shear area in failure mode#1 (Fig. 8.33a) is smaller than that of failure mode#2 (Fig. 8.33a), failure mode#1 is
critical for the flange plate.

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 Figure 8.33 Block shear failure modes possible in (a) flange plate and (b) beam flange.

Referring to Fig. 8.33a,

Agv = 2Lv,PLtPL = 2 × 19.5 × 1.25 = 48.75 in.2

1 ′′ 7 1
Anv = Agv − (N − 1)tPL (db + ) = 48.75 − 13 × 1.25 × ( + ) = 32.5 in.2
8 8 8
1 ′′ 1 7 1
Ant = tPL [2Lt,PL − (db + )] = 1.25 × [2 × 1 − ( + )] = 2.5 in.2
8 2 8 8
Rn = {0.6FuAnv;0.6FyAgv}min + FuAnt

Rn = { }
0.6FuAnv = 0.6 × 58 × 32.5 = 1,131kips
+ 58 × 2.5 = 1,198 kips
0.6FyAgv = 0.6 × 36 × 48.75 = 1,053kips
min

Referring to Fig. 8.33b,

Agv = 2 × 19.5 × 1.22 = 47.58 in.2

7 1
Anv = 47.58 − 13 × 1.22 × ( + ) = 31.72 in.2
8 8
1 7 1
Ant = 1.22 × [2 × 1 − ( + )] = 2.44 in.2
2 8 8

Rn = { }
0.6FuAnv = 0.6 × 65 × 31.72 = 1,237kips
+ 65 × 2.44 = 1,396 kips
0.6FyAgv = 0.6 × 50 × 47.58 = 1,427kips
min

Fr = 480 kips < ϕ tRn = 0.75 × 1,198 = 898.5 kips OK.

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 Step 7. Check bearing/tearout for top flange plate and beam flange

Top flange plate:

7 1 1
Interior bolts → Lc = s − dh = 3 − ( + )=2 in.
8 16 16
1 1 7 1
Exterior bolt → Le = e − dh/2 = 1 − × ( + ) = 1.03125 in.
2 2 8 16
Nominal bearing/tearout strength per exterior bolt hole,

2.4dbtPLFu = 2.4 × 78 × 1.25 × 58 = 152.3kips/bolt

rn = { } = 89.7 kips/bolt
1.2LetPLFu = 1.2 × 1.03125 × 1.25 × 58 = 89.7kips/bolt min

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per interior bolt hole,

2.4dbtPLFu = 2.4 × 78 × 1.25 × 58 = 152.3kips/bolt

rn = { } = 152.3 kips/bolt
1.2LctPLFu = 1.2 × 2 161 × 1.25 × 58 = 179.4kips/bolt
min

The design strength is

ϕRn = 0.75 × (2 × 89.7 + 12 × 152.3) = 1,505 kips > Fr = 480 kips Adequate.

Beam flange:

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per exterior bolt hole,

2.4dbtbfFu = 2.4 × 78 × 1.22 × 65 = 166.5kips/bolt

rn = { } = 98.1 kips/bolt
1.2LetbfFu = 1.2 × 1.03125 × 1.22 × 65 = 98.1kips/bolt min

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per interior bolt hole,

2.4dbtbfFu = 2.4 × 78 × 1.22 × 65 = 166.5kips/bolt

rn = { } = 166.5 kips/bolt
1.2LctbfFu = 1.2 × 2 161 × 1.22 × 65 = 196.3kips/bolt
min

The design strength is

ϕRn = 0.75 × (2 × 98.1 + 12 × 166.5) = 1,646 kips > Fr = 480 kips OK.

Step 8. Check CJP groove weld at top flange plate

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 Fr = 480 kips ≤ ϕRn = ϕ (0.6FEXXtPLbPL) = 0.75 × (0.6 × 70 × 1.25 × 13) = 512 kips OK.

Design of beam web-to-column connection

Step 1. Determine number of bolts

= 0.442in. ⎫⎪
πd2b π × 3/42
⎪
2
Ab = =
⎬N ≥
4 4 Vr 80
= = 4.47
Fnv = 54ksi ⎪
⎪
⎭
ϕ (FnvAb) 0.75 × (54 × 0.442)
ϕ t = 0.75

Use N = 5.

Step 2. Shear yielding in web plate

Plate dimensions are determined based on bolt spacing as shown in Fig. 8.34. Selected plate length should also be
compared with T value of beam to ensure that beam is sufficiently deep for the selected plate.

T = db − 2k = 25 − 2 × 1.72 = 21.56 in. > Ls = 15 in. OK.

Design strength based on the limit state of shear yielding in the gross web-plate area (Fig. 8.34) should be greater than the
required shear force, Vr.

Vr = 80 kips ≤ ϕ t(0.6Fy,plate)(LstPL)
Vr 80
tPL ≥ = = 0.274 in.
ϕ t(0.6Fy,plate)Ls 0.9 × (0.6 × 36)(15)

Figure 8.34 Shear tab dimensions.

Try tPL=0.5ʺ.

Step 3. Fracture of net area in shear

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 1 ′′ 3 1
Ae = UAn = Ag − NtPL (db + ) = (15 × 0.5) − 5 × 0.5 × ( + ) = 5.3125 in.2
8 4 8
Vr = 80 kips < ϕ t0.6FuAe = 0.75 × 0.6 × 58 × 5.3125 = 138.7 kips OK.

Step 4. Check block shear

Agv = Lv,PLtPL = 13.5 × 0.5 = 6.75 in.2

1 ′′ 3 1
Anv = Agv − (N − 0.5)tPL (db + ) = 6.75 − 4.5 × 0.5 × ( + ) = 4.78 in.2
8 4 8
1 1 1 ′′ 1 3 1
Ant = tPL [1 − (db + )] = 0.5 × [1 − 0.5 × ( + )] = 0.53125 in.2
2 2 8 2 4 8

Rn = {0.6FuAnv;0.6FyAgv}min + FuAnt

Rn = { }
0.6FuAnv = 0.6 × 58 × 4.78 = 166.3kips
+ 58 × 0.53125 = 176.6 kips
0.6FyAgv = 0.6 × 36 × 6.75 = 145.8kips
min

Vr = 80 kips < ϕ tRn = 0.75 × 176.6 = 132.5 kips OK.

Step 5. Check bearing/tearout

Both beam web thickness and the ultimate beam strength are greater than the web-plate thickness and strength,
respectively. Therefore, the web plate will control.

3 1 3
Interior bolt → Lc = s − dh = 3 − (
+ )=2 in.
4 16 16
1 3 1
Exterior bolt → Le = e − dh/2 = 1 − 0.5 × ( + ) = 1.09375 in.
2 4 16

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per exterior bolt hole,

⎧ 2.4d t F = 2.4 × 3 × 0.5 × 58 = 52.2kips/bolt ⎫

⎨ ⎬ = 38.1 kips/bolt
⎩ kips/bolt ⎭
b PL u
rn = 4
1.2LetPLFu = 1.2 × 1.09375 × 0.5 × 58 = 38.1 min

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per interior bolt hole,

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 ⎧
⎪ 2.4dbtPLFu = 2.4 × × 0.5 × 58 = 52.2kips/bolt
3 ⎫
⎪
rn = ⎨ 4
⎬ = 52.2 kips/bolt
⎪ 1.2LctPLFu = 1.2 × 2 3 × 0.5 × 58 = 76.1kips/bolt
⎩ ⎪
⎭
16 min

Thus, the design strength will be

ϕRn = 0.75 × (38.1 + 4 × 52.2) = 185.2 kips > Vr = 80 kips OK.

Step 6. Check fillet welds

Vr
Vr ≤ ϕRn = 2 × ϕ[0.6FEXX(0.707tweld)Ls] → tweld ≥
2 × ϕ[0.6FEXX(0.707)Ls]
80
tweld ≥ = 0.12 in.
2 × 0.75 × 0.6 × 70 × 0.707 × 15

tmin = 3 /16ʺ as per Table J2.4, the Specification. Thus,

3 in. 3
tweld = {0.12in.; } = in.
16 min
16

8.6.2. All-Bolted Double-Angle Connection

Limit states associated with all-bolted double-angle connections are as follows:

a. Block shear rupture

b. Bolt bearing

c. Bolt shear

d. Shear yielding

e. Shear rupture

f. Flexural strength

The nominal governing strength of the connection will be the smallest among all.

Example

Example 8.10

Design an all-bolted double-angle connection between a W24×146 beam and a W14×90 column to support the following
beam end reactions due to dead and live loads: VD = 37.5 kips and VL = 112.5 kips. Use ¾-in.-diameter ASTM A325 bolts
(threads included) in standard holes.

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 Material properties:

Beam: W24×146 (ASTM A992, Fy = 50 ksi and Fu = 65 ksi)

Column: W14×90 (ASTM A992, Fy = 50 ksi and Fu = 65 ksi)

Angles: 2L5×3½ SLBB (ASTM A36, Fy = 36 ksi and Fu = 58 ksi)

Section properties:

W24×146: db =24.7 in., tbw =0.65 in., k = 1.59 in.

W14×90: tcf = 0.710 in.

Solution:

Step 1. Determine the required strength

Vr = 1.2VD + 1.6VL = 1.2×37.5 + 1.6×112.5 = 225 kips

Step 2. Find number of bolts based on bolt shear

Vr ≤ ϕRn = ϕNrn

ASTM A325 bolts (threads are included in the shear planes),Fnv = 54 ksi
πd2b π × 3/4 2
Nominal bolt area, Ab = = = 0.442 in.2
4 4
Number of shear planes = 2
2 2
Nominal shear strength per bolt, rn = FnvAb = 2 × (54kips/in. × 0.442in. ) = 47.7 kips/bolt Required shear strength
of the connection, Vr = 225 kips

Vr 225
N≥ = = 6.3
ϕ(FnvAb) 0.75 × 47.7

Use seven ¾-in.-diameter ASTM A325 bolts (Fig. 8.35).

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 Figure 8.35 Example 8.10.

The length of the angle should be less than T,

T = db − 2k = 24.7 − 2 × 1.59 = 21.52 in. > Ls = 21 in. OK.

Step 3. Check bearin g/tearout strength

Since the total leg thickness of the connected angles (2 × 5 /16ʺ) is smaller than the web thickness of the beam (tbw = 0.65ʺ),
the angles will control the bearing strength.

3 1 3
Interior bolts → Lc = s − dh = 3 − (
+ )=2 in.
4 16 16
1 3 1
Exterior bolts → Le = e − dh/2 = 1 − 0.5 × ( + ) = 1.09375 in.
2 4 16

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per exterior bolt hole,

⎧
⎪ 3 5 ⎫
⎪
⎪ 2.4dbtangleFu = 2.4 × 4 × (2 × 16 ) × 58 = 65.2 ⎪
kips/bolt

rn = ⎨ ⎬ = 47.6 kips/bolt
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1.2LetangleFu = 1.2 × 1.09375 × (2 × ) × 58 = 47.6kips/bolt
5 ⎪
⎪
⎭
16 min

Nominal bearing/tearout strength per interior bolt hole,

⎧
⎪ 3 5 ⎫
⎪
⎪ 2.4dbtangleFu = 2.4 × 4 × (2 × 16 ) × 58 = 65.2 ⎪
kips/bolt

rn = ⎨ ⎬ = 65.2 kips/bolt
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1.2LctangleFu = 1.2 × 2
3 5
× (2 × ) × 58 = 95.2kips/bolt ⎪
⎪
⎭
16 16 min

Thus, the design strength will be

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 ϕRn = 0.75 × (47.6 + 6 × 65.2) = 329.1 kips > Vr = 225 kips OK.

Step 4. Check shear yielding

Shear yielding does not apply to an uncoped beam. Hence, it should be checked for the angles only based on the yielding
line shown in Fig. 8.36.

5
ϕRn = 0.90 × [2 × (0.60 × 36) × (21 × )] = 255 kips > Vr = 225 kips OK.
16

Figure 8.36 Shear yielding, fracture, and block shear for angles.

Step 5. Check net section fracture in shear

Using the net area shown in Fig. 8.36, the effective net area can be computed as

1 ′′ 5 5 3 1
Ae = UAn = Ag − Ntangle (db + ) = 2 × [(21 × ) − 7 × ×( + )] = 9.3 in.2
8 16 16 4 8
Vr = 225 kips < ϕ t0.6FuAe = 0.75 × 0.6 × 58 × 9.3 = 242.7 kips OK

Step 6. Check block shear

5
Agv = 2Lvtangle = 2 × 19.5 × = 12.19 in.2
16
1 ′′ 5 3 1
Anv = Agv − 2 × (N − 0.5)tangle (db + ) = 12.19 − 2 × [6.5 × × ( + )] = 8.63 in.2
8 16 4 8
1 1 1 ′′ 5 1 3 1
Ant = 2tangle [1 − (db + )] = 2 × × [1 − 0.5 × ( + )] = 0.66 in.2
2 2 8 16 2 4 8

Rn = { }
0.6FuAnv = 0.6 × 58 × 8.63 = 300kips
+ 58 × 0.66 = 301.8 kips
0.6FyAgv = 0.6 × 36 × 12.19 = 263kips
min

Vr = 225 kips < ϕ tRn = 0.75 × 301.8 = 226.3 kips OK.

5

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 Design summary: Use seven ¾-in. A325 (threads included) bolts and two 21-in.-long L5×3½×5 /16 SLBB.

8.7. Problems
8.1 For the connection shown in Fig. 8.37, check whether bolt and edge spacing is adequate.

Figure 8.37 Problems 8.1 through 8.3.

8.2 For the connection shown in Fig. 8.37, find the maximum required axial load, Pr that can be applied to the angles safely.
Assume that connection is bearing type and ignore the limit states associated with the gusset plate.

8.3 Rework 8.2 by assuming a slip-critical connection with Class A surface.

8.4 For the connection shown in Fig. 8.38, check bolt and edge spacing.

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 Figure 8.38 Problems 8.4 through 8.7.

8.5 For the connection shown in Fig. 8.38, find the design strength considering all possible limit states for bolts and
plates. Assume that the connection is bearing-type, and thread are excluded from the shear planes.

8.6 Rework 8.5 by assuming that the connection is slip-critical and thread are not excluded from the shear planes.

8.7 If the connection in Fig. 8.38 is subjected to a dead load of 80 kips and a live load of 50 kips, would you expect
slippage between the plates under service loads? Connection is slip-critical, and surfaces are unpainted blast-cleaned.

8.8 Find the design strength of the bearing-type connection shown in Fig. 8.39 based on the limit states related to bolts
and channels. Channels are made of A36 steel. Threads are not excluded from the shear planes.

Figure 8.39 Problems 8.8 and 8.9.

8.9 For the bearing-type connection shown in Fig. 8.39, what would your strategy be to ensure that yielding in the gross
channel section will occur?

8.10 A bracing made with a square hollow section, shown in Fig. 8.40, is subjected to PD = 50 kips, PL = 30 kips, and Pwind =
150 kips. HSS6 × 6 × 3/8 bracing is made of ASTM A500 Gr. C steel and fillet welded to the gusset plate. Using the minimum
fillet weld size, find the required weld length, lw. 70-ksi electrode is used.

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 Figure 8.40 Problems 8.10 through 8.12.

8.11 Determine the design load that can be supported by the bracing shown inFig. 8.40. Consider only net section fracture
and gross-section yielding limit states for the bracing.

8.12 Determine the design strength of the connection shown inFig. 8.40 based on the base metal rupture limit state for
bracing only. HSS6 × 6 × 1 /2 bracing is made of ASTM A500 Gr. B steel. Fillet weld length,lw, is 10 in.

8.13 Design the welds to develop the full strength of the angles 2L4 × 4 ×1 /4 and minimize eccentricity for the connection
shown in Fig. 8.41. A36 steel and E70 (FEXX = 70 ksi) electrodes are used. The strength of the connection Pr = ϕ tAgFy of the
tension member.

Figure 8.41 Problem 8.13.

8.14 Determine the design strength of the ½-in. E70 fillet-welded connection shown inFig. 8.42.

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 Figure 8.42 Problems 8.14 through 8.16.

8.15 Rework 8.14 by removing the welds perpendicular to loading.

8.16 Check the adequacy of the connection shown in Fig. 8.42 considering all possible limit states for welds and plates. Pr
is composed of dead, live, snow, and wind loads. Pdead = 100 kips, Plive = 50 kips, Psnow = 50 kips, and Pwind = 150 kips. Plates
are made of 50-ksi-steel and E60 electrodes are used for the ½-in. fillet welds.

8.17 Design a single-plate shear connection between a W24×94 beam and a W14×109 column to support the following
beam end reactions due to dead and live loads: VD = 75 kips and VL = 50 kips. Use ½-in.-diameter ASTM A325 bolts (threads
excluded) in standard holes. Shear tab is bolted to the beam web and fillet-welded to the column flange using E70
electrodes.

8.18 Design the same simple beam-to-column connection given in 8.17 using all-bolted double-angles instead of shear
tab.

8.19 Design of a rigid BFP connection to support the factored bending moment of 600kip-ft and factored shear force of
80 kips due to wind and gravity loads. A992 steel is used for both W27ʹ102 beam and W14 159 column, and A36 for the steel
plate. Use FEXX = 70 ksi electrodes and ¾ʺ A490 bolts (threads included) for the flange plate and ½ʺ A325 bolts (threads
included) for the shear tab.

8.20 Develop a python code that can compute the nominal strength of a

a. bolted connection considering shear, bearing, and tearout limit states.

b. welded connection.

Related to Building Project in Chapter 1:

8.21 Please design connections for the building given in the appendix in Chapter 1:

a. a typical shear connection for the secondary beams connecting to a main girder of the SMF.

b. a typical beam-to-column connection in the gravity-only frames.

c. a BFP connection for the exterior beam in the second-story of SMF.

d. a gusset plate connection for the braces connecting to the beam and column in the second-story of SCBF.

8.8. Bibliography
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8.8. Bibliography
AISC, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/AISC Standard 360-16, American Institute of Steel Construction,
Chicago, IL, 2016.

AISC, Steel Construction Manual, 15th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, 2016.

American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code—Steel: AWS D1.1:2000, 17th ed., Miami, FL, 2000.

Kulak, G. L., J. W. Fisher, and J. H. A. Struik, Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, 2nd ed., John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY, 1987.

Research Council on Structural ConnectIons (RCSC), Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts, August 1,
2014.

Weman, K., Welding Processes Handbook, CRC Press LLC, New York, NY, 2003.

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