TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
Transportation: Transportation may be defined as the convey men and materials from one place to
another.
Engineering: Engineering means the application of science to design building and use of machines
for construction.
Transportation Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with construction
and maintenance of the road, the railway track, harbour and airport for safe and efficient movement
of road vehicles, trains, ships, boats and aircrafts on it respectively.

Module - 1
Principles of Transportation Engineering
Importance of transportation: The importance of transportation will be studied under the
following headings.
1. Role of transportation.
2. Economic activities and transport.
3. Social effects of transportation.
Role of Transportation: Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural
development of any country. Transportation is important for economic development of any
religion. Since every commodity produced needs transport at all stages from production to
distribution. In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying raw materials. In the
distribution stage it is required from production centre to marketing centre and later to retailers and
consumers for distribution. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-
economic development of country. The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its
economic and social development.
Economic Activity and Transport: The economic activities are the process by means of which the
products are utilised to satisfy human wants. Two important factors well known in economic
activities are,
1. Production or supply.
2. Consumption for human wants or demand.
Man and his products are thus not bound to his local surroundings. The importance of
transportation in economic activity is to be found in its effects on both human wants for goods and
satisfaction through production and distribution. While discussing the general effects of
transportation, it may be said that the increased productivity and its efficient transportation can
lower the cost of products. The transportation cost is always an influencing factor on consumer
price of commodities.
Social effects of transportation: The various social effects of transportation are,
1. Sectionalism and Transportation: Improved transportation has important implication in
reducing sectionalism within country and also outside the country. Under developed colonies
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and tribes are improving their living conditions since the distance have apparently been reduced
with reduction in travel time. More frequent travels in other parts of the country and outside the
country tend to increase the knowledge of people from other sections of society. The
international understanding for better peace and order also improves with efficient network of
transportation.
2. Concentration Of Population into Urban Area : The improved transportation network brings
prosperity to the urban population. The prosperity and employment opportunities in urban area
attract the population from other areas resulting in enhanced economic activities. Adequate
mass transportation facilities are needed to cater the internal movements in urban area such as
daily movement to and from the factories, offices, schools, hospitals and other social needs.
Efficient rapid transit facilities are necessary for sub-urban and inter-city long distance travel
for business needs, social visits and tourist activities. This also encourages the people to live in
places away from their work centres, thus helping to decrease the growth of slums in urban
areas. In general, transportation facilities are essential for well-being community.
3. Aspects of Safety, Law and Order :Transport facilities are essential for rushing aids to areas
affected by an emergency. To maintain law and order at home, it is required to have an efficient
system of transport network. To defined the territory of country against the external aggression
and to guard the borders with the foreign territories, transport facility are needed connecting the
farthest border area from headquarters or capitals. At times, this alone may be a sufficient
reason to develop a transport network which may not involve any economic and social benefit
directly.
Modes of Transportation: Since human being is surrounded by three basic medium i,e., land,
water and air. The modes of transportation also connect with these three mediums for movement.
Land has given scope for development of road and rail transport. Water and air have developed
water and airways respectively.
Therefore, there are four modes of transportation,
1. Roadways or Highways or Highway Engineering.
2. Railways or Railway Engineering.
3. Waterways or Harbour Engineering.
4. Airways or Airport Engineering.
Railway Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of railway track for safe and efficient movement of train on it.
Harbour Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of harbour on sea or river shore for safe departure and arrival of ship on it.
Airport Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of airport for safe landing and take-off of aircraft.
Highway Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of road for safe and efficient movement of vehicle on it.

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Among the four modes of transportation, air transportation is the fastest mode of transportation. It
also provides more comfort and saves the transportation time. Transportation by water is the
slowest among four modes but these mode needs minimum energy.
Transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways between the station for
both passengers and goods, particularly for longer distances. The energy requirement to haul unit
load through unit distance by railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of that required by
road. Therefore it is used transportation of bulk goods.
Road transportation is the only mode that can give maximum service to one and all. This mode has
also the maximum flexibility for travel with respect to route, direction, time and speed through any
mode of road vehicle. It is also possible to provide door to door service. The other three modes
depend on road transport for service to and from their respective terminals, airport, harbour or
stations.
Characteristics of road transport
1. Roads are used by various types of road vehicles like passenger car, buses, trucks, 2 and 3
wheeled automobiles and pedal cycle’s animal drawn vehicles. But railway tracks are used
only by rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used by ships and boats.
2. Lowest initial investment motor vehicles are much cheaper than other carriers like rail
locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of road is
also cheaper than that of railway tracks, harbour, docks and airport.
3. Flexibility in location direction, speed and timing to transfer vehicle from one lane to
another and from one road to another according to need and convenience. This flexibility of
change in location, direction, speed and timings of travel is not available to other modes of
transport.
4. In particular for short distance of travel, road transport saves time. Trains stops at junction
and main stations for comparatively longer time.
5. Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of accident. The road safety
decreases with the increasing in dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected to a high
degree of accidents due to flexibility of movements offered to the road users. Derailment of
railway locomotives and air crash of aeroplanes is also uncommon. They are in more fact
disastrous.
6. Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community
alike.
Importance of Roads in India
Roads are an important mode of transportation in India and India has a network of over 6,215,797
km of roads as of December 2021; which is the second-largest road network in the world. India’s
road network carries over 71 percent of freight and about 85 percent of passenger traffic. Since
the 1990s, efforts have been taken by the government to modernize the road’s

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Current Road development Programmes in India

Golden Quadrilateral
The Golden Quadrilateral is a highway network connecting many of the major industrial,
agricultural and cultural centres of India. A quadrilateral of sorts is formed by
connecting Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai, and hence its name. The largest highway project
in India and the fifth longest in the world was launched in 2001 by Prime Minister of India Atal
Bihari Vajpayee and was completed in 2012.[10] It is part of the first phase of the National
Highways Development Project (NHDP) and consisted of building 5,846 km (3,633 mi) four/six
lane express highways at a cost of ₹600 billion (US$7.5 billion).[11]
North–South and East–West Corridor]
The North–South and East–West Corridor is part of the second phase of the National Highways
Development Project (NHDP) and consists of building 7,142 kilometres (4,438 mi) of four/six
lane expressways connecting Srinagar in the north and Kanyakumari & Kochi in the
south, Porbandar in the west and Silchar in the east, at a cost of US$12.317 billion (at 1999
prices).[12]
National-Green-Highway-Mission
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), Government of India has promulgated
Green Highways (Plantations, Transplantations, Beautification, and Maintenance) Policy – 2015 on
29 September 2015 to develop green corridors along National Highways for sustainable
environment and inclusive growth. The policy envisions "development of eco-friendly National
Highways with the participation of the communities, farmers, NGOs, private sector, institutions,
government agencies and the Forest Departments for economic growth and development in a
sustainable manner."
Under the aegis of the Policy, development of green corridors is proposed along developed and
upcoming National Highways in the width available in existing Right of Way (ROW) in the form
of median and avenue plantations.
Roadside plantations have immense potential to enhance the green cover of the nation and generate
employment opportunities for the rural community. Green Highways Division - under National
Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has been entrusted with the task of planning, implementation
and monitoring roadside plantations along one lakh km network of National Highways which
would, in turn, generate one lakh direct employment opportunity in plantations sector in next ten
years. For effective project planning, implementation and monitoring GHD has developed
Guidelines and Vision Document.

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Highway Development and Planning

HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Overview
Road network provides the arterial network to facilitate trade, transport, social integration and
economic development. It facilitates specialization, extension of markets and exploitation of
economies of scale. It is used for the smooth conveyance of both people and goods. Transportation
by road has the advantage over other means of transport because of its easy accessibility, flexibility
of operations, door-to-door service and reliability. Consequently, passenger and freight movement
in India over the years have increasingly shifted towards roads vis-à-vis other means of transport.
History of highway engineering
The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient times. Roads in
Rome were constructed in a large scale and it radiated in many directions helping them in military
operations. Thus they are considered to be pioneers in road construction. In this section we will see
in detail about Ancient roads, Roman roads, British roads, French roads etc.
Ancient Roads
The most primitive mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would have been
developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc. The
invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the development of animal drawn vehicles.
To provide adequate strength to carry the wheels, the new ways tended to follow the sunny drier
side of a path. After the invention of wheel, animal drawn vehicles were developed and the need
for hard surface road emerged. Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient
civilization dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was found from Assyrian
empire constructed about 1900 BC.

Roman roads
The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed an extensive
system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. Romans recognized that the
fundamentals of good road construction were to provide good drainage, good material and good
workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and some still exist. The roads were bordered on
both sides by longitudinal drains. A typical corss section is shown in Fig.2.1. This was a raised
formation up to a 1 meter high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials excavated during
the side drain construction. This was then topped with a sand leveling course. In the case of heavy
traffic, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal ag stones were provided They mixed
lime and volcanic puzzolana to make mortar and they added gravel to this mortar to makeconcrete.
Thus concrete was a major Roman road making innovation.

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Fig.2.1 Roman roads

French roads

The significant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764 and a typical cross section of this
road is given in Figure 2.2. He developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and
locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice. The pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried
stone of a more compact form and shaped such that they had at least one at side which was placed
on a compact formation. Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces
between larger stones to provide a level surface. Finally the running layer was made witha layer of
25 mm sized broken stone. All this structure was placed in a trench in order to keep the running
surface level with the surrounding country side. This created major drainage problems which were
counteracted by making the surface as impervious as possible, cambering the surface and providing
deep side ditches.

Fig. 2.2. French roads

British roads
The British government also gave importance to road construction. The British engineer John
Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road construction method. Stone
size was an important element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation of many roads, he
came to realize that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken angular stone would provide the
same strength a better running surface than an expensive pavement founded on large stone blocks.
Thus he introduced an economical method of road construction. A typical cross section of British
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roads is given in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3. British roads

Modern roads
The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use of bituminous
concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments. Development of new
equipments helps in the faster construction of roads. Many easily and locally available materials
are tested in the laboratories and then implemented on roads for making economical and durable
pavements.

Road Development in India

Excavations in the sites of Indus valley revealed the existence of planned roads in India as old as
2500-3500 BC. The Mauryan kings also built very good roads. During the time of Mughal period,
roads in India were greatly improved. Roads linking North-West and the Eastern areas through
gangetic plains were built during this time. The construction of Grand-Trunk road connecting
North and South is a major contribution of the British.

Modern developments

After the 1st world war various types of vehicles using the road is increased the existing roads were
not capable to withstand the mixed traffic condition. To examine and report on the question of road
development in India, Indian Road Development Committee was formed with Mr.M.R. Jaykar as
chairman in 1927 and was called Jaykar committee.
Jaykar Committee Recommendations
The most important recommendations of Jaykar committee was,
1. The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this has
become beyond the capacity of provincial government and local bodies.
2. An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road users to develop a road development fund
called central road fund (CRF).
3. A semi-official technical body should be formed, to pool the technical knowledge from
various parts of country and act as advisory bodies on various aspects of roads.

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4. A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research and development works
and to be available for consultations.
Implementations: Most of the recommendation of the Jaykar committee was accepted by
government and major items implemented subsequently. The central road fund was formed by year
1929, the semi-official body called Indian Road Congress was formed in 1934 and Central Road
Institute was started in 1950.
Central Road Fund (CRF) :As per recommendation of Jaykar committee central road fund was
formed in 1929. The consumers of petrol were charged with an extra tax of 2.64 paisa per litre of
petrol consumption from 1st march 1929. The rate of collection of tax towards Central Road Fund
has been revised in order to argument the revenue under this fund. As per Act 2000, present tax is
Rs 2 per litre. The revenue collected under this fund, 80% is being allotted by central government
to the various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected. The balance 20% is
been set apart as Central Reserve, from which grants are being given by central government for
meeting expenses on the administration of road fund, road experiments and research work on
various aspects of roads and bridges.
Indian Road Congress (IRC) : As per recommendation of Jaykar committee, a semi-official
technical body called Indian Road Congress was formed in 1934. IRC has played an important role
in formulation of four 20 year plan. It has become an active body of national importance
controlling specification, standardisation and recommendation on materials, design and
construction of roads and bridges. The IRC publishes journals, research publications,
specifications, guidelines and other publication on various aspects, on highways and bridges. The
main objectives of IRC are,
1. To provide national forum for regular pooling of experiences and ideas on all matters
affecting planning, construction and maintenance of roads and bridges.
2. To recommend standard specifications.
3. To form a long term (20 year) road development plan.
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI): In accordance with the recommendation of Jaykar
committee on research organisation, central road research institute was started in 1950. The CRRI,
New Delhi is a premium national laboratory engaged in research and development work in field of
road transport. As an effective organisation in road sector CRRI is always rewind in the forefront
by exploring the emerging areas and providing guidance in solving problems concerning roads.
Thus, the various functions of CRRI are,
1. To engage itself in fundamental and applied research on road materials, design and
construction.
2. Offering technical advice to state government on various problems concerning roads.
3. To device suitable equipment’s for various tests on measurement of irregularities on road
surface, test on materials etc…

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Nagpur road plan 1943 / First 20-year road development plan

A twenty year development programme for the period (1943-1963) was finalized. It was the first
attempt to prepare a co-ordinated road development programme in a planned manner.
The roads were divided into four classes:
 National highways which would pass through states, and places having national
importance for strategic, administrative and other purposes.
 State highways which would be the other main roads of a state.
 District roads which would take traffic from the main roads to the interior of the district.
According to the importance, some are considered as major district roads and the
remaining as other district roads.
 Village roads which would link the villages to the road system.

The committee planned to construct 2 lakh kms of road across the country within 20 years. They
recommended the construction of star and grid pattern of roads throughout the country. One of the
objective was that the road length should be increased so as to give a road density of 16 kms per
100 sq.km

Bombay road plan 1961 / Second 20-year road development plan

The length of roads envisaged under the Nagpur plan was achieved by the end of it, but the road
system was deficient in many respects. Accordingly a 20-year plan was drafted by the Roads wing
of Government of India, which is popularly known as the Bombay plan. The highlights of the plan
were:
 It was the second 20 year road plan (1961-1981)
 The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakhs.
 Rural roads were given specific attention.
 They suggested that the length of the road should be increased so as to give a road density
of 32kms/100 sq.km.
 The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then included in the plan.

Lucknow road plan 1984 / Third 20-year road development plan

Third 20-year road development plan was finalised for the 1981-2001 and this plan document was
published by the year 1984. The third 20-year road development plan was also called as Lucknow
road plan.
Objectives and policies
The major policies and objectives of third 20-year road development plan are
 The future development should be based on revised classification of road system. The
revised classification is as follows:
i) Primary system: Includes expressways and national highways.
ii) Secondary system: It includes state highways and MDR.
iii) Tertiary system: Includes ODR and VR
 All villages with population over 500 should be connected by all-weather roads.

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 The overall road density should be increased to 82 km per 100 sq. km area. In hilly areas of
altitude up to 2100 m above mean sea level the road density should be 40 km/100 sq. km. In
hilly areas of altitude above 2100m, above mean sea level the road density should be 15 km
per 100 sq. km area.
 The National highway network should be expanded from square grids of 100 km sides so
that no part of country is more than 50 km away from NH.
 The lengths of SH and MDR in a state should be decided based on both areas and number of
towns with population above 5000.
 Expressway should be constructed along major traffic corridors to provide fast travel.
 All towns and villages with population more than 1500 should be connected by MDR. All
villages with population between 1000 to 1500 should be connected by ODR. There should
be a rod within a distance of 3 km in plain and 5km in hilly terrain connecting all villages
with population less than 500.
 Road should be built in less industrialised areas to attract the growth of industries.
 Long term master plans for road development should be prepared at various levels like
taluk, district, state etc.
 Existing roads should be improved by rectifying defects to achieve safety in traffic
movement.
 There should be improvement in environmental quality.

Determination of road length by third 20-year road plan

Length of NH= Area/50 sq.km
Length of SH:
i) Based on area = Area/25
ii) Based on number of towns = 62.5× Number of towns - length of NH
Adopt length of SH as larger among these two.
Length of MDR:

i) Based on area = Area/12.5

ii) Based on number of towns = 90× Number of towns
Adopt length of MDR as larger among these two.
Length of ODR + VR:
Overall road length=Area × Road density(target)
=Area × 82/100
Length of ODR+VR= Overall road length – Lengths of (NH+SHH+MDR)

Problems-
1. Determine the length of different category of road in a state in India by year 2001 using third
20-year road development formula. Area of states=150000sq.km, number of towns=20, road
density= 82km/100sq.km area.
Solution-
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Length of NH= Area/50 =15000/50 =300 km

Length of SH:
i) Based on area = Area/25 =15000/25 = 600 km
ii) Based on number of towns = 62.5× Number of towns - length of NH
= 62.5× 20 - 300 = 950km > 600 km
Therefore, Adopt length of SH = 950km (larger among above two)
Length of MDR:

i) Based on area = Area/12.5=15000/12.5 =1200km

ii) Based on number of towns=90×No. of towns =90×20 = 1800km > 1200 km
Therefore, Adopt length of MDR=1800km (larger among above two)
Length of ODR + VR:
Overall road length=Area × Road density(target)
=15000 × 82/100 =12300 km
Length of ODR+VR= Overall road length – Lengths of (NH+SHH+MDR
= 12300-(300+950+1800) = 9250 km

2. Determine the length of different category of road in India by the year 2001 using third 20-year
road development formula for following data
Total area of state=308000
Number of towns as per 1981 census=276
Number of villages as per 1981 census=41833

Solution-
Length of NH= Area/50 =308000/50 =6160 km
Length of SH:

i) Based on area = 308000/25 =308000/25 = 12320 km

ii) Based on number of towns = 62.5× Number of towns - length of NH
= 62.5×276-6160 = 11090km < 12320 km
Therefore, Adopt length of SH = 12320 km (larger among these two).

Length of MDR:

i) Based on area = Area/12.5=308000/12.5 =24640 km

ii) Based on number of towns=90×No. of towns =90×276
= 24840km > 24640km
Therefore Adopt length MDR=24840 km (larger among these two)
Length of ODR + VR:
Overall road length =4.74 × (No. of towns + No. of villages)
=4.74 × (276 +41833 =199597 km
Length of (ODR+VR) = 12300-(6160 +12320 +24840) = 156276.66 km

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Classification of roads
Types of road: Basically, different types of roads can be classified based on various aspects
namely, All-weather roads and Fair-weather roads.
1. Based on different seasons of the year
All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river
crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible upto a certain limit extent, the road
pavement should be negotiable during all weathers.
Fair-weather roads: On these roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at
causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.
2. Based on the carriageway
Paved Roads: These roads are provided with a hard pavement course which should be at least a
water bound macadam (WBM) layer.
Unpaved Roads: These roads are not provided with a hard pavement course of at least a WBM
layer. Thus earth roads and gravel roads may be called as unpaved roads.
3. Based on Surface pavement provided
Surface Roads: These roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
Unsurfaced Roads: These are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as black toped roads and that of
concrete are referred to as concrete roads respectively.
4. Based on Traffic Volume:
Heavy
Medium
Light traffic roads.
5. Based on Load transported or tonnage:
Class-I or Class-A Class-II or Class-B.
6. Based on location and Function first Road Development Plan:
National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and the capital
cities to the port. The roads connecting the neighbouring countries are also called as NH. The
NH are atleast 2 lanes of traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are having concrete or bituminous
surfacing.
State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect important towns
and cities of state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.
Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and markets with
either a SH or railway. The MDR should have atleast metalled single lane carriage way (i.e.,
3.8m) wide. The roads carry mixed traffic.
Other District Roads (ODR): these roads connect the village to other village or the nearest
district road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry mixed traffic.
Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or village or
nearby district road. The roads carry mixed traffic.
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7. Modified Classification of Road system by Third Road Development Plan: As per IRC the
road were classified into following three system in 1981,
1. Primary System.
2. Secondary System.
3. Tertiary System.
The primary system consists of Expressways and National Highways, secondary system
consists of State Highways and Major District Roads and tertiary system also consists of Other
District Roads and Village Roads.
Expressways : Expressways are a separate class of highways with superior facilities and
design standards and are meant as through routes having very high volume of traffic. The
expressways are to be provided with divided carriageways, controlled access, grade separation
at cross roads fencing. These highways should permit only fast moving vehicles
8. Based on Urban Roads:
a) Arterial roads
b) Sub-arterialroads
c) Collector Streets
d) Local Streets
Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route, but sub-
arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials. Collector streets provide access to
arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic from and to local streets which provide access
to abutting property.

ROAD PATTERNS
There are various types of road patterns and each pattern has its own advantages and limitations.
The choice of the road pattern depends upon the various factors such as Locality, Layout of the
different towns, villages, industrial and production centres and planning Engineer. The various road
patterns may be classified as follows:
1. Rectangular or block pattern:

In this, entire area is divided into rectangular segments having a common central business and
marketing area. This area has all the services located in the central place. This pattern is not
convenient or safe from traffic operation point of view and it results into more number of
accidents at intersections. Eg: Chandigarh city.

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2. Radial or star and block pattern:

In this, roads radially emerge from the central

business area in all directions and between
two built-up areas will be there. The main
advantage in this, central place is easy
accessible from all the directions. Eg: Nagpur

3. Radial or star and circular pattern: In this roads radiate in all the directions and
also circular ring roads are provided.
Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart
of the city and it flows radially and reaches
the other radial road and thereby reducing the
congestion in the centre of the city. This ring
road system is well suited for big cities where
traffic problems are more in the heart of the
city. Eg: Connaught place in New Delhi.

4. Radial or star and grid pattern:

It is very much similar to star and the circular

pattern expects the radial roads are connected
by grids. In this pattern a grid is formed
around the central point which is a business
centre. Eg: Nagpur road plan.

5. Hexagonal pattern:

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In this entire zone of planning is divided into

hexagonal zones having separate marketing
zone and central services surrounded by
hexagonal pattern of roads. Each hexagonal
element is independent. At each corner of
hexagon three roads meet.
6. Minimum travel pattern: way that from each of the nodal centre, the
distance to the central place is minimum.

In this type, city is divided into number of nodal

points around a central portion by forming
sectors. And each sector is divided again in such a

Planning surveys:
For assessing the road length requirement, field surveys are to be carried out to collect the data
required for determining the length of road system. The field surveys thus required for collecting
the factual data may be called as planning surveys or fact-finding surveys. The planning based on
factual data may be considered scientific and sound. The various planning survey consisting of
following studies
1. Economic studies
2. Financial studies
3. Traffic or road use studies
4. Engineering studies
Economic studies:
The various details to be collected are useful in estimating the economics involved in the highway
development program. Hence it is desirable to find the service given by each road system to the
population and products of the area. All details of existing facilities should available before
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estimating the requirement such that economic justification can be made for each plan. The
important details to be collected during economic studies are
• Population and its distribution in each village, town and other locality with the area
classified in groups.
• Trend of population growth.
• Agricultural and industrial products and their listings in classified groups, area wise.
• Industrial and agricultural development and future trends
• The existing facilities with regard to communication, recreation and education etc...
• Per capita income
Financial studies:
Financial studies are essential to study the various financial aspects like source of income and
manner in which funds for project may be mobilized. The important information’s to be collected
during financial studies are
• Sources of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road transport.
• Living standards
• Resources at local level, troll taxes, vehicle registration and fines.
• Future trends in financial aspects.
• Traffic or road user studies.
Traffic studies:
Traffic survey should be carried out in the whole area and on selected routes and locations in order
to collect the following information such as,
• Traffic volume in per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design hourly traffic
volume.
• Origin and destination studies.
• Traffic flow patterns.
• Mass transportation facilities.
• Accidents, their cost analysis and causes.
• Future trend and growth in traffic volumes and goods traffic, trend in traffic pattern.
• Growth of passenger’s trips and trend in choice of modes.
Engineering surveys:
All details of topography, soil and other problems such as drainage, constructional and maintenance
problems should be investigated before a scientific plan or program is suggested. The important
data to be collected during engineering studies are
• Topographic survey.
• Soil survey
• Location and classification of existing roads.
• Estimation of possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway
development.
• Road life studies.
• Special problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads.

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Master plan:
Master plan is the final road development plan for the area under study which may be a block,
taluk, district, state or whole country. Based on different proposals for road networks and
improvement of some of the possible existing roads are suggested. In each proposal the population
and productivity of each locality, both existing and possible changes in future are kept in view. The
next step is to compare the various alternate proposals of road system in hand ad to select the one
which may be considered as best under the plan period. This is a quite difficult problem as the
decision has to be balanced one. In arriving at the best road system out of the alternate proposals, it
is desirable to make use of concept of saturation system based on max utility unit system of
highway planning.

Saturation system:
In this system the optimum road length is calculated for area, based on concept of obtaining
maximum utility per unit length of road. Hence this system is called “maximum utility system”.
The factors which are taken for obtaining utility per unit length of road are:
• Population served by road network
• Productivity served by road network
a) Agricultural products
b) Industrial products
The following steps may be followed to find best road network for having maximum utility per unit
length of road by saturation system.
Step 1- population units
The area under consideration consists of towns and villages in different population range. It is
required to group these into some convenient population ranges and to assign some reasonable
values of utility units to each range of population served.
For example: villages having population range between 1001 to 2000 may be grouped together and
we assigned one utility unit per village. Similarly, the various villages and towns may be grouped
into different population ranges and we assign suitable utility units as given below.
Population less than 500, utility unit per village or town = 0.25
501-1000, utility unit per village or town = 0.5
1001-2000, utility unit per village or town = 1
2001-5000, utility unit per village or town = 2
The total number of units based on population can be obtained for each road system proposals
. Step 2-productivity units
The total agricultural and industrial products served by each road system should be worked out.
The productivity served may be assigned appropriate values of utility units per unit weight.
For example: 1000 tons of agricultural products may be considered equivalent to 1 unit. Similarly,
the industrial products may also be assigned suitable utility units per unit weight. The total
productivity units served by each road system may be estimated.
Step 3- utility units

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The total units of each road system are found by adding population units and productivity units.
The total utility units are divided by total length of each road system to obtain the utility rate per
unit length.
𝑇otal population units + Total productivity units
Utility unit per km length, U =
Length
Each road system having different layout and length would show different values of utility per unit
length. The proposal which gives maximum utility per unit length may be selected as final layout,
with optimum road length, based on maximum utility in saturation system.

Problems:
1. There are 5 alternate proposals of road plan for a backward district. The details are given below.
Justify with reasons which proposal is the best. Assuming utility units are 0.5,1,2,4 and 8. For
the 5 population ranges and 1 and 5 per 1000 tons of agricultural and industrial products
respectively.

No. Of towns and villages served with Productivity in 1000

Length population range tonnes
Proposal
km 2001- 5001- 10001-
<2000 >20000 Agricultural Industrial
5000 10000 20000
P 500 100 150 40 20 3 150 20
Q 600 200 250 68 28 3 220 25
R 700 270 350 82 36 4 300 35
S 800 280 410 91 41 4 400 42
T 900 290 430 96 44 4 430 45

Solution:
𝑇otal population units + Total productivity units
Utility unit per km length, U =
Length
Up = (100×0.5 + 150×1 + 40×2 + 20×4 + 3×8) + (150×1 + 20× ) / 500 = 1.268 Utility units / km
Uq = (200×0.5 + 250×1 + 68×2 + 28×4 + 3×8) + (220×1 + 25×5) / 600 = 1.611 Utility units / km
Ur = (270*0.5+350*1+82*2+36*4+4*8)+(300*1+35*5)/700 = 1.857/km
Us = (280*0.5+410*1+91*2+41*4+4*8)+(400*1+42*5)/800 = 1.922/km ×
Ut = (290*0.5+430*1+96*2+44*4+4*8)+(430*1+45*5)/900 = 1.811/km

The plan proposal S has the maximum utility per unit length of road and hence the proposal S is the
best proposal.

Phasing of road program

The road network to be constructed and improved in the plan period while finalising the master
plan of road development project. The plan period maybe long term, like 20-year-old plan or of

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short term 5-year plan. But whatever be the plan period it is necessary to phase the road
development program from financial year consideration. In other words, it is necessary to fix the
priorities for the construction of each link of road network development program to decide which
link should be taken up first and which one is the next and so on. The phasing may also be done for
each annual budget year hereby fixing up the priorities. Here again the priority for each road link
maybe fixed scientifically based on maximum utility. The utility per unit length of road based on
population and productivity for each road is worked out. Each link of network is listed in order of
priority based on utility per unit length of road.

2. Four new road links A, B, C and D are to be constructed during a five year plan period. Assume
population units 0.5,1,2 and 4 and 1/1000 tons, 500 tons and 100 tonns of agricultural and raw
material and industrial products respectively. Find the order of priority for following system of
roads.
No. Of towns and villages served
Productivity in tonnes
Road Length with population range
link km 501- 1001- Raw
<500 >2000 Agricultural Industrial
1000 2000 Material
A 70 30 18 8 3 8000 4000 1000
B 45 11 7 6 3 6000 1000 1600
C 65 23 7 5 5 4500 2000 3200
D 60 38 4 3 3 4000 6000 500

8000 4000 1000

(30 × 0.5 + 18 × 1 + 8 × 2 + 3 × 4 ) + ( ×1+ ×1+ )
1000 500 100
Ua = = 1.24 Units/km
70
6000 1000 1600
(11 × 0.5 + 7 × 1 + 6 × 2 + 5 × 4 ) + ( ×1+ ×1+ )
1000 500 100
Ub = = 1.344 Units/km
45
4500 2000 3200
(23 × 0.5 + 7 × 1 + 5 × 2 + 5 × 4 ) + ( ×1 ×1+ )
1000 500 100
Uc = = 1.37 Units/km
65
4000 6000 500
(38 × 0.5 + 4 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 3 × 4 ) + ( ×1 × 1 + 100 )
1000 500
Ud = = 1.03 Units/km
60

Order of Priority Utility units/km Road proposal

1 1.37 C
2 1.344 B
3 1.24 A
4 1.03 D

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Highway Alignment and Surveys

Highway alignment
The position or the layout of central line of highway is called as alignment on the ground. A new
road should be aligned carefully, as if the alignment is improper the cost of construction and
maintenance will increase drastically. Once alignment is aligned, it can’t be changed because
changing of alignments involves more costs.
Requirements of an ideal alignment.
Following are the basic requirements for an ideal alignment between two stations
1. It should be short,
2. It should be easy,
3. It should be safe,
4. It should be economical,
If it is not possible for an alignment to satisfy all the four requirements, a highway alignment.
Which satisfies maximum number of requirements may be considered as the best or ideal
Alignment.
Factors affecting highway alignment.
1. Obligatory points.
2. Traffic.
3. Geometric.
4. Economics.
5. Other considerations.
The above five factors to be considered as for as road alignment on plain and rolling terrain. If the
alignment is in hilly terrain, addition to the above five factors other additional four factors should
be considered they are.
1. Stability.
2. Drainage.
3. Geometric standards for hill roads.
4. Resisting length.
Obligatory points: These are also called as control points the obligatory points can be broadly
classified into two groups.
a) Points through which alignment can pass.
b) Points through which alignment shouldn’t pass.

Points through which alignment can pass.

The obligatory points through which the alignment has to pass may cause the road alignment to
deviate from its shortest path .various examples are mountains pass, bridge site ,intermediate town
or a Pond thus here mountain pass , bridge site ,intermediate town and pond or lake has obligatory
points.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Points through which alignment shouldn’t pass.

Alignment shouldn’t pass through middle of the town or village because it will create Congestion
.the alignment shouldn’t pass through important religious places such as temples, Mosques and
churches because it disturbs sentiments of a particular community. lastly the Alignment shouldn’t
pass through marshy land and costly fertile land because the cost of the pavement increases
drastically .thus here middle of the town or village , religious places, Marshy land and costly fertile
area act as obligatory points.
Traffic: The alignment should satisfy the traffic requirement .origin and destination studies should
be carried out to indicate the trend of traffic flow in an area. Hence during the alignment of a new
road, normally traffic flow and its future development should be given due consideration.
Geometric Design: The geometrics of highway includes the cross section details like width of
roads, number of lanes, horizontal curve, radius of curves, amount of superelevation ,design speed
and extra width at curves. The vertical alignment includes gradient, type of vertical curve, shape
and length of vertical curve, sight distance requirement lastly depending on the type of terrain
condition appropriate geometrics should be provided.
Economics: The cost of the cost of the construction, maintenance and operation should e minimum
.to reduce cost of construction, deep cuts and high embankments must be avoided the number of
bridge structures and culverts must be reduced to minimum.
Other considerations: Before aligning a road, other considerations such as territory aspects,
boundary aspects and strategic aspects are to be taken care.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Special considerations while Aligning roads on hilly Areas:

Stability: The stability of hill slopes and provision of earth retaining structures are to be taken care
as for stability factors are considered.
Drainage: To lead away the rain water, both surface and subsurface drainage should be provided
both in longitudinal and lateral directions. apart from that , at suitable points cross drainage works
has to be provided in the form of pipe or box culvert.
Geometric standards of hill roads: Especially at hilly regions while aligning a new road
alignment, change of grade, vertical curve, radius and length of vertical curve sight distance
requirement etc are to be taken into considerations.
Resisting length: In hilly terrains, since the radius of curve is small and length available for curve
is less to gain the momentum for vehicle to climb a particular slope, some minimum length is
required .such a length is called resisting length.

Engineering Surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project the engineering surveys are to be
carried out. Four stages of engineering survey are.

1. Map study.
2. Reconnaissance survey.
3. Preliminary survey.
4. Final location and detail survey.

Map study: The first step in road survey and investigation is to study all available informations in
the office .the survey of India published toposheets to the scale of 1:50000 to 1:250000. The
toposheets give contours, existing roads and other communication facilities and villages and towns,
thus the toposheet will act as valuable data source. The geological survey of India published maps
on soil types, geological features (faults) and ground water conditions. The town planning
organization has land use plans and master plans drawings .when a full examination of available
maps and data’s is made in the office the engineer would have some idea about alternative
alignments. This stage is also known as desk study.
Reconnaissance survey: it starts with field inspection to know the general character of area. A
field survey party may inspect a fairly broad sketch of land along the proposed alternative routes in
the map study. In this stage, all informations which are useful in design, construction and
maintenance should be collected. Only simple instruments like abney level, clinometer, barometer,
etc are carried. The following list gives the points on which data should be gathered.
 Type of terrain in which alignment passes.
 Length of road along various alternatives.
 Bridging requirements like number of bridges , number of spans ,etc
 Details of geometrics like approximate value of gradients , length of gradients ,radius of
curves, etc
 Soil type along the routes from field identification test and observation of geological
features.
 Sources of construction material.
 Climate conditions like temperature, rainfall ,etc

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 Value of land like agricultural land , forest land, built up area ,etc
 Crossing with railway line and other communication line.
 design characteristics
From the details collect during reconnaissance survey, the alignment proposed in map study may be
altered or even changed completely .as the result of reconnaissance, a few alternative alignments
may be chosen for further study based on practical considerations observed at site.
Note: A rapid reconnaissance of area especially when it is vast and terrain is difficult may be done
by an aerial survey.
Preliminary survey : The main objectives of the preliminary survey are
1. To survey the various alternative alignments and to collect the necessary information.
2. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirement of good alignment.
3. To estimate the quantity of earth work, materials and other construction aspects and to
workout the cost of alternative proposal.
4. To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
The preliminary survey consists of establishing a base line traverse also called a primary traverse. It
is a series of straight lines along a selected alignment. A theodolite is used for traversing and levels
are taken along and across the traverse. The distances are measured continuously along a traverse
line with a metallic tape. Levels along the line should be taken at an interval of 50m under all
intermediate breaks in ground. The cross sections should be at intervals of 100-200m in plain
terrain and can be reduced in hilly terrain. Bench mark should be established at the interval of 250-
300m. The points where individual straight line intersect should be carefully referred be located by
means of offsets. The width to be covered for such detailing should be about the land width
proposed to be acquired.
The information on subsoil, water table, rainfall intensity, soil type should be collected and
recorded. The survey enables the preparation of map including the plan and sections [longitudinal
and cross section]

The scales generally recommended are;-

 Plain and rolling terrain -1:2500 for horizontal scale
-1:250 for vertical scale ,
 In built up areas and hilly terrains -1:1000 for horizontal scale
-1:100 for vertical scale

It is desirable to map in contours to an interval of 1-3m. The map should indicate all the physical
features survey. The drawing will enable the final centre line to be selected in the office keeping in
mind the geometric standards for horizontal and vertical alignment.
Final location and detail survey: Finally the selected route , the central line should be transferred
to the ground .while transferring the central line on the ground wherever there is sudden changes in
directions then suitable curves has to be incorporated. While providing actual geometrics in field
the original alignment get shifted because of extra width of curve.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

The details of level along the longitudinal section and proposed cross section are to be take care
.they have to be prepared in terms of plans giving details of constructions as well as structural
details .

Drawings
The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project.
Key map: key map shows the proposed roads and important places to be connected [scale
1:250000]
Index map: Index map shows the general topography of the area, the details of area symbolically
represented.[scale 1:50000]
Preliminary survey plans:- shows the details of various alternate alignments and all information
collected [ scale 1:10000 to 1:40000]
Plan and longitudinal section: The normal practice to show both the plan and longitudinal profile
together in one sheet. Plan should show the alignment with details of features and contours at
suitable intervals. Longitudinal section shows the final profile with details of grades, vertical
curves, etc.
Scale: In plain terrain - Horizontal scale = 1:25000
- Vertical scale = 1:250
In hilly terrain - Horizontal scale = 1:1000
- Vertical scale = 1: 100
Detailed cross sections: Shows existing ground profile, proposed road levels , area of cut and fill,
thickness of various components , etc [scale- 1:100]
Land acquisition plans: Shows all general details such as boundary of various fields and survey
umbers, buildings, etc [scale -1:2000 to 1:8000].
Road junction drawings: Showing existing road , proposed improvement , road signs ,markings ,
high lands, etc [ scale – 1:500 to1:600]
Drawings for cross drainage structures: Standard design can be used [scale -1:50]

Project Report
The project report forms an important part of the project document. It should contain infomations
such as:
1. General details of the project and its importance.
2. Features of the road including selection of the route, alignment ,traffic, etc
3. Road design specifications like geometric standards , road design , pavement design ,etc
4. Drainage facilities and cross drainage structures :-surface drainage , subsurface drainage ,
ground water table ,high flood level, etc
5. Materials, labour and equipments: Source of construction materials, availability of labour
and equipment.
6. Rates:-Schedule of rates, justification of rates, etc
7. Construction programming: - Working season, schedule of completing work, etc.
8. Miscellaneous: - like diversion routes, traffic control, road side amenities, guest houses, etc.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Steps in New Highway Project

Step 1:- Route selection: it includes - Map study .
- Reconnaissance survey.
- Location survey.
- Detailed survey.
Step 2: Materials and design: It includes - Material survey.
- Design
 Pavement layers.
 Embankment.
 Bridges.
Step 3:-Construction stage : It includes - Earth work
- Actual pavement construction
- Quality control
Re-alignment Project
The necessities of re-alignment project are:-
1) To improve the horizontal alignment, it includes .radius, super elevation, clearance, etc.
2) To improve the vertical alignment, it includes steep gradient, change in curve for sight
distance.
3) To increase the level of road in conditions such as flooding, submergence and water logged areas .
4) To reconstruct the weak and narrow bridges.
5) To construct over bridges and under bridges .To provide separate intersections.
6) To construct a bypass for avoiding traffic running through a town or city.
Principles of Re-alignment Project
1) Improvement of vertical alignment for stopping sight distance at summit curve and
checking of valley curve for HLSD [Head Light Sight Distance] and comfort condition.
2) Development on whole.
3) Roads remaining submerged even for short duration should be raised for widening or
strengthening.
4) New bridges should be construction at different sites then at existing .
5) Grade separation should be justified based on traffic
6) Bypass also should be justified.
Steps in Re-alignment Project
1) Reconnaissance:- it includes the study of deficiency and possible changes.
2) Survey of existing roads: - It includes recording topographical features and other existing
features including drainage.
3) Longitudinal and cross sectioning to note the gradients, cross slopes, super elevation etc.
4) Soil survey along the stretches of land.
5) Comparison of economics of existing and proposals.
6) Finalisation of alignment and design standards.
7) Preparation of drawings including plan and longitudinal cross section.
8) Marking the centre-line of realigned road.
9) Earth work and pavement construction.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

Geometric design
Geometric design is an aspect of highway design with visible features and dimensions of road. The
safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to large extent by the care with
which the geometric design has been workout. Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is
possible if the design elements have been meticulously considered. At the same time a well
designed highway should be economical. Therefore the objective of geometric design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost
It is possible to design and construct the pavement in stages but it is very expensive and difficult to
improve the geometrics in stages at a later date. Hence it is important to plan and design the
geometric features using the initial alignment itself, taking into consideration the future growth of
traffic flow and possibility of road being upgraded at a later stage.
Geometric design of highway deals with the following stages,
1. Cross sectional elements - Pavement surface characteristics
- Camber
- Carriageway
- Kerbs
- Road margins
- Width of roadway
- Right of way
- Cross sections of roads
2. Sight distance - Stopping sight distance
- Overtaking sight distance
- Sight distance at intersections
3. Horizontal alignment - Design speed
- Horizontal curves
- Superelevation
- Radius of Horizontal curves
- Extra widening
- Transition curve
- Set-back distance
4. Vertical alignment - Gradient
- Vertical curves - Summit curves and valley curves

5. Intersection elements - The design of road intersection with facilities for safe and
efficient traffic movement needs knowledge of traffic
engineering.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

The important factors, which affect the geometric elements are

1. Design speed
2. Topography
3. Traffic factors
4. Design hourly volume and capacity
5. Environmental and other factors
Design speed: This is an important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highways.
There is considerable variation in the speeds adopted by different drivers and by different types of
vehicles. Hence it is not easy to select a value for design because the value selected should
accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy. Yet the design should not fail
completely under extreme condition.
Design speed is the speed determined for design and correction of physical features that influence
the vehicle. It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of a highway.
Almost all geometric elements of a road are dependent on the design speed. In India different speed
standards have been assigned depending upon the class of road such as NH, SH, etc.
Table 1: Design speed for rural highways
Design speed for various terrains
Road Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Classification
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
NH and SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 30 25 20 25 20
Topography: The topography influences the geometric design of highway significantly. The
design standards specified for various classes of roads are different depending upon terrain
classification. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment. The following classification is generally adopted by “IRC”.
Sl. Cross slope of
Terrain Classification
No. the country in %
1 Plain 0 - 10
2 Rolling 10 - 25
3 Mountainous 25 - 60
4 Steep >60
Traffic factors: The traffic factors, which affect the geometric design of roads, are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. The important vehicular characteristics,
which affect traffic behaviour, are the different vehicle classes such as passenger cars, buses,
trucks, motor cycles, etc. have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart from having
different dimensions and weights. The important human factors, which affect traffic behaviour,
include the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 2

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

Design hourly volume and capacity : The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time,
low traffic flow during off - peak hour and highest traffic flow during peak hour. It will be
uneconomical to design the roadway for the peak hour traffic flow. Therefore a reasonable value of
traffic volume is decided for the design and this is called the design hourly volume
Environmental and other factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and other
local conditions should be given due consideration in the design of road geometrics.
Cross sectional elements
Pavement surface characteristics
The important pavement surface characteristics which are given due consideration during the
geometric design are
1. Friction
2. Pavement unevenness
3. Light reflecting characteristics
Friction
The friction between the vehicle tyre and the surface is one of the factor determine the operation
speed and the distance requirement in stopping and accelerating the vehicle. When a vehicle
negotiating in a horizontal curve friction force counteract the centrifugal force governs the safe
operating speed. Hence the frictional force plays a major role during the acceleration and
retardation of the vehicle. The coefficient of friction or skid resistance offered by the pavement
surface under various driving and surface condition is important with reference to the skid
condition. The maximum coefficient of friction comes into picture when the breaking efficiency is
high enough to almost arrest the rotation of the wheels on application of breaks.
Skid:Skid occurs when the wheel slide without revolving or when the wheels partially revolve. When
the breaks are applied, wheels are locked partially or fully the vehicle moves forward then the
longitudinal skidding takes place. It varies from zero to 100 %
While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve if the centrifugal force is greater it drags the vehicle away
from the path outwards and skidding takes place is called lateral skidding. Lateral skidding is
considered to be most dangerous as vehicle goes out of control and leads to accident.
Slip:Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road. Slipping usually occurs in the driving wheel of a vehicle when the vehicle rapidly
accelerates from slow speed on pavement which is either slippery or wet or when the road surface
is loose with mud
Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance
Following factors are observed to influence the skid resistance
1 Type of pavement surface like cement concrete surface, bituminous surface, Water bound
macadam surface, etc.
2. Condition of pavement like wet or dry, even or uneven, oil spilled, smoothened or rough,
mud or dry sand on pavement.
3. Type and condition of tyre that is new with good treads or smoothened and worn out tyre.
4. Speed of vehicle

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 3

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

5. Extent of break application or brake.

6. Load and tyre pressure
7. Temperature of tyre and pavement
8. Type of skid
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting multiplied
by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted asf. The choice of the value of f is a very
complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal
friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15. The former is
useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
Pavement unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such a one. Even if a
road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to pavement
failures. Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tyres. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the
cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal
length of the road. An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a
value less than 2500 mm.km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200
mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.
Light reflecting characteristics
Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting· characteristics of the pavement
surface. The glare caused by the reflection of headlight is considerably more on wet pavement
surface than on dry pavement. Though light coloured or white pavement surfaces give good
visibility at night, they produce glare and eye strain during bright sun light. Black top pavement
surfaces on the other hand should provides poor visibility during the nights especially when the
surfaces wet.
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
• Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
• Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 4

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

The camber is given a parabolic (Fig.-l) or the straight line (Fig.-2) shape in cross section. For
providing the desired amount and shape "camber boards" (templates) are prepared. These are used to
check the lateral profile of the finished pavement during construction.
The factors on which the camber depends are
a)The type of pavement surface.
b)The amount of rainfall
If the pavement surface is impervious in nature (cement concrete pavement), flat camber is
provided. On the other hand if the pavement surface is pervious in nature (WBM road), steep
camber is required. Similarly steep camber is required in the areas of heavy rainfall. Whereas flat
cambers may be sufficient in the areas of less rainfall the values of camber recommended by the
IRC are given in the following table.
Sl. Types of road surface Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
No
Heavy Light
1 C. C. and high type bituminous surface 1 in 50 (2.0%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2.0%)
3 WBM and gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3.0%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)
4 Earth road 1 in 25 (4.0%) 1 in 33 (3.0%)
Too steep camber is not desirable because of the following reasons
1. Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side trust and a drag on the steering of the
vehicle. Also the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more causing unequal wear
and tear of the tyres.
2. During overtaking operation discomfort is felt when crossing the crown of the surface.
3. Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
4. Problems of toppling over of steel tyred vehicles like bullock carts.
5. Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line.
Problems

1. Design a straight line camber board for a two - lane national highway provided with a high type
bituminous surface in heavy rainfall area.
Solution: As per IRC for high type bituminous surface in heavy rainfall area the camber to be provided
is 2% or 1 in 50

Width of Carriageway
The surface of the roadway suitably designed and constructed with road metals (aggregates) to
carry the vehicular traffic is called carriageway or pavement. The width of carriageway or
pavement depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The carriageway intended for
one line of traffic movement is called "traffic lane". Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of
the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The maximum
permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68
m. This requires minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road However, the side
clearance required is about 0.53 m, on both side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane
road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane.

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The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC is given in the following table

S1. Class of road Width of

No. carriageway
1 Single lane 3.75 m
2 Two lanes without raised 7.0m
3 kerbs
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5 m
4 Intermediate carriage 5.5 m
5 Multi - lane pavements 3.5 m / lane

Traffic separators or Medians

Traffic separators or Medians are placed between the lanes of highway to divide the traffic
moving in opposite directions. The main function of traffic separators is to prevent head on
collision between vehicles moving in opposite directions on adjoining lanes. The traffic
separators may also help to:
1. Channelize the traffic into steams at intersections
2. Shadow the crossing and turning traffic
3. Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
The different types of traffic separators are
a) Pavement marking
b) Physical dividers
c) Area separators
IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m for medians of rural highways, which may be
reduced to 3 m where land is restricted and on long bridges it may be reduced 1.2 to 1.5 m.1he
absolute minimum width of 1.2 m and minimum desirable width of 5 m for the medians of urban
highways.

Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Based on their function kerbs are divided into four types
 Low or mountable kerbs: This type of kerbs is provided such that they encourage the
traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder
area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge
with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians
and channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of

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parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some
difficulty.
 Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed
at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges
between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to
the pavement.

Road margins

The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
1 Shoulder: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base
and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded
truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum
width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.
2 Parking lanes: Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a
minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.

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3. Service roads: Frontage roads or Service roads access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a
separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are
provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes
is not reduced.
4. Driveways: Driveways connect the highways with commercial establishments like fuel -
stations, service stations, etc. driveways should be properly designed and located, fairly away
from an intersection. The radius of the drive way curve should be kept as large as possible, but
the width of the drive way should be minimized to reduce the length of cross walks.
5. Cycle track: Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional
track.
6. Footpath: Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They
are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular
traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the tra_c. The
footpath should be either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the
pedestrian to use the footpath.
7. Guard rails: They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially
when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones
painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves
at night under headlights of vehicles.
8. Embankment slope: Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of safe
traffic movement and also for aesthetic reasons, Though from the slope stability point, a steeper
slope may be possible, the slope may be kept as flat as' permitted by economic considerations,
Road side landscaping can improve the aesthetic features of road side making road travel more
pleasant

Width of formation (Roadway width)

Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The
values suggested by IRC are given in Table
Table : Width of formation for various classed of roads
Roadway width in m
Road
classification Plain and rolling Mountainous and
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 12 6.25 - 8.80
MDR 9 4.75
ODR 7.5 - 9 4.75
VR 7.5 4.0

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Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It
should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. The right of way width is governed by:
 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating
future developments like widening of the road.
Table: Normal right of way for open areas
Land width in m
Road
classification Plain and rolling Mountainous and
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 45 24
MDR 25 18
ODR 15 15
VR 12 9
Built-up areas
NH/SH 30 20
MDR 20 15
ODR 15 12
VR 10 9

Typical cross sections of roads

Figure: Cross section of VR or ODR in embankment in rural Area

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Figure: Cross section of MDR in cutting in rural Area

Figure: Cross section of NH or SH in rural Area

Figure: Cross section of two lane city road in Built – up area

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Figure: Cross section of Divided Highway in Urban area

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Sight Distance
The distance along the road surface at which the driver has visibility of objects (stationary or
moving) from a specified height above the road surface is known as sight distance. In other words it
is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance. Restrictions to sight distance may
be caused due to the objects as shown in fig 1, 2 and 3

Fig.1 Sight distance at horizontal curve

Fig.2 Sight distance at vertical summit curve

Fig.3 Sight distance at intersection

Three sight distance situations are considered in geometric design. They are
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
2. Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
3. Sight distance at Intersection
Apart from the above three situations IRC considered the following sight distances in highway
design.
a) Intermediate sight distance.
b) Head light sight distance.
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The sight distance in general depends upon the features of the roads (horizontal alignment and
vertical alignment), height of driver's eye level and height of object above the road surface.

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Stopping Sight Distance is the absolute minimum sight distance required to bring the vehicle
travelling at design speed to a stop without collision with any obstruction. The SSD on the summit
curve is that distance measured along road surface at which an object of 0.15 m can be seen by a
driver whose eye level is at a height of 1.2 m above the road surface
The SSD depends on the following factors
1. Total reaction time of driver
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance between the road and tyres.
5. Gradient of the road if any
Reaction time of driver: Reaction time of driver is the time taken by the driver between instant at
which the object is seen and instant at which the brakes are applied. The total reaction time of
driver may vary from 1.5 seconds for simple situations to as much as 3 to 4 seconds or even more
in complex situations. IRC recommends the total reaction time of driver is 2.5 seconds for SSD and
2.0 seconds for OSD. Larger the value of total reaction time larger will be the SSD
Speed of the vehicle: The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the
speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed
increases, sight distance also increases.
Efficiency of brakes: The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are
applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore the sight
distance required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric
design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50%brake efficiency.
Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road: The frictional resistance between the tyre
and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more,
the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake
efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance. This is taken into account along with the
factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35
to 0.4.
Gradient of the road: Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a
gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While
descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the
vehicle. Sight distance required will be more in this case.

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P I E V Theory
According to "PIEV" theory the total reaction time is split up into 4 parts

Perception time: It is the time required for the sensations received by eyes or ears to be
transmitted to the brain through nerves system and spinal chord.
Intellection time: It is the time required for understanding the situation.
Emotion time: It is 'the time elapsed during emotional disturbances such as fear, anger, etc. with
reference to the situation
Volition time: It is time taken for the final action.
It is also possible that a driver may apply breaks or take any avoiding action without thin king. The
"PIEV" theory has been illustrated in the following figure.

Equation for SSD

SSD = lag distance + braking distance
Lag distance: The distance travelled by the vehicle during the reaction time is known as lag
distance.
Braking distance: The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application 'of brake to the dead
stop position is known as braking distance.
V2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + −−−−−−−−− at grade
254f
𝑉2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + 𝑛 − − − − − on gradient
254( 𝑓 ± 100)

Where SSD = Stopping Sight Distance, m

V = Design speed, Kmph.
t = Total reaction time of driver, Sec. (2.5 sec for SSD)
f = Co-efficient of friction between the road surface and tyres of vehicle.
f= µ×ƞ
Where ƞ = break efficiency and µ = Skid resistance for 100 % break efficiency
Table: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
Speed, kmph 20 -30 40 50 60 - 65 80 - 100
Coefficient of friction, f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

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n = Gradient of road, %
Note: Use + ve sign for upgrades and - ve sign for down grades
Problems
1. Calculate the SSD for designed speed of 80 kmph for
One - way traffic road.

i) Two - way traffic road.

Assume appropriate values for the reaction time of the driver and the co-efficient of friction
Solution
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 80 kmph
SSD on a One - way traffic road
V2
SSD = 0.278Vt +
254f
802
SSD = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.35
SSD = 127.6 m = 128m
SSD on a two - way traffic road
SSD = 2(SSD of one way traffic road)
SSD = 2[128 ] = 256 m
2. Calculate the SSD required for avoiding a head on collision of two cars approaching from
opposite directions at 100 kmph and 80 kmph. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution :
V2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 +
254f

SSD for vehicle -1

Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 100 kmph
1002
SSD1 = 0.278 × 100 × 2.5 + = 182 m
254 × 0.35
SSD1 = 182 m
SSD for vehicle -2
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 80 kmph
802
SSD2 = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 + = 128 m
254 × 0.35
SSD2 = 128 m
To avoid head on collision, SSD =SSD1 + SSD2
= 182 +128 = 310 m
3. The design speed of a particular road with a gradient of 1 in 40 is 65 kmph. Find S S D for
ascending and descending gradients. Assume suitable data.
Solution
Given: V = 65 kmph and n = 1 in 40 = 100 / 40 =2.5 %
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.36 for speed of 65 kmph
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V2
SSD = 0.278Vt + n − − − − − on gradient
254( f ± )
100
For ascending grade
652
SSD = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 +
2.5
254( 0.36 + 100)

752
SSD2 = 0.278 × 75 × 2.5 +
2
254( 0.35 + 100)
SSD = 88.4 m
For descending grade
652
SSD = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 +
2.5
254( 0.36 − 100)

SSD = 94.8 m

4. Calculate the absolute minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite directions at 80 kmph and 65 kmph. Assume the reaction time as 2.5
Sec. Co-efficient of friction as 0.85 and break efficiency of 50 % in either case.
Solution :
V2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + If break efficiency is given
254f × ƞ
SSD for vehicle -1
Given: V = 80 kmph , µ = 0.85, ƞ = 50 % = 0.5 and t = 2.5 sec

802
SSD1 = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.85 × 0.5

SSD1 = m
SSD for vehicle -2
Given: V = 65 kmph , µ = 0.85, ƞ = 50 % = 0.5 and t = 2.5 sec
652
SSD2 = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.85 × 0.5
SSD2 = m
To avoid head on collision, SSD = SSD1 + SSD2 =

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Overtaking Sight Distance

Traffic characteristics in India marked by mixed modes of traffics. Therefore it becomes necessary
for vehicles moving at design speed to overtake slower vehicles. Hence it is essential to provide
Overtaking Sight Distance at reasonable interval to enable fast moving vehicles to safely overtake
the slow moving vehicles.

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as O S D or safe passing
sight distance. The O S D on the summit curve is the distance measured along the centre of the road
at which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m
above road surface
The above figure shows the overtaking operation of vehicle 'A' travelling at design speed and
another slow vehicle 'B' at a two-lane road with two - way traffic. Third vehicle ‘C’ comes from
opposite.
Assumptions:
 The overtaking vehicle 'A' reduces its speed from design speed to the speed of slow moving
vehicle ‘B’ and moves behind it allowing a safe spacing till there is an opportunity for safe
overtaking operation.
 On getting an opportunity the driver of vehicle 'A' accelerates, shifts to the next lane,
overtakes and shift back to the original lane without disturbing the path of opposite vehicle
'C'
The overtaking operation may be split info 3 operations, thus dividing the overtaking distance into
3 parts dl, d2 and d3.
dl = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time (t)
= 0.278 Vb t
d2= distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle' A' during the actual overtaking operation time (T)
= 0.278 Vb T + 2 s
d3 = distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation time (T).
= 0.278 V. T
Thus OSD = dl + d2 + d3
Therefore OSD = 0.278 V t + 0.278 Vb T + 2 s + 0.278 V T
Where V = Speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph.
Vb= Speed of overtaken vehicle, kmph
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t = Reaction time of driver ( 2 sec for OSD)

s = Spacing of vehicles = 0.2 Vb + 6
T = duration of actual overtaking operation

or

A = Acceleration, kmph / sec

a = Acceleration, m / sec2

The acceleration values of the fast vehicle depends on its speed and given in Table below
Speed Maximum overtaking
(kmph) acceleration (kmph / sec)
25 5.00
30 4.80
40 4.45
50 4.00
65 3.28
80 2.56
100 1.92
Notes:
1. In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given, it can be assumed that it moves 16
kmph slower the design speed.
2. On divided highways, d3 need not be considered
3. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not necessary to
provide the OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.
Overtaking zones
The overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at frequent
intervals. These zones, which are meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones. The OSD and
pavement width should be sufficient for safe overtaking operations. Sign posts should be installed
at sufficient distance (equal OSD) in advance to indicate the start of the overtaking zones. Similarly
sign posts should be installed ahead at sufficient distance (equal OSD) to indicate the end of the
overtaking zones. The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is
three times OSD

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Problems 1. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 60 kmph respectively. If
the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 2.5 kmph / sec. Calculate the overtaking sight distance.
What is the desirable length of overtaking zone?
Given: V = 80 kmph, Vb= 60 kmph, t = 2 sec (assumed) and A = 2.5 kmph / sec.
Solution
s = 0.2 Vb + 6 = 0.2 x 60 + 6 = 18 m
14.4 s 14.4 × 22.8
T= √ =√ = 11.70 sec
A 2.4

4s 4 × 20
T= √ =√ = 8.99 sec
a 0.99

d1 = 0.28 Vb . t = 0.278 x 60 x 2 = 33.36 m

d2 = 2 s + 0.278 Vb. T = 2 x 18 + 0.278 x 60 x 10.18 = 205.80 m
d3 = 0.28 V. T = 0.28 x 80 x 10.18 = 226.40 m
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
OSD = 33.36 + 205.80 + 226.40 = 465.56 m
Say OSD = 466 m
Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5(OSD) = 5 × 466 = 2330 m

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Sight distance at intersections

At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either side. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the
vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design speed.
The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be able to see each
other. This is illustrated in the figure above. Design of sight distance at intersections may be used
on three possible conditions:
 Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
 Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
 Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal curve
It is curve provided along the highway to introduce a change in direction along the centre line of
road. When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve at some speed an outward force acts
horizontally through the C. G of the vehicle is known as centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is
given by the following equation
W v²
P= gR

Where P = Centrifugal force, kg

W= Weight of the vehicle, kg
v = Speed of vehicle, m / sec
R= Radius of the curve, m
g= Acceleration due to gravity,
The centrifugal force acting on the vehicle while negotiating the curve has two effects
1. Overturning effect
2. Transverse skidding effect

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Overturning effect:

The figure shows the effect of centrifugal force to cause overturning about a wheel 'B' on
horizontal curve.
Overturning moment due to centrifugal force = P x h ----------1
𝑊𝑏
This is counter acted by the restoring moment = ----------2
2
Equating (1) and (2) for equilibrium of the vehicle.
Wb
We have P×h= 2

P b
=
W 2h
When the centrifugal ratio approaches a value equal to 𝑏⁄2ℎ. Then there is a danger of overturning
of the vehicle

Transverse skidding effect:

.
The lateral skid may occur due to the centrifugal force if the resisting friction is lower. Refer the above fig
for equilibrium condition centrifugal force should be equal to lateral friction
P = FA + FB
P = f ( RA + RB)
P=fW

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P
Therefore =f
W
Where
 FA and FB is the fractional force at tyre A and B,
 RA and RB is the reaction at tyre A and B,
 f is the lateral coefficient of friction and
 W is the weight of the vehicle.
In the above expression when the centrifugal ratio approaches a value ‘ f ‘ lateral skid takes place and
hence its value should be less than lateral friction.

Radius of horizontal curve

The radius of the horizontal curve depends upon the super elevation and the co-efficient of friction
between tyres and pavement surface for a particular design speed. IRC recommends two design speeds in
the form of "Ruling design speed" and "Minimum design speed". Hence the radius computed based on the
above speeds are called as "Ruling minimum radius" and Absolute minimum radius". Following equations
is used to compute the radius of the horizontal curve.
V2
R(Ruling) = 127(Ruling)
(e+f )
V2 (Minimum)
R(Minimum) = 127 (e+f )
Where R(Ruling) = Ruling minimum radius, m
R(Minimum) = Absolute minimum radius, m
V(Ruling) = Ruling design speed, kmph
V(Minimum) = Absolute minimum design speed, kmph
e = Super elevation (ratio) = 0.07 As per IRC
f = Co-efficient of lateral friction = 0.15 As per IRC

Problems
1. Calculate the values of ruling minimum radius and absolute minimum radius of a horizontal
curve for a national highway in plain terrain.
Solution:
Assume - Ruling design speed for NH in plain terrain, V (Ruling) = 100 kmph
- Minimum design speed for NH in plain terrain, V(Minimum) = 80 kmph
- e =0.07 and f = 0.15
V2 1002
Ruling minimum radius, R = = = 357.90 m say R = 360 m
127(e+f) 127(0.07+0.15)
V2 1002
Ruling minimum radius, R = = 127(0.07+0.15) = 229.10 m say R = 230 m
127(e+f)

Superelevation
Transverse slope given to the road surface to counteract the effects of centrifugal force (skidding
and overturning) on the vehicle is called superelevation or banking or cant (e). It is expressed as the
ratio of the height of outer edge w.r.t the horizontal width

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In practice the value of 'e' is very small and its inclination W.r.t. horizontal seldom exceeds 0.07
and hence the value of tanθ is practically equal to sinθ.
NL
Hence e= = tanθ ≈ sinθ
ML
E
e= the ratio of height to width
B
The total rise in the outer edge of the pavement w.r.t inner edge, E = e B
Here e = Supere1evation
E = Amount of super elevation or rise of outer edge w.r.t inner edge.
B = Width of pavement on curve

Equation for superelevation

V2
e+f = −−−−−1
127 R
Where e = Superelevation (ratio) = E / B
V= Design speed, kmph.
f= Co-efficient of lateral friction = 0.15 as per IRC
R = Radius of curve, m
g= Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m /sec2
In above equation if f = 0 the superelevation obtained is called as equilibrium superelevation.
V2
e=
127 R
Note: If 'e' is the superelevation and 'B' is the width of pavement on the curve, then the total rise of
outer edge w.r.t inner edge is given by
E=e×B

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Maximum superelvation
As per equation (1) the value of superelevation requires increases with increase in speed and
decrease in radius for a constant value of friction. In view of mix traffic consisting of fast and slow
traffic it is essential to limit the supecelevation to a maximum of 0.07 (7 %) while that of hilly
terrain is 10 percent and urban road is 4 percent.

Minimum superelvation
In order to have an effective drainage of surface water it is essential to proved the minimum superelevation
equal to or less than the camber provided for a particular pavement surface and the amount of rainfall.

Design of superelevation for mixed traffic

Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e= ------------------------1
225 R
If the calculated value of 'e' from above equation (1) is less than 0.07, the value so obtained is provided.
If the value of 'e' exceeds 0.07 then provide the maximum superelevation equal to 0.07 and step (2) is
followed
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2 V2
f= – e= – 0.07 ---------------------2
127 127
If the calculated value of ‘f’ from above equation (3) is less than 0.15, the superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed 'V'. If not the speed on such curves is to restricted and step (3) is
followed
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
𝑉𝑎 = √127 𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed of
the vehicles at such curves

Attainment of super-elevation
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
a) Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slopes is rotated about
the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
b) Shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal crown method.
Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus increasing the width
of the inner half of cross section progressively.

2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by: There are two methods
of attaining superelevation by rotating the pavement

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

a) Rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is depressed
and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of superelevation, i.e., by E=2 with
respect to the centre.
b) Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as well as
the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of superelevation with respect
to the inner edge.

Problems
1. A two lane road with design speed of 65 kmph. has a horizontal curve of radius 315 m, design
superelevation for the mixed traffic. Also find the total rise at the outer edge if the the width of
the pavement on curve is 7.6 m.
Solution
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
652
e=
225 × 315
e = 0.06 < 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.06
Total rise of outer edge w.r.t inner edge = E = ex B = 0.06 x 7.6 = 0.456 m.
2. Design the super elevation of a horizontal curve of radius 260 m for design speed of 80 kmph.
Solution
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
802
e=
225 × 260
e = 0.109 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2
f= − 0.07
127R
802
f= − 0.07
127 × 260
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

f = 0.124 < 0.15

Hence the design speed of 80 kmph is safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07
3. Design the supere1evation for a horizontal curve of radius 315 m for a design speed of 100 kmph.
Solution
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
1002
e=
225 × 315
e = 0.141 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2
f= − 0.07
127R
1002
f= − 0.07
127 × 315
f = 0.179 > 0.15
Hence the design speed of 100 kmph is not safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07 and speed is to
be restricted
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
𝑉𝑎 = √127 𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)
𝑉𝑎 = √127 × 315(0.07 + 0.15)
𝑉𝑎 = 93.80kmph
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the
speed of the vehicles at such curves
4. A major district road with thin bituminous surface in low rainfall area has a horizontal curve of
radius 1400 m. If the design speed is 65 kmph. What should be the Superelevation provided?
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
652
e=
225 × 1400
e = 0.0134 = 1.34 %
But the recommended camber for drainage for thin bituminous surface in light rainfall area is 2 %
or 0.02. Hence Superelevation to be provided should be equal to camber for drainage = 2 % = 0.02.
5. The radius of a horizontal curve is 100 m. The design speed is 50 kmph and the design co-
efficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
a) Calculate the Superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.

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b) Calculate the co-efficient of friction needed if no Superelevation is provided.

c)Calculate the equilibrium Superelevation.
Solution
a) If f = 0.15.
V2
e= − f
127R
502
e= − 0.15
127 × 100
e = 0.047
b) If e=0
V2
f= − e
127R
502
f= − 0
127 × 100
f = 0.197
c) If f = 0 for equilibrium Super elevation
V2
e= − f
127R
502
e= − 0
127 × 100
e = 0.197
Extra widening of pavement on curve
On horizontal curve especially when they are not of vary large radii, it is common to widen the pavement
slightly more than the normal width. Widening of pavement is needed on horizontal curve for the
following reasons.

1. An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned therefore
when a vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheels do not follow the
same path as that of front wheels. This phenomenon is called as "off tracking". Due to this
the extra width of pavement is provided on curves. The widening provided for this purpose
is called "mechanical widening"(W m).
2. At speeds higher than the design speeds transverse skidding of vehicles occur due to the
centrifugal force and hence extra widening is required.
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3. While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve, there is a psychological tendency
to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles for increased safety. The widening
provided for this purpose is called "psychological widening" (W ps)
Equation for extra widening
The total extra widening on horizontal curve (We) is given by
We = Wm + Wps
nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
Where Wm = Mechanical widening
The widening required for the account of off - tracking due the rigidity of the wheel base of the
vehicle is called as Mechanical widening.
Wps = Psychological widening
While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve. there is a psychological tendency to
maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles for increased safety, The widening provided for
this purpose is called "psychological widening"
l = Length of wheel base between the front and rear wheels, m (As per IRC 6m)
n = Number of lanes,
R = Radius of curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph,
Note: as per IRC extra widening is not required on curves with radius greater than 300 m
Problems
1. Calculate extra widening imparted for a pavement of width 7m on a horizontal curve of radius
250 m. If the longest wheel base of the vehicle expected on the road is 6 m. Design speed is 65
kmph.
Data given: W = 7 m, R = 250 m and V= 65 kmph
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) and n = 2 (for W = 7 m)
nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
2 × 62 65
We = +
2 × 250 9.5√250
∴ We = 0.576 m
2. Calculate the total width of pavement for a horizontal curve on a new N.H. to be aligned on a
rolling terrain with ruling minimum radius and assume necessary data.
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) , W = 7m (for 2 lane NH), n = 2 (for W = 7 m),e = 0.07, f = 0.15 and
V= 80 kmph (for ruling minimum radius
V2 80
R= = = 229.06 m
127(e + f) 127(0.07 + 0.15)

Say R = 230 m

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nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
2 × 62 80
We = +
2 × 230 9.5√230
We = 0.712 m
∴ Total width of pavement = W + W = 7 + 0.712 = 7.712 m
3 A horizontal highway curve of radius 300 m has been provided with superelvation of 1 in 15
and a total pavement width of 7.5m, Check whether these geometric elements are adequate for
the two lane highway with design speed of 100kmph.
Data given: R = 300 m e = 1/15 = 0.07, B = 7.5 m and V= 100 kmph
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) , W = 7m (for 2 lane NH), n = 2 for W = 7 m,
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
1002
e=
225 × 300
e = 0.142 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2
f= − 0.07
127R
1002
f= − 0.07
127 × 300
f = 0.192 > 0.15
Hence the design speed of 100 kmph is not safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07 and speed is to
be restricted
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
𝑉𝑎 = √127 𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)
𝑉𝑎 = √127 × 300(0.07 + 0.15)
𝑉𝑎 = 91.75 kmph
Say Va = 90 kmph
From this is evident that the superelevation design is inadequate for design speed of 100 kmph. It
should be 90 kmph.
Note: Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed
of the vehicles at such curves
nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R

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2 × 62 100
We = +
2 × 300 9.5√300
∴ We = 0.66 m
∴ Total width of pavement, B = W + W = 7 + 0.66 = 7.66 m > 7.5 m
From this is evident that the pavement width of 7.5m is inadequate it should be 7.66 m.

Transition curves
A transition curve is a curve of varying radii provided between the straight and circular curve of the
road. The transition curve has a radius, which decreases from ∞ at the tangent point to a designed
radius of the circular curve. The functions or objectives of transition curve in the horizontal
alignment are,
1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of
circular curve, to avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.
2. To enable the gradual introduction of the designed superelevation and extra widening of the
pavement.
3. To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety.
4. To improve aesthetic appearance of the road.
Requirements of an ideal transition curve
The requirements of an ideal transition curve in the horizontal alignment are,
1. The rate of introduction of centrifugal force or the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be
uniform throughout the length of the curve.
2. Length of the transition curve should be inversely proportional to the radius.
There are 3 types of transition curves namely "spiral", "cubic parabola" and "lemniscate". IRC has
recommended "spiral shape" as transition curve because,
i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirement of an ideal transition curve.
ii) The geometric properties of spiral are such that the calculation and setting out of spiral curve is simple
and easy.
Length of transition curve
The length of transition curve Ls is calculated by the following 3 - methods and the highest among them is
adopted.
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration" is given by,
V3
Ls1 =
46.5 C R
Where Ls = length of transition curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph
R = Radius of curve, m
C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m / sec 3 and is given by,
80
C= [0.5 < C < 0.8] i. e. , the min. and max. values of C are limited to 0.5 and 0.8 respectively
75 + V
Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation" is given by,

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Ls2 = NE if the pavement being rotated about the inner edge.

NE
𝑜𝑟 Ls2 = if the pavement being rotated about the centre line
2
N = Rate of introduction of superelevation (1 in N)
= 150 in plain and rolling terrain
= 100 inbuilt up areas
= 60 in hilly terrain
E = Amount of super elevation, m
E = e (W + We)
Where W = Width of pavement on straights, m and We= Extra widening on curves, m
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress" is given by,
2.7 V2
Ls3 = for plain and rolling terrain
R
V2
or Ls3 = for hilly terrain
R
Where V = Design speed. kmph
R = Radius of curve, m
From the above equations it is seen that the length of transition curve depends upon the following factors.
1. Design speed
2. Rate of change of radial acceleration.
3. Radius of curve.
4. Superelevation and its introduction.
5. Width of pavement on curves.
6. Type of terrain.

Shift: In order to fit the transition curves the main circular curve has to be moved inwards by a certain
(𝐿𝑠 )2
𝐿=
24𝑅
Pr.oblems
1. Calculate the length of transition curve and shift using following data
Design speed = 65 kmph
Radius of curve = 220 m
Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation = J in 150
Pavement width including extra widening = 7.5 m
Type of terrain = Plain
Pavement rotation = About the center line.
Solution
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",

80
C= = 0.57 m/sec 3 [0.5 < C < 0.8]
75 + 65
Hence adopt C = 0.57 m/sec3

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V3
Ls1 =
46.5 C R
653
Ls1 = = 47.10 m
46.5 × 0.57 × 220

Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

V2
e=
225 R
652
e=
225 × 220
e = 0.085 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
V2 652
f= − 0.07 = − 0.07 = 0.08 < 0.15
127R 127 × 220
1002
f= − 0.07
127 × 300
Hence the design speed of 65kmph is safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07
E = eB = 0.07 × 7.5 = 0.525
NE
Ls2 = if the pavement being rotated about the centre line
2
150 × 0.525
Ls2 = = 39.40 m
2

Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"

2.7V 2
Ls3 = for plain terrain
R
2.7 × 652
Ls3 = = 51.90 m
220
Adopt the highest value of the three i.e., Ls = 51.90 m
Say Ls = 52 m
(𝐿𝑠 )2 (52)2
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡, 𝑆 = = 0.51 𝑚
24 𝑅 24 × 220
2. A notional highway passing through a rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius
500 m. Design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
Data given : R = 500 m
Solution
Assume V = 80 kmph (for NH in rolling terrain)
W = 7 m for NH 2 – lane road
l = 6 m (as per IRC) , and n = 2 for 2 lane NH
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",
80
C= = 0.52 m/sec 3 [0.5 < C < 0.8]
75 + 80
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Hence adopt C = 0.52 m/sec3

V3
Ls1 =
46.5 C R
803
Ls1 = = 42.30 m
46.5 × 0.52 × 500

Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

V2 802
e= = = 0.057 < 0.07 OK
225 R 225 × 500
nl2 V 2 × 62 80
We = + = + = 0.45 𝑚
2R 9.5√R 2 × 500 9.5√500
∴ Total width of pavement, B = W + W = 7 + 0.45 = 7.45 m
E = eB = 0.057 × 7.45 = 0.425
Ls2 = NE if the pavement being rotated about the inner edge
Ls2 = 150 × 0.425 = 63.70 m
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"
2.7V 2
Ls3 = for rolling terrain
R
2.7 × 802
Ls3 = = 34.6 m
500
Adopt the highest value of the three i.e., Ls = 63.70 m
Say Ls = 64 m

Set back Distance (clearance)

The distance required from the centreline of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve
to provide adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve is called set back distance or clearance (m). Setback
distance depends on:
1. Sight distance(SSD, ISD or OSD)
2. Radius of the curve (R).
3. Length of curve(L)

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Equation for setback distance
Case 1: When L > S
α
For single lane roads: m = R – R cos (2)
Where m = Setback distance, m
α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length S
2
180 S
=
2ᴫR
S = Sight distance, m (SSD, ISD or OSD)
R = Radius of the curve, m
L = Length of curve, m
α
For multi − lane roads: m = R – (R − d)cos ( )
2
α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length S
2
180 S
=
2ᴫ(R − d)
d = distance between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane, m
Case 2: When L < S
α ( S−L) α
For single lane roads: m = R – R cos (2) + sin ( 2 )
2
Where m = Setback distance, m
α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length L
2
180 L
=
2ᴫR
S = Sight distance, m (SSD, ISD or OSD)
R = Radius of the curve, m
L = Length of curve, m
α ( S − L) α
For multi − lane roads: m = R – (R − d)cos ( ) + sin ( )
2 2 2
α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length L
2
180 L
=
2ᴫ(R − d)
d = distance between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane, m

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Problems
1. There is a horizontal highway curve of radius 400m and length 200m on this highway.
Compute the set – back distances required from the centre line on the inner side of curve so
to provide for SSD of 90m and OSD of 300m. The distance between the centre lines of the
road and the inner lane is 1.9m.
Solution
For SSD of 90m
Given: R = 400m, L = 200m, S = 90m and d = 1.9m
When L > S (200m > 90m)
α 180 S 180 × 90
= = = 6.48 ͦ
2 2ᴫ(R − d) 2ᴫ(400 − 1.9)
α
m = R – (R − d)cos ( )
2
m = 400 – (400 − 1.9)cos (6.48 ͦ ) = 4.4 m
For OSD of 300m
Given: R = 400m, L = 200m, S = 300m and d = 1.9m
When L < S (200m > 300m)
α 180 L 180 × 200
= = = 14.39 ͦ
2 2ᴫ(R − d) 2ᴫ(400 − 1.9)
α ( S − L) α
m = R – (R − d)cos ( ) + sin ( )
2 2 2
( 300 − 200)
m = 400 – (400 − 1.9)cos (14.39 ͦ) + sin(14.39 ͦ) = 26.8 m
2

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Design of vertical alignment

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road. The vertical
alignment consists of grades and vertical curves and It Influences the vehicle speed, acceleration
and deceleration. stopping distance. Sight distance and comfort in vehicle moments at high speeds.

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It is
expressed as a ratio of 1 in x. Sometimes the gradient is also expressed as percentage, n i.e., n in
100. The angle that measures the change of direction at the intersection of two grades is called
the deviation angle N.

Gradient = 1 in x

= tan 

=n
100
= percentage
𝑥

Note: +ve sign represents ascending gradients

ve sign represents ascending gradients

N = Algebraic difference between the two grades.

Types of gradients
The different types of gradients are used in the design of highway are
l . Ruling gradient 2. Limiting gradient 3. Exceptional gradient. 4. Minimum gradient

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Ruling gradient
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the vertical profile of a road is to be
designed. The ruling gradients are adopted as a normal course in design of vertical alignment
and the quantities of fill and cut are balanced accordingly. Hence ruling gradient is also known
as design gradient. The factors, which influence on the selection of ruling grade for the purpose
of design, are type of terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of vehicles and presence
of horizontal curves. The following values are recommended by IRC.

Sl.
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.

1 Plain and Rolling terrain 3.3 % (l in 30)

2 Mountainous and steep

terrain

i) 3000 m above MSL 5 % (1 in 20)

ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 6 % (l in 16.7)

Limiting gradient
Limiting gradient is the gradient steeper than ruling gradient and this reduces cost of
gradients. However continuous grade line steeper than ruling gradient should be limited. The
following values are recommended by IRC.

Sl.
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.

1 Plain and Rolling terrain 5 % (l in 20)

2 Mountainous and steep terrain

i) 3000 m above MSL 6 % (1 in 16.7)

ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 7 % (l in 14.3)

Exceptional gradient
In some extraordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide gradients steeper than
limiting gradients for short stretches. Such gradients are called exceptional gradients. However,

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the exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for short stretches not exceeding about
100 m at a stretch. The following values are recommended by IRC.

Sl.
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.

1 Plain and Rolling terrain 6.7 % (l in 15)

2 Mountainous and steep terrain

i) 3000 m above MSL 7 % (1 in 14.3)

ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 8 % (l in 12.5)

Minimum gradient
The road can be leveled with little or no gradient. In such cases there will be problems of
drainage. Though the surface water can be drained off to the Side drains by camber a certain
longitudinal slope (minimum gradient) is essential to drain the water along the side drains
depending upon the surface of the drains. The following minimum gradient is generally adopted

Sl.
No Type of side drain Minimum gradient

1. Concrete Side drain 0.2% (l in 500)

2. Inferior surface side drain 0.5%(1 in 200)

3. Kutcha open side drain (Soil drains) 1% (1 in 100)

Grade compensation on curves

At horizontal curves in order to tap the total resistances due to gradient and curvature
within allowable limits, the gradients is reduced. This reduction in gradient on curve is called
grade compensation. It is calculated by the following formula.
30+𝑅 75
Grade compensation % = , subject to a maximum of 𝑅
𝑅

Where, R = Radius of the curve. m

Grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4 %.

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Vertical curves
Due to change in grade in vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to introduce
vertical curve at inter sections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and thus
ease off the change in gradients for the fast-moving vehicles.

The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into types

l. Summit curves
2. Valley curves

Summit curves
Vertical curves with convexity upwards are called Summit curves. Summit curves are
provided in the following situations.

i) Upgrade meeting a downgrade (Fig. l)

ii) Upgrade meeting a level road (Fig. 2)
iii) Upgrade meeting a flatter upgrade (Fig. 3)
iv) Downgrade meeting a steeper downgrade (Fig. 4)

Length of summit curve is governed by the choice of sight distance (SSD, ISD = 2 SSD,
OSD). Since there is no problem of discomfort to the passengers on summit curves. On summit
curves centrifugal force acts against the gravity, releasing the pressure on tyres and springs.
Thus, the passengers in the vehicle moving on summit curve will feel no discomfort. IRC has
recommended “square parabola” shape for summit curve. The length of summit curve is
calculated from the following equations.

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Equation for SSD Equation for OSR

Case Basic Equation
H =1.2 m, h=0.15 m H =1.2 m, h =1.2 m

NS2 NS2 NS2

LS L= L= L=
(√2H+√2h)2 4.4 9.6

LS [√2H + √2h ]2 4.4 9.6

L= 2 S - L= 2 S- L = 2S -
N N N

Where L = Length of summit curve, m.

S = Required sight distance, m.
N = Total deviation angle, radians.
H = Height of drivers eye level above road surface, m.
h = Height of object above road surface, m.

Problems
l. A vertical curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients of + 3% and – 4%. Design the
length of summit curve for
i) S S D of 120 m
ii) I S D of 240 m
Solution,
Total deviation angle = n1 + n2
3 4
= 100 + = 0.07 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
100

i) Summit curve for S S D

Assume L > S,
𝑁𝑆 2
L= 4.4
0.07×1202
L= = 229.1 m > 120 m i.e., S S D
4.4

Hence provide L = 229.1 230 m

ii) Summit curve for I S D
Assume L > S,
𝑁𝑆 2
L= 9.6
0.07×1202
L= = 420 m > 240 m i.e., S S D
9.6

Hence provide L = 420 m

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2. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of I in 125. Find length of

summit curve for O S D of 470 m.
Solution:
Total deviation angle= n1+n2
1 1
= 100 + 125 = 0.018 radians

Summit curve for I S D

Assume L > S,
𝑁𝑆 2
L= 9.6
0.018×4702
L= = 414.2 m < 470 m ( O S D )
9.6

Hence assumption is wrong.

 Assume L < S
9.6
L = 2S - 𝑁
9.6
L = 2 × 470 − = 406.67 m < 470 m ( O S D )
0.018

Hence provide L = 406.67 m 407 m

Valley curves
Vertical curves with concavity upwards are called valley curves Valley curves are provided in
the following situations.

i) Downgrade meeting an upgrade (Fig. 1)

ii) Downgrade meeting a level road (Fig. 2)
iii) Downgrade meeting a flatter downgrade (Fig, 3)
iv) Upgrade meeting a steeper upgrade (Fig. 4)

The length of valley curve is governed by "Head light sight distance (HLSD = sight distance
available under the illumination of head lights of the vehicle and should be equal to SSD) and
comfort. On valley curves centrifugal force acts in the direction of gravity. This results in increase
of pressure on tyres and springs causing discomfort for the passengers. Also, SD problem does not

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exist during the day time. But during night time the SD available depends upon the illumination of
head lights. From safety point of view the HLSD should be equal to SSD. IRC has recommended a
" square parabola" shape for valley curves. The length of curve is calculated from the following
equations and the largest value is adopted.

Case Basic Equation Modified Equation

1

Comfort
1 L = 0.38 [N V 3]2
NV3 2
Condition L = 0.30 [ ] Putting C = 0.6 m / sec3
C

NS2
NS2
L=
1.5 h1 +0.035 S
L>S L=
2 h1+2 S tan α
Putting h1 = 0.75 m and  = 1⁰
HLSD
1.5 +0.035 S
2 h1 +2 S tan α
L = 2𝑆 −
N
L<S L = 2𝑆 −
N Putting h1 = 0.75 m and  = 1⁰

Were,
L = Length of valley curve, m
N = Total deviation angle, radian
V = design speed, kmph
C = Rate of change of radial acceleration, m / sec
S = Head light sight distance, m
h1 = Height of head light above road surface, m
 = Beam angle of head light, degrees

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Problems
l. A valley curve is formed on a descending gradient of 1 in 40, which meets an ascending
gradient of 1 in30. Design the length of valley curve if design speed is 100 kmph. Also find the
position of lowest point on the valley curve.

Solution,
i) Comfort condition
1
L = 0.38 [𝑁 𝑉 3 ]2
Were,

L = Length of valley curve, m

V = Design speed, kmph = 100

kmph

N = Total deviation angle, radians

1 1
= + = 0.0583 radians
40 30

1
L = 0.38 [0.0583 × 1003 ]2

L = 91.75 m

ii) HLSD condition

𝑉2
HLSD = S = SSD = 0.278 V t + 254𝑓 (Neglecting descending and ascending gradients)

Assumed t = 2.5 sec (for SSD as per IRC)

f = 0.35 for design speed of 100 kmph as per IRC

1002
 S = 0.278 × 100 × 2.5 + = 𝟏𝟖𝟐 𝒎
254×0.35
Assume L>S
N S2
L=
1.5+0.035 S
0.0583 ×1822
= = 245.4 m (> 182 m) ok.
1.5+0.035 ×182
 Provide L = 245.4 m (Largest of two values)
The position of lowest point on the valley curve X 0 from the tangent point of the 1st
grade line is given by
𝑛1
X0 = 𝐿√
2𝑁

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

1⁄
40
X0 = 245.4 √ = 113.6 m
2 ×0.0583

2. A valley curve is formed on a descending gradient of 4 % meets an ascending gradient of 3.3

%. Design the length of valley curve using the following data. Also find the position of
lowest point on the valley curve.
Design speed = 80 kmph
Allowable rate of radial acceleration = 0.65 m / sec3
Height of head light = 0.7 m
Beam angle = 45 minutes
Solution,
i) Comfort condition
1
L = 0.38 [𝑁 𝑉 3 ]2
Where, L = Length of valley curve, m

V = Design speed, kmph = 100

kmph
N = Total deviation angle, radians
4 3
= + = 0.073 radians
100 100
1
L = 0.38 [0.073 × 803 ]2
L = 71.9 m

ii) HLSD condition

V2
HLSD = S = SSD = 0.278 V t + (Neglecting descending and ascending gradients)
254f

Assume, t = 2.5 sec (for SSD as per IRC) and f = 0.35 for design speed of 100 kmph as per
IRC
802
 S = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 + 254×0.35 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕. 𝟔 𝒎
Assume L>S
N S2
L=
2h1 +2 S tan α

0.073×127.62
= = 268.9 m (> 127.6 m) ok.
2 ×0.7 + 2 ×127.6 tan(0.750)

 Provide L = 268.9 m (Largest of two values)

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The position of lowest point on the valley curve X0 from the tangent point of the 1st
grade line is given by

𝑛1
X0 = 𝐿√
2𝑁

4⁄
100
X0 = 245.4 √ = 140.6 m
2 ×0.073

PAVEMENT DESIGN
The portion of the road provide with aggregates is called pavement or carriage way. Based on the
structural behaviour of the pavement over the prepared subgrade the pavements are generally
classified as

1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements
Component parts of flexible pavement

Cross section of a typical flexible pavement

Component parts of rigid pavements

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Cross section of a typical flexible pavement

The components of flexible and rigid pavement are

1. Soil subgrade
2. Sub base course
3. Base course
4. Wearing surface
Soil Subgrade
It is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the loads from layers of pavement materials. The
wheel loads of the pavement are ultimately received by the soil subgrade. Hence it is essential that
the stress induced on the top of subgrade is within allowable limits. To improve the strength of
subgrade it is desirable that maximum dry density at optimum moisture content.
Functions of soil subgrade are:
1. To receive the stress generation from the above layers.
2. To receive the materials of the above layers and act as a bedding layer.
Sub base course
It is the layer provided next to the subgrade. It is generally made up of soils like gravel, moorum
etc. which are stronger than the subgrade soil. Sub base is necessary when subgrade is week. The
subgrade provides additional help to base course in distributing the load.
Functions of Sub-base course are:
1. Act as a support for base and wearing course.
2. To improve drainage condition.
3. To remove heave.
4. To protect above layers from bad qualities from under laying soils
Base course
It is the layer provided next to the sub base. It is generally made up of crushed or broken stones
with some binder. The main function of base course is to act as a structural portion of the pavement
and distribute the wheel loads.
Functions of base course are:
1. To prevent horizontal shear stresses and vertical pressure produced by moving or standing
wheel load.
2. To provide density and resistance to weathering.
3. Distribution of higher wheel load pressure.
Wearing surface

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It is the top most layer of the pavement. The main functions of wearing surface are.
1. To provide resistance against wear and tear due traffic movements.
2. To provide smooth and dense riding surface to resist the pressure exerted by vehicle and to
resist surface water infiltration
Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavements
Sl.No. Flexible pavement Rigid pavement
1 A flexible pavement consists of a relatively A rigid pavements generally made up of
thin Wearing course built over a base and plain cement concrete and may or may not
sub base resting upon the compacted have a sub base course between the
subgrade pavement and subgrade.
The load carrying capacity of a flexible The rigid pavement because of its rigidity
pavement is brought about by the load and high modulus of elasticity distributes
2
distribution characteristics of the layered the load over a relatively wide area
system by grain to grain contacts points
The flexible pavement has stability due to The stability of rigid pavement is provided
3 aggregate inter lock particle friction and by the pavement slab due to its flexural
cohesion strength
The flexible pavement deflects Rigid pavement is able to bridge over
4 deformations of subgrade and subsequent localised failure
layers on to the surface
The thickness requirement of a flexible The major factored considered in this design
5 pavement influenced by the strength of of rigid pavement is the flexural strength of
subgrade concrete
The life of flexible pavement for the The life of rigid pavement for the purpose of
6
purpose of design is taken as 10 years design is taken as 20 years
The initial cost of flexible pavement is less The initial cost of rigid pavement is more.
7
but its maintenance is regular and costly but a well designed rigid pavement needs
Flexible pavement is best suited for stage These are not suited for stage construction
8
construction.
Immediately after the construction it can be requires 28 days for curing before opening to
9
opened to traffic traffic

Equivalent Single Wheel Load(ESWL)

Vehicles are provided with dual wheel assembly or tandom dual wheel assembly to the rear axles.
This arrangement increases the load carrying capacity of vehicles. But for the design purposes the
magnitude of single wheel load is considered. Hence a single wheel load that produces the same
effect (in terms of stress or deflection) as that of dual wheel assembly at any depth is called
“ESWL”.
The concept of ESWL is shown in following figure.

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The effect of dual wheel assembly is shown in following figure.

Fig:-Stress dispersion under dual wheels.

P=Load on each wheel
d=clear distance between wheels
S=centre to centre spacing between wheels.
Upto the depth of d/2 each wheel load P acts independently and after this point the stresses induced
due to each load begins to overlap at depth 2S and above, the stresses induced are due to the effect
of both wheels as the area of overlap is considerable. So the total stresses due to the dual wheels at
any depth greater than 2S is considered to be ESWL of magnitude 2P.
Determination of ESWL
Equivalent wheel loads may be determined based on either equivalent deflection or equivalent
stress criterion.
For determining ESWL the plot is made on graph as shown in following figure.

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Two points A & B are plotted on the graph with co-ordinates of A[log(P) ,log(d/2)] and B[log(2P),
log(2S)]. Line AB is a plot which is the locus of points where any single wheel load equivalent to a
certain set of dual wheel. To calculate the ESWL for a dual assembly, it is essential to estimate a
design thickness of the pavement. Thus ESWL is obtained at the assumed thickness of the
pavement.
Problems
Calculate ESWL of a dual wheel assembly carrying 2044 kg each for pavement thickness of 15, 20
& 25cm, centre to centre tyre spacing =27cm & distance between the walls of the tyres=11cm.
Solution
Here P=2044kg, 2p=4088kg, d=11cm & S=27cm
X & Y points are plotted on a graph between ESWL & pavement thickness.
X has co-ordinates (P ,d/2) = (log 2044, log 5.5)
Y has co-ordinates (2P ,2S) = (log 4088, log 54)

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 3

HIGHWAY MATERIALS
Introduction
Good quality construction materials make superior pavement. The thickness, the performance and
the efficiency of the pavement depend upon the quality of highway materials.
Highway materials include:
1. Sub grade soil
2. Aggregates
3. Bituminous material
4. Cement and cement concrete
Subgrade soil
Subgrade soil is an integral part of load bearing structure, as it provides the support to the pavement
from beneath. The subgrade soil and its properties are important in the design of pavement structure
.The main function of the subgrade is to give adequate support to the pavement and for this
subgrade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climate and load condition.
The formation of waves, corrugations, rutting and shoving in black top pavement and the
phenomenon of pumping, blowing and cracking of cement concrete pavements are generally
attributed to the poor subgrade condition.
Desirable properties of subgrade soil
The desirable properties of soil as highway material are:
1. Stability: The soil should posses adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation under
load and should possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the desired subgrade support.
2. Incompressibility: Incompressibility is an important property to avoid differential settlement of
soil. This property is particularly essential and is indispensable in embankment construction.
Otherwise, the subgrade may fail due to differential settlement.
3. Permanency of strength: The subgrade soil should possess resistance against weathering. It
should be able to retain characters under adverse rain, temperature and frost action.
4. Minimum change in volume: This is a very important property. Bulging and shrinking under
adverse weather conditions should be minimum. This property will help the soil to retain its
property.
5 Good drainage: Good drainage is essential to avoid excessive moisture retention and reduce
potential frost action. It also improves the stability of soil.
6. Ease of compaction: This ensures higher dry density and strength under particular type amount
of compaction.
Soil classification systems: The various soil classifications used in highway engineering are:
1. I.S soil classification
2. Highway Research board (HRB) classification
3. Unified soil classification
4. Casagrande soil classification
5. American Association of State Highway Officials(AASHO) classifications
6. U.S Public road administration (PRA) classification
7. Federal aviation agency(FAA) classification
8. Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) classification
9. Compaction classification
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Highway Research Board classification

Highway research board classify the the soil based on three simple laboratory tests such has sieve
analysis, liquid limit and plastic limit. soil are divided into seven groups i.e. A-1 to A-7.A-1,A-2
and A-3 soils are granular soils, percentage fines passing 0.074mm sieve being less than 35%.A-
4,A-5.A-6,A-7 soils are fine grained or silt clay soils passing 0.074mm sieve being greater than
35%.
A-1 soil are well grade mixture of stone fragments, gravel, coarse sand, fine sand and non-plastic or
slightly plastic binder. The soil of this group are subdivided into two groups, A-1-a, consisting
predominantly of stone fragments or gravel and A-1-b consisting predominantly of coarse sand.
A-2 soils include a wide range of granular soil ranging from A-1 to A-3 groups consisting of
granular soils and upto 35% fines of A-4,A-5,A-6 or A-7 groups. Based on the fines content, the
soil of A-2 group are divided into subgroups A-2-4,A-2-5,A-2-6 and A-2-7.
A-3 soils consists mainly uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to beach sand or desert
blown sand. Stream deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with some coarse sand and
gravel are also included in this group.
A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature with liquid limit and
plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively.
A-5 soils are also silty soils with P.I less than 10%, but with liquid limit values exceeding 40%.
These include highly elastic or compressible, soils usually of diatomaceous of micaceous character.
A-6 soils are plastic soils having high value of P.I exceeding 10% and low value of liquid limit
below 40%, they have high volume change properties with variation in moisture.
A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high value of both L.L & P.I (LL>40% and P.I
>10%). These soils have low permeability and high volume change properties with changes in
moisture content.

Group index soil

In order to classify fine grained soil within one group and for judging their stability as subgrade
material an indexing system has been introduced in HBR classification which is termed as group
index. Soils are thus assigned arbitrary numerical number known as Group Index (GI). GI is
function of percentage material passing through mesh sieve (0.074mm), liquid limit and plasticity
index of soil is given by equation.

GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
Where,
a= Portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve greater than 35% and not exceeding
75%(expressedas whole number from 0 to 40)
b = Portion of material passing 0.074 mm sieve greater than 15% and exceeding
35%(expressed as whole number from 0 to 40)
c = The value of LL in excess of 40 and less than 60(expressed as whole number from 0 to 20)
d= The value P.I exceeding 10 and not more than 30 (expressed as whole number from 0 to 20)
A-2-6 and A-2-7 soils have GI values of 0 to 4, A-4 soils have GI value upto 8, A-5 soils have
GI value up to 12, A-6 soils have upto 16 and A-7 soils upto 20.Higher the value of GI poorer is the
soil has subgrade material.
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Problem .1
The properties of subgrade soil are given below:
Passing 0.074 mm sieve = 90 %
Liquid limit = 75 %
Plastic limit = 50 %
Determine the G.I and classify the soil by HRB soil classification system.
Solution

L.L = 75%, P.L = 50% ‫ ؞‬P.I = L.L – P.L = 75 -50 = 25 %

Here a = 90 - 35 = 55 : take a = 40 (max)
b = 90 -15 = 75 : take b = 40 (max)
c = 75 - 40 = 35 : take c = 20 (max)
d = 25 -10 = 15
GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
GI=0.2×40+0.005×40×20+0.01×40×15 = 18
Using chart the classification is A - 7 -5 soil (for LL =75 % and PI = 25 %)

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California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test

It was developed by California division of highway as a method of evaluating the stability of soil,
subgrade and other flexible pavement materials. The test results have been correlated with flexible
pavement thickness requirements. The CBR test may be conducted in the laboratory on a prepared
specimen in a mould or insitu in the field.
Test Procedure

• The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a
collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion
on soaking.
• The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water
absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the
mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
• Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50 mm at the rate of 1.25
mm/min.
• The load values are noted corresponding to penetration values of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0,
4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5mm. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard
crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.
• For normal curve with convexity upwards, loads corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration
values are noted.

• The CBR values are calculated using the relation. Therefore,

load carries by specimen
CBR = × 100
load carries by standard specimen
P2.5
CBR 2.5 = × 100
1370
P5
CBR 5 = × 100
2055
For the design CBR = __________ % (largest two values)
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If a curve with initial upward concavity is obtained requires correction. In this case corrected
origin is established by drawing a tangent from the steepest point on the curve as shown in figure.
The load value corresponding to 2.5 to 5.0mm penetration values from the corrected origin is
calculated.

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Problem.1
The soil subgrade sample was obtained from the project site and the CBR test was conducted at
field density. The following were the test results.
Penetration,
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10 12.5
mm
Load, kg 0 16.2 29.5 42.7 54.1 63.6 69.3 80.7 90.2 107.3 118.5 127.3

Determine the CBR value of the soil for the design.

Solution
130
120
110
100
90
Scale:
80
X axis - 1 cm = 1 mm
70 Y axis - 1 cm = 10 kg
Load, kg

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Penetration, mm

From graph P 2.5 = 63kg P5 = 90kg

load carries by specimen
CBR = × 100
load carries by standard specimen
P2.5 63
CBR 2.5 = × 100 = × 100 = 4.6 %
1370 1370
P5 90
CBR 5 = × 100 = × 100 = 4.4 %
2055 2055
For the design CBR = 4.6 % (largest two values)

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Problem.2
The load penetration values of CBR test conducted on specimen of a soil sample is given below.
Determine the CBR values of the soil if 100 division of the load dial represents 190 kg load in the
calibration chart of the proving ring.
Penetration, mm 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5
Load dial readings,
0 8 15 23 29 34 37 43 48 57 63 67
division

Solution
The load dial reading may be converted to load values in kg
eg. load at 2.5 penetration = 34 ×190/100 = 64.6 kg

Penetration, mm 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5
Load, kg 0 15.2 28.5 43.7 55.1 64.6 70.3 81.7 91.2 108.3 119.7 127.3

140
130
120
110
100
90
Load, kg

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Penetration , mm

From graph P 2.5 = 64 kg P5 = 91kg

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load carries by specimen

CBR = × 100
load carries by standard specimen
P2.5 64
CBR 2.5 = × 100 = × 100 = 4.7 %
1370 1370
P5 91
CBR 5 = × 100 = × 100 = 4.3 %
2055 2055

For the design CBR = 4.7 % (largest two values)

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Problem.3
The load penetration values of CBR test conducted on specimen of a soil sample is given below.
Determine the CBR values of the soil if 100 division of the load dial represents 190 kg load in the
calibration chart of the proving ring.
Penetration, mm 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5
Load dial readings,
0 0.5 1.5 2.5 6.0 13 20 30 38 50 58 63
division
Solution
The load dial reading may be converted to load values in kg
eg. load at 2.5 penetration = 13 ×190/100 = 24.7 kg

Penetration, mm 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5
Load, kg 0 0.95 2.85 4.75 11.4 24.7 38.0 57.0 72.2 95.5 110.2 119.7
130
120
110
100
90
80
Load, kg

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Penetration , mm

From graph P 2.5 = 62 kg P5 = 89kg

load carries by specimen
CBR = × 100
load carries by standard specimen
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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 3

P2.5 62
CBR 2.5 = × 100 = × 100 = 4.5 %
1370 1370
P5 89
CBR 5 = × 100 = × 100 = 4.3 %
2055 2055

For the design CBR = 4.5 % (largest two values)

Plate bearing test

The plate bearing test was originally devised to find modulus of subgrade reaction. The
diagrammatic arrangement of plate bearing test is shown in figure.

The test site is levelled and plate of 750 mm diameter is placed evenly on the subgrade. This can be
done using a thin layer of sand. The stiffening plates of decreasing diameter
(600mm,450mm+300mm) are placed. Load is applied by a suitable device. A graph is plotted with
the mean settlement versus bearing pressure (load per unit area) as shown in Figure. The pressure
“p” corresponding to settlement or deformation of 1.25mm is obtained from this graph and the
modulus of subgrade is evaluated, from the following equation

P
k= N/mm2
1.25

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Allowance for worst moisture in subgrade:

In case the test is conducted at field moisture content, the value of modulus of subgrade reaction
say kl is found at the value of prevailing moisture content. The value so obtained is modified slope
or worst moisture condition.
After the plate load test, the two consolidation test specimens are prepared. One specimen is tested
as such without soaking at the pressure of deformation curve is drawn. The deformation of the
sample corresponding to pressure ‘P’ required in the plate bearing test to cause deformation of
1.25mm is noted. The second specimen is soaked in water and consolidation test is carried out. The
pressure PS required to produce same deformation is noted in the soak test. Then modulus of sub
grade reaction kl for the soaked condition is calculated from following equation

ps
kl = k p
Where, k/p is a constant
Correction for smaller size plate
In some cases the loading capacity may not be addicted to cause 750 mm diameter plate to settle by
1.25 mm. In such cases a plate of smaller diameter may be used. The modulus of subgrade reaction
obtained for the smaller plate size say KX modified for standard plate size using following relation.
k x . ax
k . a = k x . ax or k =
a
Where
k= modulus of subgrade reaction for standard plate of radius ‘a’(750/2)
kx = modulus of subgrade reaction for small plate of radius ‘a x’(600/2,450/2,300/2)

Aggregates
The aggregates form major part of the pavement structure and it is prime material used in pavement
construction. Aggregate primarily bear stress occurring from loads have to resist wear due to
abrasive action of traffic. These are used in pavement construction
Desirable Properties of Aggregates
1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Toughness
4. Durability

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5. Shape
6. Adhesion with bitumen
Strength: The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to withstand
the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in top layers of the
pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be capable of withstanding high stresses in
addition to wear and tear. Hence they should possess sufficient strength resistance to crushing.
Hardness: the aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion
due to moving traffic. Hence they should be hard enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of
traffic.
Toughness: Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads.
Sever impact like hammering is quite common on water bound macadam roads where stones
extend beyond or above a surface especially after the monsoons.
Durability The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand the adverse
action of weather may called soundness.
Shape of Aggregates The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve
opening through which an aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to
fall in a particular size range may have rounded cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of
particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and durability
when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same Stone. Hence too flaky and
too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Adhesion with Bitumen The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity
with water when compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the
aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
Test on road aggregates
In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction, the following tests are
carried out:
1. Crushing test
2. Abrasion test
3. Impact test
4. Soundness test
5. Shape test
6. Specific gravity and water absorption test
7. Bitumen adhesion test
Note: Refer Concrete and Highway Materials Laboratory manual or laboratory record for
explanation, test procedure and standard values

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Bituminous material
BITUMEN
It is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude.

TAR
It is a thermoplastic material obtained from the destructive distillation.

Different types of bitumen

Cutback bitumen: Normal practice is to heat Bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some situations
preference is given to use liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen Suitable
solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. From the environmental point of view also
cutback bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the bituminous material will evaporate and the
bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road
construction and Maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha,
kerosene, diesel, oil and furnace oil. There are different types of cutback bitumen Like Rapid
Curing (RC), Medium Curing (MC), and Slow Curing(SC). RC is recommended for Surface
dressing and patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates.SC
is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates.

Bitumen Emulsion: Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a

finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material. Normally
cationic type emulsions are used in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and
the remaining is water. When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down resulting in release
of water and the mix starts to set. The time of setting depends upon the grade of bitumen. The
viscosity of bituminous emulsions can be measured as per IS:8887- 1995.Threetypes of bituminous
emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting(RS),Medium setting (MS),And Slow setting

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(SC).Bitumen Emulsions are ideal binders for hill road construction. Where Heating of bitumen or
aggregates are difficult. Rapid Setting emulsions are used for surface dressing work. Medium
Setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs and patch repairs work. Slow setting Emulsions are
preferred in rainy season.
Bituminous Primers: In bituminous primer the distillate is absorbed by the road surface on which
it is spread. The absorption there for depends on the porosity of the surface. Bitumen primers are
used full on the stabilized surfaces and water bound macadam base courses. Bituminous primers
are generally prepared on road sites by mixing penetration bitumen with petroleum distillate.
Modified Bitumen : Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can
improve properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is
known as modified bitumen. Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB)/Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen
(CRMB) should be used only in wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme
climatic variations. The detailed specifications for modified bitumen have been issued by IRC: SP:
53-1999. It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict Control
on Temperature during construction.
Requirements of Bitumen
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction.
a) Mixing: type of materials used, construction method, temperature during mixing, etc.
b) Attainment of desired stability of the mix
c) To maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions
d) To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface and
e) To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in presence of water
Desirable Properties of Bitumen
1. Viscosity: The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be
adequate. This is achieved by heating the bitumen and aggregate prior to mixing or by use of
cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grade.
2. Temperature Susceptibility: The bituminous material should not be highly temperature
susceptible. During the hottest weather of the region the bituminous mix should not become
too soft or unstable. During cold weather the mix should not become too hard and brittle,
causing cracking. The material should be durable.
3. Adhesion Property: In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the
aggregate. There has to be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and
aggregate used in the mix.
Tests on bitumen: The various tests on bituminous material are:
1. penetration test
2. ductility test
3. viscosity test
4. float test
5. specific gravity test
6. softening point test
7. flash fire point test
8. solubility test
9. spot test
10. loss on heating test
11. water content test
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Pavement Construction
Introduction
This chapter provides a general overview of construction procedures such as specification of
materials, surface preparation, compaction and quality control tests are also discussed
Granular sub base layer
1. Specification of material –
a) The materials to be used for the work shall be natural sand, moorum, gravel, crushed stone
or combination depending on grading requirement.
b) The materials shall be free from organic or deleterious constituents & should conform to
one of the three gradings given in table 400-1.
c) The gradings in Table 400 – 1 are in respect of close graded granular sub base materials, &
Table 400 – 2 for coarse graded materials.

Table 400 – 1 – Grading for close graded granular sub – base materials.
Percentage by weight passing the IS sieve
IS Sieve
Grading –
Designation Grading – I Grading – II
III
75.0 mm 100 - -
53.0 mm 80 -100 100 -
26.5 mm 55 - 90 70 - 100 100
9.5 mm 35 - 65 50 - 80 65 -95
4.75 mm 25 - 55 40 - 65 50 – 80
2.36 mm 20 - 40 30 - 50 40 -65
0.425 mm 10 - 25 15 -25 20 -35
0.075 mm 3 -10 3 -10 3 -10
( BR Value min ) 30 25 20

Table 400 – 2 – Grading for coarse graded Granular sub – base materials.
Percentage by weight passing the IS sieve
IS Sieve
Grading – Grading –
Designation Grading – I
II III
75.0 mm 100 - -
53.0 mm - 100 -
26.5 mm 55 - 75 50 - 80 100
9.5 mm
4.75 mm 10 -30 15 - 35 25 - 45
2.36 mm
0.425 mm

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0.075 mm < 10 < 10 < 10

( BR Value min ) 30 25 20
2. Physical requirements –
a) The material shall have 10% finer value of 50KN or more.
b) If the water absorption value for coarse aggregates exceeds 2%, soundness test is carried
out.
c) The material passing 425 micron sieve for all 3 gradings shall have liquid limit & plasticity
Index not more than 25 & 6%.
3. Construction Operations –
a) Preparation of sub grade – Before laying sub base, the sub grade should be prepared by
removing vegetation & extraneous matter, lightly sprinkled with water if necessary &
rolled with two passes of 80 – 100KN smooth wheeler roller.
b) Spreading & Compacting –
 The sub base material should be spread on prepared sub grade with help of
motorgrader, its blades having controls for maintaining the required slope & grade.
 When sub – base material have combination of materials, mixing is done
mechanically.
 Manual mixing is permitted where the width of laying is small for mechanical
operations. The equipment used for min – in place construction is rotavator.
 Moisture control of loose material shall be checked with IS – 2720 & suitably
adjusted by sprinkling water from truck mounted or trailer mounted water tank.
 At the time of compaction, water content should be from 1% above to 2% below the
optimum moisture content.
 After adding water it is processed by horrows, rotavators until the layer is uniformly
wet.
 Immediately rolling will start, if the thickness of compacted layer does not exceed
100mm, a smooth wheeled roller is used. For a compacted single layer upto
225mm, vibratory roller or heavy pneumatic tyred roller of min 200 to 300KN wt is
used.
 Rolling will start from lower edge & proceed towards upper edge longitudinally to
achieve super elevation & unidirectional cross fall & should start at both edges &
progress towards centre for portions having cross fall on both sides.
 Each pas of roller shall uniformly overlap not less than one third of track made in
preceding pass. The speed of roller shall not exceed 5km per hour.
 Rolling is continued till the density is achieved at least 98% of MDD for the
material determined.
 The surface of any layer of material on completion of compaction shall be will
closed, free from movement under compaction equipment & from compaction
planes, ridges, cracks or loose materials. If so happens it should be re – compacted.
Surface Finish & Quality control of work – The surface finish of construction & control on the
quality of materials & works shall be in accordance with section 900, the tests to be conducted are
as below –
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4. Quality control tests on granular sub – base

Sl. No. Type of Test Frequency [Min]

1 Gradation One test per 200m3
2 Atterberg limits One test per 200m3
Moisture content prior to
3 One test per 250m3
compaction
4 Density of Compacted Layer One test per 500m3
5 Deleterious Constituents As required.
6 CBR As required.

Water Bound Macadam

1. Specification of materials –
(i) Coarse aggregates – It can be either crushed or broken stone, crushed slag, over burnt
brick aggregates or naturally occurring aggregates such as Kankar & Laterite. The
aggregates shall confirm the physical requirements said in table 400 – 6. If the water
absorption is greater than 2% the soundness test shall be carried out.
Table 400 – 6 physical requirements of coarse aggregates for water bound Macadam for sub
base/ base courses.
Sl.
Type of Test Test Method Requirements
No.
IS – 2386
Los angles abrasion value 40% (Max)
1 Or
IS – 2386 or IS –
Aggregate Impact Value 30% (Max)
5640
Combined flakiness &
2 IS – 2386 30% (Max)
Elongation Indices

(ii) Crushed Slag – It is made from air cooled blast furnace slag. It should be angular shape,
reasonably uniform in quality & density. The weight of crushed slag shall not be less than
11.2 KN/m3 & percentage of glossy material shall not be more than 20 water absorption
should not be more than 10% sulphur content should not exceed 2%.
(iii) Crushed or Broken Stone – It should be hard, durable & free from excess flat, elongated,
soft & disintegrated particles, dirt & other deleterious material.
(iv) Over burnt (Jhama) brick aggregates – It should be made from over burnt bricks or brick
bats & be free from dust & deleterious materials.
(v) Grading requirement of coarse aggregates – The coarse aggregates shall conform to one
of the gradings given in table 400 – 7, the use of Grading No – 1 shall be restricted to sub –
base courses only.

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IS Steve Percent by weight

Grading No Size Range
Designation passing
125 mm 100
90 mm 90 - 100
I 90mm to 45mm 63 mm 25 - 60
45 mm 0 - 15
22.4 mm 0-5
90 mm 100
63 mm 90 - 100
II 63mm to 45 mm 53 mm 25 - 75
45 mm 0 -15
22.4 mm 0-5
63 mm 100
53 mm 95 - 100
53mm to 22.4
III 45 mm 65 - 90
mm
22.4 mm 0 -10
11.2 mm 0-5

The compacted thickness for a layer with Grading – I shall be 100mm while for layer with other
gradings 2 & 3 should be 75mm.
(vi) Screenings – It is used to fill voids in coarse aggregates which consists of same material as
the coarse aggregate. Such as non plastic materials like moorum or gravel is used provided
liquid limit & plasticity Index are below 20 & 6 respectively & fraction passing 75 micron
sieve does not exceed 10%. Screenings should conform to the grading serial in table 400 –
8. It should be omitted in case of soft aggregates such as brick metal, kankar, laterites etc as
they get crushed under rollers.
Table 400 – 8 Grading for Screenings –
Percent by weight
Grading Size of IS Steve
Classification
Classification Screenings Designation
passing the IS Sieve
13.2 mm 100
11.2 mm 95 - 100
A 13.2mm
5.6 mm 15 - 35
180 micron 0 - 10
11.2 mm 100
B 11.2mm 5.6 mm 90 - 100
180 micron 15 - 35

(vii) Binding Material – It is used as a filler material for WBM having PI value less than 6, the
quantity of binding material to be used depend on type of screening. Generally, the quantity

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required for 75mm compacted thickness will be 0.06 – 0.09m3/10m2 & for 100mm
compacted thickness it will be around 0.08 – 0.10 m3/10 m2
2. Construction Operations –
Preparation of Base – The surface of subgrade / sub base to receive WBM coarse shall be
prepared to specified lines & cross fall & made free of dust & other materials. Levelling course is
used to correct the irregularities in the profile. Laying of WBM over thick bituminous layer is
avoided due to the internal drainage of the pavement at the interface of 2 courses. Where the
intensity of rain is low & the interface drainage facility is efficient WBM can be laid over the
existing thin bituminous surface by cutting 50mm X 50mm furrows at an angle of 45 ͦ to the centre
line at one metre interval.
Invented Choke – If WBM is to be land directly over subgrade, a 25mm coarse of screening B or
coarse sand is spread before application of aggregates. In case of find sand or silty or clayey
subgrade, it is advisable to lay 100mm of screening or coarse sand on top of fine grained soil. As an
alternative to inverted choke, geo synthesis are used for separation & drainage over the prepared
subgrade.
Spreading Coarse Aggregates – The coarse aggregates shall be spread uniformly & evenly upon
the prepared subgrade in thickness not more than 100mm for Grading – I & 75mm for Grading – II
& III. The spreading shall be done from stockpiles along the side of road way to directly from
vehicles. No segregation between aggregates is allowed & it must be of uniform gradation with no
fine material. The surface of the aggregates shall be checked carefully by removing or adding
aggregates at high or low spots & it is checked with a straight edge. The coarse aggregates should
not normally be spread more than 3 days.
Rolling – Rolling is started immediately after spreading by three wheeled power rollers, or tandem
or vibratory rollers 80 to 100KN static weight. Except on superelevated portions where the rolling
will proceed from inner edge to outer & it begins from edges gradually progressing towards centre.
During rolling, slight sprinkling of water may be done if necessary. Rolling is not done when
subgrade is soft or yielding or when it cause a wave like motion in the subgrade or sub base course.
The rolled surface shall be checked transversely & longitudinally with templates & corrected or re
– rolled to derived camber & grade. Materials getting crushed during compaction should be
removed & replaced. Shoulders are built up simultaneously along with WBM courses.
Application of Screenings – After the coarse aggregate has been rolled, screenings are applied to
fill the voids. There shall not be damp or wet at the time of application. Dry rolling shall be done
while the screenings are being spread so that it will settle into voids. The screenings are spread
uniformly in thin layers by hand shovels or by mechanical spreaders or from dipper. The screening
is applied at a slow & uniform rate so as to ensure filling of voids accompanied by dry rolling &
brooming with mechanical or hand brooms or both. These operations shall continue until no more
screenings fills voids of aggregates. The spreading, rolling & brooming of screenings could be
completed in one day.
Sprinkling of water and grouting – After the screenings are applied, the surface should be
sprinkled with water, swept & rolled. Hand brooms are used to sweep & distribute wet screenings
evenly. It is continued until coarse aggregate has been thoroughly keyed, well bonded & firmly set
in full depth & a grout has been formed of screenings.

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Application of Binding Material – After application of screening, binding material is applied in 2

or more thin layers at a slow & uniform rate. After each application water is sprinkled & swept
with brooms to fill the voids & rolled. This is continued till a wave head of the wheels of the
moving roller is formed on slurry.
Setting & drying – After final compaction of WBM course, the pavement is allowed to dry
overnight. Next morning spots be filled with screenings or binding materials & lightly sprinkled
with water & rolled. No traffic shall be allowed on the load until the macadam has set. The
compacted WBM course should be allowed to completely dry & set before the next pavement
course is laid over it.
III. Quality control tests on Water Bound Macadam Course –
Sl. No. Type of Test Frequency [Min]
1 Aggregate Impact value One test per 200m3 of aggregate
2 Grading One test per 100m3
3 Flakiness Index & Elongation Index One test per 200m3 of aggregate
4 Density of Compacted Layer One test per 500m3
5 Atterberg limits of binding materials One test per 325m3 of binding material

The evaluation of density results & acceptance criteria for compaction control shall be on lines
similar to those subgrade / embankment as we discussed earlier.
Wet Mix Macadam layer
1. Specification of Materials –
a) Physical requirements of aggregates – Coarse aggregates shall be crushed stone & it
should conform to the physical requirements said in Table – 400 – 10.
Sl.
Type of Test Test Method Requirements
No.
Los angles abrasion value IS – 2386 40% (Max)
1 Or
Aggregate Impact Value IS – 2386 30% (Max)
Combined flakiness &
2 IS – 2386 30% (Max)
Elongation Indices(Total)
If the water absorption value of aggregates is greater than 2%, soundness test is carried out.
b) Grading requirements for WMM is given in table below 400 – II.
IS Sieve Designation % by weight passing the IS Sieve
53.0 mm 100
45.0 mm 95 - 100
26.5 mm -
22.4 mm 60 - 80
11.2 mm 40 -60
4.45 mm 25 -40
2.36 mm 15 - 30

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0.6 mm 8 - 20
0.075 mm 0-2
Materials finer than 425micron shall have plasticity Index not more than 6.
2. Construction Operations –
a) Preparation of base – It is done us the same as WBM layer as we have discussed earlier.
b) Provision of lateral confinement of aggregates – while constructing WMM, arrangement
shall be made for lateral confinement of wet mix. This shall be done by laying in adjoining
shoulders along with WMM.
c) Preparation of mix – WMM is prepared in mixing plant where pug mill or pan type mixer of
concrete batching plant is used. Optimum moisture for mixing is determined at the time of
compaction, water in the WMM should not vary from optimum value. The mixed material
should be uniformly wet & no segregation is permitted.
d) Spreading of mix –
 Immediately after mixing it is spread uniformly & evenly on prepared subgrade /subbase /
base. In no case it should be dumped in heaps.
 The mix may be spread by paver finisher or motor grader.
 The motor grader is cable of spreading the material uniformly so as to achieve the specified
slope & grade.
 No segregation of large & fine particles should be allowed. 
e) Compaction –
 After the mix has been laid to required thickness, grade & crossfall the same shall be
compacted uniformly to the full depth by roller.
 If the thickness is 100mm single layer, smooth wheel roller is used. For compacted single
layer upto 200mm vibratory roller is used.
 Same kind of rolling as in WBM is done as we discussed before.
 Along forms, kerbs, walls or other inaccessible places for rollers, mechanical tampers or
plate compactor is used.
 Rolling should not be done when the subgrade in soft.
 If irregularities develop during rolling which exceed 12mm when tested with 3m straight
edge, the surface should be loosened & premixed material added or removed.
 Rolling shall be continued till the density achieved is atleast 98% of the max dry density for
the material.
 After completion, the surface of any finished layer is well closed, free from movement
under compaction equipment or any compaction planes, ridges, cracks & loose material.
 All loose, segregated area shall be made good to the full thickness of layer & recompacted.
f) Setting & Drying – After final compaction of wet mix macadam course, the road shall be
allowed to dry for 24 hours.
g) Opening to traffic – Preferably no vehicular traffic or any kind should be allowed on
finished WMM surface till it has dried & the wearing course is laid.

Bituminous Macam dam layer

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Specification of Materials –
 The grades of bitumen used 30/40, 60/70, 80/100 penetration. Road tar RT – 4, cutback &
emulsion are used. Binder content 3 – 4.5% by weight of mix is used.
 Aggregates –
 Los Angles abrasion value 50% Max
Aggregate Impact value 30% Max
Flakiness index 15% Max
Stripping @ 40 ͦC 25% Max
Loss with Sodium Sulphate 12% Max
For binder coarse, abrasion & impact value are 40 & 30% respectively.
Grading for 75mm compacted thickness for base coarse & binder coarse

Base or
Percent passing Base Course
Binder Course
Sieve size (mm)
Grading I Grading II Grading III
63.0 100 100 -
50.0 - 90 -100 -
40.0 35 - 70 35 -65 100
25.0 - 20 -40 70 - 100
20.0 0 - 15 - 50 - 80
12.5 - 5 - 20 -
10.0 - - 25 - 50
4.75 - - 10 - 30
2.36 0-5 0-5 5 - 20
0.075 0-3 0-5 0-4
Binder Content 3 - 4.5 3 - 4.5 3 - 4.5

Grading for 50mm compacted thickness for base course & binder
Base or
Percent passing Base Course
Binder Course
Sieve size (mm)
Grading I Grading II Grading III
50.0 100 100 -
40.0 - 90 - 100 -
25.0 35 - 70 50 - 80 100
12.5 - - 70 - 100
10.0 0 - 15 10 - 30 35 - 60
4.75 - - 15 - 35
2.36 0-5 - 5 - 20

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0.075 0-3 0-5 0-4

Binder Content 3 – 4.5 3 – 4.5 3–6
The quantity of aggregates required for 10m of BM are 0.60 to 0.75m3 & 0.9 to 1m3 respectively
2

for 50 & 75mm compacted thickness.

Construction Procedure –
a) Preparation of existing layer – The existing layer is properly profiled & even & cleaned.
b) Tack Coat or Prime Coat application – A tack coat is applied of thin layer of bitumen
binder using sprayer or pouring can.
c) Premix Preparation – The bitumen binder & aggregates are separately heated and then placed
in mixer & is mixed till a homogenous mixture is formed & carried to site by transporter or
wheel borrow.
d) Placement – Paving mixture is placed in a desired location & is spread with rakes to pre –
determined thickness. The camber profile is checked with template.
e) Rolling & finishing the Paving Mix – The rolling is done using tandem roller. The rolling is
commenced from edge of pavement to centre. The finished surface should not show separate
lines of markings the roller wheel are kept damp. A variation of 6mm over 3m length is allowed
in the cross profile. The number of undulations exceeding 10mm should not be less than 30 in
300m length of pavement.

a) Bitumen – Grade S65 or A65 (60 / 70), S90 (80 / 100) may be used.
b) Coarse aggregates –
Los Angles Abrasion Value 40% Max
Aggregates Impact Value 30% Max
FI & EI 30% Max
Stripping Minimum retained
Loss with sodium sulphate 12% Max
Water absorption 2w% Max
c) Fine Aggregates – should be the fraction passing 2.36mm sieve & retained on 75m sieve.
d) Filler –
IS Sieve % passing by weight
600M 100
300M 95 – 100
75M 85 – 100
e) Aggregate Gradation –
Sieve Size % Passing by weight
37.5mm 100
26.5mm 90 – 100
13.2mm 56 – 80
4.75mm 29 – 59
2.36mm 19 – 45
300micron 5 – 17

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75micron 1–7

Requirement of Mix –
Marshall stability 820Kg
Marshall flow 2–4
% air voids 3–5
VMA 10 – 12%
VFB 65 – 75
Binder Content Not less than 4%
Construction Procedure –
a) Preparation of Base – The surface should be swept clean using mechanical broom & is
prepared to uniform grade. Prime coat may be used & tack coat are applied over base.
Preparation of mix is same as BM as discussed earlier.
b) Spreading – It is spread by self propelled paver for spreading, tamping & finishing the mix to
desired grade, lines. In restricted areas & narrow widths, manual laying of mix or mechanical
paver are used. Temperature is 120 ͦ - 160 ͦ C at the time of laying.
c) Rolling –
 It is compacted initially by smooth wheeled roller, intermediate rolling by vibratory roller or
pneumatic roller & finishing rolling is done by tandem roller.
 The rollers shall not be allowed to stand on pavement which has not been full compacted &
temperature is more than 70 ͦC.
 The wheels of roller shall be kept moist to prevent adhesion.
 Rolling with start from edge to centre line of pavement, both directions.
 Each pass of roller shall overlap one by half the width of rear wheel.
 Rolling shall be continued till the density achieved is atleast 98%.
 It is completed in all respects before the temp of mix falls below 100 ͦ C.
d) Opening to traffic –
 Traffic may be allowed after completion of the final rolling is done.
 DBM is provided with proper wearing course before opening to normal traffic or rain.

Bituminous Concrete –
Specification of Materials – Bitumen, Fine aggregates, Filler, Coarse aggregate are all same as
DBM but Grading changes.
IS Sieve % passing the
(mm) Sieve by Weight
26.5 100
19.0 90 -100
9.5 56 - 80
4.75 35 - 65
2.36 23 - 49
0.30 5 - 19
0.075 2-8

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Mix Design –
Marshall Stability 820Kg (Min)
Marshall Flow 2–4
# air voids 3–5
VMA 11 – 13%
VFB 65 – 75
Binder Content Min 45
Water Sensitivity Min 75%
Swell Test 1.5% Max
Construction Operations –
 Preparation of Base – The base on which bituminous concrete is to be laid shall be
prepared, shaped & conditioned to the specified levels, grade and crossfall (Camber).
 The surface shall be thoroughly swept clean free from dust and other matter using
mechanical broom and dust removed by mechanical means or blown off by compressed air.
In portions where mechanical means cannot reach, other approved method is used.
 Applying tack coat, preparation of mix, spreading, rolling are same as DBM layer as we
have discussed earlier.
 Opening to Traffic – Traffic may be allowed immediately after completion of final rolling
when the mix has cooled down to surrounding temperature.

CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Specification of Materials
For concrete slabs cement, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and water are required. If
reinforcement is provided, steel wire fabric are used & for construction of joints, joint filler &
sealer are used.
1. Cement – Ordinary Portland cement is used. In case of urgency rapid hardening cement is used.
2. Coarse Aggregates – The max size should not exceed 1/4th slab thickness. The gradation may
range from 50 – 4.75 or 40 – 4.75. The aggregates should be free from iron, purities, cola, mica,
clay, alkali, etc., For Physical properties desire limits are –
Aggregate Crushing Value : 30% Max
Aggregate Impact Value : 30% Max
Los Angeles abrasion Value : 30% Max
Soundness for sodium sulphate : 12% Max
3. Fine aggregates – Natural sands, crushed stones etc., are used.
4. Proportioning of Concrete – It is proportioned so as to obtain a minimum modulus of rupture of
40Kg/cm2 on field or to develop minimum compressive strength of 280 Kg/cm2 at 28 days.
Construction method
a) Preparation of subgrade and sub base –
 No soft pots are present in subgrade or sub base.
 It should extent atleast 30cm on either side of width to be connected.
 Subgrade is properly drained; minimum modulus of subgrade reaction is 5.54Kg/Cm2.
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 The layers should be kept moist when cement concrete is placed.

 Water proof paper may also be used when CC is laid directly.
b) Placing of Forms –
 The steel or wooden forms are used.
 The steel forms are M.S. Channel sections and their depts. Is equal to thickness of pavement
and length atleast 3m except on curves < 45m radius.
 Wooden forms are dressed on side, these have minimum base width of 100n for slab
thickness or 20cm.
 The forms are jointed neatly and are set with exactness to the required grade and alignment. 
c) Batching of Material & Mixing –
 The proportioned mixture is placed into hopper in weigh batching plant.
 All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bags of cement, weight
of one bag is 50 kg or unit weight of cement is taken as 1440Kg/m3.
 The mixing of concrete is done in batch mixer. So that uniform distribution, uniform is
color and homogenous mix is obtained.
 The batch of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is led together into the mixer.
Water for mixing is introduced into the drum within fifteen seconds of mixing.
d) Transportation & Placing of Concrete –
 The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate use.
 It should be seen that no segregation of materials results while transporting.
 Spreading is done uniformly; certain amount of redistribution is done with shovels. 
e) Compaction & Finishing –
 The surface of pavement is compacted either by means of power driven finishing machine
or by vibrating hand screed.
 Areas where width of slab is small, hand consolidation and finishing is adopted.
 The concrete is further compacted by longitudinal float. It is help parallel to carriage way
and passed gradually from one site to other.
 The slab surface is tested for its grade and level with straight edge.
 Just before the concrete becomes hard, the surface is belted with two ply canvas belt.
 Broom finish is given with fibre broom brush and it is done perpendicular to centerline of
pavement.
 Before concrete develop initial set, the edges of slab are carefully finished with an edging
tool.
f) Curing of cement concrete –
 Initial curing – The surface of pavement is entirely covered with burlap cotton or jute mats
prior to placing it is saturated with water and wet side is placed on pavement.
 Final curing – Curing with wet soil exposed edges of slabs are banked with soil berm. A
blanket of sandy soil free from stones is placed. The soils is thoroughly kept saturated with
water for 14 days.
In impervious membrane method, use of impervious membrane which does not impart a slippery
surface to the pavement is used. Liquid is applied under pressure with a spray nozzle to cover the

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entire surface with a uniform film. It hardens within 30 minutes after its application. The liquid
applied immediately after surface finishing.
When the concrete attains the required strength or after 28days of curing the concrete road is
opened to traffic.
Quality Control Tests
a) Quality control tests for materials used –

Physical & Chemical Tests One for each source of

1 Cement
supply and occasionally
(i) Gradation One test for every day work of
Coarse aggregates
2 each fraction of coarse aggregate
& fine aggregates
(ii) Deleterious constituents and fine aggregate.

b) Quality control tests for levels, alignment and texture –

1 Level Tolerance +5mm
2 Width of pavement & position of paving edges -6mm and +-10mm
To be checked @ one joint per
3 Alignment of joints, widths, depths of dowel groves
400m length
4 Surface regularity both transversely Once a day or one day’s work
5 Alignment of dowel bars and tie bars To be checked in trail length

Concrete pavement construction process

The construction of concrete pavement involves sequential construction of subgrade, sub-base/ base
and the concrete slab. These are discussed in the following.

Subgrade preparation

Subgrade preparation involves cleaning, earthwork (excavation or filling of soil, replacement of

weak soil, soil stabilization etc.) and compaction.

Where the concrete layer is laid directly over the subgrade, the subgrade is moist at the time
concrete is placed. If the subgrade is dry, water could be sprinkled over the surface before laying
any concrete course, however, care should taken so that soft patches or water pools are not formed
at the surface.. As an alternative arrangement, concreting could be done over a water proof
polyethylene sheet, and in that case moistening the subgrade surface becomes redundant. This
polyethylene sheet acts as a capillary cut-off layer (IRC:15 2002)

Construction of Base/ Sub-base

A base/ sub-base to the concrete pavement provides uniform and reasonably firm support,
prevents mud-pumping , and acts as capillary cut-off. Sub-base for concrete pavement could be
constituted with brick flat soling, WBM, granular aggregates, crushed concrete, slag, stabilized soil
etc. As per IRC:15 (2002), sub-base could be of three types with (i) Granular material (for example,
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brick soling with one layer of sand under it, WBM, well graded granular materials etc.) (ii)
Stabilized soil (iii) Semi-rigid material, (for example, lime burnt clay puzzolana concrete, lime fly-
ash concrete, lean cement concrete roller compacted concrete etc.). Following contains a brief
discussion on dry lean cement (DLC) concrete as sub-base, which is popularly being adopted for
the current concrete pavement construction in India

Dry lean cement concrete as sub-base

The thickness of DLC, generally recommended is 100mm or 150mm (IRC:SP-49 1998). The
maximum aggregate to cement ratio is 15:1. The average compressive strength of DLC cubes at 7
days, as recommended by Indian guidelines (IRC:SP-49 1998) should not be less than 10 MPa,
tested on 5 samples and individual compressive strength should not be less than 7.5 MPa, at 7
days (MORT&H 2001, IRC:SP-49 1998)

Before construction of DLC sub-base, the prepared subgrade is sprinkled with water to moisten the
surface. The material is to be laid uniformly by a paver without any segregation . The paving
machine should have high amplitude paving bars. The curing of DLC can be done by spraying
liquid curing compound, or by covering the surface by gunny bags. As per Indian guidelines, the
construction of cement concrete pavement can only start after 7 days of DLC construction
(MORT&H 2001, IRC:SP-49 1998)

The concrete slab is generally of M40 to M50 grade of concrete as per Indian specifications, and is
called as paving quality concrete (PQC) (IRC:15-2002).

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HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-soil water
within the right of way this includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface and
subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage system is an essential part of
highway design and construction.

IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

1. Significance of Drainage
2. Requirements of Highway Drainage System
Significance of Drainage
1. Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability the pavement
is likely to fail due to subgrade failure.
2. Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like stabilized
soil and water bound macadam.
3. In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerable variation in volume
of subgrade. This sometimes contributes to pavement failure.
4. The prime cause of pavement failure by the formation of waves and corrugations in flexible
pavements is due to poor drainage.
5. The contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failures due to stripping of
bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous pavement
layers and formation of pot holes.
6. The prime cause of pavement failures in rigid pavement by mud pumping is due to
presence of water in subgrade soil.
7. Excess water on shoulders and pavement edge cause considerable damage.
8. Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and simultaneous
reduction in strength of the soil mass
Requirements of Highway Drainage System
1. The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to subgrade.
2. The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the roadway.
3. The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the
surface water collected.
4. Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cress ruts or erosion.
5. Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by the subsurface
drainage system.
6. Highest level of GWT should be kept well below the level of subgrade, preferably atleat 1.2
m.

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Surface drainage :- Removal and diversion of surface water from the road Way and adjoining land
is termed as surface drainage.
Design of surface drainage system :-
The design of surface drainage system may be divided into two phases,
1. Hydrological analysis
2. Hydraulic analysis
Hydrological design or analysis
The main objective of hydrological analysis is to estimate the maximum quantity of water
expected to reach the element of drainage system under consideration, and is given by
Q = C i Ad
3
Where, Q = run off, m /sec
C = run off coefficient, expressed as a ratio of run off to rate of rainfall.
i = Intensity of rainfall, mm / sec [obtained from rainfall intensity duration curve]
Ad = Drainage area in 1000 m2.
Note :
1. C = 0.8 to 0.9 for bituminous and cc pavements.
C = 0.35 to 0.7 for gravel and WBM pavements.
C = 0.4 to 0.65 for impervious soil.
C = 0.3 to 0.55 for sale covered with turf.
C = 0.05 to 0.3 for pervious soils.
2. When the drainage area consists of several type of surfaces with run off coefficients with
their respective areas , the weighted value of C is determined from,
𝐴1 𝐶1 + 𝐴2 𝐶2 + 𝐴3 𝐶3…….
𝐶=
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 … . .
3. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain generally ranging from 0.3 to 1.8 m/ sec.

Hydraulic design or analysis

Once the design run off ‘Q' is determined, the next step is the hydraulic design of drains. The side
drains are designed based on the principles of flow through open channels and is given by,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
Where, Q = quantity of surface water, m3/sec
V = allowable velocity of flow in the side drain, m / sec
A = Area of cross-section of the channel, m 2
Note : V = 0.3 to 0.5 m/sec for Sand and silt, 0.6 to 0.9 for loam, 0.9 to 1.5 for clay, 1.2 to 1.5 for
gravel and 1.5 to 1.8 for good soil covered with grass.
The slope of the longitudinal drain of a known or assumed cross-section and death of flow, may be
determined using Manning's formula
1 2 1
𝑉 = . 𝑅3 . 𝑆 2
𝑛
Where, V = Average velocity, m / sec)
R = Hydraulic radius, m [cross-sectional area of flow divided by wetted perimeter]
S = Longitudinal slope of channel.
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient.

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Note : The roughness coefficient depends on the type of soil

In unlined channels, n = 0.2 for ordinary earth
n = 0.05 to 0.1 for earth with heavy vegetation or grass
In lined channels, n = 0.013 for well finished concrete
n = 0.04 for rough rubble and riprap.
Design steps of surface drainage system
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains are given below.
1. The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc is decided based on finances
available and desired margin of safety, for the design of the drainage system.
2. The values of coefficients of run off C1, C2, C3 etc ,. from drainage areas A1, A2, A3 etc are
found and waited value of C is computed, using
𝐴1 𝐶1 + 𝐴2 𝐶2 + 𝐴3 𝐶3…….
𝐶=
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 … . .
3. Inlet time T1 is estimated from the distance, slope of the ground and the type of the curve. Chart
(Time of flow to inlet) may be used for this purpose.
4. Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is determined using the following relation,
L
T2 =
V
where, L = length of longitudinal drain from the Inlet of the cross drainage.
V = allowable velocity of flow in the drain
5. Duration or time of concentration, T = T 1 + T2
6. From the rainfall intensity duration curves, the rainfall intensity ‘i’ is found in mm/sec.
corresponding to duration 'T' and frequency of the return period.
7. Total area of drainage ‘Ad’ is found in units of 1000 m2.
8. The run-off quantity is computed using the following formula,
Q = C i Ad
9. The cross-sectional area of flow ‘A’ of the drain is calculated,
Where, V = allowable velocity of flow in the drain.
10. The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient bottom width and side
slope of the drain. The actual depth of the open channel drain may be increased slightly to give
a free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow ‘R' is determined.
11. The required longitudinal slope ‘S’ of the drain is using Manning’s formula.

Problems
1. The distance between the farthest point in the turf covered drainage area (with an average slope
of 1.5% to words the drain) and the point of entry to side train is 200 m. The weighted average
value of the run off coefficient is 0.25. The length of the longitudinal drain in a sandy clay soil
from the inlet point of the cross drainage is 540 m. The velocity of flow in the side drain maybe
assumed as 0.6 m/sec, so that silting or erosion are prevented. Estimate the design quantity of
flaw on the side drain for a 10 years period of frequency of occurrence of the storm.
Solution
For - Distance between the farthest point and point of entry to the side drain = 200 m
Slope the ground = 1.5%

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Type of cover = average. Turf

From chart, T1= 31 min. for 2.0% slope
T1= 35 min. for 1.0% slope
(35 −31)
∴ 𝑇1 = 31 + (1.5 − 1) for 1.5 % slope
(2−1)
T1 = 33 mins.
If length drain, L = 540 m and velocity of flow in the drain V = 0.6 m/sec = 0.6× 60 m/min.
L
T2 =
V
540
T2 = = 15 mins.
0.6 × 60
∴ Duration T = T1 + T2 = 33 + 15 = 48 mins.
For frequency of occurrence = 10 years and T = 48 min,
From rainfall intensity duration curve i = 70 mm/hr.
70 70
∴ 𝑖 = 60×60 = 3600 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Drainage area, Ad= L × distance between the farthest point and the point of entry to the side drain
Ad = 540 × 200 = 108000 m2 = 108 in 1000 m2
Q = C i Ad
70
Q = 0.25 × × 108
3600
∴ Q = 0.525 m3/sec

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2. The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal drains on clayey soil
is 0.9 m3/sec. Design the cross-section and longitudinal slope of trapezoidal drain assuming the
bottom width of the trapezoidal section to be 1 m and cross slope to be 1 vertical to 1.5
horizontal. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain is 1.2 m/sec and Manning’s roughness
coefficient is 0.02.
Solution
i) Cross section

Q = 0.9 m3/sec and V = 1.2 m/sec

Q 0.9
Area of drain, A = = = 0.75 m2
V 1.2
For trapezoidal section,
Assume bottom width, b = 1 m & side slope 1:1.5
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Cross sectional area of drain, A = 2 × Area of triangle + Area of rectangle

1
0.75 = 2 × × 𝑑 × 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑏 × 𝑑
2
2
0.75 = 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑑
1.5 𝑑 2 + 𝑑 − 0.75 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for d,
−1 ± √12 − 4 × 1.5 (−0.75)
𝑑= = 0.45 𝑚
2 × 1.5
Provide free board of 0.15 m. ∴ Total depth = 0.6 m.

ii) Slope
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2 𝑑 (√1 + 𝑁 2 )
Where, b = bottom width = 1 m, d = depth of drain, and N = slope = 1.5.
∴ 𝑃 = 1 + 2 × 0.45 (√1 + 1.52 ) = 2.62 𝑚
𝐴 0.75
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = = = 0.286 m
𝑃 2.62
1 𝑉 𝑛 1.2 × 0.02
𝑆2 = 2 = 2 = 0.0553
𝑅3 0.2863
Slope S = 0.0031 or 1 in 322.5,
∴ provide a longitudinal slope of 1 in 320.
3. The surface water from road side is drained to the longitudinal side drain from across one half a
bituminous pavement surface of total width 7.0 m, shoulder and adjoining land of width 8.0 m
on one side of the drain & on the other side of the longitudinal drain, water flows across from
reverse land with grass and 2% cross slope towards the side drain, the width of this strip of land
being 25 m. The run off coefficients of the pavement, shoulder and reverse land with grass
surface are 0.8, 0.25 and 0.35 respectively. The length of the stretch of land parallel to the road
from where water is expected to flow to the side drain is about 400 m. Estimate the quantity of
run off flowing in the drain assuming 25 years period of frequency. Also design the cross
section and slope of the side drain in loamy soil with Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.022
and suitable speed of flow is 0.8 m/sec.
Solution :
i) Quantity of run off
Drainage consists of
a) Pavement area, A1 = 3.5 × 400 = 1400 m2, with C1 = 0.8
b) Area of shoulder and adjoining land, A2 = 8 × 400 = 3200 m2, with C2 = 0.25
c) Area of land on the other side of the drain, A3 = 25 × 400 = 10000 m2, with C3 = 0.35
∴ Total drainage area, Ad = A1 + A2 + A3 = 1400 + 3200 +10000 = 14600 m2
Ad = 14.6 in terms of 1000 m2

A1 C1 + A2 C2 + A3 C3
C=
A1 + A2 + A3
1400 × 0.8 + 3200 × 0.25 + 10000 × 0.35
C=
1400 + 3200 + 10000

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∴ C = 0.371
For - Distance between the farthest point and point of entry to the side drain = 25 m
Slope the ground = 2%
Type of cover = average. Turf
From chart, T1= 11 min. for 2.0% slope
If length of drain, L = 400 m and velocity of flow in the drain V = 0.8 m/sec = 0.8 ×60 m/min.
L
T2 =
V
400
T2 = = 8.33 mins.
0.8 × 60
∴ Duration T = T1 + T2 = 11 + 8.33 = 19.33 mins.
For frequency of occurrence = 25 years and T = 19.33 min,
From rainfall intensity duration curve i = 125 mm / hr.
125 125
∴ 𝑖 = 60×60 = 3600 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Q = C i Ad
125
Q = 0.371 × × 14.5
3600
∴ Q = 0.188 m3/sec

ii) Cross section

Q = 0.188 m3/sec and V = 0.8 m/sec

Q 0.188
Area of drain, A = = = 0.235 m2
V 0.8
For trapezoidal section,
Assume bottom width, b = 0.5 m & side slope 1:1.5
Cross sectional area of drain, A = 2 × Area of triangle + Area of rectangle
1
0.235 = 2 × × 𝑑 × 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑏 × 𝑑
2
2
0.235 = 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑑
1.5 𝑑 2 + 0.5 𝑑 − 0.235 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for d,
−1 ± √12 − 4 × 1.5 (−0.235)
𝑑= = 0. 263 𝑚
2 × 1.5
Provide free board of 0.14 m. ∴ Total depth = 0.4 m.
iii) Slope
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2 𝑑 (√1 + 𝑁 2 )
Where, b = bottom width = 0.5 m, d = depth of drain, and N = slope = 1.5.
∴ 𝑃 = 0.5 + 2 × 0.263 (√1 + 1.52 ) = 1.448 𝑚
𝐴 0.235
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = = = 0.162 m
𝑃 1.448
1 𝑉 𝑛 0.8 × 0.022
𝑆2 = 2 = 2 = 0.0672
𝑅3 0.1623
Slope S = 0.00452 or 1 in 221,

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∴ provide a longitudinal slope of 1 in 220.

Sub-surface drainage
Diversion or removal of excess soil water on ground water is termed as sub-surface drainage. Sub-
surface drainage system includes the following methods.
1. Lowering of water table.
2. Control of seepage flow.
3. Control of capillary rise.

Lowering of water table.

When the formation is to be at or below the general ground level, it would be necessary to lower
the water table. If the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high water table
by construction of drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand. The following figure 1shows
the method by which the water table can be lowered to the desired depth.

If the soil is relatively less permeable, in addition to longitudinal trenches transverse drains may
have to be provided in order to effectively drain off the water and thus to lower the water table upto
the level of transverse drains, see figure 2.

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Control of seepage flow.

When the general ground as well as the impervious strata below are sloping, seepage flow is likely
to exit. If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 m. Figure 3 shows the method by which
the seepage line can be lowered to the desired depth.

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Figure 3. Control of seepage flow

Control of capillary rise.
If the water reaching the sub-grade due to capillary rise is likely to be deter-mental, it is possible to
solve the problem by control of capillary rise. The capillary rise may be checked by any one of the
following two types.
1. Granular capillary cut-off
A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction of
embankment b/w the sub-grade and the highest level of sub-surface water table, see figure 4.

2. Impermeable capillary cut-off -

Another method of providing capillary cut-off is by inserting an impermeable or a bituminous layer
in the place of granular blanket, see figure 5.

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Design of sub-surface drainage system.

The size and spacing of the sub-surface drainage system would depend on the quantity of water to
be drained off, the type of soil and type of the drains. Mostly this is decided based
on experience and other practical considerations.
Design of filter material
The filter material used in subsurface drains should designed based on two criteria of permeability
and piping. The procedure for design of filter is briefly discussed below.
1. On a grains size distribution chart (percent passing vs particle size on log scale) plot the grain
size distribution curve for the foundation soil.
2. Find the value of D15 size of foundation material and plot a point of particle size 5D 15 of
foundation to represent the lower limit of D15 size of filter. This is to fulfil the permeability
condition is given by,
D15 of filter
should be > 5
D15 of foundation
3. To fulfil the condition to prevent piping
D15 of filter
should be < 5
D85 of foundation
Hence plot a point to represent the upper limits of D15 size of filter given by 5D85 of foundation.
4. Find the size of the perforation in the drain pipe or the gap in the open jointed pipes and let this
be = Dp. Plot a point to represent D85 size of filter given by the size 2Dp. Refer figure 6. The
shaded area thus obtained represents the region within which the grain size distribution curve of
satisfactory filter material should lie.

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Highway Economics
The various benefits due to the highway improvement may be classified into two categories:
1. Quantifiable or tangible benefits in terms of market values and
2. Non-quantifiable or intangible benefits.
Quantifiable Benefits:
Various benefits which can be quantified include benefits to road users such as reduction in the
vehicle operation cost, time cost and accident cost. Also it enhances the land value. These are
briefly explained below:
1. Saving in vehicle operation cost is due to the reduction in the fuel and oil consumption and
reduction in wear and tear of Tyre and other maintenance costs. A road with sharp curves and
steep grades require frequent speed changes presence of intersections require stopping idling
and accelerating; vehicle operation on road stretches with high traffic volume or congestion
necessitate speed changes and stopping and increased travel time; all these factors result in an
increase in every component of vehicle operation cost. Un-even pavement surface condition
with ruts, pot holes, undulations, waves and corrugations increases the vehicle operation cost
due to increase in fuel consumption, tyre wear and the general maintenance cost of the vehicle.
2. Saving in travel time is of direct consequence to commercial vehicles due to possible increase
in their trip length and earning per unit time. Benefits due to saving in travel time may be
assigned in terms of time cost of vehicles.
3. Value may also be assigned for the saving in travel time of passengers. A part of the time saved
by the passengers or commuters may be used for some useful purpose and a value can be
assigned for the saving in the travel time.
4. The reduction in the accident rate due to improvements in the highway facilities causes
considerable benefits to the road users and others. The component of the accident costs may
include cost of damages to vehicles and other properties, cost for investigations, legal
proceedings etc.
5. The benefits to other than road users include the enhancement in land value, increase in the
employment opportunities and related economic uplift.
Non- Quantifiable Benefits:
The non- quantifiable benefits due to improvements in highway facilities include reduction in
fatigue and discomfort during travel, increase in comfort and conveniences and improvement in
general amenities, social and educational aspects, development of recreational and medical
services, improved mobility of essential services and defence forces, aesthetic values, etc. Yet
another important intangible road user benefit is the reduced suffering and pain of those involved in
highway accidents.
Vehicle Operation Cost
The factors to be considered for evaluating motor vehicle operation cost would differ depending
on the purpose of the analysis. The vehicle may be classified in different groups such as passenger
cars, buses, light commercial vehicles, single unit trucks, combination vehicles etc., for the purpose
of cost analysis. The motor vehicle operation costs depend on several factors which may be
grouped as given below:
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(i) Cost dependent on time expressed as cost per year such as interest on capital, depreciation
cost, registration fee, insurance charges, garage rent, driver's license, salaries etc. as
applicable.
(ii) Cost depending on distance driven e){pressed as cost per vehicle-kilometre. The items
which may be included here are fuel, oil, tyres, maintenance and repairs etc.
(iii) Cost dependent on speed include cost of fuel, oil and tyre per vehicle-km-time-cost of
vehicles, travel time value of passengers, etc.
(iv) Cost dependent on type of vehicle and its condition. Operation cost of larger vehicles are
comparatively higher. The operation cost of old vehicles maintained in poor condition is
also higher.
(iv) Cost dependent on road condition and geometrics such as type and conditions of pavement
surface, magnitude and length of gradients, radius and number of horizontal curves etc. The
vehicle operation cost increases with the unevenness index of pavement surface. These
factors are also affected by the topography of the region. On hill roads the vehicle operation
cost is higher than on plains.
(v) Cost dependent on traffic factor such as congestion, volume to capacity ratio, flow
characteristics, composition of traffic etc.
(vi) Value of occupant's time and
(vii) Accident costs.
The costs of vehicle operation and time for unit distance may be taken as :
(b + c)
T =a+
speed
Where
a = running cost per unit distance, independent of journey time
b = a fixed hourly cost, dependent on speeds
c = the portion of the running cost which is dependent on speed
Problems
1. Calculate the operating cost of a passenger car for 100 km length of a rural highway with no
sharp curves for most economical speed of vehicles operation using the following data and
charts given in Figs.
Gradients level for 25 km, 0 to 2% for 55 km, 4% for 15 km and
6% for 5 km.
Pavement surface condition good
Fuel cost Rs. 8.50 per litre
Tyre cost Rs. 950 per tyre
N o. of stops enroute 10 stops without delay, 5 with 45sec delay and 4 with
60 sec delay
Time cost per vehicle hour Rs. 3.00
Depreciation cost of vehicle 5 paise per km
Speed 42 kmph upto 80 km, 40 kmph from 80 km to 95 km
and 45 kmph from 95 km to100 km.
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Solution
i) Fuel cost

Economical Fuel
Gradient Length Total fuel
operation speed consumption
% km litre
kmph litre/km
Level 42 25 0.07 1.50
0-2 42 55 0.09 4.95
4 40 15 0.12 1.80
6 45 5 0.17 0.85
Total 100 Total 9.10

Total fuel Total fuel for 100 km = 9.10 litre

Total fuel cost = 9.10 × 8.55 = Rs. 77.35

ii) Tyre cost

Adopting an average economical running speed of about 42 kmph.
Tyre life on good pavement surface (From tyre life chart) = 32.000 km
950 950 × 4 × 100
∴ Cost of 4 tyres on 100 km. Stretch of Rs. per tyre = = Rs. 11.88
− 32000
iii) Time cost for vehicle
Using the time cost curve of Rs. 3.00 per vehicle-hour (time cost curve ) the cost per
vehicle – km at 42 kmph speed at 16 paise, time cost for 100 km = Rs. 16.00.
iv) Additional Cost for Stopping
For average approach speed of 42 kmph (using Additional Cost per Stopping) additional
operating cost for:
10 tops with no delay at 14 paise = Rs. 1.40
5 stops of 45 seconds delay at 18 paise = Rs.0.90
4 stops of 60 seconds delay at 19 paise = Rs.0.76
Total Stopping cost = Rs 3.06
v) Depreciation Cost
Depreciation cost at 5 paise per km for 100 km = Rs.5.00
vi) Total Vehicle Operation Cost for 100 km
At economical operating speed = 77.35 + 11.88 + 16 + 3.06 + 5
= Rs. 113.29
Annual cost method
The items to be included while computing annual highway cost are:
(i) Portion of Administration cost such as Personal service, Building, Equipment operation, office,
insurance etc.
(ii) Highway operation cost such as equipment, building, and vehicle operation including capital
costs of vehicle.
(iii)Highway maintenance

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(iv) capital cost on highway components such as right of way, damages, earthwork, drainage
system, pavement bridges and traffic services depreciation cost and interest on investment.
(iv) Probable life and salvage value at the end of this period.
The average annual highway cost for road system may be summed up by the formula
Ca = H + T + M + Cr
Where
Ca = average annual cost of ownership and operation
T = average cost for administration and management at head quarters. Average annual
highway operation cost.
M= average annual highway maintenance cost.
Cr= average annual capital cost of depreciation of investment plus interest on capital or the
capital recovery with return on capital

i(1 + i )n
Cr = P [ ]
(1 + i )n − 1
Where
P = first cost of improvement of an element of a highway
i = rate of interest per unit period
n = number of interest periods
the average annual capital cost Cr for project considering salvage value may be estimated using
following formula
i( 1 + i ) n
Cr = (C − Vs ) [ ] + iVs + M
(1 + i )n − 1
Where
C = total investment on construction
Vs= salvage value at the end of n years
i = rate of interest
n = number of interest periods
M= average annual maintenance cost
Problems
1. Calculate the annual cost of a stretch of highway from the following particulars:
Total cost, Estimated life, Rate of
Item
lakhs years interest, %
Land 12 100 6
Earth 9 40 8
Bridges and culverts 7.5 60 8
Pavement 14 15 10
The average cost of maintenance of road is Rs. 1.5 lakhs per year.
Solution
i(1+i )n
Annual cost Cr = P [(1+i )n− 1]
0.06(1 + 0.06 )100
Annual cost of land = 12 [ ] = Rs. 0.72216 lakhs
(1 + 0.06 )100 − 1

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0.08(1 + 0.08 )40

Annual cost of earth work = 9 [ ] = Rs. 0.75474 lakhs
(1 + 0.08 )40 − 1
0.08(1 + 0.08 )60
Annual cost of Bridges and culverts = 7.5 [ ] = Rs. 0.606 lakhs
(1 + 0.08 )60 − 1
0.1(1 + 0.1 )15
Annual cost of Pavement = 14 [ ] = Rs. 1.84058 lakhs
(1 + 0.1 )15 − 1
Average annual maintenance cost = Rs. 1.5 lakhs
Total annual cost of highway = 0.72216 + 0.75474 + 0.606 + 1.84058 + 1.5
= Rs. 5.42348 lakhs
2. Compare the annual costs of two types of pavement structures, (i) WBM with thin bituminous
surface at total cost of Rs. 2.2 lakhs per km, life of 5 years, interest at 10%, salvage value of Rs.
0.9 lakhs after 5 years; annual average maintenance cost of Rs. 0.35 lakhs per km and (ii)
Bituminous Macadam base and bituminous concrete surface, total cost of Rs. 4.2 lakhs, life of
15 years interest at 8%, salvage value of 2.0 lakhs at the end of 15 years; annual average
maintenance cost Rs. 0.25 lakhs per km.
Solution
Annual average cost taking salvage value into consideration,
i( 1 + i ) n
Cr = (C − Vs ) [ ] + iVs + M
(1 + i )n − 1
i) Annual cost of pavement with WBM base and thin bituminous surface course
0.10(1+0.10 )5
= (2.2 − 0.9) [ (1+0.1 )5 − 1
] + 0.1 × 0.9 + 0.35 = Rs. 0.78294 lakhs
ii) Annual cost of the bituminous pavement
0.08(1+0.08 )15
= (4.2 − 2) [ (1+0.08 )15− 1 ] + 0.08 × 2 + 0.25 = Rs. 0.66703 lakhs
The average annual cost of the bituminous pavement is lower and therefore works out to be more
economical when compared with the pavement with WBM base course
Benefit cost ratio method
The principle of this method is to assess the merit of a particular scheme by comparing the
annual benefits with the increase in annual cost
annual benefits from improvement
Benefit cost ratio =
annual cost of the improvement
R − R1
=
H1 − H
Where R = total annual road user cost for existing highway
R1= total annual road user cost for proposed highway improvement
H = total annual cost of existing road
H1 = total annual cost of proposed highway improvement
The benefit-cost ratios are determined between alternate proposals and those plans which are not
attractive are discarded. Then the benefit cost ratios for various increments of added investment are
computed to arrive at the best proposal. In order to justify the proposed improvement, the ratio should
be greater than 1.0. However, the choice of interest rate would affect the results of the benefit-cost
solutions.
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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Module - 4

Problems
1. It is proposed to widen a stretch of a single lane road of length 40 per/km to two lanes at a total
cost of Rs. 6.5 lakhs per/km and the rate of interest is 10% per year. The annual cost of
maintenance of the existing single lane road is Rs. 7,000 per/km. and that of the improved two
lane road is Rs. 9,000 per/km. The average vehicle operation cost on the existing road is Rs.
1.30 per vehicle-km and that on the improved is estimated to be Rs. 1.15 per vehicle-km. If
present traffic is 2000 motor vehicles per day and by the end of 15 years design period the
traffic is estimated to be doubled, determine whether the investment on the improvement of the
road is economically viable, during the 15 years period.
Solution
Average traffic during the design period = (2000 + 4000)/2 = 3000 mv/day
Average road user cost on existing road per year = 365 x 40 × 3000 × 1.30 = Rs. 569.4 lakhs
Average road user cost on improved road per year = 365 × 40 × 3000 × 1.15 = Rs. 503.7 lakhs
Total benefits = 569.4 - 503.7 = Rs. 65.7 lakhs
Total cost of improvement, P=6.5 x 40 = Rs. 260.0 lakhs
i(1+i )n 0.10(1+0.1) 15
Present annual cost of improvement, Cr = P [(1+i )n− 1]= 260 [ (1+0.1)15 − 1 ]
= Rs. 34.182 lakhs
Additional maintenance cost per year = Rs. (9000 - 7000) × 40 = Rs. 0.80 lakhs
Total cost = present annual cost of improvement and additional maintenance cost per year
= 34.182 + 0.80 = Rs. 34.982 lakhs
65.7
Benefit cost ratio = = 1.878
34.982
As this is greater than 1.0, the project is economically viable.
Net Present Value (NPV) Method
The NPV method is based on the discounted cash flow (DCF) technique. In this
method, the stream of costs and benefits associated with the project over its time horizon is
calculated and is discounted at a selected discount rate to give the present value. B enefits
are treated as positive and costs are treated as negative. Any project with a positive NPV is
treated as acceptable. In comparing more than one project, a project with the highest NPV
is selected.
The NPV is algebraically expressed as:
𝐵1 − 𝐶1 𝐵2 − 𝐶2 𝐵𝑛 − 𝐶𝑛
𝑁𝑉𝑃0 = (𝐵0 − 𝐶0 ) + + 2
…..+
(1 + 𝑖) (1 + 𝑖) (1 + 𝑖)𝑛

Where NPVo = Net Present Value in the year 0

Bt = Value of benefits which occur in the year t
Ct = Value of costs which occur in the year t
i = discount rate per annum
n = number of years considered for analysis .

Problems
1. The cost of improving an existing road, 25 km long, is Rs. 4.00 lakhs per km. The (i) road

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Module - 4

user costs, with and without the improvements, (ii) accident costs, with and without
improvement, and (iii) maintenance costs, with and without the improvements are
tabulated in the following table for a 10 year period after the completion of the
improvements. Assuming a discount rate of 10 per cent, find out whether the project is
economically justifiable. Use the NPV method.

Road User Costs Accident Costs Maintenance Costs

(Rs. in lakhs) (Rs. in lakhs) (Rs. in lakhs)
Year With Without With Without With Without
improvement improvement improvement improvement improvement improvement
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 - - - - - -
1 105.5 126.5 1.1 3.1 3.5 2.5
2 110.3 132.2 1.1 3.1 3.5 2.5
3 115.8 138.9 1.2 3.5 3.5 2.5
4 121.6 145.8 1.2 3.7 3.5 2.5
5 127.6 153.0 1.3 3.8 3.5 2.5
6 134.0 161.0 1.3 4.0 3.5 2.5
7 140.7 168.9 1.4 4.0 3.5 2.5
8 147.8 177.0 1.5 4.4 3.5 2.5
9 155.1 186.2 1.6 4.7 3.5 2.5
10 162.9 195.2 1.6 4.9 3.5 2.5

Solution

Maintenance 𝐵𝑡 − 𝐶𝑡
Year Road User Costs Accident Costs
(Rs. in lakhs (Rs. in lakhs)
Costs Bt-Ct (1 + 𝑖)𝑡
(Rs. in lakhs) 2+4+6- =
With Without With Without With Without (1+3+5) 𝐵𝑡 − 𝐶𝑡
impro. impro. impro. impro. impro. impro 7 (1 + 0.1)10
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 105.5 126.5 1.1 3.1 3.5 2.5 22.0 + 20.0
2 110.3 132.2 1.1 3.1 3.5 2.5 23.1 + 19.1
3 115.8 138.9 1.2 3.5 3.5 2.5 24.4 + 18.4
4 121.6 145.8 1.2 3.7 3.5 2.5 25.5 + 17.6
5 127.6 153.0 1.3 3.8 3.5 2.5 26.9 + 16.7
6 134.0 161.0 1.3 4.0 3.5 2.5 28.7 + 16.2
7 140.7 168.9 1.4 4.0 3.5 2.5 30.0 + 15.4
8 147.8 177.0 1.5 4.4 3.5 2.5 31.1 + 14.5
9 155.1 186.2 1.6 4.7 3.5 2.5 33.2 + 14.1
10 162.9 195.2 1.6 4.9 3.5 2.5 34.6 + 13.4

+ 165.4

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Module - 4

Cost of improvements = Rs. 25 x 4 = Rs. 100lakhs

NPV = (+ Rs. 165.4 - Rs. 100) lakhs = + Rs. 65.4lakhs
Since the NPV is positive, the project is economically justified.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method
The internal rate of return is the discount rate which makes the discounted future benefits
equal to the initial outlay. In other words, it is the discount rate which makes the stream of
cash flows to zero. Equation is as below, assuming B0= 0

𝐵1 − 𝐶1 𝐵2 − 𝐶2 𝐵𝑛 − 𝐶𝑛
𝐶0 = + …..+
(1 + 𝑖) (1 + 𝑖)2 (1 + 𝑖)𝑛
𝑛
𝐵𝑡 − 𝐶𝑡
=∑
(1 + 𝑖)𝑡
𝑡=1
The solution to the above equation can be done by trial and error, a rather tedious process.
With a computer programme, the work is rendered very simple.
If the internal rate of return calculated from the above formula is greater than the rate of
interest obtainable by investing the capital in the open market, the scheme is considered
acceptable.

BOT
BOT means Build Operate & Transfer. Under this scheme the private participant will not own the
facility. The private participant would be entitled to operate the facility for a specific period during
which the revenues from the operation would be shared between the private participant and the
Government or the Government will be paid lease charges by the private participant. On
completion of the specified time the facility will be transferred to the Government.
BOOT
BOOT means Build Own Operate & Transfer. Under this scheme the private participant will get an
opportunity to own and operate the facility for some time and during this period the developer can
commercially exploit the facility so developed. After the specified period the facility would be
transferred to the Government.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Module – 5
Elements of Railways and Airport Engineering

Railways
Introduction
Different Modes of Transport: Our environment consists of land, air, and water. These
media have provided scope for three modes of transport-land transport, air transport and
water transport. Rail transport and road transport are the two components of land transport.
Each mode of transport, depending upon its various characteristics, has intrinsic strengths and
weaknesses.
Objectives
 Understand the history and development, role of railways, railway planning and
development based on essential criteria’s.
Significance of Road, Rail, Air and Water transports – Coordination of all modes to
achieve sustainability
Rail transport Owing to the heavy expenditure on the basic infrastructure required, rail
transport is best suited for carrying bulk commodities and a large number of passengers over
long distances. This is the most commonly used and cost effective long distance transport
system of the country.
Road transport Owing to flexibility of operation and the ability to provide door-to-door
service, road transport is ideally suited for carrying light commodities and a small number of
passengers over short distances. The importance of roads in connecting the vast rural areas of
India to form the national market and economy cannot be overstated. Connectivity provided
by roads is perhaps the single most important determinant of well being and the quality of life
of people living in an urban area. The efficiency of the innumerable government programmes
aimed at rural development, employment generation, and local industrialization is, to large
extent, determined by the connectivity provided by roads.
Air transport Owing to the heavy expenditure on the sophisticated equipment required and
the high fuel costs, air transport is better suited for carrying passengers or goods that have to
reach their destinations in a very short period of time. Air transport is an integral part of
transport infrastructure and a significant sector of the economy. Airports are recognized for
their ability to multiply business activity in their proximity and development. Aviation
creates a large number of jobs.
Water transport Owing to low cost of infrastructure and relatively slow speeds, water
transport is best suited for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances, provided there
is no consideration of the time factor. Water transport is the cheapest and the oldest mode of
transport. It operates on a natural track and hence does not require huge capital investment in
the construction and maintenance of its track except in case of canals. The cost of operation of
water transport is also very less. It has the largest carrying capacity and is most suitable for
carrying bulky goods over long distances. It has played a very significant role in bringing
different parts of the world closer and is indispensable to foreign trade.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Elements of permanent way
• Sub-grade
• Ballast
• Sleepers
• Rails
• Fixture and Fastening

• The track or permanent way is the rail road on which trains run.
• The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade is
called the railway track or permanent way.
• In a permanent way, the rails are joined in series by fish plates and bolts and then they
are to sleepers by different types of fastenings.
• The sleepers properly spaced, resting on ballast, are suitably packed and boxed with
ballast.
• The layer of ballast rests on the prepared subgrade called the formation.
• The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load to the sleepers.
• The sleepers hold the rails in proper position with respect to the proper tilt, gauge and
level, and transmit the load from rails to the ballast.
• The ballast distributes the load over the formation and holds the sleepers in position.
• On curved tracks, super elevation is maintained by ballast and the formation is
levelled. Minimum cushion is maintained at the inner rail, while the outer rail gets
kept more ballast cushion.
• Permanent track is regarded to be semi-elastic in nature.
• There is possibility of track getting disturbed by the moving wheel loads.
• The track should be therefore be constructed and maintained keeping the requirements
of a permanent way, in view, so as to achieve higher speed and better riding qualities
with less future maintenance.

Following are some of the basic requirements of a permanent way:

• The gauge should be correct and uniform.
• The rails should be in proper level. In a straight track, two rails must be at the same
level. On curves, the outer rail should have proper super elevation and there should be

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proper transition at the junction of a straight and a curve.
• The alignment should be correct i.e., it should be free from irregularities.
• The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. Any change of gradient
should be followed by a smooth vertical curve, to give smooth riding quality.
• The track should be resilient and elastic in order to adsorb shocks and vibrations of
running tracks.
• The radii and super elevation on curves should be properly designed and maintained.
• Drainage system must be perfect for enhancing safety and durability of track.
• Joints, including points and crossings which are regarded to be weakest points of the
railway track, should be properly designed and maintained.
• There should be adequate provision for easy renewals and replacements.
• The track structure should be strong, low in initial cost as well as maintenance cost.
• The various components of track i.e., rails, fittings, sleepers, ballast and formation
must fully satisfy the requirements for which they have been provided. If any
component is lacking in fulfilling its requirements then either it should be improved or
replaced.

Broad gauge- The BG lines have been classified into six group ‘A’ to ‘E’ on the basis of the
future maximum permissible speeds and traffic load
Group ‘A’ - speeds up to 160 km per hour
Group ‘B’ - speeds up to 130 km per hour
Group ‘C’ – Suburban lines
Group ‘D’ - speeds up to 110 km per hour – traffic density ≥ 20GMT
Group ‘E’ – All other routes speeds up to 100 km per hour

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Coning of wheels
• The distance between the inside edges of wheel flanges is generally kept less than the
gauge of the track.
• So there is a gap between the wheel flanges and running edges of the rails, nearly
equal to 1cm on either side.
• These wheels are coned at a slope of 1 in 20.

The advantages of coning of the wheels are

– To reduce the wear and tear of the wheel flanges and rails.
– To provide a possibility of lateral movement of the axle with its wheels.
– To prevent the wheels from slipping to some extent.
– It provides a smooth ride.
– It helps the train to negotiate a curve smoothly.

Tilting of rails
• Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to reduce wear and tear on the rails as
well as on the tread of the wheels.
• As the pressure of the wheel acts near the inner edge of the rail, there is heavy wear
and tear of the rail.
• Lateral bending stresses are also created due to eccentric loading of rails.
• To reduce the wear and tear as well as lateral stresses, rails are tilted at a slope of 1 in
20, which is also the slope of wheel cone.

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Rails
• Rails on the track can be considered as steel girders for the purpose of carrying axle
loads.
• They are made of high carbon steel to withstand wear and tear.

Types of Rails
The rails used in the construction of railway track are of following types:
1. Double headed rails (D.H Rails)
2. Bull headed rails (B.H Rails)
3. Flat footed rails (F.F Rails)

Double headed rails

The rail sections, whose foot and head are of same dimensions, are called Double
headed or Dumb-bell rails. In the beginning, these rails were widely used in the railway track.
The idea behind using these rails was that when the head had worn out due to rubbing action
of wheels, the rails could be inverted and reused. But by experience it was found that their
foot could not be used as running surface because it also got corrugated under the impact of
wheel loads. This type of rail is not in use in Indian Railways now-a day.

Bull headed rails

The rail section whose head dimensions are more than that of their foot are called bull
headed rails. In this type of rail the head is made little thicker and stronger than the lower part
by adding more metal to it. These rails also require chairs for holding them in position. Bull
headed rails are especially used for making points and crossings.
Merits
(i) B.H. Rails keep better alignment and provide smoother and stronger track.
(ii) These rails provide longer life to wooden sleepers and greater stability to the track.
(iii) These rails are easily removed from sleepers and hence renewal of track is easy.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Demerits
(i) B.H. rails require additional cost of iron chairs.
(ii) These rails require heavy maintenance cost.
(iii) B.H. rails are of less strength and stiffness.

Flat footed rails

The rail sections having their foot rolled to flat are called flat footed or vignole`s rails.
This type of rail was invented by Charles Vignole in 1836. It was initially thought that the flat
footed rails could by fixed directly to wooden sleepers and would eliminate chairs and keys
required for the B.H. rails. But later on, it was observed that heavy train loads caused the foot
of the rail to sink into the sleepers and making the spikes loose. To remove this defect, steel
bearing plates were used in between flat footed rails and the wooden sleeper. These rails are
most commonly used in India.
Merits
(i) F.F. rails have more strength and stiffness.
(ii) No chairs are required for holding them in position.
(iii) These rails require less number of fastenings.
(iv) The maintenance cost of track formed with F.F. rails is less.
Demerits
(i) The fittings get loosened more frequently.
(ii) These rails are not easily removed and hence renewal of track becomes difficult.
(iii) It is difficult to manufacture points and crossings by using these rails.

Functions of rails
1. Rails provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for passage of heavy moving
loads with a maximum friction between the steel rails and steel wheels.
2. Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and braking
forces and thermal stresses.
3. The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear to avoid replacement
charges and failures of rails due to wear.
4.
Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently reduce pressure on ballast and
formation below.
Composition of rail steel
• For ordinary rails: high carbon steel
• For rails on points and crossing: medium carbon steel

Requirements of Rails
1. They should be of proper composition of steel and should be manufactured by open
fireplace or duplex process.
2. The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit the load to several sleepers
underneath. The height of rail should therefore adequate.
3. Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces. Large width of head and foot
endows the rails with high lateral stiffness.
4. The head must be sufficiently deep to allow for an adequate margin of vertical wear.
The wearing surface should be hard.
5. Web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it and should
provide adequate flexural rigidity.

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6. Foot should be wide enough so that rails are stable against overturning especially on
curves.
7. Bottom of the head and top of the foot of rails should be so shaped as to enable the
fish plates to transmit the vertical load efficiently from the head to the foot at rail
joints.
8. Relative distribution of material of rail in head, web and foot must be balanced for
smooth transmission of loads.
9. The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie approximately at mid height so that
maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
10. The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be less than 72kg/m2.

Sleepers:
Sleepers are members generally laid transverse to the rails on which the rails are
supported and fixed, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and subgrade below.

Functions of sleepers
1. To hold the rails to correct gauge.
2. To hold the rails in proper level or transverse tilt so as to provide a firm and even
supports to rails.
3. To act as an elastic medium in between the ballast and rails to absorb the blows and
vibrations of moving loads.
4. To distribute the load from the rails to the index area of ballast underlying it or to the
girders in case of bridges.
5. Sleepers also add to the longitudinal and lateral stability of the permanent track on the
whole.
6. They also provide means to rectify track geometry during service life.

Requirements of sleepers
1. The sleepers to be used should be economical i.e., they should have minimum
possible initial and maintenance costs.
2. The fittings of the sleepers should be such that they can be easily adjusted during
maintenance operations such as easy lifting, packing, removal and replacement.
3. The weight of sleepers should not be too heavy or excessively light i.e., they should
have moderate weight for ease of handling.
4. The design of sleepers should be such that the gauge, alignment of track and levels of
the rails can be easily adjusted and maintained.
5. The bearing area of sleepers below the rail seat and over the ballast should be enough
to resist the crushing due to rail seat and crushing of the ballast underneath the
sleeper.
6. The sleeper design and spacing should be such as to facilitate easy removal and
replacement of ballast.
7. The sleepers should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations due to passing of
heavy loads of high speed trains.
8. The design of the sleepers should be such that they are not damaged during packing
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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
processes.
9. The design of sleepers should be such that they are not pushed out easily due to
moving trains especially with steel sleepers.

Classification of sleepers
1. Wooden sleepers
2. Metal sleepers
a. Cast-iron sleepers
b. Steel sleepers
3. Concrete sleepers
a. Reinforced concrete sleepers
b. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers

Wooden/Timber Sleepers
• Wooden sleepers are regarded to be best as they fulfill almost all the requirements of
ideal sleeper.
• Their life depends upon their ability to resist wear, decay, attack by vermin (white
ants) and quality of timber used.
Advantages:
– Timber is easily available in all the parts of India.
– Fittings for wooden sleepers are few and simple in design.
– These sleepers are able to resist shocks and vibrations due to heavy moving loads and
also give less noisy track.
– These are easy to lay, relay, pack, lift and maintain.
– These are suitable for all types of ballast.
– Wooden sleepers are over-all economical.

Disadvantages:
– These sleepers are subjected to wear, decay, attack by white ants, warping, cracking,
end splitting, rail cutting etc.
– It is difficult to maintain gauge in the case of wooden sleepers.
– Track is easily disturbed.
– Wooden sleepers have got minimum service life (12-15 years) as compared to other
types.
– Maintenance cost of wooden sleepers is highest as compared to other types.

Metal Sleepers
• Due to growing scarcity of wooden sleepers, high cost and short life metal sleepers
were being used.
• Metal sleepers are either of cast-iron or steel. Cast-iron is in greater use because of its
resistance to corrosion.
Advantages:

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
– Metal sleepers are uniform in strength and durability.
– In metal sleepers, the performance of fittings is better and hence lesser creep occurs.
– Metal sleepers are economical as life is longer and maintenance is easier.
– Gauge can be easily adjusted and maintained.
– Frequent renewal is not required.
– Have good scrap value, easy to manufacture and not susceptible to fire hazards.
Disadvantages:
o More ballast is required than other types of sleepers.
o Fittings required are greater in number and difficult to maintain/inspect.
o They are liable to rusting/corrosion.
o Metal being good conductor of electricity interferes with track circuiting.
o They are unsuitable for bridges, level crossings and in case of points and crossings.
o These are only suitable for stone ballast and for rails which they are manufactured.

Concrete Sleepers
These are made of strong homogenous material, impervious to effects of moisture, and
is unaffected by the chemical attack of atmospheric gases or subsoil salts.
These can easily moulded to size and shape required to withstand stresses produced by
fast and heavy traffic.
Advantages:
o These are free from natural decay and attack by vermin etc.
o They have maximum life as compared to others (40-60 years)
o These are not affected by moisture, chemical action of ballast and subsoil salts.
o There is no difficulty in track circuiting of electrified tracks.
o Increased weight helps to reduces joint maintenance, greater stability of track and
better resistance against temperature variation.
o These have higher elastic modulus and hence can withstand the stresses induced by
fast and heavy traffic.
o They offer an ideal track in respect of gauge, cross-level and alignment.

Disadvantages:
o The weight of concrete sleeper is as high as 2.5 to 3 times of wooden sleeper, requiring
the mechanical appliances for handling.
o These require pads and plugs for spikes.
o They damage the bottom edge during packing.
o The scrap value is almost nil.
o The damages to the concrete sleepers are very heavy in case of derailment.
Spacing of sleepers and sleeper density
• The space between two adjacent sleepers determines the effective span of the rail over
the sleepers.
• The spacing of sleepers, therefore in a track depends on the axle load which the track is
expected to carry and lateral thrust of locomotives to which it is subjected.
• The number of sleepers in a track is indicated by the number per rail length.
• Since sleeper also provides lateral stability to the track, so more the number of sleepers
more is the lateral stability.
• The number of sleepers however cannot be increased indefinitely as certain minimum
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space between sleepers is required for packing of ballast.
• In India, this minimum distance for manual packing of ballast is kept 30.5cm to 35.5cm
• The number of sleepers per rail varies in India from M+4 to M+7 for main tracks,
where M= length of rail in metres.
• Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length and it is specified as M+x or
N+x, where M is the length of the rail in metres( N is the length of rail in yards) and x
is a number, varying according to the factors.
• Factors governing the sleeper density are: axle load, speed, type and section of the rails,
type of ballast and ballast cushion, type and strength of sleepers and nature of
foundation.
Ballast
• It is the granular material usually broken stone or brick, shingle or kankar, gravel or
sand placed and packed below and around the sleepers to transmit load from sleepers,
to formation and at the same time allowing drainage of the track.
• It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers and also holds the sleepers in their
correct level and position, preventing their displacement by lateral or longitudinal
thrusts.
• The lateral stability of track depends on the ballast.
Functions of ballast
• It transfers the load from the sleeper to the subgrade and then distributes it uniformly
over a larger area of the formation.
• It holds the sleepers in position and prevents the lateral and longitudinal movement,
due to dynamic loads and vibrations of moving trains.
• It imparts some degree of elasticity of the track.
• It provides easy means of maintaining the correct levels of the two lines of a track and
for correcting track alignment.
• It provides good drained foundation immediately below the sleepers and helps to
protect the top surface of the formation. This is achieved by providing coarse and
rough aggregates with plenty of voids.
Requirements of the good ballast
 It should be able to withstand hard packing without disintegrating. In other words it
should resist crushing under dynamic loads.
 It should not make the track dusty or muddy due powder under dynamic wheel loads but
should be capable of being cleaned to provide good drainage.
 It should allow for easy drainage with minimum soakage and the voids should be large
enough to prevent capillary action.
 It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering. Abrasion means wear due rubbing
action of particles with each other and weathering means cracking and shattering of the
material due to variation in temperature, moisture and freezing.
 It should retain its position laterally and longitudinally under all conditions of traffic,
particularly on curves, where it should be able to prevent transverse displacement of
sleepers.
 It should not produce any chemical action in rail and metal sleepers
 The size of stone ballast should be 5cm for wooden sleepers, 4cm for metal sleepers and
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2.5cm for turnouts and crossovers.
 The materials should be easily workable by means of the implements in use.
 The ballast should be available in nearby quarries so that it reduces the cost of supply. It
should also fulfil the requirements of quality, amount of traffic, life and maintenance cost.

Types of ballast
 Broken stone
 Gravel or river pebbles or shingle
 Ashes or cinders
 Sand
 Moorum
 Kankar
 Brick ballast
 Blast furnace slag
 Selected earth

Track fittings and fastenings

Track fittings and fastenings are fittings requires for joining of rails end to end and also for
fixing the rails to sleepers in a track.

Functions of track fittings and fastenings

Rail fixtures and fastenings have the following functions:
(i) To join the rails end to end to form full length of track.
(ii) To fix the rails to sleepers.To maintain the correct alignment of the track.
(iii) To provide proper expansion gap between rails.
(iv)To maintain the required tilt of rails.
(v) To set the points and crossings in proper position.

Fish plates
Fish plates are used in rail joints to maintain the continuity of the rails.
Two types of fish plates are commonly used on Indian Railways for joining F.F. and
B.H. rails, each fish plate is 457 mm long and provided with four holes 32 mm at a spacing of
114 mm c/c.
These are manufactured of steel and are so designed that they fit in between the head
and foot of the rail.

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Requirements of fish plates

(i) They should hold the adjoining ends of rails in correct horizontal and vertical plane.
(ii) They should allow free longitudinal movements of rails due to temperature variation.
(iii) They should be able to resist all types of wear.
(iv) They should allow easy renewal and replacement of rails in case of wear and damage.

Bearing plates
• Bearing plates are cast iron or steel plates placed in between the F.F rail and wooden
sleepers of a railway track.
• F.F. rails if fixed directly on wooden sleepers sink in the sleeper due to the heavy
loads of trains and thus loosen the spikes.
• To overcome this difficulty bearing plates are used under F.F. rails to distribute the
load over a wider area and bring the intensity of pressure within limit.

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Advantages
(i) They distribute the loads to wider area and prevent sinking of the rail to the sleeper.
(ii) They enable the spikes to remain tight and require less maintenance.
(iii) Bearing plates prevent the widening of gauge on curves.
(iv) Bearing plates increase the overall stability of the track.
(v) They prevent the destruction of the sleeper due to rubbing action of the rail.
Disadvantages

i. When the bearing plates become loose due to settlement of ballast, moisture is likely
to enter between the sleepers and plates, causing sleepers to wear.
ii. When any spike is damaged and it is required to be redriven at another place, all other
spikes of the bearing plates have to be removed, which will reduce the holding power
of the spikes.
Spikes
Requirements of a good spike
(i) It should be easy in fixing or removing from the sleepers.
(ii) It should hold the rails and bearing plates in proper position.
(iii) It should be cheap.
(iv) It should require minimum maintenance.
(v) It should not come out of the sleepers under vibrations.
Dog spikes: Dog spikes are the cheaper type of spikes which hold the rails at correct gauge
and can be easily fixed and removed. These are commonly used for holding F.F. rails. Four
dog spikes are used per sleeper, two on either side of the rail.

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Screw spikes
Screw spikes are tapered screws with V-threads. Their head is circular with a square
projection and are used to fasten rails with wooden sleepers. The holding power of these
spikes is more than double to that of dog spikes and can resist the lateral thrust better than the
dog spikes.

Round spikes
Round spikes are used for fixing chairs of B.H. rails to wooden sleepers and also for
fixing slide chairs of points and crossings. These have both cylindrical or hemispherical
head and blunt end.
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Elastic spikes
Elastic spikes are used for fixing F.F. rails to wooden sleepers. These give better grip
and result in reduction of wear and tear of rail. The advantage of this type of spike is that it is
not pulled up by the wave action of the moving train.

Bolts

Fish bolts
Fish bolts are used for connecting fish plates with the rails. Four bolts are required for
each pair of fish plates. These bolts are inserted from outside the track and bolted on the
inside of the track.
Hook bolts
Hook bolts are also known as dog bolts due to the shape of their heads. These bolts
are used to fix sleepers which rest directly on a girder. Two bolts per sleeper are used. Dog
bolts are of two types.
(i) Sloping lips- for fixing sleepers to plate girder spans.
(ii) Straight lips- for fixing sleepers to joint spans.
Fang bolts
Fang bolts are used for fixing side chairs to sleepers. These are alternative to screw or
round spikes. The fang bolts are found to be more effective but are not generally used,

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because fixing and removal of these bolts are difficult.

Chairs

Keys
These are small tapered pieces of timber or steel used to fix rails to chairs on metal sleepers.
Keys are of two types
(i) Wooden keys
(ii) Metal keys
Wooden keys are small straight or tapered pieces of timber. These are cheap and
easily prepared. These are not strong and become loose under vibrations. These require
frequent maintenance. Wooden keys are not used now-a day in Indian Railways.
Metal keys are small tapered or spring like pieces of steel. These keys are much more
durable than wooden keys. Metal keys are of two types.
(i) Stuart`s key and
(ii) Morgan key

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Airports
Introduction
Air transport has the following characteristics:
1. Unbroken Journey: Air transport provides unbroken journey over land and sea. It is the
fastest and quickest means of transport.
2. Rapidity: Air transport had the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
3. Expensive: Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge
investment in purchasing aero planes and constructing of aerodromes.
4. Special Preparations: Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links,
meteorological stations, flood lights, searchlights etc.
Advantages:
1. High Speed: The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode
of transport and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.
2. Comfortable and Quick Services: It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient and quick
service.
3. No Investment in Construction of Track: It does not require huge capital investment in the
construction and maintenance of surface track.
4. No Physical Barriers: It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests
do not come in the way of air transport.
5. Easy Access: Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are
not accessible by other means of transport.
6. Emergency Services: It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be
operated due to the floods or other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only mode
of transport which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential
commodities of life.
7. Quick Clearance: In air transport, custom formalities can be very quickly complied with
and thus it avoids delay in obtaining clearance.
8. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of High Value: It is most suitable for carrying
goods of perishable nature which require quick delivery and light goods of high value such as
diamonds, bullion etc. over long distances.
9. National Defence: Air transport plays a very important role in the defence of a country.
Modern wars have been fought mainly by aeroplanes. It has upper hand in destroying the
enemy in a very short period of time. It also supports over wings of defence of a country.
10. Space Exploration: Air transport has helped the world in the exploration of space.
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Disadvantages:
In spite of many advantages, air transport has the following limitations:
1. Very Costly: It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high that
it is beyond the reach of the common man.
2. Small Carrying Capacity: Its carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable to
carry cheap and bulky goods.
3. Uncertain and Unreliable: Air transport is uncertain and unreliable as it is controlled to a
great extent by weather conditions. Unfavourable weather such as fog, snow or heavy rain
etc. may cause cancellation of scheduled flights and suspension of air service.
4. Breakdowns and Accidents: The chances of breakdowns and accidents are high as
compared to other modes of transport. Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.
5. Large Investment: It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and
maintenance of aeroplanes. Further, very trained and skilled persons are required for
operating air service.
6. Specialised Skill: Air transport requires a specialised skill and high degree of training for
its operation.
7. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods: Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap,
bulky and heavy goods because of its limited capacity and high cost.
8. Legal Restrictions: There are many legal restrictions imposed by various countries in the
interest of their own national unity and peace.
Layout of an airport with component parts and functions

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Therefore, the main components of airport are
1. Runway
2. Terminal Building
3. Apron
4. Taxiway
5. Aircraft Stand
6. Hanger
7. Control Tower
8. Parking
Runways: It is the most important part of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow
rectangular strip which actually used for landing and takeoff operations. It has turfed (grassy)
shoulders on both sides. The width of runway and area of shoulders is called the landing strip.
The runway is located in the centre of landing strip. The length of landing strip is somewhat
larger than the runway strip in order to accommodate the stop way to stop the aircraft in case
of abandoned takeoff.
The length and width of runway should be sufficient to accommodate the aircraft which is
likely to be served by it. The length of runway should be sufficient to accelerate the aircraft to
the point of takeoff and should be enough such that the aircraft clearing the threshold of
runway by 15m should be brought to stop with in the 60% of available runway length. The
length of runway depends on various meteorological and topographical conditions.
Transverse gradients should not be less than 0.5% but should always be greater than 0.5%.
Terminal Buildings: Also known as airport terminal, these buildings are the spaces where
passengers board or alight from flights. These buildings house all the necessary facilities for
passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the customs and have lounges to wait before
disembarking. The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve as waiting areas for
passengers. Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security checks and customs are the
basics of all airport terminals.
Aprons: Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park. Aprons are also sometimes
called ramps. They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very
large areas that the major airports have.
Taxiway: Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible which connects runway with loading
apron or service and maintenance hangers or with another runway. They are used for the
movement of aircraft on the airfields for various purposes such as exit or landing, exit for
takeoff etc. The speed of aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off or landing
speed.
The taxiway should be laid on such a manner to provide the shortest possible path and to
prevent the interference of landed aircraft taxying towards loading apron and the taxiing
aircraft running towards the runway. The intersection of runway and taxiway should be given
proper attention because during turning operation, this part comes under intense loading. If it
is weaker then the aero plane may fell down from taxiway. Its longitudinal grade should not
be greater than 3% while it s transverse gradient should not be less than 0.5%. It is also
provided with a shoulder of 7.5m width paved with bituminous surfacing. The taxiway
should be visible from a distance of 300m to a pilot at 3m height from the ground.
Aircraft Stand: A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide
access to aircraft stands only.

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Hangers: A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in
protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood and
concrete are also used. Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight,
maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft
carrier.
Control Tower: A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is controlled by radio and
observed physically and by radar.
Parking: Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park

Aircraft Characteristics Affecting Airport Design:

1. Engine and Propulsion
2. Size
3. Aircraft capacity
4. Aircraft speed
5. Minimum turning radius
6. Minimum circling radius
7. Aircraft weight and wheel arrangements
8. Range
9. Noise
10. Take off and landing distances
11. Tire pressure and contact area.

Size of Aircraft: Size depends upon

1. Wing Span
2. Length ( Fuselage length)
3. The maximum height
4. Distance between main gears
5. Wheel base
6. Tail Width
Size decides load carrying capacity
Wing Span decides: The apron size, taxiway clearance, hangar size turning radius – ICAO
classification
The length of Aircraft decides: The width of exit taxiway, apron size, length of hanger etc.
The height decides: The height of hangers and its gate.
The gear treads and wheel base affect the minimum turning radius of the aircraft.

Air Craft capacity:

Aircraft capacity determines;
 Number of Passengers

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 Baggage
 Cargo and
 Fuel.

Aircraft Speed:
• Speed now a days is measured in mach i.e. the speed of sound
• Piston engines – 500 to 800 km/hr (0.6 to 0.8 mach )
• Jet Engines - 1200 – 2400 km/hr (1 to 2 mach )
• Rocket engines - > 4800 km/hr ( 4 mach and above)
• Speed determines the travel time.
Speed has nothing to do with planning of airport, it gives an idea of the time of arrival
of aircraft. However approach speed decides runway length.

Minimum Turning Radius: It is necessary to know the minimum turning radius of an

aircraft to decide the radius of taxiways and to ascertain its position in the landing aprons and
hangars.

Minimum Circling radius: A certain minimum circling radius in space is required for the
aircraft to take a smooth turn. It is known as the minimum circling radius. It depends upon,
• Type of aircraft
• Air traffic volume
• Weather conditions
• The knowledge of minimum circling radius helps in separating two nearby airports by
adequate distance.
• For jet planes its around 80 km
• For other planes its around 8 – 15 km.
• If minimum circling radius is not provided it will reduce the airport capacity and
adjustment of timings for landing and take-off of aircrafts between the airports needs
to be adjusted.

Aircraft Weight and Wheel Configuration:

• Governs the length and thickness of the runways, taxiways.
• Number of wheels to be provided depends on aircraft weight.
• Structural design of the airport is based on the total load of the aircraft.
The weight of the aircraft may be classified into:
• Operating empty Weight – Weight of empty aircraft, including its crew and
all equipment needed for flight, but excluding passengers, fuel load and cargo.
• Pay load – revenue producing load which consists of passengers, mail and
cargo.
• Fuel Load- Weight of the fuel carried by the aircraft required for the trip and
certain reserve. It may vary from 9% to 40% of the total gross weight .

Wheel Configurations:-

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More number of wheels lesser is the load on the runway pavement.
• Depends upon the size and type of aircraft.
• Wheel configuration also decides minimum turning radius.

Fuel Spillage:-
• The spilling of fuels and lubricants occur in loading aprons and hangers.
• It is difficult to avoid spilling completely.
• The bituminous pavements are seriously affected by fuel spillage. Hence the areas of
bituminous pavements below the fuel inlets, the engines, and main landing gears are
kept under constant watch by the airport authorities.
• Causes skidding of aircrafts.

Range:
• The distance that an aircraft can fly without refueling is called range.
• As range increases pay load decreases and vice versa.

Noise: This is a big problem in the areas where airports are quiet near to the developed areas.
Efforts are being made to bring it to minimum possible level.
The major source of noise is:
• Engine
• Machinery prominent during landing
• Primary jet, prominent during take off
• It causes Sleep disturbance, deafness, irritability, Loss of Concentration.

Airport classification:
Based on take-off and landing:
• Conventional Take-Off and Landing Airport (CTOL)
Runway Length > 1500 m
• Reduced Take-Off and Landing Airport (RTOL)
Runway Length 1000 to 1500 m
• Short Take-Off and Landing Airport (STOL)
Runway Length 500 to 1000 m
• Vertical Take-Off and Landing Airport (VTOL)
Operational area 25 to 50 sq m.
FAA Classification:
Based on Air Craft Approach speed:
Approach Category Approach Speed (knots)
A < 91
B 91 – 120
C 120 – 140
D 141 – 165
E >165
1 knot = 1.852 kmph
Based on Function:

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1. Civil Aviation
Domestic
International

2. Military Aviation

ICAO Classification:

Based on Geometric Design:

Airport Basic Runway Length (m) Width of Runway Maximum Longitudinal
Type Maximum Minimum Pavement (m) Grade (%)
A Over 2100 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0

Based on Aircraft Wheel Characteristics:

Code No. Single Isolated Wheel Load (kg) Tyre Pressure (kg/cm2)
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5

Factors affecting airport site selection

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under
consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are
considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The
factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:

1. Regional plan
2. Airport use
3. Proximity to other airport
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Noise nuisance
10. grading, drainage and soil characteristics
11. Future development
12. Availability of utilities from town
13. Economic consideration

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Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an
integral part of the national network of airport.
Airport use: the selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or
for military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by the
defence. Therefore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection
to the area from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be
located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes.
Proximity to other airport: the site should be selected at a considerable distance from the
existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the
movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly
depends upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility: the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users.
The airline passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time
in air travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially
for short haul operations.
Topography: this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised
ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
Obstructions: when aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on either
side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose
altitude.
Visibility: poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog
generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.
Wind: runway is so oriented that landing and takeoff is done by heading into the wind should
be collected over a minimum period of about five years.
Noise nuisance: the extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type
of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with
jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and takeoff paths
of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial developments.
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: grading and drainage play an important role in
the construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The
original ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of
an airport area and the general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the
valley sites should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly
subsoil drainage should be avoided.
Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in
future more member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

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Typical airport layouts:

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Wind Rose Diagram

Runway orientation using wind rose:
The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a
diagram called wind rose. The plotting of the wind rose diagrams can be done in the
following two ways

Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind

Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Cross wind component:

It is not possible to get the direction of opposite wind parallel to the centre line of the
runway length everyday or throughout the year.

If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway centre line, its component along
the direction of runway will be V Cos θ and that normal to the runway centre line will be V
Sin θ where V is the wind velocity. The normal component of the wind is called cross wind
component. Cross wind component should not exceed 25 kmph for mixed traffic.

Wind coverage:

The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains
within the limit of 25 kmph is called wind coverage of the runway.

According to FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should be so planned that
for 95 % of time in a year. For busy airports, the wind coverage may be increased to 98 % to
100%.

Type I wind rose:

The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of

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wind to a certain scale. The total percentage of wind blowing in each direction are plotted and
then joined by the straight lines. The best direction of runway is indicated along the direction
of the longest line on the wind rose diagram.

Type II wind rose:

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– From the wind data table, it is observed that the percentage of time during which the wind
velocity is less than 6 kmph works out to (100-88) = 12. this period is called the calm
period and does not influence the operations of landing and take-off because of low wind
velocity.
– Thus the wind velocities below 6 kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a
runway.
– Thus, the wind velocities below 6 Kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a
runway.
– The concentric circles with radii corresponding to 6, 25, 50, and 80 kmph to some scale
are drawn. Thus, each circle represents the wind velocity to some scale
– Starting with centre of the concentric circles, the 16 radial directions are shown on the
outer circle. The mid points of 16 arcs on the outermost concentric circle are marked and
they are given the cardinal directions of compass like N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, etc.
– The recorded duration of winds and expressed as percentage are shown for each cardinal
direction. It may be noted that the cardinal direction is central to sector.
– A transparent rectangular template or paper strip is taken. Its length should be slightly
greater than the diameter of the wind rose diagram and its width should be greater than
twice the allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 kmph.
– The scale for cross wind component should be the same as that of the concentric circles of
the wind rose diagram.
– Along the centre of the length of this template, a line is marked corresponding to the
direction of runway.
– The two parallel lines, one on either side of the centre-line, is drawn at a distance equal to
the allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 Kmph from the centre line. In other words, the
two parallel lines are 50 Kmph away from each other.
– The wind rose diagram is fixed in position on a drawing board.
– A hole is drilled in the centre of the template and it is placed on the wind rose diagram
such that its centre lies over the centre of the wind rose diagram.
– In this position, the template is fixed by a pin passing through its centre so that the
template can rotate about this pin as axis.
– The template is rotated and is placed along a particular direction.
– In this position of the template, the duration of 6-25, 25-50 and 50-80 Kmph winds are
read for the cardinal directions (N, NNE, NE etc.) lying between the two extreme parallel
line marked on the template.
– The sum of all these durations is expressed as the percentage and it gives the total wind
coverage for that direction.

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Chikkamagaluru Page 28

 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Problems
1. The following is the wind date at proposed airport site when wind intensity is above 6.4
kmph. Determine the best direction to orient the runway and hence calculate total wind
coverage and calm period.

Duration of wind, %
Direction 6.4 -25 25 -40 40 -60
kmph kmph kmph
N 4.2 1.6 0.2
NNE 7.1 3.6 0.3
NE 5.2 2.3 0.5
ENE 2.2 1.4 0.4
E 1.8 0.2 0.0
ESE 1.3 0.7 0.0
SE 1.6 0.4 0.0
SSE 3.1 0.9 0.0
S 6.2 1.3 0.5
SSW 10.3 4.2 0.5
SW 7.6 2.1 0.3
WSW 5.0 0.9 0.1
W 2.2 1.4 0.4
WNW 1.7 0.3 0.0
NW 0.8 0.2 0.0
NNW 4.0 1.0 0.0

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Chikkamagaluru Page 29

 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Solution
Duration of wind, % Total in each
Direction 6.4 -25 25 -40 40 -60 direction
kmph kmph kmph %
N 4.2 1.6 0.2 6
NNE 7.1 3.6 0.3 11
NE 5.2 2.3 0.5 8
ENE 2.2 1.4 0.4 4
E 1.8 0.2 0.0 2
ESE 1.3 0.7 0.0 2
SE 1.6 0.4 0.0 2
SSE 3.1 0.9 0.0 4
S 6.2 1.3 0.5 8
SSW 10.3 4.2 0.5 15
SW 7.6 2.1 0.3 10
WSW 5.0 0.9 0.1 6
W 2.2 1.4 0.4 4
WNW 1.7 0.3 0.0 2
NW 0.8 0.2 0.0 1
NNW 4.0 1.0 0.0 5
Total Coverage in all Directions 90

Total Coverage in all Directions = 90 %

Calm period = 100 – Total Coverage in all Directions
= 100 – 90
= 10 %
Best orientation of runway is NNE and SSW
Wind coverage = N+NNE+NE+S + SSW + SW + Calm period
= 6 + 11 + 8 + 8 + 15 + 10 + 10
= 68 %

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Chikkamagaluru Page 30

 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
2. The following is the wind date at proposed airport site when wind intensity is above 6.4
kmph. Determine the best direction to orient the runway and hence calculate total wind
coverage and calm period.

Direction 6.4 -25 25 -40 40 -60

kmph kmph kmph
N 7.4 2.7 0.2
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3
NE 2.4 0.9 0.5
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2
E 0.8 0.2 0.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0
S 9.7 4.6 0.0
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1
W 0.4 0.1 0.0
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Chikkamagaluru Page 31