Practical

English
Usage
KOREAN STUDENT EDITION Michael Swan
 Practice!
English
tisane
Michael Swan
KOREAN EDITION

Oxford University Press

UNITED PUBLISHING & PROMOTION CO., LTD.
Oxford University Press,
Walton Street, Oxford <5X2 6DP

Hardback edition ISBN 0194311864

Softback edition ISBN 0 19 431185 6

© Michael Swan 1980

First published 1980

Sixth impression 1982

All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford
University Press.

This KOREAN EDITION is exclusively

authorized by OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
for manufacture and distribution within the
Republic of Korea.

Printed in Korea
 To John Eckersley,
who first encouraged my interest in this kind of thing.
Introduction

The purpose of this book.

English, like all languages, is full of problems for the foreign learner.
Some of these problems are easy to explain — for instance, the
formation of questions, the difference between since and for, the
meaning of after all. Other problems are more tricky, and cause
difficulty even to advanced students and teachers. How exactly is the
present perfect tense used? What are the differences between at, on
and in with expressions of place? We can say a chair leg — why not va
girl leg? What are the real rules for the use of like and as? When can
we use the expression do so? When is of used after both? What is the
difference between come and go, between each and every, between
beach, coast and shore, between fairly, quite, rather and pretty? Is it
correct to say There’s three more bottles in the fridge? How do you say
3x4=12? And so on, and so on.
This book is a practical reference guide to problems of this kind. It
deals with over 600 points which regularly cause difficulty to foreign
students of English. Most of the questions treated are grammatical,
but there are also explanations of a certain number of common
vocabulary problems (eg the difference between big, great and large).
Level
The book is intended for intermediate and advanced students, and for
teachers of English. Being a reference book, it contains information at
various levels, ranging from relatively simple points to very advanced
problems.

Organization
Problems are mostly explained in short separate entries; the book is
more like a dictionary than a grammar in form. This makes it possible
to give a clear complete treatment of each problem, and enables the
user to concentrate just on the point he needs information about.
Entries are arranged (roughly) alphabetically by title, and numbered in
sequence; a comprehensive index shows where each point can be
found.

Approach and style

I have tried to make the presentation as practical as possible. Each
entry contains an explanation of a problem, examples of correct
usage, and (when this is useful) examples of typical mistakes. More
complicated problems are divided into separate entries: a general
explanation first, followed by more complete information for ad­
vanced students and'teachers. Explanations are, as far as possible, in
simple everyday language. Where it has been necessary to use gram­
 ix Introduction

matical terminology, I have generally preferred to use traditional

terms that are well known and easy to understand. Some of these
terms (e g future tense') would be regarded as unsatisfactory by many
modern grammarians, but I am not writing for specialists. There is a
dictionary of language terminology (including the terms used in this
book) on pages xii—xxiv.

The kind of English described

The explanations are mainly of standard modern British English, and
the examples are as realistic as I can make them. Stylistic differences
(eg between formal and informal usage, or spoken and written
language) are mentioned where this is appropriate. Some information
is given about American usage, but the book is not intended as a
systematic guide to American English.

Correctness
If we say that a form is ‘incorrect’, we can mean two different things.
We may be referring to a form like *1 have seen her yesterday, which
only occurs in the English of foreigners; or we may be talking about a
form like ain’t, which is used by many British and American people,
but which is considered ‘wrong’ or substandard. In this book, I am
mainly concerned with the first sort of incorrectness (the differences
between British or American English and ‘foreign’ English), but I have
mentioned a few examples of the second kind. Sometimes a form is
used by some educated people, but considered wrong by others (e g me
in It was me that found your keys). When this is the case, I have said
so, but I have not tried to suggest who is right.
Incorrect forms are indicated by asterisks (***). Asterisks, and the
word ‘mistake’, are also occasionally used to identify forms which
may be marginally acceptable, but which students are advised not to
use.

How to use the book

This is a reference book, not a systematic course in English grammar.
It will be most useful to a student who has made a mistake and wants
to find out why it is wrong, or to a teacher who is looking for a clear
explanation of a difficult point of grammar or vocabulary. The best
way to find a point is to look in the index at the back: most problems
are indexed under several different names, so it is not usually difficult
to locate quickly the entry you need. (For instance, if you want to
know what is wrong with *It’s time you go now, you can find the
number of the section where this is explained by looking in the index
under time, it’s time, tense, or past tense with present or future
meaning.)

Other reference books

This book gives explanations of individual points of usage, but does
Introduction x

not show how the separate points ‘fit together’. For a systematically
organized account of the whole of English grammar, students should
consult a book such as A Practical English Grammar, by Thomson
and Martinet (Oxford University Press, 1980) or A University Gram­
mar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum (Long­
man, 1973). For a detailed treatment of English vocabulary, see the
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (Oxford
University Press, 1980) or the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English (Longman, 1978).

Comments
1 should be very glad to hear from students or teachers using the book
who find mistakes or omissions, or who have comments or suggestions
of any kind. Please write to me c/o Oxford University Press (ELT
Reference), Walton Street, Oxford 0X2 6DP.
Phonetic alphabet

It is necessary to use a special alphabet to show the pronunciation of

English words, because the ordinary English alphabet does not have
enough different letters to represent all the sounds of the language.
The following list contains all the letters of the phonetic alphabet used
in this book, with examples of the words in which the sounds that they
refer to are found.

Vowels and diphthongs (double vowels)

i: seat/si:t/, feel /fi:!Z 0 another/o'nAdo(r)/,
i sit /sit/, in /in/ consistent /kon'sistont/
e set/set/, any/’em/ ei take /teik/, wait /welt/
ae sat /sset/, match /maetj? ai mine /main/, light /lait/
a: march /ma:tj7, after/'a:fto(r)/ oi oil /oil/, boy /boi/
D pot /pot/, gone /gon/ ou no /nou/, open /bupon/
o: port/po:t/, lauz/lo:/ au house /haus/, nou/ /nau/
u good /god/, could /kud/ 10 hear /hio(r)/, deer /dio(r)/
u: food Zfu:d/, group /gru:p/ eo where /weo(r)/, air /eo(r)/
A much /mAtjV, front /frAnt/ uo tour /tuo(r)/,
3: turn /t3:n/, word /w3:d/ endure /m'djuo(r)/

Consonants
P pull /pul/, cup /kAp/ tj cheap /tfi: p/, catch /kaetj?
b bull /bul/, rob /rob/ d3 /ail /djeil/, bridge /bndj/
f ferry /'feri/, li/e /laif/, k bing /kig/, case /keis/,
cough /kof/ * tabe /teik/, back /baek/
v very /'ven/, live /liv/ g go /gau/, rug/rAg/
e think. /0igk/, batb /bo:0/ m my /mai/, come ZkAm/
d /bough /dou/, with /wid/ n no /nou/, on /on/
t take /teik/, set /set/ 0 sing /sig/, fiwger /'figgo(r)/
d day /del/, red /red/ 1 love /Iav/, ho/e /houl/
s sing /sig/, rice /rais/ r round /raund/, carry /'kaeri/,
z zoo /zu:/, days /deiz/ fire/'faio(r)/
J sbow /Jou/, wish /wij7 w well /wel/
3 pleasure Z'ple3o(r)/, j young /jAg/
occasion /o'keisn/ h bouse /haus/

(r) In spoken British English an r at the end of a written word (either as

the final letter, as in fur, or before an e, as in fire) is not sounded unless
another word that begins with a vowel sound follows immediately in
the same sentence. To show this, words which end in r or re have (r) at
the end of the phonetic spelling, as in beer /bio(r)/.
represents strong or primary stress. as in goodbye /.gud'bai/.
represents weak or secondary stress
Language terminology

These are some of the commonest words and expressions used in

talking about grammar and other aspects of language.
abstract noun (the opposite of a concrete noun) the name of some­
thing which we experience as an idea, not by direct physical contact
or perception, doubt-, height; geography.
active An active verb form is one like breaks, told, will help (not like is
broken, was told, will be helped, which are passive verb forms). The
subject of an active verb is usually the person or thing that does the
action, or is responsible for what happens.
. adjective a word like green, hungry, impossible, which is used when
we describe people, things, events, etc. Adjectives are used in
connection with nouns and pronouns, a green apple; I’m hungry.
adjective clause a clause (introduced by a relative pronoun) which
does the same job as an adjective. Compare: a hungry baby {hungry
is an adjective); a baby that wants to eat (that wants to eat is an
adjective clause). " ~ -fy'-ft'A
adjectival participle clause a participle clause which does the same job
as an adjective. Anybody wanting to eat should help themselves
now.
adverb a word like tomorrow, once, badly, there, also, which is used
to say, for example, when; where or how something happens. There
are very many kinds of adverbs, with different functions; see
sections 10-12.
adverb clause a clause which does the same job as an adverb.
Compare: I’ll see you tomorrow (tomorrow is an adverb). I’ll see
you when you get back (when you get back is an adverb clause).
Other examples: I telephoned Robin because I didn’t know what to
do (adverb clause of reason). Ask me if you need anything (adverb
, clause of condition).
>. adverb particle a word like wp, out, off used as part of a phrasal verb.
clean up, sold out, tell off.
adverb phrase a short group'd! words which does the same job as an
adverb, on Tuesday; in the bathroom.
adverbial a group of words that does the same job as an adverb; the
same as adverb phrase or adverb clause.
adverbial participle clause an adverb clause introduced by a participle.
Not knowing what to do,,I telephoned Robin. < ■ ' ■■■ . ,
. affirmative An affirmative sentence is one that is not negative. Com­
pare: I agree (affirmative). I don’t agree (negative).
7 affix In the words anti-American, anticommunist, postwar, postnatal,
v bldef, younger, greenish, mannish, the elements anti-, post-, -er and
-ish are affixes. (Anti- and post- are prefixes; -er and -ish are
suffixes.)
agent In a passive sentence, the agent is the expression that says who
 xiii Language terminology
(or what) an action is done by. This picture was probably painted by
a pupil of Rubens.
anaphora In a sentence like I put the money back in my pocket, the
article the (in the money) shows that the money has been mentioned
before. This use of articles (and pronouns) to ‘point backwards’ is
called anaphora, or anaphoric reference.
antecedent the noun with which a relative pronoun or relative clause
is connected. In the sentence There’s the child who broke my
window, the expression the child is the antecedent of who (broke
my window).
anticipatory subject, anticipatory object the same as preparatory
subject, object.
apposition In a sentence like Harry, my brother-in-law, is a policeman,
the descriptive expression my brother-in-law is not connected to the
subject by any preposition or conjunction. We say that it is in
apposition.
article A, an and the are called articles. Alan is called the indefinite
article-, the is called the definite article.
aspect In English, verb forms can be used to show, for example,
whether an action was going on at a particular time, or whether it
had been completed (compare: it was raining-, it had rained). The
use of verb forms to show this kind of meaning is called aspect (eg
progressive aspect, perfective aspect).
assertive The words some, somebody etc are used most often in
affirmative sentences. In other kinds of sentence, they are often
replaced by any, anybody etc. Some, somebody etc are called
assertive forms-, any, anybody etc are called non-assertive forms.
Other non-assertive forms are yet-, ever.
attributive Adjectives placed before nouns are in attributive position, a
green shirt-, my noisy son. See also predicative position.
auxiliary verb a verb like be, have, do which is used with another verb
to make tenses, passive forms etc. She was writing. Where have you
put it ? See also modal auxiliary verbs.
bare infinitive the infinitive without to. Let me go.
base form the simplest form of a verb, go; work; remember.
case the use of different forms of nouns or pronouns to show their
function in a sentence. The difference between I and me, or who and
whom; are differences of case; forms like John’s, the earth’s are
examples of the possessive case or genitive case of nouns.
clause a part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, usually
joined to the rest of the sentence by a conjunction. Mary said that
she was tired. The word clause is also sometimes used for structures
containing participles or infinitives (with no subject or conjunction).
Not knowing what to do, I telephoned Robin. I persuaded her to try a
new method.
cleft sentence a sentence in which special emphasis is given to one part
(e g the subject or the object) by using a structure with it or what. It
was you that caused the accident. What I need is a beer.
collective noun a singular word used to refer to a group, family; team.
Language terminology xiv

colloquial a colloquial word or expression is used mainly in informal

speech, not in careful, formal or literary language. How’s life?
Where’s the loo ( = ‘the toilet’)?
common noun a noun which is not a proper name, car-, idea-, electric
guitar. John-, Brighton are proper names (or nouns), not common
nouns.
comparative the form of an adjective or adverb made with the suffix
-er (older-, faster}-, also the structure more + adjective/adverb, used
in the same way (more useful-, more politely).
complement a part of a sentence that gives more information about
the subject (after be, seem and some other verbs), or, in some
structures, about the object. You’re the right person to help. She
looks very kind. The President appointed Bristow his confidential
adviser.
compound A compound noun, verb, adjective, preposition, etc is one
that is made of two or more parts, bus-driver-, get on with-,
one-eyed-, in spite of.
concession, concessive These words are used for grammatical struc­
tures (eg with although or may) in which we admit the truth of
something that goes against the main argument of the sentence.
Although Spurs did not play as well as usual, they had no difficulty
in winning. She may be an annoying person, but she has a lot of
character and energy.
concord Sometimes verb forms change according to whether the
subject is singular or plural (he thinks, but they think), or according
to whether the subject is first, second or third person (I am, you are,
he is). This ‘agreement’ of'the verb with the subject is called
concord.
concrete noun (the opposite of an abstract noun) the name of
something which we can experience by direct physical contact or
perception, cloud-, petrol-, raspberry.
conditional (1) a verb form made by using the modal auxiliary would
(also should in the first person). I would run-, she would sing; I
should think. (2) a clause or sentence containing if (or a word with a
similar meaning),Sand often containing a conditional verb form. If
you try you’ll understand. I should be surprised if she knew. What
would you have done if the train had been late ?
conjunction a word like and, but, although, because, when, if, which
can be used to join clauses together. I rang because I was worried
about you.
continuous the same as progressive.
contraction a short form in which a subject and an auxiliary verb, or a
verb and the word not, are joined together into one word. I’m;
who’ll; can’t.
conversational the same as colloquial.
co-ordinate clause one of two or more clauses of equal ‘value’ that
make up a sentence. A co-ordinate clause does not function as a
subject, object, complement or adverbial in another clause. Shall I
 xv Language terminology

come to your place or would you like to come to mine ? It’s cooler
today and there's .a bit of a wind. See also subordinate clause.
co-ordinating conjunction a conjunction (eg and, but, or) that joins
co-ordinate clauses.
copula the verb be, used simply to link a subject to its complement. My
mother Is in Jersey.
count noun or countable noun a noun like car, dog, idea, which can
have a plural form, and can be used with the indefinite article alan.
See also uncountable noun.
dangling participle the same as hanging participle.
declarative question a question which has the same grammatical form
• as a statement. That’s your girl-friend ?
defective verb a verb (like can, ought, must, abide) which does not
have all the forms that a normal verb has (can has no infinitive or
participles; ought and must have no infinitive, participles or past
forms; abide has no past participle). Modal auxiliary verbs are
defective.
defining relative clause the same as identifying relative clause.
degree adverbs of degree are for example quite, rather, very, too.
demonstrative adjective/pronoun this/these; that/those.
dependent clause the same as subordinate clause.
determiner one of a group of words that are normally used at the
beginning of noun phrases. Determiners include a/an, the, my, this,
each, either, several, more, both, all.
direct object see object.
direct speech speech reported ‘directly’, in the words used by the
original speaker (more or less), without any changes of tense,
pronouns etc. She looked me straight in the eyes and said, “This Is
my money.” See also reported speech.
discourse marker a word or expression which shows the connection
between what is being said and the rest of the .‘discourse’ (eg what
came before or after, or the speaker’s attitude to what he is saying).
on the other hand-, frankly, as a matter of fact.
double negative the use of two negative words in the same clause,
especially when the meaning is a simple negative one. / shouldn’t be
surprised if we didn’t have some rain. You ain’t heard nothing yet
(sub-standard).
duration the length of time something lasts. The preposition for can be
used with an expression of time to indicate duration.
dynamic Dynamic verbs express actions, not states; they can usually
be used in progressive tenses, fly; shout; plan. See also stative verbs.
ellipsis (adjective elliptic) leaving out words when their meaning can
be understood from the context. (It’s a) Nice day, isn’t it? It was
better than I expected (it would be).
emphasis giving special importance to one part of a word or sentence
(e g by pronouncing it more loudly; by writing it in capital letters; by
using do in an affirmative clause; by using special word,order).
emphatic pronoun myself, yourself, himself etc used to emphasize a
Language terminology xvi

noun or pronoun. I’ll tell him myself. I wouldn’t sell this to the King
himself. See also reflexive pronouns.
ending a grammatical suffix, e g -er, -ing, -ed.
finite a finite verb form is one that can be used with a subject to make a
verb tense (eg breaks, broke, is singing, has been). Most sentences
contain at least one finite verb form. See also non-finite.
first person see person.
formal the style used when talking politely to strangers, on special
occasions, in some literary writing, in business letters, etc. For
example, commence is a more formal word than start.
frequency Adverbs of frequency say how often something happens.
often-, never-, daily-, occasionally.
fronting moving a part of a clause to the beginning in order to give it
special emphasis. Jack I like, but his wife I can’t stand.
future (or future simple) tense a verb form made with the auxiliary
verb will/shall. I shall arrive. Will it matter?
future perfect tense a verb form made with shall/will + have + past
participle. I'll have finished by lunchtime.'
future progressive a verb form made with shall/will + be + ...-ing. I’ll
be needing the car this evening.
gender the use of different grammatical forms to show the difference
between masculine, feminine and neuter, or between human and
non-human. he, she, it; who, which.
genitive the form of a noun made with ’s or s’, used to show (for
instance) possession. Also called possessive, the earth’s gravity;
birds’nests.
gerund the -ing form of a verb, used like a noun (for instance, as the
subject of a sentence, or after a preposition). Smoking is dangerous.
You can’t get there by walking.
gradable Pretty, hard or cold are gradable adjectives: things can be
more or less pretty, hard or cold. Adverbs of degree (like rather,
very) can be used with gradable words. Perfect or dead are not
gradable words: we do not usually say that something is more or
less perfect, or very dead.
grammar the rules that say how words change to show different
meanings, and how they are combined into sentences.
hanging participle a participle which does not have a subject in the
sentence. Looking out of the window, the mountains seemed very
close. The construction is usually avoided, because of the possibility
of misunderstanding.
head the head of a noun phrase is the main noun, which is qualified by
all the other words, (eg car in the best sports car ever made). In a
verb phrase, the head is the main verb (at the end of the phrase), eg
invited in She should never have been invited.
hypothetical The conditional is often used to talk about hypothetical
situations — that is to say, situations which may not happen, or
which are not real. What would you do if you had three months
free?
 xvii Language terminology

Identifying relative clause a relative clause which identifies the noun it

refers to — that is to say, it tells us which person or thing is being
talked about. There’s the woman who tried to steal your cat. (The
relative clause who tried to steal your cat identifies the woman — it
tells us which woman is meant.) See also non-identifying relative
clause.
idiom a group of words with a special meaning, which cannot be
understood by taking the meanings of the words one at a time, get
on with-, off his head-, over the moon.
Imperative the base form of a verb used to give orders, make
suggestions, etc. Bring me a pen. Have a good holiday.
indefinite article a/an.
indirect object see object.
indirect speech the same as reported speech.
infinitive the base form of a verb (usually with to), used after another
verb, after an adjective or noun, or as the subject or object of a
sentence. I want to go home. It’s easy to sing. I’ve got a plan to start
a business. To err is human, to forgive divine.
infinitive particle to, used with the infinitive.
informal the style used in ordinary conversation, persona) letters, etc,
when there is no special reason to speak politely or carefully. Get is
used mostly in an informal style; start is a more informal word than
commence.
-Ing form the form of a verb ending in -ing (especially when used like a
noun), finding-, keeping; running; firing. See also gerund, present
participle.
initial at the beginning. Sometimes is an adverb that can go in initial
position in a sentence. Sometimes I wish I had never been born.
instrument (in a passive sentence) the noun phrase referring to the tool
or other instrument with which something is done. It was written
with a ball-point pen.
intensifying making stronger, more emphatic. Very and terribly are
intensifying adverbs.
Interrogative Interrogative words and structures are used for asking
questions. In an interrogative sentence, there is an auxiliary verb
before the subject (e g Can you swim ?). What, who and where are
interrogative words.
Vlntransitive An intransitive verb is one that cannot have an object or be
. used in the passive, smile; fall; come; go.
introductory subject, introductory object the same as preparatory
subject, object.
Inversion a structure in which a verb comes before its subject. Have
you seen John? Under no circumstances are visitors allowed to feed
the animals.
irregular not following the normal rules. An irregular verb has a past
tense and/or past participle that does not end in -ed (eg swam,
fallen); children is an irregular plural.
lexical verb a verb that is not an auxiliary verb, look; overtake; disturb
Language terminology xviii

(but not will or can).

lexis words; vocabulary.
main clause Some sentences consist of a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause acts like a part of the
main clause (e g like a subject, or an object, or an adverbial). Where
she is (ioesn’t matter. (The subordinate clause Where she is is the
subject of the main clause.) I told you that I didn’t care. (The
subordinate clause that I didn’t care is the direct object in the main
clause.) Wherever you go, you’ll find Coca-cola. (The subordinate
clause Wherever you go acts like an adverb in the main clause —
compare You’ll find Coca-cola anywhere.) See also subordinate
clause.
main verb the verb which is used as the basis for the main clause in a
sentence. In the sentence Running into the room, she started to cry,
started is the main verb.
manner an adverb of manner describes how something happens, well,
suddenly, fast.
mass noun the same as uncountable noun.
mld-positlon If an adverb is in mid-position in a sentence, it is between
the subject and the main verb. I definitely agree with you.
modal auxiliary verb one of the verbs can, could, may, might, must,
will, shall, would, should, ought and need. Dare, used to and had
better are sometimes included in this group.
modification or qualification changing the meaning of something.
Adjectives are said to modify or qualify the noun they refer to;
adverbs are said to modify or qualify verbs, adjectives, adverbs or
whole sentences.
negative a negative sentence is one in which the word not is used with
the verb. I don't know.
nominal relative clause a relative clause (usually introduced by what)
which acts as the subject, object or complement of a sentence. I gave
him what he needed.
non-assertive see assertive.
non-finlte a verb form that cannot be used with a subject to make a
tense, to break,freaking, broken, being broken. See also finite.
non-defining relative clause the same as non-identifying relative
clause.
non-identifying relative clause a relative clause which does not identify
the noun it refers to (because we already know which person or
thing is meant). There’s Hannah Smith, who tried to steal my cat.
(The relative clause, who tried to steal my cat, does not identify the
person — she is already identified by the name Hannah Smith.) See
also identifying relative clause.
non-restrictlve relative clause the same as non-identifying relative
clause.
noun a word like oil, memory, arm, which can be used with an article.
Nouns are usually the names of people or things. Personal names
(eg George), and place-names (eg Birmingham) are called proper
 xix Language terminology-

nouns, or proper names; they are usually used without articles.

noun clause a clause which acts as the subject or object of a sentence.
Lucy told me why she was worried.
noun phrase a group of words (eg article + adjective + noun) which
acts as the subject, object or complement of a sentence, the last bus.
number the way in which differences between singular and plural are
shown grammatically. The differences between house and houses,
mouse and mice, this and these are differences of number.
object a noun or pronoun that normally comes after the verb, in an
active sentence. The direct object refers to a person or thing affected
by the action of the verb. In the sentence Take the dog for a walk,
the dog is the direct object. The indirect object usually refers to a
person who receives the direct object. In the sentence Ann gave me a
watch, the indirect object is me, and the direct object is a watch.
participle see present participle and past participle.
participle clause a clause-like structure which contains a participle,
not a finite verb form. Discouraged by his failure, he resigned from
his job. Having a couple of hours to spare, I went to see a film.
passive a passive verb form is made with be + past participle (eg is
broken, was told, will be helped — not breaks, told, will help, which
are active verb forms). The subject of a passive verb is usually the
person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb. Compare:
They sent Lucas to prison for five years (active); Lucas was sent to
prison for five years (passive).
past participle a verb form like broken, gone, stopped, which can be
used to form perfect tenses and passives, or as an adjective. (The
meaning is not necessarily past, in spite of the name).
past perfect tense a verb form made with had + past participle. I had
forgotten. The children had arrived. I had been working. It had been
raining. The first two examples are past perfect simple; the last two
(with had been + ...-ing) are past perfect progressive.
past progressive tense a verb form made with was/were + ...-ing. I
was going. They were stopping.
past simple tense a past verb form made without an auxiliary verb. I
stopped. You heard. We saw.
perfect a verb form made with the auxiliary have 4- past participle. I
have forgotten; she had failed; having arrived; to have finished.
perfect conditional should/would have + past participle. I should/
would have agreed. He would have known.
perfect infinitive to have + past participle, to have arrived; to have
gone.
perfective In some grammars, a form like I have arrived or he has been
working is not called a perfect tense (because the verb form is used
not just to refer to time, but also to express an idea such as
completion or result). These grammars prefer the term perfective
aspect.
person the way in which, in grammar, we show the difference between
the person speaking {first person), the person spoken to {second
 Language terminology xx

person), and the people or things spoken about (third person). The
differences between am, are and is are differences of person.
personal pronouns the words I, me, you, he, him etc.
phrase two or more words that function together as a group, the silly
old woman; would have been repaired; in the country.
\ phrasal verb a verb that is made up of two parts: a ‘base’ verb
followed by an adverb particle, fill up; run over; take in.
plural grammatical form used to refer to more than one person, thing
etc. we; buses; children; are; many; these. See also singular.
possessive a form used to show possession and similar ideas. John’s;
our; mine.
possessive pronoun The words my, your, her etc and the words mine,
yours, hers etc can all be called possessive pronouns (using the word
pronoun in two slightly different senses). My, your, her etc are
sometimes called possessive adjectives.
postmodifier a word which comes after the word which it modifies, e g
invited in The people invited all came late. See also premodifier.
predicate what is said about the subject of a sentence - that is to say,
all of a sentence except the subject.
predicative adjectives placed after a verb like be, seem, look are in
c predicative position. She looks happy. The house is enormous. See
also attributive.
prefix In the words anti-American, anticommunist, co-operate, co-
ownership, the elements anti- and co- are prefixes. See also affix,
suffix.
premodifier a word that comes before the noun it modifies, e g invited
in an invited audience. See also postmodifier.
preparatory subject, preparatory object When the subject of a sentence
is an infinitive or a clause, we usually put it towards the end of the
sentence and use the pronoun it as a preparatory subject (also called
anticipatory or introductory subject), eg It’s important to get
enough sleep. There can also be used as a kind of preparatory
subject (usually in the structure there is); and it can be used as a
preparatory object in certain structures, e g He made It clear that he
disagreed.
preposition a word like on, off, of, into, normally followed by a noun
or pronoun.
prepositional verb a verb that has two parts: a ‘base’ verb and a
preposition, insist on; care for.
present participle the verb-form ending in -ing (especially when it is
used to make verb tenses, or in adjectival or adverbial expressions).
She was running. Opening his newspaper, he started to read. I hate
the noise of crying babies. (The meaning is not necessarily present,
in spite of the name.)
present perfect tense a verb form made with have or has + past
participle. I have forgotten. The children have arrived. I’ve been
working all day. It’s been raining. The first two examples are present
perfect simple; the last two (with have been + ...-ing) are present
 xxi Language terminology

perfect progressive.
present progressive tense a verb form made with amlarelis + ...-ing.
I'm going. She is staying for two weeks.
present simple tense a present verb form made without an auxiliary
verb. He goes there often. I know. I like chocolate.
preterite the same as past tense.
pro-form a word with a general meaning, which can be used to stand
for any word of a certain kind when the context makes it clear what
is meant. Do is a pro-form for verbs; you, it, one are pro-forms for
names and nouns; there and then are pro-forms for adverbial
expressions of place and time.
progressive (or continuous) A verb form made with be + ...-ing (eg to
be going; we were wondering) is called progressive or continuous.
progressive infinitive a form like to be going; to be waiting.
pronoun a word like it, yourself, their, which is used instead of a more
precise noun or noun phrase (like the cat, Peter’s self, the family’s).
The word pronoun can also be used for a determiner when this
‘includes’ the meaning of a following noun which has been left out.
‘Which bottle would you like?’ — ‘I’ll take both.’ (Both stands for
both bottles, and we can say that it is used as a pronoun.)
proper noun a noun (normally with no article) which is the name of a
particular person, place, organization, etc. Andrew; Brazil; Marks
and Spencer.
qualify see modification.
quantifier a word or expression like many, few, little, several, plenty, a
lot, which is used in a noun phrase to show how many or how much
we are talking about.
question tag an expression like isn’t it? or don’t you? (consisting of
auxiliary verb + pronoun subject) put on to the end of a sentence.
It’s a nice day, isn’t it?
reciprocal pronouns each other, one another.
reflexive pronouns myself, yourself, himself etc (used as objects). I cut
myself shaving this morning. See also emphatic pronoun.
regular following the normal rules. Hoped is a regular past tense; cats
is a regular plural. See also irregular.
reinforcement tag a tag which repeats (and so reinforces, or strength­
ens) the meaning of the subject and verb. You’re a real idiot, you are.
relative clause a clause introduced by a relative pronoun, like who or
which. See also identifying relative clause; non-identifying relative
clause.
relative pronoun one of the pronouns who, whom, whose, which and
that (and sometimes what, when, where and why). They are used to
repeat the meaning of a previous noun (the antecedent); at the same
time, they connect the relative clause to the rest of the sentence (so
they act as conjunctions and pronouns at the same time). Is this the
child that was causing all that trouble?
reply question a question (similar in structure to a question tag) used
to reply to a statement (for instance, to express interest). ‘I’ve been
Language terminology xxii

invited to spend the weekend in London.’ — ‘Have you, dear?’

reported speech a structure in which we report what somebody said
by making it part of our own sentence (so that the tenses, word
order, and pronouns and other words may be different from those
used by the original speaker). Compare: He said ‘I’m tired’ (the
original speaker’s words are reported in direct speech}-, He said that
he was tired (the original speaker’s words are reported in reported
speech).
restrictive relative clause the same as identifying relative clause.
second person see person.
sentence a group of words that expresses a statement, command,
question or exclamation. A sentence consists of one or more clauses,
and usually has at least one subject and finite verb. In writing, it
begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark
or exclamation mark.
sentence adverb an adverb that refers to (or modifies) a whole
sentence. Compare: Frankly, I think you’re making a big mistake.
He answered my questions very frankly. In the first sentence, frankly
is a sentence adverb; in the second, it modifies the verb answered.
’s genitive a form like John's, the earth’s, our parents’.
short answer an answer consisting of a subject and an auxiliary verb.
‘Who’s ready for more?’ — 'Iam.'
simple tense a tense that is not progressive. I went-, she wants-, they
have arrived.
singular a grammatical form used to refer to one person, thing, etc, or
to an ‘uncountable’ quantity or mass, me, bus, water, is, much, this.
See also plural.
slang a word, expression or special use of language found mainly in
very informal speech, especially in the usage of particular groups of
people, thick (= ‘stupid’); lose one’s cool (= ‘get upset’).
split infinitive: structure in which an adverb comes between to and the
infinitive verb form, to easily understand. (Often considered ‘incor­
rect’.)
standard A standard form of a language, or a standard accent, is one
that is usually used by the most educated or influential people in a
country, and is therefore considered more ‘correct’ than other
forms, and taught in schools. I’m not is standard English; I ain’t is
non-standard, or sub-standard, in both Britain and America.
statement a sentence which gives information. I’m cold. Philip stayed
out all night.
stative A stative verb is one that is not normally used in progressive
tenses. Most stative verbs refer to states, not to actions or events.
remember-, contain-, know.
stress the way in which one or more parts of a word, phrase or
sentence are made to sound more important than the rest (by using a
louder voice and/or higher pitch). In the word particular, the main
stress is on the second syllable /p9'tikjula(r)/; in the sentence
Where’s my .pound ‘note? there are three stresses.
 xxiii Language terminology

strong form Certain words can be pronounced in two ways: slowly

and carefully (‘strong form’), or with a quicker pronunciation with
the vowel /a/ or /i/ (‘weak form’), can (/kten/, /kan/); was (/woz/,
/woz/); he (/hi:/, /hi/).
subject a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb in an ordinary
affirmative sentence. It usually says (in an active sentence) who or
what does the action that the verb refers to. Helen broke another
glass today. Oil floats on water.
subject-tag a tag which repeats or identifies the subject. She’s an idiot,
that girl.
subjunctive a verb form (not very common in British English) used in
certain structures. If I were you,... It’s important that he be
informed immediately.
subordinate clause a clause which functions as part of another clause
(e g as subject, object or adverbial in the main clause of a sentence). I
thought that you understood. What I need is a drink. I’ll follow you
wherever you go. See also clause, main clause.
subordinating conjunction a conjunction (eg that, what, wherever)
which connects a subordinate clause to the rest of the main clause.
He asked what I meant. See also co-ordinating conjunction.
substitution the use of pro-forms. ‘Could you open the wine?’ — ‘I’ve
already done so. ’
sub-standard not in the standard language, and considered ‘incorrect’.
I ain’t ready. She don’t agree. He already done it.
suffix in the words eating, working, hopeful, beautiful, the forms -ing
and -ful are suffixes. See also affix, prefix.
superlative the form of an adjective or adverb made with the suffix -est
(eg oldest, fastest)-, also the structure most + adjective/adverb, used
in the same way (eg most intelligent, most politely).
swearword a taboo word used (usually with a change of meaning) to
express strong emotion or emphasis (e.g. Fuck!). See taboo word.
syntax the rules for the way words and expressions are combined into
clauses and sentences.
taboo word a word (eg fuck) connected with a subject (eg sex) which
is not talked about freely, so that some of its vocabulary is
considered shocking, is not used in formal speech or writing, and is
avoided altogether by many people. See also swearword.
tag short phrase (e g auxiliary verb + pronoun subject) added on to
the end of a sentence. She doesn’t care, does she? See also question
tag, reinforcement tag, subject tag.
temporal connected with time. When, while, until are temporal
conjunctions.
tense a verb form which shows the time of an action or event, will go
(future); is sitting (present); saw (past).
third person see person.
fo-infinitive infinitive with to. a difficult car to start.
transitive A transitive verb is one that can have an object, eat (a meal)-,
drive (a car); give (« present). See also intransitive.
Language terminology xxiv

uncountable noun (or mass noun) a noun which has no plural form
and cannot normally be used with the article a/an. mud-, rudeness-,
furniture.
verb a word like ask, wake, play, be, can, which can be used with a
subject to form the basis of a clause. Most verbs refer to actions or
states. See also lexical verb, auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary verb.
verb phrase a verb that has several parts, would have been forgotten.
voice the difference between active and passive structures is sometimes
called a difference of ‘voice’.
weak form see strong form.
zero plural an irregular plural form which is the same as the singular.
fish-, sheep-, aircraft.
 1 abbreviations

abbreviations: pronunciation; use of articles 1

1 Many abbreviations are made from the initial letters of the most
important words in a phrase: for example BA (Bachelor of Arts),
UFO (unidentified flying object), IQ (intelligence quotient), MP
(Member of Parliament), BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation),
USA (United States of America), IRA (Irish Republican Army),
RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals).
They can also be written with full stops (I.R.A.; R.S.P.C.A.), but
this is not so common in modern British English.
Abbreviations like these are normally pronounced with the main
stress on the last letter of the abbreviation, and a secondary stress
on the first letter.
MP /em 'pi:/ USA /Ju: es 'ei/
Note that the form and pronunciation of the article before an
abbreviation depend on the pronunciation of the first letter (see
64). Compare:
a UFO /a Ju: ef 'so/ (not *an UFO)
an MP /an ,em 'pi:/ (not *a MP)
the USA /da Ju: es 'ei/ (not */^i Ju: . . ./)
the RSPCA /di ,a:r es pi: si: 'ei/ (not * /da a:r . . ./)

2 Some abbreviations made from initial letters are pronounced like

words: for example, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is
usually known as NATO /'neitao/, and the United Nations Educa­
tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization is called UNESCO
/ju:'neskao/. Words like these, made from initial letters, are
called ‘acronyms’. Note that acronyms are like proper names: they
do not normally have articles (so we say NATO, not *the NATO).
The United Nations Organization can either be called the UN
/da Ju: 'en/ or UNO /'ju:nao/; in the second case (an acronym)
the article is dropped.

3 Remember that countries, international organizations, etc may

have different abbreviations in different languages. French
URSS = English USSR; German EWG = English EEC.
For a complete list of all kinds of abbreviations, see the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Appendix 2.

about and on 2
What is the difference Bet^een\book^boi0)Africa and a book^m,
Africa? On is used to suggest thafa book, arxidc, lecture etc is
serious or academic, suitable for specialists. &bout)is usual when
the information given is more generaj, or the style of cornmunifa-
tipp is jnore casual- Compare:
about to 3

a textbook on African history; a book for children about Africa

and its peoples
a lecture on economics; a conversation about money
an article on British industrial problems; an argument about
strikes

about to 3
‘About to + infinitive’ means ‘going to very soon’; ‘just going to’.
Don’t go out now - we’re about to have lunch.
I was about to go to bed when there was a knock at the door.
In American English, not about to. can mean ‘unwilling to’,.
I’m not about to pay 50 dollars for a dress like that.

above and over

1 Above and over can both be used to mean (hi^her_tha§’.
The water came up above/over our knees.
Can you see the helicopter above/over the palace?
When the meaning is ijciy^nng^or we usually use_<^^>
The plane was flying over. Denmark.
Electricity cables stretch over the fields.
There’s thick cloud over the South of England.
(Across would also be possible in the first two examples here. See
7-)
2 With numbers, and expressions of .Quantity or flieasuxement^it is
more common to use overj, =_lxnore .than’).
There were over 100,000 people at the pop festival.
You have to be over 18 to see this film.
But above is used when we think about measurement on a vertical
(up and down) scale.
The temperature is three degrees above zero.
She’s well above average ( = ‘the middle of the scale’) in intelli­
gence.
Heights of land are given above sea-level. Compare the usesofover
and above in the following example.
The summit of Everest is over 8000 metres_apove sea-Jeuel.
(=‘more than 8000 metres higher than sea-levelj

3 lyote ln a book'or a paper, see over means ‘look on the next page!;
sepaboj^e means^look^at something written beToi?^^
For other meanings of over. see a good dictionary. ,
 6 aches

according to 5
Typical mistakes: *According to me, the rent’s too high.
*According to his opinion, the Socialists are
going to win.

We use according to when we want to say that our information

comes from some other person, book, etc. It means something like
‘if what X says is true’.
According to Joan, her boss is a real tyrant.
According to the timetable, the train gets in at 8.27.
According to is not generally used with wprd^likepfgK/.oj opffnoa.
‘^jle^ayi^fjeGmfernnient'sAvieii), opinion, etc. (Note also
that after isn’t used in exprSssionsTTke these? Typical mistake:
*After my opinion . . .)
In my opinion, the rent’s too high.
in his opinion, the Socialists are going to win.

aches 6
Typical mistake: *I’ve got headache.

Headache is a normal countable noun (see 163).

I’ve got'a headache.
I often get, headaches. /
The other aches (toothache, earache, stomach-ache and back-ache}
can be countable or uncountable. In British English, they are more
common as uncountable nouns (without the indefinite articlea/an
and with no plural).
I’ve got toothache.
I’ve had toothache three times this week.
pin American English, particular attacks of pain are called a tooth­
ache, a stomach-ache, etc. Compare:
Toothache is horrible.
I have a toothache.
When other parts of the body hurt in this way, w£_use thjeverbjo
«£/?<?.
My legs ache.
Note that heartache is a literary word for romantic sorrow or
depression.
across 7

across and over 7

The prepositions across and over are often used with similar mean­
ings, but there are some differences.

1 They can both be used to mean ‘on or to the other side’ of a line,
river, road, etc (position or movement related to things that are
‘long and thin’).
We walked over/across the road.
See if you can jump over/across the stream.
His room’s just over/across the corridor.
We’ll be over/across the frontier by midnight.
Over is used for movements on or above water, but not in water.
How long would it take to swim across the river? (Not: *. . . over
the river?)

2 Both across and over can mean ‘on the other side of’ a high barrier
(like a hedge, a fence, a wall, a mountain range), but only over is
used for a movement to the other side of something high. Compare:
If we can be over/across the fence before sunrise we’ve got a
chance.
When I last saw him he was climbing very slowly over the fence.
(Not: *. .. across the fence.)

3 Both across and over can be used for movement inside an area (for
example fields, a desert, a dance-floor).
Who are those people wandering over/across the fields?
However, when we mean ‘from one side to the other of the area’,
we only use across.-
It took him six weeks to walk across the desert. (Not: *. . . over
the desert.)
Andover is not formally used for movement in a three-dimensional
space (like a room).
He walked across the room, smiling strangely. (Not: *. . . over
the room . . /j

4 Note that the adverb over has a wider meaning than the preposition
over. You cannot say *Let’s swim over the river to the church, but
you can say Let’s swim over to the church.
For the difference between across and through, see next section.
 9 actual

across and through 8

Typical mistake: *It took us two hours to walk across the forest.

1 Across and through can both be used for a movement from one side
of an area to another.
Across is related to oh — it suggests that the movement is pnji
surface. X
Through is related to zm— you move through a three-dimensional
space, with things onfall sides. Compare:
The lake was frozen, so we walked across the ice.
It took us two hours to walk through the forest.
I walked across the square to the cafe.
I pushed through the crowds to the bar.

2 Through is not used for a movement from one side to the other of
something like a river.
She swam across the river. (Not: *. . . through the river.)
For details of the use of across and over in this case, see 7.

actual /'aektjoal/ and actually/'aektfsli/

Typical mistakes: *Unemployment is a very actual problem.
*The population of London used to be higher
than actually.

To talk about things that are going on at the moment, we use, for
example, present, up-to-date, current, topical, just now, at the
moment, at present.
Unemployment is a current problem.
The population of London used to be higher than at present.
Actual andactually are not used in this sense. They mean almost the
same as real and really, or in fact, and they are used mostly to
<y£tyct,mi£undcrstaridings1-'C>r toJrjtrodjjcejjnexp eptedJnfornTa-^
tion. ,
The book says he was 47 when he died, but his actual age was 45.
‘Hello, John. Nice to see you again.’ — ‘Actually, my name’s
Andy.’
‘Could I speak to Mary?’ — ‘Well, she’s on holiday, actually.’
We often use actually in apologies (to ‘break news gently’).
‘How did you get on with my car?’ — ‘Well, actually, I’m terribly
sorry, I’m afraid I had a crash.’
adjectives and adverbs 10

adjectives and adverbs: general 10

There are a large number of problems connected with the use of
adjectives and adverbs. Most of them are explained in the following
sections; a few are dealt with in other parts of the book. The
problems include:
i The differences between adjectives and adverbs; confusing
cases like friendly (adjective) or cheap (adjective and adverb).
See 11 and i z.
z The use of adjectives with verbs like look, feel, taste. See 13.
3 The use of adjectives without nouns (eg the blind). See 14.
4 The position of adjectives. See 15-18.
5 The use of nouns as adjectives (eg a roof garden). See zt.
6 The order of adjectives before nouns (eg a great big fat old
tabby cat). See 19.
7 The use of and between adjectives. See zo.
8 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs. See 14Z—148.
9 The use of participles as adjectives. See 16.3; 453.1.
16 The position of adverbs in sentences. See Z3—Z5.

the difference between adjectives and adverbs 11

Typical mistakes: *She sang beautiful.
*I’m terrible tired.
*He’s a typically Englishman.

1 Examples of adjectives: beautiful, tired, typical, old, complete,

surprising. Adjectives say what something is or seems like. They
can be used in two ways:
a before nouns. This is called ‘attributive position’.
a beautiful song a tired expression a typical Englishman
b in the complement of a sentence — that is to say, after is, seems, and
a few other verbs (see 13). This is called ‘predicative position’.
She’s beautiful. He looks tired.
That remark was typical of the way he talks to people.

2 Examples of adverbs: beautifully, tiredly, typically, completely,

surprisingly, always, soon, however.
With verbs, we use adverbs to give more information about the
action — to say how, where or when it is done, for example.
She sang beautifully. I’m coming soon.
You always misunderstand me.
Adverbs can also be used in other ways:
a to ijiodify (affect the meaning of) adjectives:
I’m terribly tired. a typically English painter
 12 adjectives and adverbs

b to modify other adverbs:

He went terribly quickly.
C to modify a whole sentence:
Actually, I can’t come.
d to modify a prepositional phrase: '
You’re completely out of your mind.
It’s right on top of the cupboard.
Note that very many different kinds of words are called ‘adverbs’.
For a complete description of the use of adverbs, see A Grammar of
Contemporary English, by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik
(Longman).

adjectives and adverbs: confusing cases 12

1 Adjectives in -ly
Typical mistakes: *He spoke to me very friendly.
"She sang lovely.

Many adjectives can be made into adverbs by adding -ly. Compare:

The engine’s very quiet. It runs very quietly.
He’s a wonderful guitarist. He plays wonderfully.
But some words that end in -ly are adjectives, not adverbs. For
example: friendly, lovely, lonely. likely, ugly, deadly, cowardly,
silly. These~words cannotbeused as adverbs.
He spoke to me in a very friendly way.
Her singing was lovely. (Or: She sang beautifully.)
Other words that end in -ly can be both adjectives and adverbs.
Examples are daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early. A daily paper is
published daily; we get up early to catch an early train.

2 Adjectives and adverbs with the same form; adverbs with

two forms
Sometimes, an adjective and an adverb have the same form. For
example, a fast car goes fast. In other cases, the adverb has two
forms (for example, late and lately), one like the adjective and the
other with -ly. There is usually a difference of meaning or use
between the two forms. The most important adverbs in this group
are as follows (for more detailed information, look up the words in
a good dictionary):
bloody Bloody, and several other swearwords (‘bad words’) can
be used both as adjectives and as adverbs.
‘You bloody fool. You didn’t look where you were going.’ - ‘I
bloody did.’
adjectives and adverbs 12

For more information about swearwords, see 589.

cheap Cheap is often used instead of cheaply, especially in
casual conversation and with the verbs buy and sell.
Do you like this shirt? I bought it really cheap.
clean The adverb_c/eoH_meansJfiQHiBlgjCgLyL. It is used (in an
informal style) with the verb forget.,_tbe prepositions over and
through, and the adverbs away and out.
Sorry I didn’t turn up — I clean forgot.
The ball sailed clean over the roof.
The explosion blew the cooker clean through the wall.
The prisoner got clean away.
I’m afraid I’m clean out of (= have no more) food.
The adverb cleanly means ‘precisely, without making a mess, not
clumsily’. It is often used with the verb cut.
The surgeon cut cleanly through the abdominal wall.'!:' :
clear Clearly has a similar meaning to the adjective clear, in the
sense of ,
I can’t see clearly without my glasses.
It can also mean ‘^b.vjpusjy’:
We clearly need to think again.
The adverb clear is used with of to mean ‘not touching’; clear across
means ‘right across’.
Stand clear of the gates!
He threw her clear across the room.
Clear means ‘clearly’ in the expression loud and clear.
close The adverb close usually means ‘near’. Before a past
participle, closely is used.
Come close; I want to tell you something.
She’s closely related to the Duke of Halifax.
The advert closely often means ‘carefully, _with_great_atrenrion’^
Study this closely: it’s very important.
dead The adverb dead is used in certain expressions to mean
*exactly’_pr ‘completelyLExamples are: dead right, dead sure, dead
certain, dead tired, dead slow, dead ahead, dead drunk, dead
straight.
Note that deadly is an adjective, meaning ‘fatal, causing death’.
(For example: a deadly poison.) The adverb for this meaning is
fatally.
She was fatally injured in the crash.
direct Direct is often used instead of directly in talking about
journeys and timetables.
The plane goes direct from London to Houston without stop­
ping.
 12 adjectives and adverbs

easy Easy is used as an adverb instead of easily in certain expres­

sions. Examples: take it easy ( = ‘relax’);go easy ( = ‘not too fast’);
easier said than done-, easy come, easy go.
fair Fairly is the normal adverb corresponding to the adjective
fair, in the sense of ’justly, honestly, according to the rules’.
I think I was quite fairly treated by the police.
Fair is used as an adverb in the expressions play fair, fight fair, (to
hit something) fair and square.
Fairly is also used, with a quite different meaning, as an adverb of
degree, like quite and rather (eg, fairly good). See 232.
fast Fast is used to mean both and quickly. (A fast car goes
fast.) Fast means ‘completely’ in the expression fast asleep, and it
means ‘tight’, ‘impossible to remove’ in expressions hke hold fast,
stick fast, fast colours.
fine Fine is used as an adverb, meaning ‘well’, in some conversa­
tional expressions, for example That suits me fine-, 'You’re doing
fine. Finely is not very common: a finely tuned engine is one that is
very carefully adjusted to run as efficiently as possible; if things are
finely cut or finely chopped they are cut into very small pieces.
flat Flat can be used as an adverb in a musical sense (to sing flat
means ‘to sing on a note that is too low’). In most other cases, the
adverb is flatly.
pf free The adverb free (used after a verb) means ‘ajtboJ'J-Pay­
ment’; /reefy means.‘yvithout limit or .restriction’. Compare:
You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like.
You can speak freely in front of George — he knows everything.
hard The adverb hard has a similar meaning to the adjective.
Hit it hard. I’m working too hard this year.
Hardly, means ‘almost not’.
I’ve hardly got any clean clothes left.
For the use of hardly . . . when in clauses of time, see 279.
high The adverb high refers to height; highly expresses an
extreme degree (it often means ‘very much’). Compare:
He can jump really high. Throw it as high as you can.
It’s highly amusing.. ■ I can highly recommend it.
She’s very highly paid. V* .
just Just is a common adverb: it can be used for ‘focusing’ (see
23.5), or to mean ‘a moment ago’ (see 352). Justly means ‘m.
accordance with justice or the law’.
He was justly punished for his crimes.
late The adverb late has a similar meaning to the adjective; lately
means ‘recently’. Compare:
I hate arriving late.
adjectives and adverbs 12

I haven’t been to the theatre much lately.

loud Loud is often used after a verb (especially in informa£cpp-
veisation) instead of loudly. This is common with the verbs talk,
speak, shout, laugh, and in the expression loud and clear.
Don't talk so loud — you’ll wake the whole street.
low Low is the normal adverb (bow low, aim low, speak low).
Lowly is an unusual adjective meaning ‘humbleL-
most Most is the superlative of much, and is used to form super­
lative adjectives and adverbs (see 141—148). In a rather formal
style, most can be used to mean ‘very’ (see 147.1).
Which part of the concert did you like most?
This is the most extraordinary day of my life.
You’re a most unusual person.
Mostly means ‘mainly’, ‘most often’ or ‘in most cases’.
My friends are mostly teachers.
pretty The adverb pretty is similar to rather (see 131 for the
exact use). Prettily means ‘in a pretty way’. Compare:
Isn’t the little girl dressed prettily?
I’m getting pretty fed up.
quick In informal conversational English, quick is often used
instead of quickly, especially after verbs of movement.
I’ll get back as quick as I can.
real In informal conversational English (especially American
English), real is often used instead of really before adjectives and
adverbs.
That was real nice. You cook real well.
right Right is used as an adverb before prepositional phrases, to
mean ‘just’ ‘exactly’ or ‘all the way’.
She turned up right after breakfast.
The snowball hit me right on the nose.
Keep right on to the traffic-lights.
Right and rightly can both be used to mean ‘correctly’. Right is
more common in informal conversation, and isonjyused after the_
.verb.lCompare: -
I rightly assumed that Henry wasn’t coming.
You guessed right(ly). It serves you right.
In the sense of ‘to the right-hand side’, only right is possible.
Turn right at the traffic-lights.
sharp Sharp can be used as an adverb to mean ^punctually’, in
expressions like at six o’clock sharp; we start at twelve-twenty
sharp. It also has a musical sense (to sing sharp means ‘to sing on a
note that is too high’), and it is used in the expressions turn sharp
 13 adjectives with verbs

.an<^^lrn s^arP r‘ght (a sharp turn is one that nearly takes you
pack where you came from). In other senses we use sharply (for
example, look sharply, speak sharply],
short Short is used as an adverb_in_the expressions stop short
( = ‘stop suddenly’), 'put short (= ‘interrupt’j/SfergtZv metms ‘soon’;
it can also describe an impatient way of speaking.
slow Slow is used as an adverb instead ofslowly in road-signs, as
in Slow, dangerous bend, and in informal conversation after go,
and some other verbs in American English. Typical expressions: go
slow, drive slow.
sound Sound is used as an adverb in the expression sound asleep.
In other cases, soundly is used (e g She’s sleeping soundly).
straight The adverb and the adjective are the same. A straight
road goes straight from one place to another.
sure Sure is often usjed to mean ‘certainly’ in conversational
American English.
'Can I borrow your tennis racket?’ — ‘Sure.’
For the difference between surely and certainly, see 587.
tight After a verb, tight can be used instead of tightly, especially
in informal conversational English. Typical expressions: hold tight,
packed tight (compare tightly packed).
well Well is an adverb corresponding to good (a good
singer sings well). Well is also an adjective meaning ‘in good health’
(the opposite of ill). In this sense, well is only used after the verb: we
can say I’m well but not *a well person. (See 16.2.).
wide The normal adverb is wide-, widely means ‘in many differ­
ent places’. Compare:
-; He opened the door wide. He has travelled widely.
wrong Wrong is\i\ceright: it can be used instead of wrongly after
the verb, especially in informal conversation. Compare:
I wrongly believed that you wanted to help me.
You guessed wrong(ly).

adjectives with verbs 13

Typical mistake: *You look beautifully.

1 With verbs, we usually use adverbs, not adjectives (see 11). But
with certain verbs (for example seem, look, taste), adjectives can be
used. This happens when we are really describing the subject of the
sentence, jipt the ‘action’_pf thejyerb. Verbs of this kind are be,
seem, appear, look, sound, taste, feel, smelly
She is nice. She seems nice. She sounds nice.
She smells nice. She feels nice.
adjectives without nouns 14

But be careful. Some of these verbs have two meanings. Compare:

The problem appeared impossible. (Not: *. . . impossibly.)
Isabel suddenly pppeared in the doorway. Not: *. . . sudden . . .)
In the first sentence, appeared means ‘seemed’, and is used with an
adjective; but in the second sentence appeared means ‘came into
sight’ (an action), so it is used with an adverb.
Look, taste, feel andsmell can also be used to refer to actions, and
they are then used with adverbs. Compare:
Your father looks.angry. ( =‘seems angry’.)
He’s looking at you angrily? (looking =‘directing his eyes’ — an
action.)
The soup tastes wonderful.
I tasted the soup suspiciously.
My skin feels rough.
The doctor felt my arm carefully.
For more details of the use of look, feel and taste, see 367, 225, 591.

2 Sometimes other verbs, too, can be followed by adjectives, when we

are really describing the subject of the sentence, and not the action
of the verb. This often happens in descriptions with sit, stand, lie.
Tha vajley. lay quiet and peaceful in the sun.
She sat motionless, waiting for their decision.
Some verbs are used to show how the subject of the sentence
changes in some way. These verbs are also followed by adjectives.
Examples are become, fall, get, go, turn.
She fell unconscious on the floor. (Not: *. . . unconsciously . . .)
It’s getting dark. (Not: *. . . darkly.)
For details of the use of get, go and turn, see 269.
Adjectives can also be used to show a change in the object of the
sentence.
New SUPER GUB washes clothes SUPER WHITE. (Not: *. ..
WHITELY.)
He pulled his belt tight and started off. (Not: *. . . tightly . . .)

adjectives without nouns 14

It is not usually possible to use an adjective alone, instead of
adjective + noun. You cannot say *Hello, my little, or *You poor!
However, there are some cases in which it is possible to use an
adjective alone.

1 In informal conversation, we often drop the noun in situations

where we are choosing between two or more varieties. If you ask
for photos to be developed, the assistant will probably say ‘Matt or
gloss?’, not ‘Matt or gloss paper?’ Other examples:
 14 adjectives without nouns

'Pint of ntilk, please.’ - ‘I’ve only got sterilized.’

We’ve just bought a new car. It’s an automatic.
Twenty full-strength, please, (a kind of cigarette)
‘Three pints of bitter.’ - ‘Best or ordinary?’
Some adjectives are used so often in this way that they have really
turned into nouns. People always say bitter, never *bitter beer-, in
detective stories, we usually read about an automatic, rather than
an automatic pistol.
Superlative adjectives are often used without nouns.
I’m the oldest in my family.
‘Which one shall I get?’ — ‘The cheapest.’
‘Determiners’ like th is, both, either are often used without a follow­
ing noun: see 171.3.
For the use of one with adjectives (eg a green one), see 441.

2 Certain adjectives can be used with the definite article to talk about
groups of people.
He’s collecting money for the blina.
The unemployed are losing hope.
These expressions have a plural meaning: the dead means ‘the dead
people’ or ‘all dead peopleVHut not ‘the dead man’. There are not
very many expressions of this kind in English. The most common
are:
the blind the deaf the sick the mentally ill
the handicapped the poor the unemployed
the old the dead the rich
Most other adjectives cannot be used in this way. For example, you
cannot normally say The foreign, The happy or The disgusting in
order to refer to groups of people.

3 Some adjectives of nationality can be used in the same way. They

are words ending in -sh or-chgj British, Irish, Welsh, English,
Scotch, Spanish, Dutch, French.
The British are very proud of their sense of humour.
These expressions are plural: the British means \dl (the^ British,
people’. One person from Britain can’t be called *a British (see
12.1); one person from Ireland is an Irishman, not *an Irish. (Note
that people from Scotland prefer to be called Scots or Scottish, not
Scotch.) Nationality words ending in -ese can also be used like this
(the Japanese-, the Lebanese). However, these words (and Swiss)
are really nouns: see 397.

4 In philosophical writing, adjectives are often used with the to refer

to general abstract ideas. (These expressions are singular.)
The beautiful is not always the same as the good.
position of adjectives 15

5 The word own (see 449) is often used without a following noun
(singular or plural).
1 don’t need your friends. I’ve got my own.

6 In talking about trials, the accused is often used instead of the

accused person/people.

position of adjectives: general 15

1 Most adjectives can go in two places in a sentence:
a with a noun (‘attributive position’):
The new secretary doesn’t like me.
She’s going out with a rich businessman.
Please send me all the tickets available.
b after be, seem, look, become, and a few other verbs (‘predicative
position’):
That dress is new, isn’t it?
He looks rich.
Can you tell me if Mr Smith is available?
For details of the verbs that can be followed by adjectives, see 13.

2 Some adjectives can only go in one of these positions (for example,

awake, elder). Some adjectives may come after the noun in attribu­
tive position (as in tickets available in the example above). One or
two adjectives have different meanings in attributive and predica­
tive positions. For more information about these points, see 16.
When several adjectives are used together, it is not always easy to
put them in the right order (for example, a beautiful little old
Chinese porcelain vase). There are also problems about the use of
and with two or more adjectives. For information about these
points, see 19 and zo.

position of adjectives: special problems 16

1 A few adjectives are used only (or mostly) in attributive position —
i e with a noun. After a verb, other words must be used.
a Elder and eldest are used in expressions like elder brother, eldest
daughter (older and oldest are also possible). After a verb, only
older and oldest can be used. (Example: My brother’s three years
older than me.)
b Live /laiv/ (meaning the opposite of‘deacp is only used attributive-
ly, mainly to talk about birds, animalTetc (for example, a live fish).
In predicative position, we use^z/iwjfor example, That fish is still
alive). When live has other meanings, it can also be used predica-
 16 position of adjectives

tively (for example, This broadcast comes to you live from Buenos
Aires-, 'You’ll get an electricshock ifyou touch that wire — it’s live).
C When old is used with words like friend, it can mean that a
relationship has lasted for a Long lime. In this case, it can only be
used attributively. An old friend is one you have known for a long
time; if you say My friend’s quite old, you can only be talking about
the person’s age.
d Little is mostly used in attributive position. We can say A nice little
house, but we would probably say The house is small, not *The
house is little. For the difference between little and small, see 555.
e Adjectives which are used to intensify (emphasize or strengthen)
the meaning of a noun can only be used attributively. We can say
He’s a mere child; It’s sheer madness; You bloody fool; but mere,
sheer (in this sense) and bloody (in this sense) cannot normally be
used after a verb.
f Compound adjectives like one-eyed are usually used attributively,
and adjectives made from nouns (like sports, in a sports car) are
also mostly used attributively. See 21.

2 A few adjectives are used only (or mostly) in predicative position —

ie after a verb.
a A number of adjectives beginning with a- come in this group. For
instance, you can say She’s awake, but not *an awake girl. Other
adjectives like this are: afloat, afraid, alike, alight, alive, alone,
asleep.
Before nouns, other words usually have to be used: for instance,
floating instead of afloat, frightened instead of afraid, live
/laiv/ instead of alive, sleeping'and waking instead of asleep and
awake. Note that very is not often used with some of these adjec­
tives. Instead of *very awake we say wide awake-, instead of *very
asleep we. say fast asleep; instead of *very alone we say very much
alone or all alone or very lonely.
b III and well are generally used only in predicative position. We can
say He’s very well or You look ill, but not normally *a well man or
*111 people. Instead, we would say a healthy man orsickpeople. (For
the difference between well (adjective) and well (adverb) see 273.)
C Two other words that are generally used only in predicative posi­
tion are content /kan'tent/ and lit (egl’m feeling quite content; The
candle’s lit). On the other hand, contented and lighted can both be
used in any position in a sentence.

3 Some attributive adjectives come immediately after the noun,

instead of before it. This happens in the following cases:
a A few fixed expressions. The commonest are: court martial (a
military court); Secretary General (eg of the United Nations);
Attorney General; Astronomer Royal; God Almighty!
position of adjectives 16

b Present follows the noun when it means ‘here’ or ‘there’. Compare:

the members present( = the ones who are there at the meeting)
the present members (= those who are members now)
Proper follows the noun when it means ‘itself’ or ‘themselves’.
(Before the noun it means ‘real’, ‘genuine’.) Compare:
After the introduction we started the meeting proper.
Snowdon’s not very high, but it’s a proper mountain, not a hill.
C Participles can be used as adjectives. When they are put with nouns,
they sometimes come before and sometimes after, depending on the
exact meaning. Compare:
There’s a broken window in the kitchen.
The window broken yesterday will have to be paid for.
In the first example, broken is more like an ordinary adjective: it
tells you what the window looks like, but does not really talk about
the action of breaking. In the second example, broken is more like a
verb (‘which was broken yesterday’). Here are some more expres­
sions in which the participle must go after the noun:
the only place left the people taking part
any person objecting all children wishing to compete
the success obtained in the first six months
Most of the people singing were women.
Some participles change their meaning according to their position.
For a detailed explanation of this difficult point of grammar, see
453-
d Words ending in -ible or -able may also come after the noun that
they are with. The rules for position are similar to those for partici­
ples (see 453).
It’s the only solution possible. (Or: . . . possible solution.)
Are there any tickets available?
I’d like to speak to the person responsible.
e When an adjective is part of a longer expression, like clever at
games, it normally comes after the noun. We would say Any boy
clever at games ... or Any boy who is clever at games . .., not
*Any clever at games boy . ..
In some cases, the adjective can be put before the noun and the rest
of the expression after it.
a different life from this one
the next house to the Royal Hotel.
This is possible with different, similar-, next, last, first, second, etc;
easy, difficult, impossible; comparatives and superlatives; the
same; enough.
a difficult problem to solve
the second train on this platform
the best mother In the world
 18 adjectives

f Adjectives come after something, everything, anything, nothing,

somebody, anywhere, and similar words.
Have you read anything interesting lately?
Let’s go somewhere quiet.

adjectives and adverbs: position in expressions of 17

measurement
Typical mistake: *Everest is high 9,000 metres.

In expressions of measurement, rhe adjective or adverb comes after

the measurement-noun.
six feet high ten years old two miles long
ten feet down six feet deep
Notice the difference between ten feet square (= 10ft x 10 ft) and
ten square feet (=zft x 5 ft, or 10 ft x 1 ft).
When expressions like these are used as attributive adjectives
(before the noun), the measurement noun is normally singular.
Compare:
a hole six feet deep a six-foot-deep hole
For more information about this, see 433.

adjectives: special word-order with as, how, so, too 18

* our so beautiful country . . .
Typical mistakes: Y
★They are so strange people.
★They are too kind girls to refuse.
★It’s too tough meat.
*How pretty clothes she wears.

In a formal style, it is possible to use as, how, so and too in a special

structure with an adjective and a noun, but only when there is an
indefinite article. The word-order is: as/how/so/too + adjective +
a/an + noun. If there is no indefinite article, this structure is not
possible.
It was as pleasant a day as I have ever spent.
Miss Langham arm in arm with Mr Peabody — how astonishing
a sight!
How accomplished a pianist is he?
However good a stereo you have, you will never get absolutely
perfect reproduction.
It was so warm a day that we decided to go to the sea.
She is too kind a girl to refuse.
Instead of so and how we can use such and what in ordinary
structures with adjective + noun (see 583 and 225).
adjectives 19

such a nice day

such strange people
What pretty clothes!
What an astonishing sight!
For the structure with adjective + as in expressions like tired as I
was, cold as he felt, see 80.

adjectives: order 19
When several adjectives come before a noun, they usually have to
be put in a particular order. For instance, we say a fat old lady, not
*an old fat lady, a small shiny black leather handbag is good
English, but *a leather black shiny small handbag is not.
Unfortunately, the rules for adjective order are very complicated,
and different grammars disagree about the details. Here are some
of the most important rules:

1 Just before the noun come adjectives that tell you whaj-jorjjej
fi%for - its purpose:
an expensive tennis racket (a racket for tennis)
a large conference hall (a hall for conferences)

2 Just before these, we put adjectives that say VY^t-jgmething is_

an expensive steel and nylon tennis racket

a large brick conference hall
a plastjf garden chair

3 Before these are words that tell you the origin of something —
tyh^reJj-Somes frorm^
A Venetian glass ashtray
Spanish leather boots
a Chinese writing desk

4 Before these come ,co4qur adjectives:

a green Venetian glass ashtray
black Spanish leather boots
a brown and white German beer-mug

5 Words for age, shape, size, temperature, and other adjectives, come
before all these: the exact order is too complicated to give practical
rules.
an old wooden boat
a big round conference table
a large antique brown and white German beer-mug
 21 nouns used as adjectives'

adjectives with and 20

When two or three adjectives come together, we sometimes putawd
with them and sometimes not. l£dtipeiuls.partiy<onjh<iir_42<>siuor1jji
ph<_sgntenceL

1 When the adjectives come in ‘predicative’ position (after be, seem,

and similar verbs — see 15), we usually putawd before the last one.
He was tall, dark and handsome.
You’re like a winter's day: short, dark and dirty.
In a very literary style, and is sometimes left out.
My soul is exotic, mysterious, incomprehensible.

2 When the adjectives come in ‘attributive’ position (before a noun),

and is not so often used.
a tall, dark, handsome cowboy
a small, shiny, black leather handbag
However, and is possible when the adjectives say the same kind of
thing (for example, when two adjectives both describe character, or
colour, or material):
a cruel (and) vicious tyrant a yellow and black sports car
a tall (and) elegant lady a concrete and glass factory
For more information about the use of and, see 51.

nouns used as adjectives 21

It is very common to use nouns as adjectives by putting them before
other nouns (in ‘attributive’ position). For example: car door,
cheese pie, cassette box, table leg, ring finger. Note the following
points:

1 It is not always possible to put two nouns together in this way.

Sometimes it is necessary to use the construction with of (for
example, a loaf of bread, not *a bread loaf) or the possessive (for
example, a miner’s lamp, not *a miner lamp). For-information
about the differences between these three constructions, see
421-425.

2 When two nouns are used together like this, they are sometimes
written as one word, especially when the words are short and the
expression is very common (for instance, raincoat, housework). In
other cases, hyphens are used (for example, grave-digger), or the
words are written separately (for example, bicycle chain). Expres­
sions like these are often (but not always) pronounced with the
main stress on the first noun: 'raincoat, 'housework, ltable leg,
 I
adjectives ending in -ed 22
I
shoe-repairer, but apple tart, „garden gate. There are no very
clear rules about the writing or pronunciation of these combina­
tions: look in the dictionary for information about particular
expressions.

3 When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is

almost always singular (even if the meaning is plural). People who
repair shoes are called shoe-repairers ; people who sell houses are
called house agents; packets that you put cigarettes in are called
cigarette packets-, a brush for teeth is a toothbrush.
There are some exceptions — for details, see 433.
Plural expressions with numbers also become singular when they
are used as adjectives. Compare:
five pounds a five-pound note
ten miles a ten-mile walk
three men a three-man expedition
nlnepence a ninepenny stamp
For more information about expressions with numbers, see
434-436.

4 Note the use of the ending -ed to turn nouns into adjectives in
certain expressions. (The meaning of -ed, in these cases, is similar to
with or having)
wheeled transport a one-eyed sailor
a broad-shouldered, blue-chinned truck-driver
5 There are some pairs of nouns and adjectives (eg gold, golden)
which can both be used as adjectives with different meanings.
a gold watch golden memories
silk stockings silken skin
a lead pipe a leaden sky (= grey and depressing)
a stone roof a stony silence (— unsympathetic)

adjectives ending in -ed: pronunciation 22

A few adjectives ending in -ed have a special pronunciation: the last
syllable is pronounced/id/instead of /d/ or /t/. These are: blessed
/'blesid/; crooked /'krokid/; dogged/'dogid/; learned-, ragged-,
wicked-, wretched-, naked-, aged.
Other adjectives ending in -ed have the normal pronunciation, with
/id/ only after d or t. Examples: tired /'taiad/; hunchbacked
/'hAntfbaekt/; undecided /.Andi'saidid/ .
 23 position of adverbs

position of adverbs: general 23

Typical mistakes: *She speaks well English.
*1 like very much skiing.
*Mr Harrison on Tuesday called a meeting of the
directors.
*1 a couple of days ago ordered some seeds for
the garden.
*Never I will understand this.
*Always you make the same mistake.

1 Verb and object

It is unusual to put adverbs between the verb and its object. These
are not generally separated in an English sentence.
She speaks English well.^
I very much like skiing. (Or: I like skiing very much)

2 Normal positions for adverbs

There are three normal positions for adverbs:
mid-position (before the verb, or part of the verb)
He suddenly drove off.
We have never been searched by the customs.
end-position (at the end of a clause)
He drove off suddenly.
Andrew arrived late.
initial position (at the beginning of a clause)
Suddenly he drove off.
Yesterday I had a bad headache.
Not all adverbs can go in all three of these positions. Only certain
kinds of adverb can go in initial position. Most kinds of adverb can
go in both mid-position and end-position, but there are some that
can only go in one or the other. For details, see the following
paragraphs. The exact place of mid-position adverbs depends on
the verb-form, and also on the kind of adverb. For detailed rules,
see 24. When several adverbs come in end-position, the order is not
completely free. For details, see 25.

3 Adverbs and adverb phrases

Most adverbs can go in both mid-position and end-position.
Do you often come here?
Do you come here often?
I angrily walked out of the room.
I walked angrily out of the room.
I walked out of the room angrily.
 F

ir~
position of adverbs 23

rirrr
I don’t completely agree.
I don't agree completely.

i'
However, ‘adverb phrases’ (groups of words that function as
adverbs) cannot usually go in mid-position. Compare:
Mr Harrison then called a meeting of the directors.
Mr Harrison called a meeting of the directors on Tuesday. (Not:
*Mr Harrison on Tuesday called . . .)
I recently ordered some seeds for the garden.
I ordered some seeds for the garden a couple of days ago.
There are a few short common adverb phrases (eg at once, very
often) which can go in mid-position.
I have very often wondered why people read advertisements.

4 Adverbs that cannot go in mid-position

a Adverbs of place do not normally go in mid-position. They gener­
ally come at the end of the clause; some of them can also come at the
beginning (see section 6 bfclow).
She’s sitting outside.
We drove northwards.
b Adverbs of definite time (which say exactly when something hap­
pens) do not go in mid-position. They can be put at the beginning or
end of a clause.
I met her yesterday. (Not: *7 yesterday met her.)
Tomorrow we’re leaving for Belgium. (Not: *We’re tomorrow
leaving . . .)
Adverbs.of definite frequency (which say exactly how often some­
thing happens) do not usually go in mid-position; they are normally
put at the end of a clause.
Milk is delivered daily.
We have meetings monthly.
Adverbs of indefinite time and frequency can go in mid-position.
I’ve recently become interested in gardening.
We often play bridge on Sunday nights.
C Adverbs which are used to evaluate (to say how well something is
done) normally go in end-position, not in mid-position.
You’ve organized that well. (Not: *You’ve well organized that.)
She sings badly. (Not: *She badly sings.)
But these adverbs can come before past participles in passive struc­
tures.
It’s been well designed.
The wall was very badly built.
d Adverbs of manner (that say how something is done) can go in mid-
or end-position.
 23 position of adverbs

He was happily playing with his toys.

He was playing with his toys happily.
But adverbs of manner must go at the end of clauses when they give
important information. Compare:
She slowly opened the door and looked inside.
The light was bad, so he drove slowly. (Not: *... he slowly
drove.)

5 Adverbs that cannot go in end-position

a Some adverbs cannot usually go in end-position. ‘Focusing’
adverbs (which direct our attention to one part of the clause)
usually go in mid-position.
I only like coivboy films.
She was simply trying to apologize.
My mother was particularly impressed by the dancing.
We must also buy some gas cylinders.
(Adverbs like these can focus our attention on the verb, the
complement, a direct or indirect object, or another adverb.
Sometimes the same sentence can be understood in different ways.
Louise only ate fish on Fridays.
We also washed the car.
In the first example, the meaning may be that only fish was eaten on
Fridays, or that fish was eaten only on Fridays. In the second
example, we can understand either that something else was done
(besides washing the car), or that something else was done to the
car (besides washing), or that something else was washed (besides
the car). Normally sentences like these are understood without
difficulty because of the context and (in speech) because of the
intonation and stress.)
There are a few ‘focusing’ adverbs which do not go in mid-position.
Too, either, and as well usually go at the end of a clause.
John wants a bath too.
I don’t like him either.
We’d better get some butter as well.
Only and even go in initial position when they refer to the subject.
Only George could make a mistake like that.
Even the baby realized what was going on.
For details of the use of only, see 443. For details eleven, see 206.
For the difference between also, too and as well, see 45.
b Some adverbs (like probably, certainly) say how certain something
is to happen or to be true. These do not normally go in end­
position. Probably, certainly and definitely go in mid-position.
They’ve probably forgotten the time.
1 definitely saw a flash of lightning.
position of adverbs 23

Perhaps and surely usually go in initial position.

Perhaps we're going to have a storm.
Surely you don’t think she’s beautiful?
For details of the use of surely, see 587.
Adverbs of degree (like nearly, almost, quite, hardly, scarcely)
cannot go in end-position. Mid-position is normal.
I nearly stopped and asked what he wanted.
You can hardly expect her to smile at you after what you said.

6 Adverbs that can go in initial position

a Most adverbs of time can go in initial position.
Yesterday I got up late.
In January it rained all the time.
Once I wanted to be a doctor.
(These adverbs can also go in end-position — see above.)
b Some adverbs of frequency can also go in initial position.
Occasionally I try to write poems.
Sometimes we have parties in the garden.
Note, however, thata/wwys and never cannot go in initial position
(except in imperative sentences — see 314).
I will never understand this. (Not: "Never I will . . .)
You alwaysmake the same mistake. (Not: "Always you make. . .)
C Some adverbs of place can go in initial position, especially in a
descriptive style.
I opened the box. Inside was another box.
Here, there, and (in literary writing) other ‘directional’ adverbs can
also go in initial position.
Here comes your bus.
There goes Mrs Parsons.
Down came tbe rain.
For details of inversion after adverbs of place, see 346.
d Some adverbs of manner can go in initial position.
Slowly we approached the top.
Gently she examined the child’s leg.
e ‘Discourse markers’ (adverbs which show our attitude to what we
are saying, or which connect it with what came before) often come
in initial position.
Frankly, I think she’s lying.
Actually, you’re mistaken.
For information about ‘discourse markers’, see 172.
 24 position of adverbs

position of adverbs: mid-position (details) 24

Typical mistakes: *1 go often to the theatre.
★She often is late.
*We always have lived in this house.
★This job will be never finished.

1 In general, mid-position adverbs go before the verb, but they go

after am, are, is, was, were even when these are main verbs. •
I often go to the theatre.
She suddenly stood up and started singing.
She is often late.
I was never happy at home.

2 When a verb has several parts (eg will be finished, have lived,
should have been working}, the most common position is after the
first auxiliary verb.
We have always lived in this house.
This job will never be finished.
You should definitely have been working this morning.
Other positions are possible, particularly when the first part of the
verb phrase is a ‘modal auxiliary’ (see 388), or used to or have to.
You often must be bored. (Or: You must often be bored.}
She could have easily been killed. (Or.She could easily have been
killed.}
We always used to go to the seaside in May. (Or: We used always
to go . .. or: We used to always go ...)
When an auxiliary verb is used alone instead of a complete verb
phrase (see 199), the adverb comes before it.
‘Don’t trust politicians.’ - ‘I never have, and I never will.’
‘Are you happy?’ - ‘I certainly am.’
When adverbs of manner (which say how something is done) go in
mid-position, they are normally put after all auxiliary verbs.
Do you think the repair has been properly done?
When I saw her, she was being well looked after.
When do you think you will have completely finished?

3 In emphatic sentences, many adverbs are put before the first aux-
iliary verb (and before am, are, is, was, were}.
I certainly 'do like you.
‘You should always be polite.’ — 'I always 'am polite.’
You really 'will get a surprise one day.
He said he would never tell them, and he never 'has told them.

4 In negative sentences, some adverbs come before not and others

after, depending on the meaning; Compare:
position of adverbs 25

I certainly do not agree. I do not often have headaches.

Both positions are possible with some adverbs, often with a differ­
ence of meaning. Compare:
I don’t really like her.
1 really don’t like her.
When adverbs come before not, they may also come before the first
auxiliary verb; they always come before do.
I probably will not be there. (Or: I will probably not be there.')
He probably does not know. (Not: "He does probably not know.)
Onfy one position is possible before a contracted negative.
I probably won’t be there.

5 The determiners a//, both and each can come in the same position as
mid-position adverbs.
They must have both been caught.
You are all being silly.

position of adverbs: end-position (details) 25

Typical mistakes: *1 went at once there.
*1 think we should go early to bed.
*Come at four o’clock to my office.
*She went quickly home.

1 The order of adverbs (and adverb phrases) in end-position depends

partly on questions of rhythm and emphasis, so it is difficult to give
exact rules. In general, however, we put adverbs of manner (‘how’)
before adverbs of place (‘where’); and adverbs of time (‘when’)
come last of all.
I went there | at once, (place before time)
Come to my office | at four o'clock, (place before time)
1 worked hard | yesterday, (manner before time)
She sang perfectly | in the town hall | last night, (manner before
place before time)
With verbs of movement like come, go, arrive, it is often more
natural to put an adverb of place (destination) first, before an
adverb of manner.
She went home | quickly.

2 Adverbs of place can refer to direction (like backwards) or position

(like in London). Adverbs of direction usually come before adverbs
of position.
I went to school | in York.
Who’s the man walking around | in the gardens'
 28 afraid

I think they’re moving the piano into another room | upstairs.

When there are two adverbs of position, the larger place is men­
tioned last.
I studied In a drama school | in Madrid.

admission /ad'mifn/ and admittance /ad'mitans/ 26

Admission is used particularly to express the idea of being allowed
into a public building or place.
Admission 6o pence.
Admissions Department (in a hospital)
Admittance (especially in negative expressions) is most often used
to talk about permission to enter private buildings and places.
No admittance except on business.

affect /a'fekt/ and effect /ffekt/ 27

Affect is a verb. It means ‘cause a change in’.
The cold weather affected everybody’s work.
Effect is a noun. It means ‘result’ or ‘change’. It is often used in the
expression have an effect on, which means ‘change’ or ‘influence’.
His meeting with Stravinsky had a great effect on his musical
development.
Note that affect = have an effect on.

afraid 28
1 In informal English, we use be afraid (of) much more often than
fear.
Don’t be afraid.
Are you afraid of the dark?
Do you fear the dark? is possible, but would probably not be used
in conversation.

2 I’m afraid often means I’m sorry, but... It is used to introduce

apologetic refusals, bad news, etc.
I'm afraid I can’t help you.
I’m afraid your wife’s had an accident.
I’m afraid not and I’m afraid so are often used in answers.
‘Can you lend me a pound?’ - ‘I’m afraid not. ’
‘It’s going to rain.’ - ‘Yes, I’m afraid so.’
For more information about ‘short answers’ with so and not, see
558-
after 29

3 Afraid is one of the adjectives that cannot normally be used before

nouns (in ‘attributive’ position). Compare:
John’s afraid.
John’s a frightened man. (Not: *. .. an afraid man.)
We do not usually use very before afraid-, instead, we can say very
much (especially when I’m afraid means ‘I’m sorry’).
I'm very much afraid he’s out.
For information about other adjectives like this, see i6.z.
For information about gerund and infinitive structures with afraid,
see 339.8.

after 29

1 Typical mistake: *1’11 phone you after I shall arrive. (Or:*. .. after
I shall have arrived.)

After cannot be followed by a future tense. Instead, we use a present

tense to express a future meaning.
I’ll phone you after I arrive. (Or: ... after I have arrived.)
The same is true of before, until, as soon as, when (in some cases),
and if (in some cases). See 15Z.

2 Typical mistake: *I’m going to do my exams, and after, I’m going

to study medicine.

After is not usually used as an adverb. Instead, we use afterwards,

or (and) then, or (and) after that.
I’m going to do my exams, and then I’m going to study medicine.

3 Typical mistake: *After the timetable, the train gets in at half past
eight.

We do not use after to explain what somebody said, or what we

have read.
Instead, we use according to (see 5).
According to the timetable, . . .

after all 30
Typical mistake: *We had a nice party with drinks and dancing;
then, after all, we went home.

After all does not mean finally.

. . . then, finally, we went home. (Or: . . . when everything was
over, we went home.)
 32 ago

After all has two meanings:

1 ‘In spite of what was said before’ or ‘contrary to what was

expected’.
I’m sorry. I can’t come after all.
I thought I was going to fail the exam, but I passed after all.
With this meaning, after all usually comes at the end of a clause.

2 ‘We mustn’t forget that. . .’ This is used to introduce an important

argument, or a good reason, which the person who is listening
seems to have forgotten.
I think we should let Sylvia go camping with her boy-friend.
After all, she’s a big girl now.
It’s not surprising you’re tired. After all, you were up until three
last night!
Used like this, after all usually goes at the beginning of a clause.

age 31
Typical mistakes: *He has thirty-five.
*He is thirty-five years.
*He’s thirty-five old.

You can give your age either by just giving the number, or by giving
the number plus the expression years old. Note the use of be, with
no preposition.
He’s thirty-five.
He’s thirty-five years old.
Note that What is your age? is not a very common expression
except in a formal style. People usually say How old are you?

ago 32
Typical mistakes: *1 met her ago three years.
*1 have left school three years ago.
*1 started working for this firm before three
years.
*My father died for three years.

1 Ago is placed after an expression of time, not before it.

I met her three years ago.
a long time ago.

2 Ago is used with a past tense, not the present perfect. (See 245.5.)
I left school three years ago.
agree 33

3 Do not confuse the adverbs ago and before. Ago is used when the
‘point of reference’ is the present: it means ‘before now’. Before is
used when the point of reference is not the present: it means ‘before
then’, ‘earlier’. Compare:
I started working for this firm three years ago.
Last summer, I finally left the firm that I had joined eighteen
years before.

4 Ago and for are not the same. Ago tells you how long before the
present something happened; for tells you how long an action or
situation lasted. Compare:
My father died three years ago. (= three years before now)
He was ill for three years before he died. (His illness lasted three
years.)
For the differences between ago, for, since and from, see 2.45.

agree 33
1 Typical mistakes: */ am agree with you.
*We are not agree.

Agree is a verb, not an adjective.

I agree with you.
We don’t agree.

2 Agree can be used with an infinitive or a that-c\ause.

He agreed to send me a cheque. (Not: *He agreed sending me
...)
She agreed that I was right.

3 Several prepositions are possible, depending on the meaning and

context.
a You agree about a subject of discussion:
They never agree about politics.
b You agree on a matter for decision:
Can we agree on a date for the next meeting?
C You agree to a proposal:
He’s agreed to our suggestion about the holiday.
d You agree with an opinion, an idea, an analysis, an explanation,
etc:
I completely agree with your views on Marx.
e You agree with a person:
It’s a good idea to agree with the boss most of the time.
 36 all

4 A passive structure is possible with plural subjects; this is rather

formal:
Are we all agreed, gentlemen?
The committee are agreed that it would be a mistake to spend
any more money on the project.

ain’t /emt/ 34
Ain’t is not used in standard (‘correct’) English, but it is a very
common word in dialects and ‘uneducated’ forms of British and
American English. It is used as a contracted form oiam not, are not,
is not, have not and has not.
I ain’t going to tell him.
Don’t talk to me like that — you ain’t my boss.
‘It’s raining.’ — ‘No it ain’t.’
I ain't got any more cigarettes.
Bill ain’t been here for days.

alike 35
Alike means ‘like each other’. It is only used after a verb (in
‘predicative’ position) — see 16.2. Compare:
His two daughters are very (much) alike.
He’s got two very similar-looking daughters. (Not: *. . . alike
daughters.)
Some people feel that very alike is incorrect, and that you should
say very much alike (see 16.2). However, very alike is quite com­
mon in educated usage.

all: introduction 36
Typical mistakes: *AII of children can be naughty sometimes.
*AII you are wrong.
*We all are tired.

All can be used in several different ways.

1 It often goes together with a noun or pronoun: two different
positions are possible.
a All (sometimes followed by of) can go before a noun or pronoun.
All (of) my friends like riding.
All children can be naughty sometimes.
I hate all of you.
For more detailed rules, see 37.1 below.
b All can go after a noun or pronoun.
all 37

We all like your cooking.

The teachers all went on strike.
Love to you all.
For more detailed rules, see 37.2. below.

2 All can also be used as the subject, object or complement of a

sentence.
All I want is a room somewhere.
I’ve told you all I know.
For more detailed rules, see 37.3 below.

all: details 37
The exact rules for the use of all are quite complicated:

1 All (of) before nouns and pronouns

In general, all and all of are both possible before a noun, and before
this and that. However, if the noun is used alone (without an
article, possessive, or other ‘determiner’), all of is not usually
possible. Compare:
All (of) my friends like riding.
I’ve read all (of) the books you lent me.
I stopped believing in all (of) that years ago.
All children can be naughty sometimes. (Not: *AII of children. . .)
All whisky is expensive. (Not: *AII of whisky ...)
On the other hand, before a personal pronoun only all of is pos­
sible; it is used with object pronouns (us, you, them).
All of them enjoyed the party. (Not: *AII them ... or *AII they...)
All of you are wrong. (Not: *AII you . . .)
They invited all of us. (Not: *... all us)

2 All after nouns and pronouns

All can go aft4r the subject of the sentence. Note that it does not
always immediately follow the subject in this case. The exact
position is the same as the position of mid-position adverbs (see
2.4): that is to say, (i) before a simple one-word verb; (ii) if there are
auxiliary verbs, after the first auxiliary; (iii) after the verb be.
My friends all like riding.
They would all have been invited if there had been room. (Not:
*They all would have been invited . ..)
We are all tired. (Not: *We all are tired.)
All can also go after a direct or indirect object, but only if this is a
personal pronoun (us, you, etc).
I’ve eaten them all. (Not: *I’ve eaten the cakes all.)
 38 all

Love to you all. (Not: *Love to the family all.)

I sent them all presents.
(Note that a// cannot be used after a subject complement: you can
say I’ve finished it all but not *This is It all.)

3 All as subject, object or complement

All can be used as the subject, object or complement of a sentence.
In modern English, this is only common when all is followed by a
relative clause. Note the two possible meanings of all in this case:
‘everything’ and ‘the only thing(s)’.
All that I own is yours. All I want is a room somewhere.
I’ll give you all you want. This is all I’ve got.
All is not often used to mean ‘everybody’, except in a very formal
style. Instead of All who want tickets should go to the office, we
would probably say All those who want tickets . . . or All the people
who want tickets . . .
In older English, all could be used alone, without a relative
clause, to mean ‘everything’ or ‘everybody’ (eg Tell me all. All is
lost. All are dead). This is unusual in modern English, except in
dramatic contexts like newspaper headlines (eg SPY TELLS ALL),
and in the expression all about (eg I know all about you. Let’s
forget all about it).

4 It is not very common to use all as the subject of a negative verb (e g

All English people don’t like fish and chips). Instead of this, we
more often use not all as the subject.
Not all English people like fish and chips.
Note the difference between not all and no. Compare:
Not all birds can fly.
No birds can play chess.

5 It is sometimes possible to leave out an article after all (eg all day,
all three brothers). For information about this, see 70.7.

all and every 38

All andevery have quite similar meanings. They can both be used to
talk about people or things in general: note thatall can be used with
a plural noun and verb, but that every is only used with singular
words.
All Mondays are horrible.
Every Monday Is horrible.
Not all Welshmen speak Welsh.
Not every Welshman speaks Welsh.

/
all 39

All and every can also be used to talk about the members of a
particular group. (A// is followed by the or another ‘determiner’;
every is not.) Every often emphasizes the idea that there is no
exception.
‘She’s eaten all the biscuits.’ "'What, everyone?’ ‘Every single one!’
All can also be used with a singular word to mean ‘every part of’.
Every cannot have this meaning. Compare:
She was here all day. (= the whole of the day)
She was here every day. (= she didn’t miss a day)
For the difference between every and each, see 189.

all /o:l/ and whole/haol/ 3S

Typical mistakes: "She sat reading the all time.
"I’ve lived here my all life.
"Whole London was burning.
"She drank the whole wine.

These two words are easy to confuse, perhaps because their pro­
nunciations are similar.

1 Whole and all are often used with the same meaning. However, the
word-order is different. All comes before an article, possessive or
other ‘determiner’; whole comes after articles, etc. Compare:
all the time the whole time
all my life my whole life
all this confusion this whole confusion
Note what whole cannot be used with a singular noun if there is no
article or other determiner. You can say The whole city was burn­
ing, but not "Whole London was burning.

2 With plural nouns, whole and all have different meanings. Whole
means ‘complete’, ‘entire’; al] has a similar meaning to ‘every’.
Compare:
All Indian tribes suffered from white settlement in America.
(-Every Indian tribe suffered . . .)
Whole Indian tribes were killed off. (— Complete tribes were
killed off; nobody was left alive in these tribes)

3 Whole is not used so often with uncountable nouns (see 163), and
cannot be used with mass nouns. You can say all the money, or all
the wine, but not "the whole money or "the whole wine.

4 The expression the whole of can be used with singular words

instead of whole. The whole of comes before articles, possessives,
etc.
 41 almost

the whole of the time the whole of this confusion

the whole of my life
For more information about the use of all, see 36-37.

allow, permit and let 40

1 Allow and permit

These words have similar meanings and uses. Permit is a little more
formal; allow is more common in informal English.
Both words can be followed by object + infinitive:
We do not allow/permit people to smoke in the lecture hall.
When there is no personal object, a gerund-(-wg form) is used:
We do not allow/permit smoking in the lecture hall.
In passive sentences, personal subjects and gerund subjects are both
possible:
People are not allowed/permitted to smoke in the lecture hall.
Smoking Is not allowed/permitted in the lecture hall.
The ‘impersonal’ passive structure cannot be used with allow.
Typical mistake: *lt is not allowed to smoke in the lecture hall.*
2

Allow (but not permit} can be used with adverb particles:

She wouldn’t allow me in.
Mary isn’t allowed out at night:

2 Let
Let is the least formal of these three words. Please allow me to buy
you a drink sounds polite and formal; Let me buy you a drink
sounds friendly and informal.
Let is used in a different construction from allow and permit: it is
followed by object + infinitive without to (see 360).
Let me help you.
Let is not usually used in the passive; it is replaced by allow.
I wasn’t allowed to pay for the drinks. (Not: */ wasn’t let...)

almost and nearly 41

1 Nearly and almost have similar meanings, and in many cases they
can both be used without much difference. Usually, almost is used
to mean that something is a little ‘nearer’ than nearly. So at 12.15
we might say It’s nearly lunchtime, and at 12.27 It’s almost
lunchtime.
We’re nearly there. We’re almost there.
along 42

She’s nearly six feet tall. She’s almost six feet tall.
I nearly fell off my bike. I almost fell off my bike.
I’m nearly as clever as you. I’m almost as clever as you.
Note that in all these cases, we are talking about fairly concrete
ideas: progress in space or time, or things that can be measured or
compared. In other cases, where the meaning is different from this,
nearly cannot always be used.

2 Typical mistakes: *Our cat understands everything — he’s nearly

human.
*1 nearly think you’re right.
*It’s nearly incredible.
*My aunt’s got a strange way of talking. She
nearly sounds foreign.

In these sentences, we are not talking about progress towards an

end (people do not get more foreign; cats do not get more human),
or about things that are easy to measure. In cases like these almost,
not nearly, is used.
Our cat understands everything — he’s almost human.
I almost think you’re right.
It’s almost incredible.
My aunt almost sounds foreign.
In that long dress she looks almost graceful. (Not: *. . . nearly
graceful.)
Note that nearly is not often used with never, nobody, no-one,
nothing, nowhere, no and none. Instead, we use almost, or we use
hardly with a non-negative form.
almost never hardly ever
almost nobody hardly anybody
almost no money hardly any money

along 42
Typical mistakes: *All along the journey she kept complaining.
★Along the story, we learn how . . .

Along is used with nouns likeroad, river, corridor, line: words that
refer to things with a long, thin shape.
/ saw her running along the road.
His office is along the corridor.
With more abstract words (or nouns that refer to time or activities),
we use through.
All through the journey . ..
Through the story, we learn how . ..
Right through the meal. . .
 45 also

With words that refer to time, the structure all. . . long is used.
I could sit and look at you all day long.
I’d like to Hue somewhere where the sun shines all year long.
Notice also the special use of along as an adverb in expressions like
Come along (= Come with me) or walking along (= walking on
one’s way).

aloud /a’laod/ and loudly/'laodli/ 43

Loudly is used (like loud) to talk about the strength of a noise. (For
the exact difference between loudly and loud, see i z.z.) The oppo­
site of loudly is quietly.
When they’re arguing, they talk so loudly that the people in the
next flat can hear every word.
Aloud is often used with the verbs read and think, to say that words
are spoken, not just ‘said’ silently in the head.
She has a very good pronunciation when she reads aloud.
‘What did you say?’ — ‘Oh, nothing, I was just thinking aloud. ’

already/oJ'redi/ and ail ready/,o:l 'redi/ 44

Already means ‘by now’, ‘sooner than expected’ (see 579).
She’s already here — I wasn’t expecting her till ten.
All ready is just a combination of the two words all ( = everybody or
everything) and ready.
Are you all ready?

also, as well and too 45

These three expressions have similar meanings, but they are used in
slightly different ways in sentences.

1 4s well and too

These normally go at the end of a clause.
She not only sings; she plays the piano as well.
I was in Germany last summer too.
As well and too can refer to the subject or to other parts of the
sentence, according to the situation. Consider:
John teaches skiing as well.
This could mean three different things:
1 Other people teach skiing, and John does as well.
2 John teaches other things, and skiing as well.
3 John does other things, and teaches skiing as well.
also 45

The situation normally makes the meaning clear in cases like this.
In spoken English, the meaning is also shown by the emphasis (on
John in the first sentence, skiing in the second, and teaches in the
third).
Too (but not as well) can be placed directly after the subject. This is
rather formal or literary.
I, too, know where he is to be found.
In an informal style, too is often used after object pronouns in
‘short answers’.
‘I’ve got an idea!’ — ‘Me too!’ (In more formal English: ‘So have
I!' or ‘I have too!’)

Also
2 In an informal style, also is less common than too and as well. It is
very common in written English. It does not come at the end of the
clause, but is normally put with the verb (for the exact position, see
z-3-5)-
John also plays the guitar.
I've also read her other novels.
Also can refer to any part of the sentence:
Harry was at the party, and Fred was also there.
She sings, and also paints sometimes.
I like classical music, but I also like jazz.
However, also most often refers to the part of the sentence that
comes after the subject. So John also plays the guitar probably
means ‘John plays the guitar as well as other things’, not ‘John
plays the guitar as well as other people’. To refer to the subject, we
more often use Zoo and as well, if you want to say that you have had
the same experience as somebody else, you might say I’ve done that
too, but probably not I also have done that or I have also done that.
For the same reason, we don’t say *1 also in ‘short answers’.
To express the idea that something is exceptional, we use even, not
also.
Even when he was very old he used to go for long walks. (Not:
"Also when . . .)
You shouldn’t berude, even if you arevery angry. (Not:*. . .also
•f
Note the use of also as a ‘sentence-adverb’, at the beginning of a
sentence, with a comma.
Old cars are cheaper to buy, but they tend to use more petrol.
Also, there is a greater risk of accidents.

3 Note that also, as well and too are not normally used in negative
sentences. Instead, we use not . . . either or Neither/Nor . . ..
Compare:
 47 although

He’s there too. He isn’t there either.

I like you as well. I don’t like you either.
I also want some coffee. I don’t want any coffee either.
1 do too. Nelther/Nor do I.
See 193 and 406.

alternately /o:l‘t3:natli/ and alternatively /o:l't3:nativli/ 46

Alternately means ‘first one and then the other’, ‘in turns’.
I’m alternately happy and depressed.
Alternatively is similar to ‘instead’, ‘on the other hand’.
It may have been because of the weather, or alternatively it may
have been the result of indigestion.

although /o:l'dao/ and though /dao/ 47

Very often, both of these words can be used in the same way.
They’re a nice family, (al)though I don’t like young Sandra much.
There are one or two differences:

1 Though is more common in informal speech or writing. Although

can be used in all styles. Compare:
Although the murder of the Archduke was the immediate cause
of the First World War, the real reasons for the conflict were very
much more complicated.
I’d quite like to go out, (al)though it is a bit late.

2 Though is often used with even to give emphasis. *Even although is

not possible.
Even though I didn’t understand a word, I kept smiling.

3 Though (but not although} can be put at the end of a sentence, with
the meaning of ‘however’.
It was a quiet party. I had a good time, though.
In longer sentences, though can also come in other positions:
The strongest argument, though, is Britain’s economic and poli­
tical dependence on the United States.
In cases like these, though is an adverb. Although can only be used
as a conjunction.
For sentences like Cold though it was, I went out, see 80.
For the difference between even and even though, sep 2.06.3.
For the difference between even though and even so, see 2.08.
For as if and as though, see 74.
altogether 48

altogether /’o-.ltage&afr)/ and all together/p:! ta'ge&a(r)/ 48

All together usually means ‘everybody together* or ‘everything
together*.
Come on, everybody sing. All together now, . . .
Put the plates all together in the sink.
Altogether means ‘completely’ or ‘everything considered*.
My new house isn’t altogether finished.
Altogether, I think marriage is a bit of a mistake.
Altogether is also used to give totals.
That’s 67 pence altogether.
I’d like three dozen altogether.

always /'o:lweiz, ’olwiz/ 49

Typical mistake: *Always I ask myself what I am doing here.
★Never I find the answer.

Always does not normally go at the beginning of a sentence. It is

usually put with the verb, in the same position as other frequency
adverbs (for the exact rules, see 14). Never goes in the same place.
I always askmyselfwhat I’m doing here. I never find the answer.
But note that always can be put at the beginning of imperative
sentences.
Always put on your safety belt when you drive.
When always means ‘all through the past until now’, it is usually
used with a present perfect tense. (See 494.1.)
I’ve always believed he was innocent.
You’ve always been my closest friend.
For the difference between always and ever, see zio.i.
For the use of always with a progressive tense, see 503.

among and between 50

1 Compare:
1 She was sitting between John and Sebastian.
I saw something lying between the wheels of the train.
Switzerland lies between France, Italy, Austria and Germany.
2 She was standing laughing among a crowd of journalists.
We found a little house hidden among the trees.
We say that something is between two or more objects, people,
countries and so on when we see the surrounding objects etc
separately, there are not very many of them, and each one is clearly
distinct from the others.
 51 and

We say that something is among a mass, a -crowd, or a group: a

collection of things which we do not see separately.
We prefer between when we want to say that there are things, or
groups of things, on two sides:
A little valley between high mountains.

2 Words like divide andshare are followed by between when we use

several singular nouns.
He shared his property between his wife, his daughter, and his
sifter.
I divide my time between teaching, writing and lecturing.
With plural nouns, between and among are both possible.
He divided his money between/among his five sons.
We always talk about the difference between things.
What’s the difference between a crow and a rook?

3 Among can be used to mean ‘one of’, ‘some of’ or ‘included in’.
Among the first to arrive was the Fantasian ambassador.
He has a number of criminals among his friends.

and /tend; and; an; n/ 51

And is used to connect expressions that are grammatically similar,
for example:
nouns: bread and butter
verbs: They sang and danced all night.
clauses: I went home and Sonia stayed at the station.
When there are more than two expressions, we usually putaw/ only
before the last one. (For rules about the use of commas, see 506.)
Bread, butter and cheese
They drank, sang and danced all night.
I went home, Lucy went with me, and Sonia stayed at the station.
When expressions are joined by and, we often put the shortest first.
big and ugly cup and saucer
Some common expressions with and come in a fixed order which
cannot be changed.
hands and knees (Not: *knees and hands') knife and fork
bread and butter men, women and children fish and chips
When adjectives are used before a noun, they are sometimes joined
by and and sometimes not, depending on the type of adjective. For
instance, we say a big black insect, but a black and yellow insect.
For information about this, see 20.
When two expressions are joined by and, words which come in
and 52

both expressions (eg articles) can often be left out in the second
expression. For example: the bread and (the) butter-, in France and
(in) Germany. For information about this, see 198.

and instead of infinitive with try, wait, go, come, etc 52

1 In informal English, we often use try and instead of try to.
Try and get some unsalted butter. (Try to ... is also possible.)
I really must try and see Pat this week. (Or: . . . try to . . .)
This structure is possible with the simple form try, but not with
tries, tried or trying. You cannot say *1 tried and got ... or *He
always tries and gets .. .
Wait and see is similar.
Let’s wait and see. (Not: *We waited and saw or *Let’s wait to
see.)

2 After come, go, run, hurry up, stay, stop and some other verbs, and
can be used instead of an infinitive of purpose.
Come and have a drink. Hurry up and get dressed.
Stay and have dinner. We ought to stop and think.
Would you go and tell the children to shut up?
In these cases, however, third-person forms and past tenses are
possible.
I went and had a drink with Jeremy yesterday.
He usually stays and has dinner with us after the game.
The to-infinitive is unusual in expressions like these (and cannot be
used after hurry up).
In informal American English, and is often left out after go.
Go Jump in the river.

another /a'nAdafr)/ 53
Typical mistakes: *We need an other chair.
*Tve got other three days holiday.

1 Another is written as one word.

We need another chair.

2 Normally, another is followed by a singular noun: we can say

another day, but not *another days. However, another can be
followed by few or a number with a plural noun.
I’ve got another three days holiday.
There’s room for another few people in the back of the bus.
Note that instead of another three days, we could say three more
 56 anyone

days,.but not (in this sense) “three other days. See 446.2.
For information about owe another, see 191.
For information about other, see 446.

ante- /'senti/ and anti- /‘fenti. US 'aentai/ 54

Ante- means ‘before’. The opposite is post-.
antenatal before birth) postnatal (= after birth)
Anti- means ‘against’. The opposite is pro-.
anti-fascist. pro-fascist

any: special uses 55

(For basic information about some and any, see 562.)

1 Any can mean ‘it doesn’t matter which’.

Come and see me any time. Take any card.
Think of a number — any number you like.

2 Any . . . but means ‘any . .. except’.

I’ll go to any restaurant but that one.
For more information about this use of but, see 123.

3 In relative sentences, any is usually followed by that, not which or

who. (See 527.1.)
Borrow any book that interests you.

4 In questions and negative sentences (and with if), any can be used
as an adverb with comparatives, and with different.
Is she any better?
I can’t go any further.
If I were any younger, I’d fall in love with you.
I don’t think you look any different from how you did last year.
No can also be used like this (see 413), but not some.
Note also the expressions any/no good, and any /no use.
‘Was the film any good?’ - ‘No good at all.’
‘Is it any use talking to him?’ - ‘It’s no use at all.’

anyone/'eniwAn/ and any one/,eni 'wah/ 56

Anyone means ‘anybody’.
Is there anyone at home?
Any one means ‘whichever one (person or thing) you choose’; it is
anyway 57

used to make it clear that only one is meant.

Join the Disc of the Month Club, and we will send you anyoneof
these magnificent stereo recordings absolutely free.

anyway 57
1 Anyway most often means ‘What was said before does not matter’.
1 can’t remember when Shakespeare died. Perhaps it was in 1614
or 1615 — anyway, I know it was around then.
‘What about going out this evening?’ — ‘Oh, I don’t know. I’ve
got a bit of a headache. And anyway, John’s coming to see me, so
I ought to stay in.’
Anyhow is used in a similar way. See 171.4.

2 Do not confuse anyway /'eniwei/ and (in) any way /,eni 'wei/
(= ‘(by) any method’).
Compare:
She wasn’t very polite, but anyway, I helped her.
Can I help you In any way?

appear 58
1 Typical mistake: *He appears very angrily today.

Appear has two different meanings, and the grammar is not the
same in the two cases.
a It can mean ‘seem’. In this case, it can be used with adjectives (see
13.1), but not adverbs.
He appears (to be) very angry today.
She appears quite normal.
Appear can be followed by a noun (‘subject complement’), but we
very often use appear to be in this case.
She appears (to be) a very religious person.
b The other meaning of appear is ‘come into sight’ or ‘arrive’. In this
case, adverbs are used, not adjectives.
She suddenly appeared from under the bed.
He often appears unexpectedly and invites himself to lunch.
2 Note that appear is one of the verbs (like be, seem) that can have
there as an introductory subject (see 600.2). The construction is
usually There appears to be . . .
There appears to be a misunderstanding.
There appears to be no point in our continuing.
For details of this construction, see 600.4.
 61 around

Appear is not usually used in progressive tenses (see 502.6).

For the use of appear in negative sentences, see 402.5.

aren’t I?/'a:nt ai/ 59

This is the normal first-person form of be in negative questions, in
British English.
I’m late, aren’t I?
Aren’t I clever?
Note that aren’t is only used in the first person in questions. It is not
possible to say *1 aren’t.
For the use of ain’t in non-standard English, see 34.

arise /a'raiz/ and rise/raiz/ 60

Arise means ‘begin’, ‘appear’, ‘come to one’s notice’. It is used
mostly with abstract nouns as subjects.
A discussion arose about the best way to pay.
I’m afraid a difficulty has arisen.
Rise usually means ‘get higher’, ‘come/go up’.
Prices keep rising.
What time does the sun rise?
My hopes are rising.
Note that we usually say that people get up in the morning. Rise is
only used with this meaning in a very formal style.
Arise and rise are irregular verbs:
(a)rise (a)rose (a)risen
For the difference between rise and raise, see 348.2.
For arouse and rouse, see 62.

around /a'raund/, round /raond/ and about/a'baot/ 61

These three words are similar, but they are not used in exactly the
same ways. The most important differences are as follows (for
complete details, see a good dictionary).
1 Circular movement, etc
Around and round are both used to talk about movement or
position in a circle, on a curving path, etc. (In American English,
around is much more common than rotmd.) About is not gener­
ally used in this sense in modern English.
(a)round the corner turn (a)round
sit (abound a table sleep (a)round the clock
rock around the clock
 I
arouse 62

2 Distribution, touring, etc

Around and round are also used to talk about giving things to
everybody in a group, or going to all (or most) parts of a place.
Americans usually prefer around. About is not used in' this sense.
Will you band (a)round the papers?
There aren’t enough to go (a)round.
Would you like to walk (a)round the University this afternoon?
Can I look (a)round? (in a shop)

3 Indefinite movement, position, etc

All three words can be used in the sense othere and there, in lots of
places, in various parts of. (But in American English, only around is
common.)
wandering (a)round/about standing (a)round/about
rushing (a)round/about London
scattered (a)round/about the room
Another indefinite meaning is ‘near’, ‘in the area’.
somewhere around/about anywhere/nowhere around/about
Is John around/about?
See you around/about.
Is there a pub anywhere round here?
(Note that round is more common, in this sense, as a preposition
than as an adverb.)

4 Silly or pointless activity

Around and (in British English) about are used in a lot of expres­
sions that describe silly, disorganized, pointless or time-wasting
activity.
Stop fooling around/about.
I spent the day messing around/about in the garden.

5 ‘Approximately’
Around and about can be used to mean ‘approximately’, ‘not
exactly’. In expressions of time, round is also possible in British
English.
There were around/about fifty people there.
It costs around/about five thousand.
I should think she’s around/about thirty-five.
I’ll be back (a)round/about lunchtime.

arouse /a'raoz/ and rouse /rauz/ 62

To rouse somebody is to wake them up when they are asleep,
bored, unenthusiastic etc. (Wake up is more common in an infor­
mal style.)
 64 articles

It is extremely difficult to rouse my father in the mornings.

Lord Bognor’s speech failed to rouse his audience.
Arouse is often used with an abstract word as an object: you can
arouse somebody’s interest, his suspicions, his sympathy, etc.
If you want to arouse my interest in foreign languages, why don’t
you pay for me to study abroad?
Arouse can be used in a sexual sense.
Most men are aroused by pictures of naked women.
Arouse and rouse are both regular verbs.

articles: introduction 63
The correct use of the articles [a/an and the} is one of the most
difficult points in English grammar. Fortunately, however, most
mistakes in the use of the articles do not matter too much. Even if
we leave all the articles out of a sentence, it is usually possible to
understand it:
*Please can you lend me pound of butter till end of week?
However, it is obviously better to use the articles correctly if
possible. In the next few sections (64 to 71), the different rules are
given, with examples and the main exceptions. Most Western
European languages have article systems very like English. So if you
know one of these languages well, you do not need to learn all the
rules for English; just study sections 64, 67, 69, 70 and 71. Students
who do not speak a Western European language may need to study
all the sections 64 to 71 if they want to understand how to use the
articles correctly.

articles: pronunciation of the, a and an ( 64 )

In English, it is unusual to pronounce /a/ before a vowel. Before
vowels, a ( /a/) changes to an (/an/), and the (/da/) changes its
pronunciation to /di/ .
a rabbit /a 'raebit/ an elephant /an 'ehfant/
the sea /da si:/ the air /diea(r)/
Note that the changes depend on the pronunciation of the words
that follow the articles, not their spelling,_For instance, we say a
uniform, not *an uniform, and the is pronounced /da/ before
uniform, because this word begins with a consonant sound
/'ju:nifo:m/. But we say an uncle, and the before uncle is pro- ,
nounced /di/ .) More examples:
a university /a Ju:m'v3:sati/
the USA /da Ju: es 'ei/
a one-man band /a ,WAn ,maen 'baend/
articles 65

an MP /an ,em 'pi:/

the FBI /di ,ef bi: 'ai/
the CIA /da ,si: ai 'ei/
an hour /an 'aua(r)/
an honest man /an .onist 'maen/
an heir /an ea(r)/
a horse /a ho:s/
Hour, honest and heir are exceptional; in most words beginning
with/?, the/? is pronounced and so the article isa or the /da/. There
are a few other words, like hotel /hao'tel/, habitual /ha'bitjoal/,
which begin with h in an unstressed syllable. Some people use the
articlesan andthe /di/ before these and drop the/?, or pronounce it
very lightly. For example, an historian /an (h)is'ta:nan/, the hos­
tilities /di (h)os'tilatiz/ .
There is a special pronunciation of a before a hesitation: /ei/.
This pronunciation is also often used when people want to
emphasize the following word. In these situations, the may be
pronounced /di:/, even before a consonant.
He’s bought a /ei/, er, a /ei/ — Honda, I think.
Now you have all got to make A /ei/ REAL EFFORT!
I’ve forgotten the /di:/, er, er the/di:!, er> cheque.
The /di:/ (= the most important) social event of the year was . . .
‘This is Miss Garbo.’ — ‘Not the /di:/ (= the famous) Miss
Garbo?’

articles: basic information 65

1 Determiners
Articles are members of a group of words called determiners, that
are used before nouns. Other determiners are the possessives {my,
your, etc); the demonstratives (this, that, these, those)-,some-,any.
For more information about determiners, see 171.
Two determiners cannot usually be used together. So it is not
possible, in English, to say *the my uncle or “the that man. We say
either the uncle or my uncle, the man or that man, depending on the
meaning.
Note also that another begins with the article an, so we cannot say
*the another (two articles cannot be used together). We say the
other.

2 Position of articles
Articles (and other determiners) usually come first in the ‘noun
group’ (the noun with the other words, like adjectives, that can
come before it).
the last few days a very nice surprise
a really good concert my only true friend
 66 articles

However, some words can come before articles in the noun group:
for instance, all, both, rather, quite, exactly, just, such, what, and
much in the expression much the same.
all the time both the red dresses
rather a good idea quite a nice day
exactly the wrong colour just the right amount
such a funny expression what a pity
There is also a special construction with as, how, so and too, in
which an adjective can come before an article:
It was too nice a day to stay inside.
For details of this, see 18.

3 The use of articles

The use of articles is complicated, because it depends on three
different things.
a First of all, it makes a difference what kind of noun we are using.
Articles are not used in the same way with singularcountable nouns
(like cat, bridge), with plural countable_nPJJjns. (like cats, bridges),
and with uncountable nouns (like water, rice). For more informa­
tion about countable and uncountable nouns, see 163.
b Secondly, we use articles in one way if we are talking about things^
in general (for example Englishmen, or the guitar, or life in general,
or whisky), and we use them in a different way when we are talking
about particular examples of these things (for example, fan
Englishman, or(ajguitar that we want to buy, or the life of Beeth­
oven, or some whisky that we are drinking).
C Thirdly, when we are talking about particular exampjes, it depends
whether these are definite or indefinite- If they are definite (in other
words, if ourTiearer or reader knows exactly which ones we mean),
we normally usefTZn?) If we are talking about indefinite things
(which our nearercloesn’t know jinythjng„about), we use articles
differently (q^some, or no article).
For more details of the use ofiarticles, see the following sections.

articles: countable and uncountable nouns 66

1 Typical mistakes: *We live in small house.

*Alice is studying to be doctor.
*I’m afraid of a spiders.
*She was wearing a blue trousers.
*lt’s a nice weather.
*A water is made of oxygen and hydrogen.

Countable nouns are words like cat, bridge, house, idea. We can
count them (one cat, two houses, three ideas), so they can have
articles 66

plurals. The indefinite article a/an really means one, so we can use
it with singular countable nouns (a House, an idea), but not with
plurals.
We live in a small house.
I’ve got an Idea.
I’m afraid of spiders- (Not: *... \spiders.)
She tvas wearing blue trousers, (not: ♦... a blue trousers.}
Uncountable nouns are words like water, rice, energy, luck. These
are things that we can divide (a drop of water, a bowl of rice, a piece
of luck), but not count. You cannot say *one water, *two waters,
etc. These words do not have plurals. The indefinite article a/an
cannot be used with uncountable words.
It’s nice weather. (Not: *... a nice weather.)
Water is made of hydrogen and oxygen. (Not: *A water ...)

Note
i A lot of words can be both countable and uncountable, with
different meanings or uses (eg iron, an iron; coffee, a coffee).
z Some plural words have.no singular (eg trousers, scissors).
For more information about countable and uncountable words, see
163.

2 The complete rules for the use of articles with countable and
uncountable nouns are:
a a/an can only be used with singular countable nouns (a cat).
' b thee a n b e_u sed with all kinds of nouns (the cat, the cats, the water).
C Plural nouns and uncountable nouns can be used with no article
(cats, water), but singular countable nouns cannot.

a/an the no article

singular
countable a cat the cat

plural
countable the cats cats

uncountable the water water

 67 articles

A very important point: singular countable nouns must always

have an article (or another determiner like my, this). We can say a
cat, the cat, this cat, my cat, but not *cat. (There are some excep­
tions in expressions with prepositions like by car, in bed — see
7°. t J Dojjo.t leave out the article before the names of professions.
Alice is studying to be a doctor. (Not: *. . . to be doctor.)

articles: talking about things in general / 67)

-----:------- t--------------- —-------------------- V
1 Typical mistakes: The carrots are my favourite vegetable. '
*1 love the music, the poetry, the art.

When we want to talk abo_ut things in general (eg all music, orJill
literature) we usually use a pluraTdr uncountable noun..with nof
article.
Carrots are my favourite vegetable.
I love music, poetry and art.
When we use an article with a plural or uncountable noun, the
meaning is not general, but particular. Compare:
He likes cars, girls, food and drink. (Not particular cars or girls —
he likes them all.)
The cars in that garage belong to the girls who live next door.
(Particular cars and girls.)
She loves life. (A very general idea — she loves everything in life.)
He’s studying the life of Beethoven. (A particular life.)
Books are expensive. (All books.)
Move the books off the chair and sit down. (Particular books.)
Note that society is usually used without an article when it means
‘the society that we live in’, and space has no article when it means
‘the empty space between the stars’.
Society turns people into criminals and then locks them up. (Not:
*The society . . .)
Man has just taken his first steps into space. (Not: *. . . the
space.)
Most (when it means ‘the majority of’) is used without an article.
(see 392).
Most birds can fly. (Not: *The most . . .)
Some expressions are ‘half-general’ — in the middle between gen­
eral and particular. If we talk about eighteenth-century music or
poverty in Britain, we are not talking about all music or ill poverty,
but they are still rather general ideas (compared with the music we
heard last night or the poverty that I grew up in). In .these ‘half­
general’ expressions^ we usually use no article. However, articles
are often used when the noun is followed by of. Compare:
articles 68

eighteenth-century art the art of the eighteenth century

African butterflies the butterflies of Africa

2 Another way of generalizing is to use a singula^ countable noun

with an article. The indefinite article (a/an) is often used in this way
tcTfalirab’out’things in general.
A baby deer can stand as soon as it is born.
One should give a child plenty of encouragement.
A healthy society can tolerate a lot of criticism.
A, here, is rather like any (see 55.1). The sentences would mean
almost exactly the same if we used plural nouns with no article (e g
One should give children plenty of encouragement).
The definite article (the) is often used in generalizations with singu­
lar countable nouns. This is common when we are talking about
science and technology.
Galileo claimed that he had invented the telescope.
I hate the telephone.
The whale is a mammal, not a fish.
Man’s greatest discovery is the hot bath.
We also talk about musical instruments in this way.
I’d like to learn the guitar.
In Heaven, Miles Davis will play the trumpet every night.
We also talk about the cinema and the theatre as general ideas (for
radio and TV, see 70.5).
/ prefer the cinema to the theatre.

3 We use the with a few adjectives to refer to general classes of

people.
the blind the rich the Irish
For details of this structure, see 14.2.

articles: talking about particular things; 68

the difference between a and the
Typical mistakes: *Shut a door!
*How did you like a film?
*1 think there’s the letter for you.
*I’ve got the headache.
*She’s studying to be the dentist.

When we talk about particular things (not things in general), there

is an important difference between the articles.

1 The has a ‘definite’ meaning. We say the car, the girls, etc in two
cases: (i) when our listener already knows which car, which girls,
 68 articles

etc we mean, and (ii) when we are telling him which car, which girls
etc we mean.
Shut the door! (It is obvious which one — there is only one open.)
I had trouble with the car this morning. (I mean my car, of
course.)
How did you like the film? (The listener knows which film is
meant.)
Those are the girls who live next door. (The end of the sentence
makes it clear which girls are meant.)
We use the with words like sun, moon, stars — if we talk about the
sun, it is obvious which one is meant (there is only one); and when
we say the stars, it is the same (we mean all the stars).

2 Things can be particular (not general), but ‘indefinite’. If we say

Pass me a piece of bread or Let me buy you a drink, the piece of
bread or the drink are not definite — it could be any one of several
pieces of bread, any one of severafkinds of drink. If we say I met a
friend of yours yesterday, it could also be any one of several - the
listener doesn’t know which one. In cases like these, we do not use
tfee^Withjsingular countable nouns, we use a/an.
I’ve lost a button.
Shall we go and see a film?
There’s a letter for you.
Could I have a 10p stamp, please?
I’ve got a headache.
With uncountable and plural nouns, we express this ‘indefinite’
meaning by using either some/any or no article. (For the exact
difference, see 69.)
Would you like some cheese?
I haven’t got any problems.
We need beer.
I think we’ve got mice.
We also use a/an when we say that a person or thing is a member of_
a particular class or group, or when we say what people or things
are like.
She’s a doctor.
A sailor is a man who works in ships.
‘What’s that?’ - ‘It’s an adjustable spanner.’
You’re ia very beautiful girl.
\No article is used with uncountable and plural words in this case;
some and any are not used.
What's that?' — ‘It’s petrol.’
They're original Russian icons.
You’re fools.

3 When we mention something for the first time, we will probably use
some 69

an indefinite article (or some or no article with uncountables and

plurals), because our listener knows nothing about it. But when we
mention the same thing again, it becomes definite (because now he
knows which one we mean).
A man came up to a policeman and asked him a question. The
policeman didn’t understand the question, so he asked the man
to repeat it.

some /sam/, any, or no article 69

1 Uncountable and plural nouns can often be used either with
some/any or with no article at all, without much difference of
meaning.
Would you like (some) cheese?
Did you buy (any) screws?
Some/any are mostly used when we are talking about uncertain,
indefinite or unknown numbers or quantities. Compare:
You’ve got some great jazz records.
You’ve got beautiful toes. (. . .some beautiful toes would suggest
an indefinite number — perhaps six or seven.)
Is there any more beer in the fridge? (Indefinite quantity.)
We need beer, sugar, butter, eggs, rice and toilet paper. (The
usual quantities.)

2 There is a special use of the strong form of some /saih/ with

singular countable nouns.
She’s going out with some footballer.
There’s some man at the door for you.
He’s got some plan for changing the world.
In cases like these,some means ‘I don’t know about him/her/it, and
I’m not very interested.’
For details of the use of some and any, see 561, 563 and 55.

articles: special rules and exceptions 70

1 Common expressions without articles

In a number of common expressions, an article is dropped after a
preposition.
to school at school from school in/to class
to/at/from university/college to/in/into/from church
to /in /into /out of prison /hospital /bed to/at/from work
to/at sea to/in/from town at/from home
for breakfast at lunch to dinner etc at night
by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/trairi/tube/boat
on foot to go to sleep
 70 articles

In American English, in school/university/college are more com­

mon than at school etc.
Note the use of home instead of *to home (e g I’m going home).
When the above expressions are used with articles, they have
special meanings. Compare:
He’s in prison, (as a prisoner)
He’s in the prison, (perhaps as a visitor)
When with or without is followed by a singular countable noun, an
article is normally necessary. We say You can’t get there without a
car, not *. . . without car. However, articles are often dropped in
double expressions with prepositions, like with knife and fork,
with hat and coat, from top to bottom, on land and sea, arm inarm,
inch by inch, day after day.
2 Genitives (possessives)
Typical mistakes: *the John’s coat
"the America’s economic problems
*a Bach’s concerto
Articles are not normally used in genitive expressions when the first
word is a proper name.
John’s coat
America's economic problems
a Bach concerto
For more information about genitives (John’s, America’s, etc), see
261— 264.

3 Nouns used as adjectives

When a noun is used as an adjective (before another noun), the first
noun’s article is dropped. Lessons in how to play the guitar are
guitar lessons-, a spot on the sun is a sunspot.

4 Man and woman

When we generalize with singular countable nouns, we normally
use an article (the telephone, a whale)-, see 67.2. Man and woman
are exceptions: they can be used without articles.
God created man and woman for each other.
However, in modern English we more often generalize by talking
about a woman and a man or men and women (see 67.1).
A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.
Men and women have similar abilities and needs.

5 Radio and television

When we talk about radio and television in general, we do not use
articles.
articles 70

It's easier to write plays for television than for radio.

Articles are used in the expressions listen to the radio, on the radio,
but not in watch television, on television (or on TV).

6 Musical instruments
We normally use the definite article in expressions like play the
guitar, learn the piano (see 67.2). Note the difference in the use of
articles between the languages of classical music and jazz/pop.
with Alfred Brendel at the piano . . .
with Miles Davis on trumpet, Art Schlumberger on sax . . .
(The definite article is not used with the names of games: compare
play the piano, play the guitar, play chess, play football).

7 All and both

Articles are sometimes dropped after all and both.
All (the) eight students in the class passed the exam.
Both (the) children are good at maths.
We can say all year, all week, all day, all night, all summer, all
winter, but not *all hour or *all century.
I’ve been waiting for you all day.
For more details of the use of all and both, see 36— 39 and 115.

8 Illnesses
The names of illnesses are usually uncountable, and we talk about
them with no article.
/ think I've got measles.
She’s had appendicitis.
We say a cold, I’ve got a cold; in to catch (a) cold, some people
drop the article.
We say a headache, but the other aches (toothache, earache, etc)
are uncountable, with no article, in British English. For exact
details, see 6.
I've got bad toothache.

9 Numbers
The indefinite article is used in a hundred, a thousand, a million, a
billion, etc.
It'll cost about a hundred pounds. (Not: *. . . about hundred
pounds.)
For the difference between a hundred and one hundred, a thousand
and one thousand, etc, see 43 4.2.
Note the use of the article in expressions like sixty pence a pound,
seventy miles an hour, forty hours a week.
 70 articles

10 Seasons
We can say spring or the spring, in summer or in the summer, etc.
There is very little difference between the expressions with and
without the article. The article is usually used in in the fall (US).
11 Positions
In certain constructions, the names of positions that people can
occupy are used without articles.
Elizabeth II, Queen of England.
They elected George chairman.
Henry was made captain of the team.
He was elected President for the third time.
Mr Lewis was appointed chief clerk in 1968.
Note (i) the name of the position is the complement, not the subject
of the sentence (you cannot say “Chairman came to lunch, with no
article) (ii) these are all ‘unique’ positions - there is only one Queen
of England, only one captain of the team.
Do not drop the indefinite article before the name of a profession or
job in other cases. We say He’s a doctor or I don’t want to be a
secretary, not *He’s doctor or *. . . to be secretary.

12 Exclamations

Typical mistake: “What lovely dress!

We don’t leave out a/an in exclamations after what.

What a lovely dress!
13 Ships
The definite article is used in the names of ships.
The Torrey Canyon. The Queen Mary.

14 Geographical areas
We often use the with the words country, sea, seaside and moun­
tains, even when we don’t say which sea, or which mountains, etc
are meant.
I’m going to the country for a week.
I love the mountains, but I hate the sea.

15 Place-names
We usually use the with the following kinds of place-names:
seas (the Atlantic)
mountain groups (the Himalayas)
island groups (the West Indies)
areas (the Middle East, the Ruhr, the Midwest)
articles 70

rivers (the Rhine)

deserts (the Sahara)
hotels (the Grand Hotel)
cinemas (the Odeon)
theatres (the Playhouse)
We generally use no article with:
continents (Africa)
counties, states, departments, etc (Berkshire, Westphalia, Texas)
towns (Oxford)
streets (High Street)
lakes (Lake Windermere)
countries (Andorra, Brazil)
Exceptions: countries whose name contains a common noun (The
People’s Republic of China-, the Federal German Republic-, The
German Democratic Republic-, The United Arab Emirates; The
USA; The USSR)
Note also The Netherlands, and its capital The Hague.
We do not usually use articles in expressions which refer to the
principal buildings of a town:
Oxford University
Cambridge Polytechnic
Westminster Abbey
Salisbury Cathedral
Bognor Town Hall
Wigan Police Station
Birmingham Airport
Typical mistake: *The Oxford’s station

Names of single mountains usually have no article (Everest, Snow­

don). But we use the with the names of European mountains if their
name has an article in the local language: Der Matterhorn = The
Matterhorn; La Meije —The Meije. Exception: the is not used
before Mont(e): Le Mont Blanc is called Mont Blanc in English.

16 Special styles
There are some styles in which articles are dropped. For instance:
Newspaper headlines: MAN KILLED ON MOUNTAIN
Titles in notices, posters, etc: SUPER CINEMA; RITZ HOTEL
Instructions: Open packet at other end
Telegrams: WIFE ILL MUST CANCEL HOLIDAY
Dictionary entries: palm inner surface of hand between wrist and
fingers.
Lists: Take car to garage; buy buttons; pay phone bill . . .
Notes:/;? 17th century, balance of power between King and nobles
changed.
 72 as

For the use of articles with abbreviations (UNO, the USA), see i.
For the use of the in double comparatives (The more, the better),
see 145.3.
For the use of articles with nationality words (The Dutch, etc),
see 397.
For the use of a with few and little, see 238.

articles: golden rules 71

If the rules for the use of articles seem too complicated, just
remember these three:

1 Do not use the (with plural and uncountable nouns) to talk about
things in general.
Life is hard. (Not: *The life is hard.)

2 Do not use singular countable nouns without articles.

the car a car but not *car

3 Use a/an to say what people’s professions or jobs are.

She’s a bank manager. (Not: *She’s bank manager.)
Most mistakes with articles are made through breaking one of these
rules.

as /aez. az/: function and comparison 72

Two common ways of using as are:
<T) to talk about the job, function, use_orj~ole of a person_or_thing
to compare actions or situations by saying tjuK they are similar.
Examples:
1 I used my shoe as a hammer.
He worked as a bus-driver for six months.
She went to the party dressed as a traffic-warden.
2 He ran away from home, as his brother had the year before.
In Greece, as in Italy, they use a lot of olive oil in cooking.
Note the grammatical difference. When as is used to talk about
jobs and functions, it is rather like a preposition - it is followed by
nouns or pronouns. When as is used to talk~~about similarityjjxas-
used like a conjunction, followed by a clause with a verb, or by a
prepositional phrase. Like is also used to talk about similarity; for
the difference between as and like, see 73.
as 73

as and like: comparison 73

1 When we want to say that people, things, actions or situations are
similar to each other, we can use as or like, depending on the
grammar of the sentence.
Like is a preposition - it is followed by a noun or a pronoun.
/’»i very like my brother. My sister isn’t much like me.
As is a conjunction — it is followed by a clause, with a subject and
verb.
I am no orator, as Brutus Is. (Mark Antony in Julius Caesar)
She’s a fine singer, as her mother used to be.
As is also used before prepositional expressions:
In 1939, as in 1914, there was a great surge of patriotic feeling.
In informal American English, like is very often used as a conjunc­
tion instead of as.
Nobody loves you like I do, baby.
This usage is becoming common in British English. It is still consi­
dered 'incorrect’ in formal styles of British and American English.
Like is also often used, in an informal style, instead of as if (see 74).
She sat there eating cream cakes like there was no tomorrow.

2 In a formal written style, as is sometimes followed by the word­

order and structure of questions.
He was a Catholic, as were most of his friends.
He believed, as did all his family, that the King was their supreme
lord.
For other cases like this (‘inversion’), see 343-347.

3 Another use of as is in expressions like as you know, as we agreed,

as you suggested. The meaning here is not really ‘comparison’ or
‘similarity’, but ‘identity’. (As you know does not mean ‘You know
something like this’; it simply means ‘You know this’.) In an
informal style, like is possible in some of these expressions, but it is
unusual in educated English.
For the use of as to talk about jobs, functions, roles, etc (eg I
worked as a waiter), see 72.
For comparisons with as . . . as . . ., see 75.
For the same as, see 541. For such as, see 172.3.

as if and as though 74
These two expressions are used in the same way.
It looks as If/though it’s going to rain.
You look as If/though you’re going to cry.
 75 as ... as . .

After as if and as though, we often use past tenses with a present

meaning, to show that a comparison is ‘unreal’. Compare:
'You look as If you’ve been running.
You look as If you’d seen a ghost.
In the first example, the person may well have been running. In the
second, the person has (probably) not seen a ghost, but just looks
shocked.
You look as if you know each other.
Why is she looking at me as though she knew me? I’ve nenerseen
her before in my life.
In ‘unreal’ comparisons, were can be used instead of was. (For
other cases where this is possible, see 580.3.)
She looks almost as if she were drunk.
He looked at me as If I were mad.
Was is also possible in these cases (and is more common in an
informal style).
In a very informal style (especially in American English), like is
often used instead of as if.
He sat there smiling like it was his birthday.
She started kissing me like we were on our honeymoon.
For the difference between like and as, see 73.

as . . . as . . . 75
1 When we say that two things are the same in some way, we can use
as . . . as . . . with an adjective or adverb.
It’s as cold as ice. He drove as fast as he could.
She’s as bad-tempered as her mother.
The first as is often dropped in an informal style, especially in
American English.
She’s hard as nails.
When a personal pronoun follows the second as, we can use either a
subject-form (I, he, we, etc) or an object-form (me, him, us, etc).
Subject-forms are more common in a formal style (as clever as I),
but object-forms are much more common in informal speech and
writing (as clever as me). See 135.
Text-books sometimes give lists of colourful comparisons like as
cool as a cucumber, as happy as a lark, as old as the hills, as black as
the ace of spades. Unfortunately, many of these are old-fashioned
and unusual in modern English, so it is better to avoid them unless
you hear other people using them.
In negative comparisons, we can use not as ... as .. . or not so .. .
as .. . Both are correct in modern English.
She’s not so/as nice as her sister.
as long as 76

2 With a noun, we use as much ... as... or as many... as... to talk

about quantity.
I haven’t got as much money as I thought.
We need as many records as possible.
As much and as many can also be used as pronouns, without
following nouns:
I ate as much as 1 could.
He didn’t catch as many as he’d hoped.
Andas much can be used adverbially to refer to an action or state:
You ought to rest as much as possible.

3 Twice, three times, etc can be used with as ... as...; so can half, a
quarter, etc.
I’m not going out with a man who’s twice as old as me.
We got three times as many people as we expected.
You’re not half as clever as you think you are.
Expressions with as . . . as . . . can also be modified by (not) nearly,
almost, just, nothing like, every bit, exactly:
It’s not nearly as cold as yesterday.
He’s just as strong as ever.
You’re nothing like as critical as you used to be.
She’s every bit as beautiful as her sister.
For tenses with as soon as, see 152, 467.4.
For the word-order in sentences like She’s as good a cook as her
mother, see 18.

as long as 76
1 After as long as, we use a present tense to express a future idea.
I’ll stay with you as long as there Is a room free. (Not: *. . . as
long as there will be a room free.)
This is also trde for conjunctions like when, until, after, before, and
if-, see 152.

2 As long as is often used to make conditions:

You can take my car as long as you don’t smash it up.

as well as 77
1 As well as has a similar meaning to ‘not only’.
He’s got a car as well as a motorbike.
She’s clever as well as beautiful.
 80 as

2 Typical mistake: Ms well as he broke his leg, he hurt his arm.

When as well as is used with a verb, the -ing form is normally

necessary.
4s well as breaking his leg, he hurt his arm.
She’s got a cleaning job at night, as well as working during the
day.
Note the difference between:
She sings as well as playing the piano. (=She not only plays, but
also sings.)
She sings as well as she plays. (=Her singing is as good as her
playing.)
For the use of as well, also and too, see 45.

as and than with pronouns 78

When as and than are followed by personal pronouns, both subject
and object forms are possible.
She’s not as experienced as l/me.
I think you understand the problem better than l/me.
In informal English, object forms (me, him, etc) are much more
common. Subject forms are more often used in a formal style (for
instance, in careful writing), and some people consider them more
‘correct’. If a verb follows the pronoun, only subject forms are
possible, of course.
She’s not as experienced as I am.

as and how 79
Typical mistake: *Hold it in your right hand, how I told you.

Do not use how in comparisons, with the meaning of ‘like’ or ‘as’.

How is only used in questions (direct or indirect). Compare:
How did you do it?
Tell me how you did it.
Hold it in your right hand, as I told you.

as and though: special word-order 80

In a formal style, as can be used (with a special word-order) to mean
‘although’. Though is also possible. The construction suggests a
very emphatic contrast.
^TSold as it was, we went out. (— Although it was so cold, we went
out.)
as 81

1 ired as I was, I went on working. (= Although I was very tired,

• • •)
Bravely though they fought, they had no chance of winning.
Sometimes, as can be used in this construction to mean ‘because’.
Tired as she was, I decided not to disturb her.
There is another way of using as with a special word-order.
He was a Catholic, as were all his family.
For details of this, see 73.2.

as after object 81
A number of verbs can be followed by an object and an as-
construction. This is common in cases when we say how we see
somebody, or how people describe him.
7 see you as a basically kind person.
She described her attacker as a tall dark man with a beard.
His mother regards him as a genius.
After as, an -ing form is possible (usually being):
I don’t regard you as being dangerous.
Passive forms of this structure are common:
He wasn’t recognized as (being) a great writer until after his
death.
I was never considered as a good athlete at school.
(Consider can also be used without as, or with a following
infinitive. See 155.)
With the verbs impress and strike, an as-structure can refer to the
subject:
He didn’t impress me as (being) very intelligent.
It struck me as strange that nobody said anything.

as a matter otyact 82
1 This expression is often used to introduce a surprising, unexpected
piece of information (rather like actually)
‘Who was elected?’ - ‘Well, as a matter of fact, I was.’
‘You speak English very well.’ - ‘Yes, well, I am English, as a
matter of fact. ’

2 Asa matter of fact can also introduce a sentence which strengthens

what has just been said (by making it more definite, or by giving
details).
Mary’s pretty bright. As a matter of fact, her teacher told me that
she’s certain to get a university place this year.
 84 as

He’s drinking quite a lot these days, you know. As a matter of

fact, I saw hint in the Red Lion the other night and he couldn’t
stand up.
For other expressions of this kind (‘discourse markers’), see 172.

as, because, since and for_ 83

All four of these words can be used to give the reason for an action
or situation,. There are differences between them.

1 Because is generally used when the reason is the most important

part of the sentence. Therefore, the because-clause usually comes at
the end.
You want to know why I’nt leaving? I'm leaving because I’m
FED UP! (Not: *. .. as I’m FED UP!)
People dislike me because I’m handsome and successful. (Not:
*. . . as .. .)

2 As and since are. used when the reason is already well known, or is
less important than the rest of the sentence. Since is a little more
formal than as. As- and s/nce-clauses often begin the sentence.
As women were- not supposed to be novelists, she took the name
George Eliot.
Since you refuse to co-operate, I shall be forced to take legal
advice.

3 For suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought: a/br-clause

could almost be in brackets. For-clauses never come at the begin­
ning of the sentence.
I decided to stop and have lunch — for I was feeling quite hungry.

as, when and while: simultaneous events 84

When we want to talk about actions or situations that take place at
the same time, we can use as, when or while. There are some
differences.

1 ‘Backgrounds’
We often say that something happened as (or when, or while)
something else was going on. We use as, when or while to introduce
the longer ‘background’ situation, which started before the shorter
event, and perhaps went on after it.
As/when/whlle I was walking down the street I noticed a police
car in front of number 37.
as 84

(longer ‘background’ event)

as I was walking down the street

----------------------------- x-------------------------------------
I noticed
a police
car
V J

(shorter action)
Note
i The order of clauses can be reversed:
1 noticed a police car in front of number 3 7 as/when/while I was
walking down the street.
z When can be put with either clause:
John arrived when I was cooking lunch.
When John arrived I was cooking lunch.
3 With when and while, a past progressive tense (see 468) is
normally used for the longer ‘background’ event.
When/while I was walking down the street, ...
... when/while I was cooking lunch.
With as, a simple past tense is sometimes also possible, especially
in a more formal style (eg literary narrative).
As / sat thinking about my life, I began to realize ...
4 As, when and while are used with present tenses to talk about
the future (see 152):
I hope you’ll think of me for a moment as/when/while I’m taking
my driving test. (Not: *... when I’ll be taking ...)

2 Simultaneous long actions

To talk about two long actions (or events or situations) that went
on at the same time, we most often use while. The past simple and
progressive tenses are both possible.
While John was sitting (or sat) biting his nails, I was working out
(or worked out) a plan to get us home.
When and as are not very common in this case. However, as can be
used to talk about two developing or changing situations:
As I get older I get more optimistic.
As the champion grew weaker, his opponent’s attacks became
more and more violent.

3 To say that two short actions or events both happened at the same
time, we most often use as or just as. When is also possible.
Just as he caught the ball there was a tearing sound.
 85 ask

1 thought of it just when you opened your mouth.

For other ways of using when, see 467.4 and 316.

ask 85
Typical mistakes: *He came over and asked me a light.
*She asked for the price of the carrots.
*If you ask the time to a policeman, he will
always tell you.
*1 couldn’t find my tennis-racket, so I asked
Mary to use hers.

Ask is one of the verbs that can be used with two objects (see 617).
Note the following points:

1 In general, we use ask for when the object of the verb is something
that is given (for example a light, money, food}. When the object is
something that a person tells you (for example a price, the time, the
way}, we use ask without for. Compare:
He asked for a light.
I asked for a pound of carrots.
She asked the way to the bank.
She asked the price of the carrots.
There are occasional exceptions, especially when talking about
money:
They’re asking £100 a month rent.
‘How much is the car?’ — ‘I’m asking fifteen hundred.’
Note also the expressions ask a lot of somebody, ask too much of
somebody, ask a favour of somebody and ask (for) permission.

2 We don’t normally use a preposition before the person who is

asked. Note that if the verb has two objects, the person comes first.
Let’s ask John.
If you ask a policeman the time, he will always tell you.
Of course, it is possible to ask for a person (on the telephone, for
instance). Compare:
I asked for the manager. (I said ‘Can I speak to the manager?’)
I asked the manager. (I said to the manager ‘Can you replace
this?’)

3 Ask can be followed by an infinitive.

She asked to have a holiday on Friday.
It can also be followed by object + infinitive. Note that in this case,
the object of ask is the subject of the following infinitive. Compare:
I asked to'go home. (— I said that I wanted to go home.)
asleep 86

I asked Ann to go home. ( = I said to Ann that she should go

home.)
I asked Ann If I could go home. (=7 said to Ann that I wanted to
go home.)
I couldn’t find my tennis racket, so I asked Mary If I could use
hers. (Not: *. . . to use hers.)

asleep 86
In informal British English, it is unusual to say, for example, He's
sleeping, or Are you sleeping? After a verb (in ‘predicative’
position), we usually use asleep. However, before a noun (in
‘attributive’ position), asleep is not possible (see r6.z). Compare:
The baby's asleep.
a sleeping baby (Not: *an asleep baby).
Note that we do not say *very asleep-, we say fast asleep instead.
Note also the common expressions go to sleep and fall asleep.
I went to sleep (or fell asleep) at ten o’clock. (Not: *7 slept at ten
o’clock.)
Awake is used in a similar way: after a verb, it is more common
than waking-, before a noun, waking has to be used. Instead of
*very awake, we say wide awake. For the differences between
wake, wake up, waken, awake and awaken, see 91.

at, in and on: expressions of time 87

1 Pronunciation
At /tet/ has a weak form /at/, and this is the usual pronunciation in
expressions of time. In /in/ and on /on/ do not have weak pronunci­
ations. For information about strong and weak forms, see 622.
2 Exact times
We use at to give the time of an event, an appointment, etc.
We’ve got to get up at six tomorrow.
I’ll meet you outside at a quarter to eight.
In informal English, at is usually dropped in the expression (At)
tvhat time . . .? and in other expressions of time when they come at
the beginning of a sentence.
What time do you usually start work?
‘When shall we come?’ — ‘Eight o’clock.’

3 Parts of the day

The most common expressions are in the morning, in the after­
noon, in the evening, and at night.
 87 at

It always takes me ages to wake up In the morning.

I work best at night. three o'clock In the morning
If we say which morning, afternoon, etc we are thinking of, or if we
describe the morning, afternoon, etc, on is used instead of in.
See you on Monday morning.
On a cold afternoon in January, I was . . .
On that particular evening, there was a strange excitement in the
air.
I don’t like to see people on the nights when I’ve been working
late.

4 Days
On is used to talk about particular days (and also in expressions
like on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon).
Come back on Thursday.
On a summer’s day, in the month of May, . . .
We’re giving him a surprise party on his birthday.
Granny’s coming to lunch on Christmas Day.
On can be dropped (particularly in American English) before the
names of days of the week.
I’m seeing her (on) Sunday morning.

5 Weekends and public holidays

At is used to talk about the whole of the public holidays at Christ­
mas, New Year, Easter, and Thanksgiving (US).
Are you going away at Easter?
But on is used to refer to one day of the holiday (eg on Easter
Monday) — see above.
British people say at the weekend’, Americans say on the weekend.
For cases when the preposition is not used, see below.

6 Longer periods
In is used when we talk about weeks, months, seasons, years and
centuries.
It happened in Easter week.
What month were you born in? I was born in March.
Compulsory military service was abolished in 1962, I think.
It would have been nice to live in the eighteenth century.
We usually go to Yugoslavia in the summer.

7 Expressions with no preposition

Prepositions are not generally used in the following cases:
a in expressions with next and last
We’re meeting next Tuesday. He stayed with us last Easter.
at 88

b in expressions with this (and sometimes that)

What are you doing this evening?
I didn’t feel very well that week.
C before tomorrow and yesterday, also the day after tomorrow and
the day before yesterday
I’ve got to get up very early tomorrow morning.
She had her operation the day before yesterday.
d before one, any, each, every, some and all, used withexpressions of
time
Let’s have a party one evening next week.
You can come any day.
We meet every Saturday.
Some day we’ll meet again.
I was ill all summer.
In American English (and in very informal British English), on can
be dropped before the names of days of the week.
See you (on) Tuesday.

8 In (other uses)
In is also used to say how soon something will happen, and to say
how long something takes to happen.
Ask me again In three or four days.
I can run zoo metres in about 23 seconds.
The expression in . . .’s time normally refers to the future.
I’ll see you again in a week’s time.
It’ll be finished In about three weeks’ time.
For the use of by and until to refer to time, see 613.
For the difference between in and during, see 188.

at, in and on: expressions of place 88

1 Pronunciation
At has a weak form /at/ , and this is the most usual pronunciation.
In and on do not have weak forms. (For more information about
strong and weak forms, see 6zz.)

2 General
At, in and on are all used to talk about position in space. The
differences between them are rather complicated, and it is not
always easy to know which of the three is correct.
 88 at

In general:
i at is used when we talk about position at a point;
z on is used to talk about position on a line or on a surface:
3 in is used to talk about position in a place that has three
dimensions (length, breadth and depth).

at a point
My house is at the third crossroads after the bridge.
If you’re at the North Pole, every direction is south.

on a line
We’ve got a nice little cottage on the river.
There’s a good restaurant on the Glasgow road.

on a surface
What’s that black mark on the ceiling?
You used to have a picture on that wall, didn’t you?

in three dimensions
1 think I left my tennis racket in the bathroom.
Who’s that up in the tree?

But the situation is not quite as simple as this. For more details, see

c
the following explanations.

3 At
When we regard a place as a point (without any real size), we use at.
This may be because it really is a point (at the end of the line, at the
corner of the street). But it may also be because the size of the place
is not important. A person who comes from a small Oxfordshire
town like Bicester will probably say that he lives in Bicester; but
somebody who is going by train from Birmingham to London will
say that the trainstops at Bicester. For the first person, the place is
well known and important; it has streets, houses, churches, shops,
pubs, etc. But for the traveller, it is just a point on a journey.
At the5,000-metre mark, Harrison was leading the other runners
by about six seconds.
We stopped for three-quarters of an hour at Kennedy Airport.
We often use at with the name of a place when we are interested in
the activity that happens there, and not in the exact shape or
dimensions of the place. For instance, if we agree to meet somebody
at the station, we are not interested in the fact that the station has an
at 88

inside and an outside — we forget the three dimensions, and just

think of the station as a meeting place. If I say that my sister works
at Marks and Spencers, I simply want to say who her employer is, or
where her place of work is — the nature and size of the building are
not important. For this reason, at is very often used when we talk
about places of entertainment, cafes, restaurants, and about the
places where people work or study.
I’ll be at the folk club at 8.30.
Eat at the Steak House — best food in town.
We had lunch at that little pub round the corner.
Sorry I didn't phone last night — I was at the theatre.
I was at school from 1947 to 1954; I was atuniversity from 1936
to 1961; after that I worked ata private school for several years.
We also use at with the names of group activities:
at a party at a meeting at a concert
at a lecture at the match
Note the difference between in Cambridge (in the city) and at
Cambridge (at the university); and between in the corner (of a
room) and at the corner (of a street).
At can be used with a possessive to mean ‘at somebody’s house or
shop’.
"Where’s Jane? Is she at the hairdresser's again?’ — ‘No, she’s
at her mother’s.’

4 On (lines)
We use on to say that something is touching or close to a line, or
something like a line (eg a river, a road, a frontier).
We live on a small river that flows into the Thames.
Newcastle-on-Tyne (the Tyne is a river)
Trieste is on the frontier between Italy and Yugoslavia.
Carlisle is on the road to Glasgow.
Note, however, that in is used to talk about the position of things
which actually form part of the line.
There’s a misprint In the sixth line on page 22.
Who’s the blonde girl In the front row?
On is also used for a fixed location by a body of water.
Bowness is on Lake Windermere.
Southend-on-Sea

5 On (surfaces)
On is often used to say that something is resting on top of a surface.
However, it can also be used for position in contact with a vertical
surface, or even for contact underneath a surface.
Come on — supp'er’s on the table!
We spent the afternoon in a boat on the lake.
 88 at

I think that picture would look better on the other wall.

I’ve got something on the sole of my shoe.
I wish I could walk on the ceiling like a fly.
We say on a page.
You’d find the poem on page 32.

6 Zn
In is used when the surroundings are three-dimensional (when
something is surrounded on all sides).
Who’s the man In the wardrobe?
I won’t stay in bed; I’ll just lie down on the bed for half an hour.
I’ve lost my ball in the long grass. (But: on the lawn)
In is also used for position on a surface with a wall, fence etc round
it (so that it seems enclosed and three-dimensional).
Let’s picnic in that field over there.
I last saw her in the car park. (But: on the beach.)
With larger areas (countries, regions, large islands) we say in even if
they are not enclosed.
She lives in Buckinghamshire.
He lived with nomads in the Sahara desert for two years.
I’ve got a cottage in Jersey. (But: on a desert island.)
Compare also:
in the Himalayas on Everest
We say in a picture and in the sky.

7 Parts of the body

Typical mistake: *She had blood in her forehead.

On is used with the names of most parts of the body surface.

She had blood on her forehead.
I kissed her on both cheeks.
In is used with the softer and more ‘hollow’ parts of the body
surface. Compare:
I hit him on the jaw/ear/shoulder/nose/neck.
I hit him in the eye/mouth/ribs/stomach.
We hit somebody in the face, but on is usually used for facial
expressions.
There was an expression of low cunning on his face.
In is usually used to talk about wounds, and (of course) for position
inside the body.
He was wounded in the shoulder.
I’ve got a pain in my head.
at 88

8 Means of transport
On (or on to) and off are used to talk about public transport (and of
course horses, motorbikes and bicycles). In other cases (eg cars,
taxis, lorries, small boats, private planes) we normally use in, into,
out and out of.
You’d better get on the next plane to Berlin.
He was arrested as he got off the train.
I saw Gloria In a new Mercedes yesterday.
The taxi stopped and a beautiful girl got out.
Note that go could not be used instead ofget in the above examples.
Note also the common expressions (with no article) by car, by
train, by plane, etc (not "with car or "in car etc) and on foot (not "by
foot).
9 Addresses
At is used with the house-number:
She lives at number 73.
In British English, in is used with the name of the street, but
Americans say on-.
She lives In Hazel Avenue. (British)
She lives on Hazel Avenue. (American)
If both the number and the street-name are given, only at is used:
She lives at 73 Hazel Avenue.
On is used with the word floor (to say what part of a house
somebody lives in).
I live on the third floor.
Note that the names of the floors are not the same in British and
American English:

US GB

third second

second first

first ground

10 At (target)
At is used after several verbs'to indicate the target of an attack of
some sort (see 485). The most common areshoot at, throw .. . at,
shout at, laugh at. (Throw... to and shout to are used when there
is no idea of attack.)
We also say smile at and arrive at (never "arrive to).
 90 auxiliary verbs

11 At the side of, etc

Although at is normally used for position at a point, it is also used in
the expressions at the side of and at the edge of.
I parked my car at the side of the road.
Britain used to be at the edge of the known world.
On is also possible in these expressions, particularly in American
English and in cases when we are talking about the edge of a drop
(eg on the edge of a cliff).
12 At church, in hospital, etc
There are some fixed expressions with no article (see 70.1) which
are used to talk about certain places when they are used for their
normal purposes. In some of these expressions at is used, in others
in. There is no particular reason for the difference, and you have to
learn the expressions separately. The commonest of them are:
in bed, in hospital, in prison, in court, in church/at church, at
home, at school, at work, at university, at college (in American
English, in school, in university and in college are used)

at all 89
At all means ‘in any way’, ‘in the smallest degree’, ‘even a little’. It is
often used to emphasize a negative:
I didn’t understand anything at all.
, She wasn’t at all frightened.
At all can also be used in questions, and with if and hardly.
Do you play poker at all?
He’ll come before dinner, if he comes at all.
I hardly know her at all.
The expression not at all is used as a polite answer when somebody
says Thank-you.

auxiliary verbs 90
Auxiliary (or ‘helping’) verbs are used together with other verbs to
‘help’ them express particular grammatical functions or meanings
(for instance, to make questions, or to form tenses). In English, a
lot of important meanings are expressed by changes in the verb, for
example: questioning, negation, time, completion, continuation,
repetition, willingness, possibility, obligation. But English verbs do
not have many different forms. The maximum (except for be) is five
(eg see, sees, seeing, saw, seen). So to express these meanings, a
number of auxiliary verbs are used. There are two groups:
awake 91

1 do, be and have

These three auxiliary verbs have very important grammatical func­
tions. Do is used to make question and negative forms of simple
tenses, and for some other purposes. Be is used with participles
(-ing and -ed forms) to make progressive and passive verb-forms.
Have is used to make perfect verb-forms. Do, be and have also
have other ‘non-auxiliary’ uses. Detailed information about these
verbs, and about progressive, passive and perfect verb-forms, can
be found in other places in the book (see the Index).

2 The ‘modal auxiliaries’

These are the verbs can, could, may, might, must, will, would,shall,
should, ought and need. They are different from the other three
auxiliary verbs in two ways. Firstly, they have special grammatical
features (for instance, they have no infinitive, and the third person
singular has no -s). And secondly, most modal verbs have not only a
grammatical function, but also a ‘dictionary meaning’: for
instance, must can mean ‘be obliged to’. (Do, be and have do not
really have ‘meanings’ of this kind when they are used as auxiliary
verbs.) When will and would are used to make future and condi­
tional verb-forms, they do the same kind of job as be and have.
However, grammatically speaking, will and would belong with the
‘modals’.
For detailed information about the use of modal verbs, see
388—390 and the entries for particular verbs in other places in the
book.
In general, auxiliary verbs form questions and negatives without
do. If they .are followed by an infinitive, to is not used. Ought to is
an exception to this, and there are some other expressions which
are followed by a to-infinitive, but which form questions and
negatives without do and which are used like auxiliaries. Examples
are be able to, be going to, be to. Have (got) to (see 184), used to
(see 614), need (see 399) and dare (see 166) can also be used like
auxiliary verbs. Get can be used, like be, to make passive verb­
forms (see 267), but grammatically it is not at all like an auxiliary
verb. Ordinary verbs like want, hope, expect, like, practise, which
are followed by the ro-infinitive or-ing form of other verbs, are not
considered as auxiliary verbs.

awake/a'weik/, awaken /a'weikan/, wake (up) /weik (ap)/ 91

and waken/'weikan/
1 Wake (woke, woken) is the commonest word of these four. It is
used to mean stop sleeping or stop (somebody else) sleeping. It is
often followed by up.
Could you wake me (up) at about eight?
I woke (up) early this morning.
 93 back

Regular forms (waked) are also possible, but they are unusual in
British English.

2 Waken (regular) is sometimes used instead of wake with a direct

object; this is more common in a literary style.
The prince wakened her with a kiss on the forehead.

3 Awake and awaken are used to talk, not about stopping sleeping,
but about becoming conscious of ideas, danger, etc, or about
beginning to feel emotions. Usually awake is intransitive; awaken
has an object. These words, too, are more common in literary
writing.
I slowly awoke to the danger that threatened me.
At the beginning I paid little attention, but slowly my interest
awoke.
The smell of her perfume awakened the gipsy’s desire.

4 As predicative adjectives, awake and asleep are much more com­

mon than waking and sleeping (see 86).
Is the baby awake yet? You were fast asleep at ten o’clock.

awfully, terribly, frightfully, etc 92

Awfully, and some other words with similar meanings, are often
used in informal English to mean ‘very’. (They are particularly
common in upper-class speech.)
Awfully sorry to trouble you — could you help me for a moment?
The film was terribly good.
It’s getting dreadfully late.
She’s a frightfully nice girl.
Note the difference between the adjectives terrific and terrible.
Terrific is used in an informal style to mean ‘very good’; terrible
means ‘very bad’.
There’s a terrific new restaurant in South Street — shall we go
there for lunch?
Don’t ask me to take you — I’m a terrible driver.

back and again 93

Typical mistakes: *1 didn’tsayyoucouldhavemy watch. Giveitto
me again.
*This meat isn’t very good: I think I’ll take it
again to the shop.
*My friend Stefan can never return back to his
country.
back 93

1 Back (or back again) is used for a movement in the opposite

direction to the movement that was talked about before. For
instance, one cango to a place and then come back (again); one can
take something and then give it back (again). Note the word-order.
Back is an ‘adverb particle’ (see49i); it can come before or after the
direct object if this is a noun, but only after a pronoun object.
Give my match back to me. (Or: Give back my match to me.)
Give it back to me.
I think I’ll take the meat back to the shop. (Or:. . . take back the
meat . . .)
I think I’ll take it back.
Again (without back) is different. It is an adverb, and is generally
used to indicate a repetition of the same action or movement.
Compare:
When I’ve recorded your voice I’ll play it back (again).
That mas lovely. Can you play it again?
I enjoyed our evening at Susan’s place. We must invite her back
(again).
Eric mas horrible to Granny. I’m not going to Invite him again.
If I mrite to you, mill you write back (again)?
I don’t think he got your letter. You’d better write again.
Note the use of back with be.
Hello! I’m back (again)!
Have a good journey. When mill you be back (again)?

2 When the verb itself already expresses the idea of‘movement in the
opposite direction’, back is not used. (But again is possible.) So we
don’tusebacfc with retwrw (because return already means go back).
Stefan can never return to his country (again).
Who opened the mindom? Could you close it (again), please?
(Not: *. . . close it back . . .)
When we express the idea of‘movement in the opposite direction’
with an adveVb particle (like out, off, domn), back is possible, but
we can also leave it out. Again is possible.
I stood up, and then I sat (back) down (again).
I ment to bed, but then I felt better, so I got (back) up (again).
He tasted the apple and spat it (back) out (again).

3 Note the two possible meanings of the verb phrase ring (or call)
back:
'She’s not here justnow. ’ — ‘Ask her to ring me back. ’ (= ‘reply to
my phone call’)
7 haven’t got time to talk now.’ — 'I’ll ring back later.’ ( = ‘ring
again’)
 95 be

bath and bathe 94

Note the difference in pronunciation:
to bath /ba:0/ bathing /’ba:0ig/ bathed /ba:0t/
to bathe /beid/ bathing /'beidirj/ bathed /beiSd/

1 The verb bath is used (in British English) to mean ‘wash oneself by
getting into water - normally in a bath(tub)’. Bath is rather formal
in this sense (and is not used in American English); in an informal
style, we usually say have a bath (British only) or take a bath
(British and American).
I’m feeling hot and sticky: I think I’ll take a bath.
Bath can be used with an object (in British English).
It’s your turn to bath the baby. (American: ... to bathe the
baby.)

2 Bathe (in British English) means ‘swim’. It is a rather formal in this

sense (and is not used in American English); in an informal style, we
usually say have a stuim, go for a swim, go swimming or swim.
Let's go for a swim in the river.
Bathe can be used with an object, to talk about putting water on a
part of the body that hurts (for instance, sore eyes).
Your eyes are very red — you ought to bathe them.
Note also the American expression to bathe a baby. (British to bath
a baby).

be with auxiliary do 95
Do is used as an auxiliary with be in negative imperative sentences
(when we tell somebody not to do something). It is also common in
affirmative imperative sentences when we want to give more
emphasis to what we say.
Don’t be silly! Don’t be such a nuisance!
Do be careful! Do be quiet, for God’s sake!
Do is also sometimes used with be in one or two other structures
which have a similar meaning to imperative sentences.
Why don’t you be a good boy and sit down? (informal)
If you don’t be quiet I’ll smack you! (informal)
In other cases, do cannot be used with be. It would be impossible to
say *1 don’t often be sick. Instead, one would say I’m not often sick
or / don’t often get sick.
For other auxiliary uses of do, see 176- 178.
be 96

be: progressive tenses 96

You can say I’m being careful or You’re being annoying, but not
*I’m being happy or *She’s being tired.
We use the progressive tenses of be {I’m being, etc), to talk about
people’s activity and behaviour, but not about states of mind and
feelings. Compare:
i I’m being careful
You’re being annoying
You’re being very patient with me
She was being terribly energetic
You were being stupid (= behaving stupidly)
2 I'm happy
You’re angry
He was tired
She was depressed
Note also the difference between He’s being sick (= vomiting) and
He’s sick (= ill).
Of course, the progressive tenses can only be used for temporary
activity or behaviour that is going on just around the moment of
speaking. (See 502.) Compare:
I’m being careful, (just now) I’m a careful person, (always)

be + infinitive (/ am to ..., etc) 97

1 This structure is often used to talk about arrangements which have
been planned for the future.
The Queen is to visit Japan next year.
There’s to be a rail strike on July 18th.
The structure can also be used in the past, to talk about arrange­
ments which were planned. If the expected event did not happen,
the perfect infinitive can be used.
I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time.
I was to have started work last week, but I changed my mind.
Sometimes the reference is not to planned arrangements, but to
‘destiny’ — things which were hidden in the future, ‘written in the
stars’.
When we said goodbye, I thought it was for ever. But we were to
meet again, many years later, under very strange circumstances.
For other ways of talking about the future, see 250—258.

2 Be + infinitive can also be used to give orders. (Parents often tell

children to do things in this way.)
You’re to do your homework before you watch TV.
Tell her she’s not to be back late.
 99 beat

The passive infinitive is common in notices and instructions.

The form Is to be filled in and returned within three weeks.
These tablets are to be kept out of the reach of children.
The subject and auxiliary verb may be left out before this infinitive.
To await arrival, (written on a letter)
To be taken three times a day before meals, (written on a
medicine bottle)

3 Note the special use of the passive infinitives of see, find and
congratulate, in structures with be.
He’s nowhere to be seen.
She’s nowhere to be found.
You are to be congratulated.
For more information about active and passive infinitives, see 330.
For an explanation of the structure If I were to . . ., see 307.}.

beach, coast and shore 98

Beach and shore are both used to mean the land at the edge of the
sea. (We also talk about the shore of a lake.) A beach is relatively
flat, covered with sand or small stones, and suitable for swimming,
sunbathing, or landing small boats. Shore is a more general word: it
can include not only beaches, but also rocky or steep places.
I like lying on the beach looking at girls.
After the storm there was a lot of driftwood washed up on the
shore.
Coast is used for the division between sea and land when we see it at
a distance, or think of it as a whole.
Looking down from the plane, we could see the Dutch coast.
I live ten miles from the coast.
It would not be possible to say, for example, *1 saw him sitting on
the coast.
Note that we often talk as if the coast belonged to the land, and the
shore to the water.
The French coast; the south coast of Devon; the sea-shore; the
shore of Lake Geneva.

beat and win 99

Typical mistake: *A4y boy-friend won me at poker.

You win (or lose) a game, an argument, a battle, a prize, money,

etc; but you beat (or are beaten by) the person you are playing,
arguing or fighting against.
because 100

I usually win when we play. I beat John at chess yesterday.

My boy-friend beat me at poker.

because and because of 100

Typical mistakes: *1 was worried because of Mary was late.
*She was late because the traffic.

Because is a conjunction (used before a clause, with a subject and

verb); because of is a preposition (used before a noun or pronoun).
I was worried because Mary was late.
She was late because of the traffic.

been and gone 101

Both of these words are used as past participles of to go, but with
different meanings. Compare:
My husband’s gone to London today. (He hasn’t returned.)
My husband’s been to London today. (And he’s returned.)
Mary’s gone to Nigeria. (She’s there now, or on her way.)
Have you ever been to Nigeria? (Said to somebody who is not in
Nigeria.)
Gone to means ‘left for’ or ‘travelled to’; been to means‘travelled to
and returned from’.
Note that you can say to somebody who is in England Have you
been to England before? but not "Have you gone to England
before?

before and in front of 102

Typical mistake: */ think I’ll put the desk before the window.

In modern English, before is not very often used as a preposition of

place; we use in front of instead.
I think I’ll put the desk in front of the window.
There’s a car parked right in front of our gate, and I can’t get out!
Before is used to refer to place in a few cases:
i talking about the order in which things come (in lists, etc)
Tour name comes before mine.
2 to mean ‘in the presence of (somebody important)’
I came up before the magistrates for dangerous driving last week.
3 in the expressions right before my eyes, before my very eyes
For the difference between in front of, facing zndopposite, see 2.4 8.
 104 believe

begin, start and commence . 103

1 Meaning
In many cases, begin and start can be used with no real difference.
I Started/began mountain climbing when I was eighteen.
It’s no use waiting for ]eremy — let’s start/begin.
In an informal style, start is more common than begin. It would
seem more natural to say Damn, it’s starting to rain! than Damn,
it’s beginning to rain!
Start is used in some cases where begin is not possible.
I ‘To start a journey’
I think we ought to start at six, while the roads are still clear.
2 ‘To start working’ (for machines)
The car won’t start.
3 ‘To make (machines) start’
How do you start the washing machine?
Commence is used in the same way as begin, but it is a much more
formal word, and unusual in spoken English.
Term will commence on September 4th.

2 Structures
If commence is followed by another verb, the -ing form is normally
used.
We commence building on March 18th.
Begin and start can be followed by the infinitive or the -ing form.
There is usually little or no difference between the two structures,
but the -ing form is perhaps rpore common when we are talking
about the start of a long or habitual activity. Compare:
She sat down at the piano and started to play/playing.
How old were you when you began playing the piano?
The -ing form is avoided after progressive tenses of begin andstart.
You can say I’m starting to learn Spanish, but it would be unusual
to say I’m starting learning Spanish.
For more information about infinitives and -ing forms, see
322.-339.

believe 104
Believe can be followed by an object and infinitive, especially in a
formal style.
Everybody believed her to be innocent.
In informal usage, it is more common to use a clause after believe.
I believe (that) she’s innocent - don’t you?
belong 105

In passive sentences, believe can be used with a personal subject and

a following infinitive.
The president Is believed to be seriously ill.
For information about other verbs that can be used like this, see
463. There is also a passive structure with introductory it and a
that-c\ause; this is mainly used in a formal style.
It is believed that enemy troops are advancing on the capital.
For more information about this structure, see 462.
Believe is not usually used in progressive tenses: see 502.6.
For the use of believe in short answers with so and not, see 558.
For prepositions with believe, see 485.
For believe in negative sentences, see 402.
For the omission of it after believe, see 474.11.

belong 105
Typical mistake: *tt's belong to me.
Belong is a verb: we say It belongs to me.
Note also the use of belong before a preposition or adverb, to talk
about the right place for a person or thing.
The knives belong in the left-hand drawer.
I don’t really feel I belong In the accounts department.
We belong together.

beside /bi'said/ and besides/bi'saidz/ 106

Beside is a preposition that means ‘at the side of’ or ‘by’.
Who’s the big blonde sitting beside Philip?
Besides is both a preposition and an adverb.
1 As a preposition, it is used rather like as well as (see 77), when we
want to add new information to what is already known.
Besides literature, we have to study history and philosophy.
(history and philosophy as well as literature)
Who was at the party besides Jack and the Bensons? (I know
about Jack and the Bensons, but who else was there?)
2 As an adverb, it means ‘also’, ‘moreover’ or ‘as well’. It usually
goes before a clause.
I don’t like those shoes; besides, they’re too expensive.
It’s too late to go out now. Besides, it’s starting to rain.
 109 big

besides and except 107

These two words are sometimes confused.
Besides usually includes: it is like saying with, or plus (+).
Except excludes: it is like saying without, or minus (—).
Besides half a bottle of whisky, he drank three gins and some
beer.
I like all drinks except whisky. (I don’t like whisky.)

better 108
1 We often say that someone is better when we mean that he has
recovered from an illness. In this sense, better can be used with the
words completely or quite. (Other comparative adjectives cannot
be used in this way: we do not say *quite older or Completely
worse.)
Don’t start work again until you’re quite better.

2 Do not use better to correct a mistake. We say or rather.

She’s gone to Hungary — or rather Poland.
For the expression had better, see 275.

big, large and great 109

1 When we talk about size, we use both big and large. [Great is not
usually used to refer to size in modern English.) There is a difference
of style: big is a more conversational word, large is a little more
formal. Compare:
Sir Henry was feeling decidedly sleepy after a large lunch.
Mummy, can I have a big lunch today?

2 Big and great have other, more abstract meanings. They are both
often used to refer to important events and actions. Great is more
formal than big in this sense.
You’re making a big /great mistake.
a big/great step forward; a big/great change; a big /great
improvement
With uncountable words, only great is normally used. The meaning
is similar to a lot of.
I had great difficulty in getting through on the phone.
great care/ignorance/importance/sorrow/charm/concentration

3 Big and great are often used simply for emphasis, or to express
emotion, either combined with other adjectives or with each other
(great big, not *big great).
billion 110

Suddenly I saw this great big bull charging towards me.

You great big baby! You’re like a great cuddly bear!
You big fool! You great ape! You great stupid Idiot!
Move your great big smelly feet! You big fat cow!
Great also means ‘famous’, ‘powerful’ or ‘historically important’.
Napoleon was not a big man, but he was a great man.
One of Vermeer’s greatest paintings was stolen last year.
Note the (informal) use ofgreat as an exclamation to show liking or
approval:
‘How do you like my dress?’ — ‘Great!’

billion 110
Abillion is a thousand million (1,000,000,000). In British English a
milliard used to mean ‘A thousand million’, and a billion used to
mean ‘a million million’ (1,000,000,000,000), but these uses are no
longer common.

a bit 111
A bit can be used as an adverb of degree; the meaning is the same as
a little — not quite so strong ssrather. It is used in an informal style.
I’m a bit tired; I think I’ll go home.
She’s getting a bit old to play with dolls, isn’t she?
Could we drive a bit slower?
‘How are you today?’ - ‘A bit better, thanks.’
Before a noun, we use a bit of.
He’s a bit of a fool, if you ask me.
I’ve got a bit of a problem.
Note the expression not a bit (= ‘not at all’).
I’m not a bit tired.
‘Do you mind if I put some music on?’ - ‘Not a bit.’

border, frontier and boundary 112

Border and frontier can both be used for the line that separates two
countries, but the meaning is not quite the same.
Frontier suggests a guarded border, with passport, visa and cus­
toms checks. (The word was also used to refer to the limit of
expansion westwards towards the Pacific, when Europeans were
settling in North America.)
The frontier is protected by minefields and an electric fence.
Border is a more general word, used for any division between
 114 borrow

countries (for instance, England and Scotland), or states (such as

Nebraska and Wyoming). We also talk about a flower border, and
we say on the border(s} of madness.
We live ten miles from the Welsh border.
Boundary is used to talk about the divisions between smaller units,
like farms, towns, cities, parishes or counties.
The boundary between the farms follows the line of the river.
Note that limit is not used to talk about the division between two
areas (but Americans say the city limits').

born 113
Typical mistake: */ am born in 1957.
The correct form is I was born: it is an ordinary past-tense passive
verb form, meaning ‘I was brought into the world’.
My parents are Greek, but I was born in London.
In modern English, we do not usually say that a woman ‘bears a
child’. Instead, we say that she has a baby.
Mary’s going to have a baby in June.
The only common use of bear is in the expression can’t bear
(meaning ‘hate’, ‘can’t stand’).
I can ’t bear loud noises.
When the verb has this meaning, the past participle is spelt borne.

borrow and lend 114

Typical mistakes: *Can 1 lend your bicycle?
*Can I borrow you five pounds?

Borrowing is like taking. You borrow something from somebody.

Can 1 borrow your bicycle?
I borrowed a pound from my brother.
Lending is like giving. The verb can be used with two objects, or
with the preposition to (like give}.
Lend me your comb for a minute, will you?
I lent my car to my brother’s girl-friend, and she smashed it up.
In passive sentences, lend (but not borrow} can be used with a
personal subject.
We’ve been tent a cottage in the Alps for the summer.
For more information about verbs with two objects, see 617, 460.
both 115

both and both of 115

Both can be used in two main ways in a sentence. It can come in the
noun group (with the subject or object), or it can come with the
verb.
Both (of) the children have been to Greece.
The children have both been to Greece.
There is no real difference of meaning in these two ways of using
both, but there are one or two grammatical problems.

1 Both in the noun group

Both (with or without of) can be followed by the + noun, by
possessive + noun, or by demonstrative +noun.
Both (of) the cars broke down soon after the start.
Both (of) my children are fair-haired.
I got both (of) these vases in Spain.
Both is used without of if there is no article, possessive or demon­
strative with the noun.
I’ve got blisters on both feet. (Not: *. .. both of feet.)
Both children have been to Greece.
Both cannot be used without of before personal pronouns. It is
impossible to say *both we or *both us. We either use both of before
an object pronoun (egboth of us), or both after the pronoun (egws
both).
Both of us were born on March iyth.
The letter’s addressed to us both/to both of us.
You cannot put an article before both.
Typical mistake: *The both children ....

2 Both in the verb group

If both refers to the subject of the sentence, it can also be put with
the verb. Note that in this case the exact word-order depends on the
form of the verb. Both comes in the same position as ‘mid-position
adverbs’ (see 24) - that is to say,
1 after am, are, is, was, were
You’re both wrong.
The children were both too young.
2 before other verbs
We both like cornflakes.
The men both looked French.
3 but usually after the first auxiliary verb, when the verb has
several parts
We have both studied acting.
 117 bring

My parents have both been invited.

They must both have been delayed.
If all this seems complicated, remember that usually several con­
structions are possible with no real difference of meaning. So, for
instance, you can say Both cats are asleep, or Both the cats are
asleep, or Both of the cats are asleep, or The cats are both asleep.
Both can also be used as a pronoun (without a noun).
I’ll take both, please. Both look equally good to me..
The rules for the use of all and each are rather like those for both-,
see 3 7 and 190.
For the structure both . . . and . . ., see 116.

both ... and ... 116

People usually ‘balance’ this structure, so that the same kind of
words follow both and and.
She both plays the piano and sings, (both + verb; and 4 verb)
She plays both the piano and the guitar, (both -j- noun; and
+ noun)
The following sentences (which are not ‘balanced’ in this way) are
not exactly wrong, but many people would feel that the style was
bad.
*She both plays the piano and she sings, (both + verb;
and + clause)
*She both plays the piano and the violin, (both + clause; and
+ noun)
Other ‘balanced’ structures: either. . . or. . . (see 193); neither. . .
nor . . . (see 407); not only . . . but also . . . (see 420).

bring and take 117

Typical mistake: *Let’s have one more drink, and then I’ll bring
you back home.

It is not always easy to choose correctly between these two words.

Basically, bring is used for a movement towards the person who is
speaking or writing; take (in one sense) is used for movements in
other directions.
Come over here and bring your book.
I’m bringing my wife back home from hospital this evening.
I once had to take a group of students from Rome to Berlin.
Let’s have one more drink, and then I’ll take you back home.
When the speaker and listener are in two different places (for
instance, in a telephone conversation), bring is used for movements
bring up 118

both towards the speaker and towards the listener. The same is true
in letters.
‘Come and stay for the weekend and bring your wife.’
‘Thanks, I’d love to. Can we bring the children too?’
Sometimes the speaker uses bring for a movement, not towards the
place where he is, but towards a place where he was or will be.
Jack brought some new designs to the office this morning.
Come to the theatre with us tonight, and bring Mary.
There is a similar difference between come and go. See 141.

bring up and educate 118

We generally use bring up (and the noun upbringing) for the moral
and social training that children receive at home. Educate and
education are used for the training (especially intellectual and
cultural) that people get at school, university, etc. If we say that a
child is badly brought up, we mean (for example) that he is rude
or selfish. A well-educated person went to a good school and
university.
Lucy was brought up by her grandparents and educated at the
local convent school.
Would you rather be well brought up and badly educated, or the
opposite?

(Great) Britain, the British isles and 119

the United Kingdom
In theory, there is a difference between (Great) Britain and the
United Kingdom (or the UK). (Great) Britain is supposed to be the
name of the land mass which includes England, Scotland and
Wales; the UK is the name of the political unit which is made up of
England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
In practice, the expression (Great) Britain is very often used to refer
to the political unit, so that it can mean exactly the same as the UK.
The British Isles is the geographical name for Britain, Ireland, and
all the islands round about.
Note that England is only one part of Britain. Scotland and Wales
are not in England, and Scottish and Welsh people don’t like to be
called ‘English’.

British and American English 120

These two varieties of English have both changed a good deal in the
last three hundred years or so, and naturally they have not devel­
oped in exactly the same way. However, the differences between
 120 British and American English

them are not very great. Most British and American speakers can
understand each other quite easily (though pronunciation can
cause a few problems), and the written language is very similar
indeed in the two countries. The main differences are as follows:
1 Grammar
a Americans (US) use a simple past tense in some cases where British
(GB) people use a present perfect (see 495.4). US He just went
home/GB He’s just gone home.
b Americans use the verb have a little differently from British people
in certain cases (see 283). US Do you have a problem?/GB (many
speakers) Have you got a problem?
C The American past participle olget is gotten-, in British English it is
got (see 265.4). US I’ve never really gotten to know him/GB. . .got
to know him. Some other irregular verb forms are different in
British and American English: see 348.3.
d The subjunctive is much more common in American than in British
English (see 5 80). US It’s essential that he be informed/GB. .. that
he should be informed.
e Americans sometimes use his where the British say one’s. US One
should try to get to know his (or one’s) neighbors/GB . . . to know
one’s neighbours. (See 440.)
f British speakers often say I have done, I can do, I might do, etc, in
cases where Americans would just say I have, I can, I might. (See
199-3-)
g There are many small differences in the use of prepositions and
adverb particles. Examples:
US GB
check something out check something
do something over do something again
fill in/out a form fill in a form
meet with somebody meet somebody
protest something protest against something
stay home stay at home
visit with somebody visit somebody
Monday through Friday Monday to Friday
h On the telephone: US Hello, is this Harold?/GB Hello, is that
Harold?
i In informal speech, many Americans use like in cases where most
educated British people would prefer as or as if (see yy, 74). US It
looks like it’s going to rain/GB . .. as if it’s going to rain.
j In informal speech, Americans sometimes use adverb forms with­
out -ly. US He looked at me real strange/GB. . . really strangely.
British and American English 120

2 Vocabulary
Sometimes different words are used for the same idea (US apart-
ment/GR flat), or the same word has different meanings {mad =
US ‘angry’/GB ‘crazy’).
US GB
alumnus graduate
anyplace ' anywhere
apartment flat
attorney barrister, solicitor
automobile (motor) car
baby-carriage pram
bar pub
billboard hoarding
billfold wallet
broiler grill
cab taxi
call collect reverse charges {when telephoning)
can tin
candy sweets
checkers draughts
closet cupboard
coin-purse purse
cookie biscuit
corn maize
crazy mad
crib cot
cuffs turn-ups (on trousers)
dessert sweet
detour diversion
diaper nappy
dish-towel tea-towel
divided highway dual carriageway
drug store chemist(’s)
elevator lift
eraser rubber
expressway motorway
faculty staff (of a university)
fall autumn
faucet tap (indoors)
fender mudguard, bumper (of a car)
first floor ground floor
flashlight torch
flat flat tyre, puncture
freeway motorway
garbage can dustbin, rubbish-bin
garbage collector dustman
gas, gasoline petrol
 120 British and American English

gear-shift gear-lever
generator dynamo
highway main road
hobo tramp
hood bonnet (of a car)
intermission interval (in an entertainment)
intersection crossroads
janitor caretaker
kerosene paraffin
liquor store off-licence
mad angry
mail post
mailbox postbox
mailman, mail carrier postman
math maths
mean nasty, vicious (of a person)
motor engine
movie film
the movies the cinema
muffler silencer
noplace nowhere
oil-pan sump
one-way single (ticket)
optometrist oculist, optician
overpass flyover
pacifier dummy (for a baby)
pants trousers
panty-hose tights
patrolman constable (policeman)
pavement road surface
peek peep
pitcher jug
pocketbook, purse handbag
potato chips crisps
private hospital nursing home
railroad (car) railway (carriage)
raincoat mackintosh, raincoat
raise rise (in salary)
realtor estate agent
rest room public toilet
round-trip return (ticket)
rubber condom (male contraceptive)
rubbers gumshoes, Wellington boots
run ladder (in tights)
schedule timetable
school school, college, university
sedan saloon (car)
shorts underpants
British and American English 120

shoulder verge (of a road)

sick ill
sidewalk pavement
sneakers gymshoes, tennis-shoes
someplace somewhere
spigot tap (outdoors)
spool of thread reel of cotton
stingy mean (opposite of ‘generous’)
store shop
stove cooker
stroller push-chair (for a baby)
subway tube, underground (train)
suspenders braces
sweater jersey, jumper, pullover, sweater
thread cotton
thumbtack drawing-pin
tidbit titbit
traffic circle roundabout
trailer caravan
trash rubbish
trashcan dust-bin, rubbish-bin
truck van, lorry
trunk boot (of a car)
turnpike toll motorway
undershirt vest
vacation holiday(s)
vest waistcoat
wheat corn, wheat
windshield windscreen (of a car)
wreck crash (of a vehicle)
wrench spanner
zipper zip
Note that a fag is an offensive American slang term for a homo­
sexual, and a British slang term for a cigarette.

3 Spelling
a In American English, final -/ is not usually doubled in an unstressed
syllable (see 568): eg US traveler, leveling/GB traveller, levelling.
b Some words end in -ter in American English, and -tre in British: e g
US theater, center/GB theatre, centre.
c Some words end in -or in American English and -our in British: e g
US labor, honor, co/or/GB labour, honour, colour.
d Some words end in -og in American English and-ogue in British: e g
US catalog, dialog, analog/GB catalogue, dialogue, analogue.
e Many verbs end in -ize in American English, but in -ize or -ise in
British: eg US realize/GY> realize or realise.
 120 British and American English

Some spelling differences in individual words:

US GB
aluminum /a'lu:minam/ aluminium /.seia'miniam/
analyze analyse
check cheque (from a bank)
defense defence
instal install
jail gaol, jail
jewelry jewellery
offense offence
pajamas pyjamas
plow plough
practice (verb) practise
pretense pretence
program programme
specialty speciality
tire tyre (on a car)
4 Pronunciation
There are, of course, many different regional accents in both Britain
and America. The most important differences between ‘standard’
American and ‘standard’ British speech are as follows:
a Stressed vowels are often lengthened more in American English
than in British (so that British people think Americans ‘drawl’ and
Americans think British speech is ‘clipped’).
b Vowels are often nasalized in American English; that is to say, air
comes out through the nose and mouth at the same time. Vowels
are not nasalized in most British pronunciations, so this makes the
two accents sound very different.
c Most vowels are pronounced a little differently in British and
American English. Three vowels are very different:
i The vowel /au/ (as in home, no) is a diphthong (double vowel)
in British English; in American English it is closer to being a
monophthong (single vowel), and it sounds very different.
2 The vowel /o/ (as in pot) is pronounced in American words
without lip-rounding, and sounds like the vowel/a:/(as in palm).
3 Many British people pronounce /a:/ (a back vowel) in some
words where Americans pronounce /as/ (a front vowel). Examples:
can’t, castle, fast, glass, class, staff, after, pass, example.
d In standard British English, r is only pronounced before a vowel. In
American English, r is pronounced in all positions in a word, and it
changes the quality of a vowel that comes before it. So words like
car, turn, offer sound very different in British and American speech.
e In American English, t and d both have a very light ‘voiced’ pro­
nunciation/d/between vowels — so writer /'raidar/ and rider
/'raidar/ sound the same. In British English, t remains ‘unvoiced’
between vowels: writer /'raita(r)/, rider /'raida(r)/.
Britisher 121

f Before -u and -ew, British people pronounce »-, d- and t- like ny-,
dy- and ty- (/ nj-, dj-, tj-/ ). Americans pronounce them as they are
written. Examples: tune (GB /tju:n/;US /turn/ );new (GB /nju:/;
US /nu:/); duke, due, detv, reduce, tube, intuition, tumour, nude.
g Words ending in -tile are pronounced with /-tail/ in British Eng­
lish, and /-tl/ in American. Examples: fertile (GB /'faztail/ ;
US /‘fstrtl/ ); reptile, futile.
h Borough and thorough are pronounced differently in British and
American English: GB/'bAra,'0Ara/; US/'bArao,'0Ar9o/.
There is a useful British-American/American-British dictionary
called What’s the Difference? by Norman Moss (Hutchinson).

Britisher/'britija(r)/ and Briton/'bntn/ 121

Note that these two nouns are not usually used by British people.
Britisher is used in American and other kinds of English, but not in
British English. Briton is mainly used in (British) newspaper head­
lines.
THREE BRITONS DIE IN AIR CRASH
British people do not, in fact, have a noun which they can use to
refer to their nationality (perhaps because they prefer to regard
themselves as Welshmen, Scots, Irishmen or Englishmen). When
necessary, the adjective is used - for example, He’s British-, some­
body British; the British (see 397).

broad and wide 122

1 Wide is the usual word to talk about the physical distance from one
side of something to another.
We live in a very wide street.
The car’s too wide to go into the garage.
Open your mouth wide.
Wide is used in the expressions wide apart, wide-awake, wide-open
and widespread.

2 Broad is used in the expressions broad shoulders and broad-

shouldered; in a rather formal or literary style, it can be used to
describe rivers, streets, fields, valleys, and other elements of land­
scape.
Across the broad valley of the Danube, the mountains rise blue
and mysterious in the distance.
Broad is most often used in more abstract expressions, such as
broad agreement, broad daylight, broad hint, broad humour,
broad-minded, broad outline. For the exact meanings of these
expressions, see a good dictionary.
 124 by

but/bAt. bat/ 123

1 Bwi-is sometimes„use_dxo_meaiiexcep_l_This happens especially after
the following words: ez/ery^any, no (and their compounds, like
every.whe^e_,_anyth_mg.,_n_oho_dyX, all, none.
I’ve eaten nothing but bread and cheese since Sunday.
Everybody’s arrived but Simon and Virginia.
It is unusual to use subject pronouns (7, she, he, etc) after but in
these cases; in modern English (especially in an informal style), me,
her,him, etc are more common. (The same is true withtBaw andas:
see 78.)
‘Who would do a thing like that?’ — ‘Nobody but her.’
When but is followed by a verb, we usually use the infinitive
without to.
I couldn’t do anything but just sit there and hope.
She did nothing but complain the whole time she was here.
Except is used in the same way; see 224, 107.
There are a few other cases in which but is used in the sense of
except. These are mostly rather formal expressions (e g One cannot
but admire his courage) which are not often used in conversation.
The expression butjor_ is used to express the idea of‘if something
had not existed, or jotJiappened’.
I would have been in real trouble but for your help.
But for the storm, I would have been home before eight.

2 But is used in a special way with next and last, in British English.
I was next but one in the queue to see the doctor, (not the next
one, but the one after)
My friend Jackie lives next door but one. (two houses from me)
I was last but one in the race yesterday, (the one before the last)

3 In older English, but was used to mean only, but this is now very
unusual.
- She is but a child.
For a note about the structure not only . . . but also, see 420.
For the expression can’t help but, see 133.
For ellipsis after but, see 198.2.

by (method) and with (tools etc) 124

Typical mistake: */ killed the spider by a rolled-up newspaper.

By and with can both be used to say how somebody does some­
thing, but there is an important difference.
By is used when we talk about an action — when we say what we do
by 125

to get the result we want. With is used when we talk about an

object, a tool, etc — when we say what we use. Compare:
I killed the spider by hitting it.
I killed the spider with a newspaper.
He got what he wanted by talking very cleverly.
He got what he wanted with flowers and chocolates.
Note the use of the -ing form after by (see 336).
By is also used to refer to means of transport {by bus, by train, by
car, etc). See 70.1.
In passive sentences, by is used to introduce the ‘agent’ — the person
or thing that does the action (see 459). Note the difference between
by and with in passive sentences:
He was killed by a heavy stone. (A stone fell and killed him.)
He was killed with a heavy stone. (Somebody used a stone to kill
him.)

by and near 125

By means just at the side of-, something that is by you may be closer
than something that is near you. Compare:
We live near the sea (perhaps five kilometres away).
We live by the sea (we can see it).

by: time 126

One meaning of by is not later than. For instance, by five o’clock
means at or before five, but not after.
You can borrow my camera, but 1 must have it back by five
o’clock.
By the time {that} is used with a verb, to mean not later than the
moment that something happens.
I’ll be in bed by the time you get home.
By the time that the security guards had realized what was hap­
pening, the gang were already inside the bank.
For the difference between by and until, see 613.

can /ksen, kan/and could /kod, kad/: introduction 127

Typical mistakes: *1 can to swim.
*Do you can speak French?
*I’d like to can stay here.

1 Can and could are ‘modal auxiliary’ verbs, like for example must,
should and may. (For details of modal auxiliaries, see 388-390).
 127 can

These verbs have no infinitives or participles (*to can, *canning,

*I’ve could do not exist); when necessary, we use the infinitives and
participles of other verbs instead.
I’d like to be able to stay here.
You’ll be able to walk soon. (Not: *You’ll can . . .)
I’ve always been allowed to do what I like. (Not: *I’ve always
could . . .)
Like other modal auxiliary verbs, can has no -s in the third person
(he can, not*he cans); questions and negatives are made withoutdo
(can you?, not *do you can?); can and could are followed by an
infinitive without to.
I can swim.
Can you speak French?
Can Shirley get here by lunchtime, do you think?
Could is not only the past of can: it can be used to talk about the
present and the future.
You could be right.
Could I see you tomorrow evening?
Could also has a conditional use.
I could marry him if 1 wanted to. ( — I would be able to . ..)
Contracted negative forms (see 157) are can’t, couldn’t. Be careful
about the pronunciation of can’t: in British English it has a quite
different vowel from can.
can /kaen/; can’t (GjB) /ka:nt/, (US)/ka:nt/
(For the use of the ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ pronunciations, see 622).
Cannot is written as one word.

2 The general meaning of can and could is connected with the idea of
freedom. If you say that you can do something, you mean that there
is nothing to/stop you doing it if you want to; you are strong
enough, or you have learnt how to do it, or you have been given
permission; or it is physically possible: you are free to do it. If you
say that something can (or could) happen, you mean that it is
possible: it is ‘free to happen’.
She can lift me up with one hand.
Can you swim?
You can borrow my car if you want to.
Anybody can learn to cook.
It could rain later.
For detailed information about the use of can and could to talk
about ability, possibility, permission, etc, see the following
sections.
can 128

can and could: ability 128

1 Present and future
Can is usually used to talk about the present, or about ‘general
ability’ — the ability to do something any time you want to.
Look! I can do it! I can do it!
You can certainly cook, even if you can’t do anything else.
Be able to is also possible, but less common.
You are certainly able to cook, . . .
To talk about future ability, will be able to is normally used.
I'll be able to speak German in another few months. (Not: *1 can
...)
One day people will be able to run a kilometre in two minutes.
If I have a good sleep I’ll be able to work out the problem.
But can is often possible when people make present decisions about
future ability.
We’re too busy today, but we can repair your car tomorrow.
We can talk about that later.
Can you come to a party on Saturday?

2 Past
Could is used for ‘general ability’, to say that you could do some­
thing any time you wanted to. (Was/were able to is also possible.)
She could sing like an angel when she was a kid. (Or: She was
able to sing . . .)
My father could speak ten languages.
Could is not used to talk about particular ability (to do something
on one occasion) in the past. Instead, we use was able to, managed
to, or succeeded in.
How many eggs were you able to get? (Not: *. . . could you get?)
I managed to get io% off the price. (Not: *J could get . .-.)
After six hours’ climbing, we succeeded in reaching the top of
the mountain. (Not: *. . . we could reach . . .)
Compare the following two sentences:
He was a terrific liar: he could make anybody believe him.
(General ability — could is correct.)
I talked for a long time, and in the end I managed to make her
believe me. (One particular action: *. . . I could make her believe
me ... is impossible here.)
Note that the negative couldn’t is used for both general and particu­
lar ability.
When I was younger I couldn’t decide what I wanted to do.
Simon was so drunk that he couldn’t find the front door.
 129 -can

3 Conditional could
Could is also used in a conditional sense (meaning ‘would be able
to’).
I could have a really good time if 1 had a flat of my own.
We could do it by midday if we had the tools.
I could break your neck!

4 Could with the perfect infinitive

Sometimes we want to say that we had the ability to do something,
but we did not try to do it. There is a special structure for this:
could + perfect infinitive (=could have +past participle).
1 could have married anybody I wanted to. (=Z was able to marry
anybody . . but I didn’t.)
I could have killed her! (=1 was so angry that I was capable of
killing her, but 1 didn’t.)
You could have helped me! (— You were able to help me — why
didn’t you?)
This structure can have a conditional meaning (‘would have been
able to . . .’)
/ could have won if I hadn’t fallen over. (—I would have been able
to win . . .)
Negative sentences with this structure express the idea of ‘I
wouldn’t have been able to do it even if I had tried’.
I couldn’t have won, so I didn’t go in for the race.
I couldn’t have enjoyed myself more - it was perfect.

5 Remember etc
With some verbs, can is often left out without changing the mean­
ing very much. This happens with remember, speak, understand
and play.
I (can) remember London during the war.
She can speak Greek/She speaks Greek.
I can’t/don’t understand.
Do/can you play the piano?
For the use of can with see, hear, etc, see 129.

can and could with see, hear, etc 129

The verbs see, hear, feel, smell and taste have several different
meanings. When they have their basic meanings of ‘receiving
information through the senses’, they are not usually used in the
progressive tenses. Compare:
I’m seeing him tomorrow. (=I’m interviewing him)
I can see stars. (Not: *l'm seeing .. .)
can 130

Instead of the progressive tenses, we usually use can with the

infinitive of these verbs to talk about a sense experience that is
going on at the moment. Could is used for the past.
I can see Henry over there.
I can feel something crawling up my leg.
When I got off the train I could smell the sea.

can and could, may and might: possibility 130

Typical mistakes: *Will you answer the phone? It can be your
mother.
*According to the radio it can rain this evening.

When we say that something is possible, we can mean two different

things. Compare:
It’s possible to hold one’s breath for three minutes, with practice.
‘Do you think you’ll come back next year?’ — ‘It’s quite possible.’
In the first example, we are saying that something can be done, but
we are not talking about the chances that it will happen. In the
second example, there is a suggestion that somebody will perhaps
return: we are talking about the chances of something actually
happening. The grammar is not quite the same in the two cases: in
particular, can is often used to talk about the first kind of possibility
- ‘theoretical possibility’ - (e g Accidents can happen}, but can is
not usually used to talk about the actual chances of something
happening, or being true. When we want to say that there is a
chance of something happening, we use could (or may or might —
see 377):
Will you answer the phone? It could (may, might) be your
mother.
According to the radio it could (may, might) rain this evening.
This is a complicated point of grammar. Detailed rules are as
follows:

1 ‘Theoretical possibility’
Can is used to say that events and situations are possible (without
talking about the chances of them actually happening).
Anybody who wants to can become a prison visitor.
How many elephants can fit into a mini?
Sentences with caw often give information about the characteristic
behaviour of people or things.
Scotland can be very warm in September.
Gold can't be dissolved in hydrochloric acid.
To talk about the past, could is used.
My grandmother could be very unpleasant at times.
 130 can

We often use caw to make suggestions about possible solutions to a

problem, or possible actions.
We’ve got three choices: we can go to the police, we can talk to
Peter ourselves, or ive can forget all about it.
'What shall ive do?’ - ‘We can try asking Lucy for help.’
Can ive meet again tomorrow?
In order to make suggestions more ‘tentative’ - less strong or
definite — we use could.
We could try asking Lucy, if you think it’s a good idea.
Could we meet again tomorrow?
‘Suggestions’ are sometimes really requests or orders.
Yom could give me a hand with the cooking.
For details of this, see 132..

2 ‘Chances’
a Future possibility. We don’t use can to say that there is a chance
that something will happen. Instead, we usually use way or might
(see 377).
We may go climbing this summer.
Could is used to give the idea that something is just possible, but not
particularly likely.
We could go climbing this summer, but I doubt if we’ll have time.
It could rain later on this evening.
b Present possibility. May, might and could are also used to say that
something is possibly true at the moment of speaking.
Yom may be right.
You could be right, but I don’t think you are.
This could be your big chance.
Can is sometimes used to talk about present possibility, but only in
questions and negative sentences.
Who can that be at the door? What can she possibly want?
Can it be Susan? It can’t be true.
But not *It can be Susan or *It can be true.
Note that can’t, in this sense, is the opposite of must, (see 394.)
It can’t be true. She must be mistaken.

3 Can and could with the perfect infinitive

Can and could are both used with the perfect infinitive {have + past
participle) for speculating or guessing about the past. Can is only
used in questions and negative sentences.
Where can she have gone?
can 131

She can’t have gone to school - it’s Saturday.

She could have gone off with some friends. (Not *She can have

Could, with the perfect infinitive, is also used to talk about an

unrealized past possibility: something that was possible but didn’t
happen.
You were stupid to go skiing there — you could have broken your
leg.
It wasn’t a good idea to throw the TV out of the window — it
could have hit somebody.
This structure can be used to criticize people for not doing things.
You could have told me you had invited people to dinner. (= Why
didn’t you tell me .. .?)
To say that something was not a possibility, we say It couldn’t have
happened.
My parents wanted me to be a doctor, but I couldn’t have put up
with all those years of study.
May and might can also be used with the perfect infinitive, in
similar ways to could. For the exact details, see 376 and 377.

can and could, may and might: permission 131

1 Asking for permission
Can, could, may and might are all used in asking for permission.
Can is probably the commonest of the four (though some people
consider that can is ‘not correct’ and that one should say May I
. . ..?).
Can I have a drop more whisky?
Could is rather more hesitant than can, and is used when you are
not sure that you will get permission (or when you don’t want to
sound too sure).
Could I ai^ you something, if you’re not too busy?
May and might are used in a more formal style; they often suggest
respect. Might is more hesitant, and is not very common.
May I make a suggestion?
May I stop work a little earlier tonight?
Might I take the liberty of pointing out that you have made a
small mistake?
Note that, in asking for permission, could and might are not past
tenses; all four words refer to the future.
 131 can

2 Giving permission
When we give permission, we use can and may, but not could or
might.
{Could and might suggest respect, so they are more natural in
asking for permission than in giving it.)
‘Could I use your phone?’ — ‘Yes, of course you can.’ (Not: *...
of course you could.’)
‘Might I trouble you for a light?’ — ‘You may indeed.’ (Not: *‘You
might indeed.’)

3 Reporting permission
When we talk about permission that has already been given, may is
not usually used.
It’s not fair. Joey can stay up till ten and I have to go to bed at
eight. (Not: *. . . Joey may stay up .. .)
Can you park on the pavement in your country? (Not: *May
you . . .?)
Might can be used after a past verb in ‘reported speech’.
Mary said that I might borrow her car. (Or. . . that I could. . .)
In the past, could is used to say that one was allowed to do
something at any time (‘general permission’).
When I lived at home, I could watch TV whenever I wanted to.
But we don’t use could to talk about permission for one particular
action in the past.
I was allowed to see her yesterday evening. (Not: *1 could see
her .. .)
He had permission to go out for an hour. (Not: *He could go
out. . .)
(This is like the difference between could and was able to - see
128.)

4 Conditional
Could can be used in a conditional sense (= ‘would be allowed to’).
With a perfect infinitive, it means ‘would have been allowed to’.
He could borrow my car if he asked.
I could have kissed her if I’d wanted to.

5 Offers and orders

Sometimes when we ‘ask for permission’ we are really offering
something, and when we ‘give permission’, we are really telling
people what to do.
Can I buy you a drink? You can go and jump in the river.
For details of this, see 132.
can 132

can and could: offers and requests 132

Can and could are often used to offer to do things for people, and
to ask other people to do things. Could is more ‘hesitant’, less
definite, than can, and it is used when we want to make an offer or
a request seem more polite or respectful. Statements and questions
are both common.

1 Offers
I can lend you a pound till Wednesday, if that will help.
I could do the shopping for you, if you’re tired.
Can I carry your bag?
Could I give you dinner one of these days?
In questions, may is also possible (see 376).
May I buy you a drink?

2 Requests and orders

Yom can start by doing the washing up, and then you can clean
the car.
Celia can do the shopping, and I’ll do the cooking. Harold can
do the washing-up.
You could phone Alice and see what time she’s coming.
Can you come here a minute, please?
Could you help me with this letter?
You might is possible instead of you could (see 383).
You might see if John’s free this evening.

can’t help 133

If you say that you can’t help doing something, you mean that you
are forced to do it: something makes you, even if you don’t want
to or shouldn’t.
She’s a verytselfish woman, but somehow you can’t help liking
her.
Excuse me — J couldn't help overhearing what you said.
Sorry I broke the cup -1 couldn’t help it.
Can’t help is sometimes followed by but + infinitive (without to);
the meaning is the same as can’t help... ing, but the structure is
not very common, and is unusual in spoken English.
I could not help but realize that something was wrong.
 135 case

care (about), take care of and care for 134

Typical mistake: */ don’t take care of your opinion.

Take care of normally means ‘look after’ (feed, watch, etc).

Nurses take care of patients in hospital.
It’s no good giving Peter a rabbit — he’s too young to take care of
it properly.
We also use take care of to talk about people’s responsibility.
Mr Savage takes care of marketing and publicity, and I’m
responsible for production.
Care (about) is used to say whether or not you feel something is
important, or whether it interests or worries you. It is most com­
mon in questions and negative sentences. About is used before an
object, but is usually left out before a conjunction.
/ don’t care about your opinion.
I don’t care whether it rains — I’m happy.
‘I’ll never speak to you again.’ - ‘I don’t care.’
Care for has two meanings:
i like (especially in questions and negative sentences)
Would you care for a cup of tea?
2 look after (especially in a formal or literary style)
She spent the best years of her life caring for her sick father.

case (I and me, who and whom, etc) 135

Six English words have one form when they are used as subjects,
and a different form when they are used as objects. (Grammarians
call these different ‘cases’ of the words.) The six words are I/me,
he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them, who/whom.
I like dogs, (subject) Dogs don’t like me. (object)
We can’t come tonight, (subject)
Come and have dinner with us. (object of preposition)
This is Mr Perkins, who runs our advertising department, (sub­
ject in relative clause)
This is Mr Perkins, whom you met at the sales conference, (object
in relative clause)
There are a few important points to note about the use of these
forms.

1 In informal English (for instance, ordinary conversation) we use

object-forms (me, him, etc) after be.
‘Who’s that?’ - 'It's me.'
‘Who said that?’ — ‘I think it was him.’
case 135

Object-forms are also used in one-word sentences.

‘Does anybody want another potato?’ - ‘Me.’ (But: ‘I do.’)
In more formal English, subject-forms are possible after be.
It is I. It was he.
However, these are very formal and unusual; more often, people
avoid the difficulty in formal speech by changing the structure.
‘Who’s that?’ — ‘It’s John.’
‘Who said that?’ — ‘He did.’

2 When a relative clause comes after an expression like It was me/I,

there are two possibilities:
object form + that (very informal)
It was me that told the police.
subject form + who (very formal)
It was I who told the police.
We can avoid being too formal or too informal by changing the
structure.
I was the one (or the person) who told the police

3. Whom is not very often used in informal English; we usually use

who instead, especially in questions.
Who are you going with?
Who did they arrest?
Tell me who they arrested.
Whom can be used in a more formal style, and it is necessary after a
preposition:
Whom did they arrest? (formal)
With whom are you going? (very formal)
For the position of prepositions in sentences like these, see 488.
In relative clauses, whom is unusual; either we leave out the object
pronoun, or we use that (see 515-5x7 for details).
There’s the man (that) we met in the pub last night.
In ‘non-identifying relative clauses’ (see 5 28), whom has to be used
as an object (but these clauses are not very common in informal
English).
This is Mr Perkins, whom you met at the sales conference.

4 After^s, than, but and except, it is often possible to use both subject
and object forms (see 78, 123 and 224). Object forms are more
common in an informal style.
My sister is as tall as me. (Or: . . . as I.)
I am prettier than her. (Or: . . . than she.)
 137 cheers!

Everybody but me knew what was going on. (Or: . . . but I. . .)

Only subject forms can be used when the pronoun is the subject of a
verb.
My sister is as tall as I am.
You know more than she does.

5 Note that in very informal English, us is quite often used instead of

me (especially as an indirect object).
Give us your plate.
Give us a kiss, darling.

6 For details of the ‘possessive case’ (eg John’s, the women’s), see
261.

certain and sure with infinitive or -ing form 136

When we say that somebody is certain to do something, we mean
that he will definitely do it. If we say that he is certain of doing
something, the meaning is not quite the same: we suggest that the-
person feels certain that he will do it, but that he could be wrong. In
the first case we talk about what will happen, in the second we
describe a person’s state of mind. Sure is used in the same way.
Compare:
Manchester are certain/sure to win: the other team haven’t got a
chance.
Before the game started Alan felt quite sure/certain of winning,
but after the first five minutes he began to lose confidence.
For the difference between certainly and surely, see 587.

cheers! /tfiaz/ 137

1 If British people raise their glasses and say something before drink­
ing, they most often say Cheers! or Your health! (Some other
expressions, like Cheerio! and Chin-Chin! are found in books, but
are unusual in modern English.) A more formal expression is Your
very good health! When we drink to celebrate an occasion, such as
a birthday or a promotion, we often say Here’s to . . .!
Here’s to Betty!
Here’s to the new job!
Here’s to the happy couple!

2 A modern informal use of Cheers! in British English is to mean

‘Goodbye’ or ‘Thank you’.
cleft sentences 138

cleft sentences 138

If we want to give special importance to one part of a sentence, we
can put it into a separate clause. There are two common ways of
doing this. One is to use the structure It is /was . . . that . ..; the
other is to use What . . . is/was .... Compare:
Harry told the police. It was Harry that told the police.
I need a beer. What I need is a beer.
The sentence with It gives special importance to Harry, the sen­
tence with What emphasizes a beer.
Sentences like these are called ‘cleft sentences’ by grammarians
(cleft means ‘divided’).

1 Cleft sentences with It islwas . . . that...

This structure can be used to emphasize almost any part of the
sentence. Compare:
My mother threw an egg at the Minister of Education yesterday.
It was my mother that threw an egg at the Minister of Education
yesterday.
It was an egg that my mother threw at the Minister of Education
yesterday.
It was yesterday that my mother threw an egg at the Minister of
Education.
It was the Minister of Education that my mother threw an egg at
yesterday.
Notes
i The verb cannot be emphasized'in this way: you cannot say *It
was threw that . . .
z When the subject is emphasized, who (referring to a person) is
possible instead of that.
It was my mother who threw ...
3 When the emphasized subject is a pronoun, there is a choice
between subject forms (I, he, etc) and object-forms (me, him, etc).
It was I who ... It was me that. . .■
Object forms are more common in informal English. For details of
this point, see 135.

2 Cleft sentences with What . . . islwas .. .

This structure is used to emphasize the subject or object. Compare:
My left leg hurts. What hurts is my left leg.
I like her style. What I like is her style.
Who(m) cannot be used in this way for person subjects or objects.
You cannot say, for instance, *Who telephoned was my uncle.
For more information about clauses with what, see 531.
 140 clothes

close and shut 139

1 In many cases, close or shut can both be used with no difference of
meaning.
Open your mouth and close/shut your eyes.
I can’t close/shut the window. Can you help me?
The past participles closed and shut can also often be used in the
same sentence with no change of meaning.
Most of the shops are closed/shut on Thursday afternoon.
However, shut is not usually used attributively (before the noun):
you can say a closed door, or with closed eyes, but not *a shut door
or *with shut eyes.

2 Close is more common than shut to talk about slow gradual move­
ments, like flowers closing at night. Close is also used more often in
a formal or solemn sry\e-,shut is more common when we are talking
roughly or rudely. Compare:
He sank back on the pillow and closed his eyes for the last time.
Shut your mouth! Shut the bloody door!

3 Shut is not used to talk about closing roads, railways, or other

channels of communication; andsAwt is also impossible when the
meaning is figurative (eg closing a letter, closing a correspon­
dence).
They’ve closed the road for repairs. (Not: *They’ve shut. ..)
I want to close my bank account. (Not: *. .. to shut . . .)

clothes /klaoSz/ and cloth(s) /kro0(s)/ 140

These two words are often confused. Note the pronunciation care­
fully. Words that end in ths are difficult to pronounce: the best way
is to make the th quick and light, and to pronounce the s very
clearly: clothes sounds almost the same as the verb (to) close
/klaoz/, and cloths is almost like ‘doss’ /kins/ (if there were such a
word).
Clothes are things you wear, like blouses or trousers. The word
clothes doesn’t have a singular: a dress or a sock is. not called *a
clothe - it is an article of clothing (or something to wear).
Cloth is the material (like wool or silk) that clothes, curtains etc are
made from. The word is uncountable, but a piece of cloth used for
cleaning is called a cloth (plural cloths). Compare:
He never changes his clothes — his trousers are filthy.
What have you done with the dish-cloths?
come 141

Note that trousers, pants, pyjamas (US pajamas}, shorts etc are all
plural in English.
My trousers are getting too small round the waist.
See also dress (185).

come and go 141

Typical mistakes: ‘Maria, would you come here a moment?’ —
*"Yes, OK, I’m going.’
Thanks for a lovely evening. *1 must go now or I
won’t come home before midnight.
*1 went here yesterday but you weren’t in.

It’s not easy to choose correctly between come and go. In general,
come is used for a movement to the place where the speaker or
listener is, and go is used for other movements.
Come here! When did you come to live here?
Can I come and see you?
Go away! I want to go and live in Greece.
Let’s go and see Peter and Diane.
If one is talking about the past or future, come is generally used for
movements to a place where the speaker or listener already was or
will be, and go for other movements.
Tell me about the girl who came to see you in the office this
afternoon.
Will you all come and see me in hospital?
We went to see Helen yesterday, and we’re going again tomor­
row.
Notes
1 Come (with) is used to talk about joining a movement of the
speaker’s or listener’s (even if go has to be used for the movement
itself).
We’re going to the cinema tonight. Would you like to come (with
us)?
z Note the special use of come to to mean reach or arrive at.
Keep straight on until you come to a crossroads.
3 Note also the use of come from (in the present) to tell people
about one’s home town, country etc.
She comes from Scotland, but her mother’s Welsh.
The difference between come andgo is very similar to the difference
between bring and take. See 117.
 142 comparison

comparison: general 142

There are several important grammatical constructions used for
comparing.

1 If we want to say that people, actions, etc are similar, we can use as
or like.
Your sister looks just like you.
It’s best cooked in olive oil, as the Italians do it.
For an explanation of the difference between os and like, and their
use in modern English, see 73.
Other ways of talking about si milarity are with too, also and as well
(see 45), and with the structures so do I, so am I, neither/nor do I,
etc (see 557, 406).

2 When we want to say that things are equal in some way, we often
use the structure as . . . as . . . (with adjectives and adverbs), and as
much/many . . . as . .. (with nouns and verbs).
He looked as nervous as a brick wall.
Drive as fast as you can.
We’ve got as many packets as we need.
Practise as much as you can.
For more details of these structures, see 75.

3 One way of talking about the differences between things is to use

more (. . . than} or less (. . . than} with adjectives, adverbs, verbs or
nouns.
His new book’s much more interesting than his last.
The car’s running less smoothly than it used to.
I like you more and more jsvery day.
They want us to do more work for less money.
Another way is to use (the) most and (the) least:
You're the most annoying person I’ve ever met.
My ambition is to spend the least possible time working.
For the exact difference between these two structures (‘compara­
tive’ and ‘superlative’), and their use, see 142— 148.
For more details of the use of more, less,most, least, see 391, 239,
39.2 and 171.5.
With short adjectives, and some adverbs, we use -er and -est instead
of more and most. For the exact rules, see 143, 148.

4 In comparative clauses with as and than, we sometimes use present

and past tenses instead of future and conditional. See 595.
She’ll probably be on the same plane as I am tomorrow.
We’ll probably drive faster than you do (or: than you will), so
we'll get there first and buy the tickets.
comparative and superlative adjectives 143

comparative and superlative adjectives 143

It is sometimes difficult to know whether to make comparatives
and superlatives with -er and -est or with more and most. In
general, -er and -est are used with very short adjectives (of one
syllable), and with two-syllable adjectives ending in -y. With other
adjectives, we generally use more and most.
old older oldest
happy happier happiest
careful more careful most careful
interesting more interesting most interesting
More complete ales are as follows
Adjectives of one syllable
These form comparatives and superlatives with -er, -est. Adjectives
ending in -e add -r, -st; adjectives with one vowel followed by one
consonant double the final consonant (see 568).
old older oldest
tall taller tallest
cheap cheaper cheapest
late later latest
fat fatter fattest
Note the pronunciation of younger /'jAgga(r)/ and youngest
/'jAtjgist/ (as if there were two g’s). Longer, longest; stronger,
strongest are pronounced in the same way.
Irregular comparatives and superlatives:
good better best
bad worse worst
far farther farthest \
see 134
further furthest J
Old has an irregular comparative elder and superlative eldest,
which are only used in expressions like elder daughter, eldest
brother (see 195). The ‘determiners’ (see 171) little and
much /many have irregular forms:
little least
much/many more most
2 Adjectives of two syllables
a With adjectives ending in -y, we use -er and -est.
happy happier happiest
lovely lovelier loveliest
b With most other two-syllable adjectives, we use more and most.
tiring more tiring most tiring
exact more exact most exact
tragic more tragic most tragic
 144 comparatives and superlatives

C With a few two-syllable adjectives, both kinds of comparative and

superlative are possible. These are: common, handsome, polite,
quiet, wicked, pleasant, cruel, stupid, tired, and words ending in
ow, -er, and -le.
common commoner/ commonest/
more common most common
clever cleverer/ cleverest/
more clever most clever
gentle gentler/ gentlest/
more gentle most gentle
hollow hollower/ hollowest/
more hollow most hollow
With nearly all of these words, the forms with more and most are
most common. So a simple rule for two-syllable adjectives is: use
more and most except for the ones ending in -y.
3 Long adjectives (with three or more syllables)
These have more and most.
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
catastrophic more catastrophic most catastrophic
unbelievable more unbelievable most unbelievable
Words like unhappy (negative forms of two-syllable adjectives
ending in -y) are an exception: it is possible to say unhappier and
unhappiest instead of more unhappy and most unhappy.

comparatives and superlatives: differences 144

Typical mistakes: */ am the younger in my family.
*Your accent is worst than mine.

The comparative is used to compare things or people that are

separate from each other. The superlative is used to compare one
member of a group with the whole group (including that member).
Compare:
Mary’s nicer than her three sisters.
Mary’s the nicest of the four girls in the family.
In the first sentence, Mary is not one of the three sisters; we use the
comparative. In the second sentence, Mary is one of the four girls
that we are talking about; we use the superlative.
I’m younger than my sister.
Your accent is worse than mine.
Mont Blanc is higher than all other Alpine peaks.
I’m the youngest in my family.
Your accent is the worst in the class.
Mont Blanc is the highest peak in the Alps.
sentences with comparatives 145

In the first sentence about Mont Blanc, the mountain is compared

with other Alpine peaks. It is not a member of this group, so we use
the comparative. In the second sentence, it is compared with all
peaks in the Alps. It is a member of this group, so we use the
superlative.
Grammars sometimes say that ‘the comparative is used for a
comparison between two, and the superlative for a comparison
between more than two’. This is not a very good rule. In the
sentences about Mary and her sisters, above, the comparative and
superlative are both used for a comparison between four people.
It is true that we sometimes use the comparative instead of the
superlative to talk about a group that only has two members.
1 like Betty and Maud, but I think Betty’s the nicer of the two.
I’ll give you the bigger steak: I’m not very hungry.
The superlative is also possible in this case, and is very often used in
informal English.

sentences with comparatives 145

1 Typical mistakes: *The weather’s warmer as last week.
*I’ve been waiting longer that you.

Comparatives are followed by than.

The weather’s warmer than last week.
I’ve been waiting longer than you.

2 Which is correct: older than I or older than me?

In informal English, we often use object pronouns (me,him,her,us,
them) after than. In a more formal style, subject pronouns (I, he,
etc) are considered more ‘correct’.
She’s older than me. (informal)
She is older than I (am), (formal)
When the pronoun is used with a verb, only subject pronouns are
possible, of course.
Lucy found moremushrooms than I did. (Not:*. . .than me did.)

3 The .. . the . . .
We can use comparatives with the in a special way, to say that two
changes happen together.
The older I get, the happier I am.
The more dangerous it is, the more I like it.
The sooner you start, the more quickly you’ll be finished.
The more you work, the less you learn.
The more people you know, the less time you have to see them.
In sentences like these, do not separate more from the adjective,
adverb or noun.
 146 much, far.

Typical mistake: *The more it is dangerous, . . .

Do not leave out the.
Typical mistake: *More you work, . . .

4 To express the idea of continuing change, we can use ‘double

comparatives’.
I’m getting fatter and fatter.
She felt herself becoming more and more nervous.
We’re going more and more slowly.
Note that, when more and more is used, we don’t repeat the
adjective or adverb. Do not say ’more nervous and more nervous.
Do not use more and more with short (one-syllable) adjectives.
Typical mistake: *More and more fat.

much, far, etc with comparatives 146

Typical mistake: *My boy-friend is very older than me.

Very cannot be used with comparatives. Instead, use much or far.

My boy-friend is much older than me.
You’re far more tolerant than I am.
Other words and expressions that can be used to modify compara­
tives are: very much, a lot, lots, any, no, rather, a little, a bit.
very much nicer a lot happier rather more quickly
a little less expensive a bit easier
Is your mother any more relaxed?
Things are no better than before.
Quite cannot be used with comparatives except in the expression
quite better, meaning ‘quite recovered’ (from an illness).
When more is followed by a plural noun, it can be modified by far
or many, but not much. Compare:
many more opportunities (or far more opportunities')
much more money (or far more money)
We say much less or far less, and far fewer, but not usually *many
fewer.
much less time (or far less time)
far less mistakes far fewer mistakes
For the difference between fewer and less, see 239.
Much, far, a bit etc are also used to modify too. See 607.
For more information about very,much andfar (inducting their use
with superlatives), see 618.
sentences with superlatives 147

sentences with superlatives 147

1 Typical mistake: *It’s the most expensive car of the world.

After superlatives, we use in (or other prepositions) to show what

place we are talking about.
It’s the most expensive car in the world.
I’m the happiest girl under the sun.
Of is not normally used, but it is possible after a superlative without
a noun (see 3 below):
She’s the most sensible of the Smith girls.

2 Typical mistake: *It’s best book I have ever read.

Don’t forget the definite article .with superlatives:

It’s the best book . . .
You’re the fastest, but I’m the strongest.
The only important exception is when most is used to mean very.
That’s most kind of you.

3 Superlative adjectives can be used without nouns.

This one’s the fastest.
I’m the greatest.
An of-structure is possible after the superlative adjective.
You’re the nicest of the lot.
For other cases in which adjectives can be used without nouns, see
14-

comparative and superlative adverbs 148

Normally comparative and superlative adverbs are made with
more and most.
Could you talk a bit more quietly? (Not: *. . . quietlier)
The engine runs most quietly at 6,000 revolutions per minute.
(Not: *. . . quietliest.)
But a few adverbs have comparative and superlative forms with -er,
-est. The most important ones are-, fa st, soon, early, late, hard, long,
well (better, best), far (farther/further, farthest/furthest — see 2.34),
near,often (bntmore often andmost often are more common), and
in informal English slow, loud and quick. There are also irregular
forms: badly, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most.
Could you come earlier?
The longest I can stay is three hours.
Talk louder!
 151 conditional

Note that soonest is often used in telegrams to mean as soon as

possible (e g SEND PRICES SOONEST). Lesser is an adjective, not
an adverb (see 359).

compliment/'knmplimant/and complement/'komplimant/149
A compliment is an appreciative or flattering remark, like What a
lovely dress! or You really are an excellent cook!
A. complement is a thing that goes with something else to complete
it.
A dry white wine is an excellent complement to smoked salmon.
Complement also has a grammatical meaning. For instance, in the
sentence The room was dirty, the adjective dirty is the complement
of the room.

comprehensible and comprehensive; 150

understandable and understanding
If something is comprehensible, it can be understood;^ it is incom­
prehensible, nobody can understand it.
Comprehensive means ‘complete’, ‘including everything’.
He talks so fast that most of what he says is totally incomprehen­
sible.
I’d like a comprehensive street map of London, please.
Understandable is used mostly for people’s behaviour. If we say
that an action is understandable, we mean that we can appreciate
(and sympathize with) a person’s reasons for doing-it.
It’s an understandable mistake - I could have made it myself.
The lorry drivers are on strike again. Mind you, they get paid so
badly it’s understandable.
An understanding person is good at understanding people and
• their problems.
‘I’m looking for an understanding girl-friend.’ - ‘You need one.’

conditional 151
1 The ‘conditional’ is made with would +infinitive (without to). In
thp first person, should is possible instead of would; the meaning is
the same, and both are usually correct.
I should/would return we should/would return
you/he/she/it/they would return
In a conversational style, ’d is used as a contraction of should/
would, and there are also contracted negative forms with -n’t. (For
complete information about contractions, see 157.)
conditional 151

I'd hurry up if I were you.

Your mother'd (/'mAdarad/ or /'mAdad/) be furious if she could
see you now.
I knew he wouldn’t understand.
The conditional can also have progressive, perfect and passive
forms.
J thought you would be working today.
I would have told you if I’d realized you didn’t know.
If Peter hadn’t phoned I'd have been sitting in the house watching
TV when the bomb went off.
You’d be Invited to more parties if you smiled more often.
Progressive passive conditional forms (like she would be being
interviewed) are possible but very unusual.
Modal verbs like can, may, must have no infinitives, and therefore
no conditional forms; the infinitives of other verbs are used instead:
would be able to, would be allowed to, would have to. (However,
could can be used like a conditional — see 1Z8.3.)

2 The ‘conditional’ gets its name from its use in sentences with if.
However, this is not the only way in which we use the conditional.
It is found:
a in sentences with if, and similar words.
I wouldn’t go there If I didn’t have to.
Supposing war broke out, what would you do?
For details of this, see 303-310. For details of the structure I
should(n’t) ... if I were you, see 553.
b instead of shall or will in ‘reported speech’ after a past ‘reporting’
verb.
I explained that I should need help.
Lucy insisted that she'd be all right the next morning.
For details of‘reported speech’, see 533-538.
C to express tljie idea of ‘future in the past’ (see 15 8).
I looked at the pile of work I had left. It wouldn’t be easy to get it
finished by six o’clock. I should have to work very fast.
d with verbs such as like, prefer, to make polite requests and offers.
I would like a cup of tea. Would you prefer beer or wine?

3 Do not confuse the conditional with other uses of would and

should. For instance, would can be used to talk about past habits
(but then the first person is always I would, never I should). And
should can refer to obligation, like ought (but in this case all
persons are should, never would).
She would always dress up when she was expecting visitors.
You shouldn’t use your plate as an ashtray.
 153 conjunctions

For explanations of these and other uses of should and would, see
631, 549-554-
4 In subordinate clauses, a past tense is often used instead of a
conditional. For details, see 595.
If I had a lot of money, I would do what I liked. (Not: **. . . what I
would like.)

conjunctions of time: tenses 152

Typical mistakes: 1* ’11 tell you as soon as I’ll know.
*1’11 be back before you’ll have left.
*If you married me, I’d cook you nice meals
when you’d come home in the evenings.

Conjunctions of time (e g after, before, as soon as, until, when) are

not usually followed by will (future) or would (conditional); we use
a present or past tense instead.
I’ll tell you as soon a/l know.
I’ll be back before you have left.
If you married me, I’d cook you nice mealswhejf you came home
in the evenings.
When can be followed by will or would in reported (indirect)
questions (see 6Z3).
I’d like to know when John will be back.
She didn’t tell Mary when I would be arriving.
If is not usually followed by will or would either — but it depends
on the meaning. See 306.
Will/would cannot be used after some other conjunctions. See 595.

conjunctions: problems 153

Conjunctions are words like and, but, because, although. They are
used to join clauses together, and to show the relationship between
the ideas in the clauses. European students do not make many
mistakes with English conjunctions (because clauses are joined
together in similar ways in most European languages). However,
students who speak other languages (Arabic or Chinese, for exam­
ple) may find it difficult to use English conjunctions correctly.
The main problems are as follows:

1 ^Double conjunction

* lthough she was tired, but she went to work.

Typical mistakes: A
*Because I liked him, so I went out with him.
*4s you know, that I work very,hard.
conjunctions 153

One conjunction is.enough to join_two clauses. In the examples

above, we could use although or but, because or so, as or that, but
not both together.
Although she was tired, she went to work.
She was tired, but she went to work.
Because I liked him, I went out with him.
I liked him, so I went out with him.
As you know, I work very hard.
You know that I work very hard.
However, two conjunctions can be used to join three clauses.
She was tired. She went to work. She didn’t stay there long.
Although she was tired, she went to work, but she didn’t stay
there long.
A similar mistake is to put that together with a word like how,
where or whether.

Typical mistakes: */ asked him that how he was travelling.

*1 wondered that where she lived.

That is a conjunction, and so are how, where and whether, so only

one of these words is needed to join two clauses.
1 asked him how he was travelling.
I wondered where she lived.

2 Relative pronouns

Typical mistakes: *That’s the doctor who he lives next door to us.
*She never listens to the advice which I give it to
her.
*The man that he came to dinner last night is an
old friend of my mother’s.

Who, whom and which can be used in a special way to join clauses
together. They are called ‘relative pronouns’, but they are really
pronouns and conjunctions at the same time. In a sentence like
That’s the doctor who lives next door to us, the word who joins
together the two clauses That’s the doctor andHcylives next door to
us; also, who replaces he as the subject of the second clause.
^In the second example above, it is not necessary: which joins
together the clauses, and also becomes the object in the second
clause instead of it.
She never listens to the advice which I give to her.
In the third example, he is unnecessary: that is used as a relative
pronoun here, and is the subject of the verb came.
For information about sentences with relative pronouns, see 5x5.
 154 conscious

3 That, where and when

Typical mistakes: *The house that I live is very small.

*The last Sunday in August is a national holiday,
that everybody dances in the streets.

That is often used instead of which or who (see 525—527), but we

do not usually use that instead of where or when. (But that. . . in
can mean the same as where.}
The house where I live is very small.
The house that I llvejnyis very small.
The last Sunday in August is a national holiday, when everybody
dances in the streets. Q -'T' )
There are one or two exceptions: see 529.4.

4 ‘Incomplete’ sentences

Typical mistakes: *When I went home. It was late.

*That I didn’t know what to do.

A conjunction cannot be used with just one clause. A conjunction

joins two clauses, and the two clauses are usually written as one
sentence (not as two separate sentences divided by a full stop).
When 1 went home it was late.
I explained that I didn’t know what to do.
Sometimes a conjunction can ‘join’ two sentences, with the sen­
tences staying separate, and the conjunction being placed at the
beginning of the second sentence. This happens (i) if we want to
give special emphasis to the second sentence, and (ii) in conversa­
tion, when two different people say the sentences.
Moriarty hated Tuesdays. And this Tuesday was particularly
horrible.
‘Why are you late?’ - ‘Because I was doing your shopping.’

conscious /’konjas/, consciousness/’konjasnis/ 154

and conscience /'konjans/
1 Conscious is an adjective. We say that someone is conscious if he
can see, hear, etc and knows what’s going on around him. If you fall
and hit your head, you may become unconscious for a time.
I always get up at seven o’clock, but I’m not really conscious
until eight.
After the accident, she was unconscious for a week.

2 Consciousness is a noun: it means ‘the state of being conscious’. If

you hit your head, you may lose consciousness.
consider 155

Everything started going round and round and I lost conscious­

ness.

3 Conscience is also a noun. It means ‘moral sense’ — the ‘little voice’

inside you that tells you what is right and what is wrong.
My conscience wouldn’t allow me to work in your firm.

consider 155
Several constructions are possible with consider, depending on the
exact meaning.

1 Consider +-ing form ( =‘think seriously o£/about’)

Would you consider working in Australia?
I’ve never really considered getting married.

2 Consider + object (+as). . .( =‘think of somebody or something as

He always considered her (as) his real mother.

3 Consider + object (+ to be). .. ( = ‘have the opinion that somebody

or something is . . .’)
I consider Markevitch (to be) the finest baseball player alive
today.

4 Consider + that- clause.

In informal English it would be more common to use a that-dause
in the last example.
I consider (or think) that Markevitch is the finest...

5 The second and third constructions can be used in the passive (see
461, 463).
He was considered as a kind of god by the natives.
Chess is considered to be the greatest of all board games.
For similar structures with see and regard, see 81 and 461.

continual/kan'tinjoal/and continuous/kan'tinjuas/ 156

There is a slight difference between these two words. Continual is
often used for actions which are repeated frequently (including
annoying actions). Continuous is only used for actions that do not
stop. Compare:
/ can’t work with these continual interruptions!
There was continuous fighting on the frontier all day yesterday.
 157 contractions-

contractions 157
Contractions are forms such as don’t, I’ve, in which we turn two
words into one. The two words are usually either (i) subject and
auxiliary verb (likeI’ve) or (ii) auxiliary verb and the wordwot (like
don’t). In speech, we drop either (i) the beginning of the auxiliary
verb or (ii) theo of wot; in writing, the dropped letters are shown by
an apostrophe (’). There are sometimes changes of pronunciation
and/or spelling (for example, can’t, won’t). The common contrac­
tions are as follows:

personal pronoun + auxiliary verb

I’m /aim/ I am
I’ve /aiv/ I have
I’ll /ail/ I will; I shall
I’d /aid/ I would; I should; I had
you’re /joa(r)/ you are
you’ve /ju:v/ you have
you’ll /ju:l/ you will
you’d /ju:d/ you would; you had
he’s /hi:z/ he is; he has
he’ll /hi:!/ he will
he’d /hi:d/ he would; he had
she’s /JTz/ she is; she has
she’ll /Ji:!/ she will
she’d /J'i:d/ she would; she had
it’s /its/ it is; it has
it’ll /itl/ 'it will
we’re /wia(r)/ we are
we’ve /wi:v/ we have
we’ll /wi:l/ we will
we’d /wi:d/ we would; we had
they’re /dea(r)/ they are
they’ve /deiv/ they have
they’ll /Sell/ they will
they’d /deid/ they would; they had

auxiliary verb + not

aren’t /amt/ are not

can’t /ka:nt/ cannot
couldn’t 7'kodnt/ could not
/deant/ dare not
contractions 157

didn’t /'didnt/ did not

doesn’t /'dAznt/ does not
don’t /daont/ do not
hasn’t /'haeznt/ has not
haven’t /'haevnt/ have not
hadn’t /'hasdnt/ had not
isn’t /'iznt/ is not
mayn’t /meint/ may not
mightn’t /'maitnt/ might not
mustn’t /'mAsnt/ must not
needn’t /'ni:dnt/ need not
oughtn’t /'a:tnt/ ought not
shan’t /Joint/ shall not
shouldn’t /'Jodnt/ should not
wasn’t /'woznt/ was not
weren’t /w3:nt/ were not
won’t /waont/ will not
wouldn’t /'wodnt/ would not

Other common contractions

here’s /hiaz/ here is

there’s /deaz, daz/ there is
that’s /daets/ that is
that’ll /'6astl/ ■that will
how’s /haoz/ how is?
what’ll /'wotl/ what will?
what’s /wots/ what is?
when’s /wenz/ when is?
where’s /weaz/ where is?
who’s /hu:z/ who is?
who’d /hu:d/ who would?
who’ll /hu:l/ who will?

Notes
a Many contractions are really the same as subject + weak form of
auxiliary verb (see 6xx). For instance, in the sentence I have never
been there, the words I have would probably be pronounced
/ai/ +/v/ = /aiv/whether or not they are written I’ve.
h Contractions are made with nouns as well as pronouns: we say not
only She’s late but also Her mother’s late. However, we don’t
usually write contracted verb forms after nouns, except Peter’s
been here and Yowr mother’s looking well are normal, but it would
be unusual to write Peter’d been there or Yowr mother’ll fix it.
C In negative verb phrases with be, have, will, shall, would and
should, there are two possibilities. We can say, for example, She’s
 159 on the contrary

not or She isn’t-, He won’t or He’ll not. (But we cannot use two
contractions together: *She’s’nt is impossible.) In Southern British
English, the forms with n’t (eg He won’t, She hasn’t) are more
common than the othersjin the North of England and Scotland the
forms with not (e g He’ll not, She’s not) are more frequent. Note,
however, that both forms of be are common in Southern speech:
He isn’t and He’s not are probably equally frequent.
d There is no normal contraction ioram not in declarative sentences:
I’m not is the only possibility. In negative questions, however, we
use Aren’t I? /'a:nt ai/ (e'g I’m late, aren’t I?). A few people use
amn’t /r'/'aemnt ai/but this is extremely rare.
e Contractions of auxiliary verbs are not used when the auxiliary
verb is stressed (for instance, when it is not followed by a main
verb). We say Tell me where he is or Yes I have, but we can’t say
*Tell me where he’s or *Yes I’ve. Negative contractions can be used
in these cases: No I haven’t is perfectly all right.
f Contractions are most common in an informal style. They are
normal in friendly conversations or personal letters; they would be
unusual in, for instance, an application for a job or the Queen’s
speech on the opening of Parliament.
g For the substandard form ain’t /eint/, see 34.

contrary and opposite 158

Typical mistake: hat’s the contrary of ‘calm’?

When we talk about pairs of ideas like black and white, good and
bad, orcalm and agitated, we usually say that one is the opposite of
the other. The word contrary is mostly used in the expression on the
contrary (see 159).
What’s the opposite of ‘calm’?

on the contrary and on the other hand 159

Typical mistake: *The job wasn’t very interesting, but on the con­
trary it was well-paid.

In order to give the other side of a question, we use on the other

hand. On the contrary is used to contradict — to say that something
is not true.
On the other hand means ‘it is, however, also true that. . .’.
On the contrary means ‘the opposite is true’.
The job wasn’t very interesting, but on the other hand it was
well-paid.
‘I suppose the job wasn’t very interesting?’ — ‘On the contrary, it
was fascinating. I loved it.’
control 160

control 160
Typical mistake: *A man came into the compartment to control
the tickets.

If you look at something to see if it is in order, you examine, inspect

or check it. Control normally means ‘manage’, ‘direct’.
A man came into the compartment to check the tickets.
At the road-block a policeman was inspecting people’s papers.
They brought in a lot of extra police to control the crowds. ( = to
keep them in order)
I found the car a bit difficult to control at high speeds, so I took it
to the garage to have the steering checked.
Note, however, that at frontiers, airports, etc, the noun control is
often used with the meaning of ‘examine’ in expressions like cus­
toms control, passport control.

cook /kok/ and cooker /'koka(r)/ 161

Typical mistake: "My husband is a very good cooker.

A cook is a person who cooks; a cooker (British English) is an

apparatus that is used for cooking.
My husband is a very good cook.
I prefer gas cookers to electric ones.
The American English word for a cooker is a stove or a range.

costume /'kostjmm/ and custom /'kAstam/ 162

Typical mistake: "The girls were beautifully dressed in their
national customs.

Costume means ‘clothes’, ‘dress’, especially clothes used for cere­

monial occasions. A custom is a traditional activity or ceremony.
The girls were wearing their national costume(s).
A lot of the old customs are dying out now.

countable (or count) and 163

uncountable (or mass) nouns
1 Typical mistakes: "My father’s in a very good health.
"We’re having a terrible weather.
*/ speak a very good English.
"Can you give me an advice?
"I need some informations.
"How was your travel?
 164 country

The wordshealth, weather, English, advice, information and travel

are usually ‘uncountable’ in English. This means that they are like,
for instance, water, rice, salt or aluminium-, they have no plural
(you cannot say *two healths or *three informations or 'hundreds
of rices), and they are not used with the indefinite article a/an
(which means ‘one’).
My father’s in very good health.
We’re having terrible weather.
I speak very good English.
Can you give me some advice? (Or: . . . a piece of advice.)
I need some information. (Or: . . . a piece of information.)
I like travel.
The noun travel only has a general meaning (‘the activity of travel­
ling in general’); a particular movement from one place to another
is called a journey or a trip. (See 609.)
How was your journey?
Other words which are uncountable in English (but countable in
some other languages):
progress research news luggage furniture
knowledge hair spaghetti (and macaroni, etc)
Remember that these words are^singpl/jjt (we say The spaghetti Is
ready, Here is the news), and that we use expressions like g&igce
^.furniture or a piece of news instead of *a furniture or *a news.

2 It is not always obvious whether a word is countable or uncount­

able; if you are not sure, check in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English (nouns are marked C or U). Some­
times words can be uncountable with one meaning and countable
with another, eg cold and a cold, taste and a taste, country (=coun­
tryside) and a country (see 164). Many uncountable nouns become
countable when we are talking about kinds or varieties of things. A
wine means ‘a kind of wine’; a sugar means ‘one of the class of
chemicals called sugars’. Strictly speaking, we should talk about
countable and uncountable uses of nouns, not about countable and
uncountable nouns. For a detailed explanation of this complicated
point, see A Grammar of Contemporary English, by Quirk, Green-
baum, Leech and Svartvik (Longman).
I
I
country /'kAntri/ 164
Typical mistake: *My parents live in a nice country near Tokyo.

Country is really two different words. There is a countable noun

(see 163) country, which can be used with the definite or indefinite
article, in the singular or in the plural: this means thp land occupied
by a nation.
cry 165

There is also an uncountable noun country, which means land not

covered with buildings-, this has no plural, and is most often used
with the definite article, in the expression the country (the opposite
of the town). This word cannot be used with the indefinite article a,
so a country only means a place such as Thailand, Canada, etc.
Japan is a country with a very high economic growth rate.
My parents live in the country (or in a nice part of the country)
near Tokyo.

cry, shout and weep 165

1 In ordinary conversational English:
cry means ‘show unhappiness by letting water run from the eyes’,
What’s the matter? Why are you crying?
shout means ‘say or speak in a very loud voice’,
You don’t need to shout! I’m not deaf!
weep (which means the same as cry) is not normally used.

2 In literary English:
cry can be used to mean ‘shout’ or ‘exclaim’ (especially as a ‘report­
ing verb’ after direct speech),
‘Good heavens!’ cried Harriet. ‘What’s going on?’
weep can be used to mean ‘cry’.
Beautiful Lady Eleanor sat weeping in the castle garden.

3 The noun a cry usually means ‘a shout’ or ‘an exclamation’.

He gave a cry of rage and.started chasing the children.

dare 166
1 Grammars usually give a lot of information about the verb dare.
In theory, it can be used in two ways:
a like a modal auxiliary verb (see 388): third person singular with­
out -s, questions and negatives without do, following infinitive
without to.
Dare he tell them what he knows?
b like an ordinary verb, with -s, do and to.
I shall be surprised if he dares to tell them what he knows.
Do I dare to ask her?
(Need can also be used in these two ways. See 399.)

2 In practice, dare is not a very common word in modern English. In

an informal style (eg ordinary conversation), we usually use other
 168 dates

expressions instead, like not to be afraid, or not to have the courage

to. A sentence like He dares to say what he thinks is possible, but
most people would say He’s not afraid to say what he thinks.

3 In a few cases, dare is still common in an informal style:

a In British English, the negative daren’t /deant/is frequent (modal
auxiliary forms: no -s, no do, no to).
I daren’t ask her — will you do it for me?
She daren’t tell the boss because she doesn’t want to make
trouble.
b The expression I dare you to + infinitive is used by children to
challenge each other to do frightening things.
/ dare you to ride your bike through the gate with no hands.
C The expressions Yom dare! and Don’t you dare! are used (for
example by mothers) to discourage people from doing things they
shouldn’t.
‘Mummy, can I draw a picture on the wall?’ — ‘You dare!’
d I dare say means ‘probably’ (see 167).
/ dare say it’ll rain soon.
e We use How dare you? as an indignant exclamation.
How dare you? Take your hands off me at once!

I dare say 167

I dare say does not mean ‘I dare to say’. It has almost the same
meaning as ‘probably’ or ‘I expect/imagine/suppose’.
It’ll rain tomorrow, I dare say.
I dare say you’re thirsty after all that tennis.

dates 168
1 There are several possible ways to write the day’s date. Some people
put the month before the day; others put the day first. Commas are
possible before the number of the year.
March 2.1st 1970 2.1st March 1970
July 2nd, 1936 2nd July, 1936
Some people leave out the letters (-st, -nd, -rd, -th) that follow the
number.
October 1, 1932 5 Ju^y> 1966
The names of the months are often abbreviated.
Sept. 13th Nov. 1978
The date can be written completely in figures, but be careful: British
dead 169

and American usage are different. British people put the day first,
Americans put the month first.
GB 6.4.77 = 6th April 1977. US 6.4.77 =June 4, 1977-

2 In British English, there are two ways of saying the date.

March the twenty-first, nineteen eighty.
Or. The twenty-first of March, nineteen eighty.

April the third, nineteen sixty-two.

Or: The third of April, nineteen sixty-two.
(Note that we always say first, third, fourth, etc, whether we write
1st or 1, 3rd or 3,4th or 4.)
Americans generally say the date like this:
March twenty-first, nineteen seventy-nine.
April third. July seventh.

3 In letters, the date is usually put in the top right-hand corner, just
under the sender’s address (see 361).
When we tell people the date, we construct the sentence with It’s.
‘What’s the date?’ — ‘It’s March the third.’
When prepositions are used, we put on before the date.
I was born on March the third.
But if the day is not given, we say, for example, in March, in July, in
1980. For more information about prepositions of time, see 87.
Note the position of B.C. (^Before Christ) and A.D. (—Anno
Domini, ‘in the year of the Lord’; used for dates after the birth of
Christ).
55 B.C. A.D. 370
A.D. is usually used only for years before A.D. 1000.
A.D. 732 but 1752

dead /ded/ and died /daid/ 169

Typical mistakes: “Shakespeare dead in 1616.
“She Is died in a car crash.
“She Is dead in a car crash.

It’s easy to confuse these two words.

Dead is an adjective.
A dead man. Mrs McGinty Is dead.
That idea has been dead for years.
Died is the past tense and past participle of the verb to die.
Shakespeare died in 1616.
She died in a car crash.
 171 determiners

Have you heard? The boss has died of a heart attack.

Note the spelling of the present participle dying (see 569). For the
expression the dead ( = ‘dead people’), see 14.2.

depend 170
Typical mistakes: ‘Do you like piano music?’ — ★‘It's depend.’
*lt depends of my mood.

Depend is a verb, not an adjective.

It depends.
Depend is usually followed by the preposition on.
It depends on my mood.
Dependent and dependence are also followed by on, but indepen­
dent and independence are followed by of.
When I was eighteen I was independent of my parents.

determiners 171
1 Articles (a, the), possessives (my, your, etc) and demonstratives
(this, that, these, those) are grammatically similar. They all come at
the beginning of noun phrases.
a nice day my fat old cat this house
Grammarians call these words (and some others) ‘determiners’.
Usually, only one determiner can be used jn a noun phrase. You can
say the house, my house, this house, but not *the my house or *the
this house or *this my house.
For more information about the articles, see 63-71.
For more information about the possessive one’s, see 440; for
whose? see 628.
For more information about demonstratives, see 603.

2 The other determiners are:

some, any, no
each, every, either, neither
what, whatever-, which, whichever
enough
much, many, more, most-, little, less, least-, few, fewer, fewest
several
all, both, half
These determiners, too, are used at the beginning of noun phrases.
some strange people either possibility what time?
enough money most problems several warm days
both lecture rooms
discourse markers 172

Each, every, either andneither are always used with singular words
when they are determiners.
Each day is different from the next.
Neither plan really suits me.
When they are used as pronouns, they are also usually used with a
singular verb-
Each of them is broken.
Either of the houses is big enough.
However, a plural verb is possible after neither of. . . and after
either of. . . in negative sentences.
Neither of them want(s) to come.
I don’t think either of them is/are at home.
None can be followed by a singular or plural verb, if it refers to a
countable noun.
None of the drivers has/have turned up.
When each is put after a noun or pronoun (see 190.4), plural nouns
and verbs are used.
They each play several instruments.
For more information about determiners, look in the Index to find
the entries for particular words.

discourse markers 172

Discourse is a term used by grammarians to talk about ‘larger’
pieces of speech and writing: stretches of language longer than a
sentence. There are a lot of words and expressions that we use to
show the structure of discourse. Some of these make clear the
connection between what we are going to say and what came
before (for instance talking about. . ., anyway, however}-. Some of
them show our attitude to the truth of what we are saying (for
example! suppose, I think, frankly,sort of}. And others show what
kind of communication is going on (like the use of after all in
persuading, or I’m afraid in polite refusals, or actually in ‘breaking
news’). Expressions like these can be called discourse markers. The
following are a few of the most useful ones.
1 Linking: talking about, with reference to
These expressions show a connection between what you want to
say and what was said before. Talking about ... is often used to
break into a conversation.
7 saw Max and Lucy today. You know, he ‘Talking about
Lucy, did you know she’s going to Australia?’
With reference to is a very formal expression used mainly at the
beginning of business letters.
 172 discourse markers

Dear Sir,
With reference to your letter of March 17th, I am pleased to
inform you that ....
2 Focusing: regarding, as regards, as far as... is concerned, as
for
These expressions are used to ‘focus’ attention - to announce what
we are going to talk about. Regarding can come at the beginning of
a piece of discourse; as regards usually announces a change of
subject.
Hello, John. Now look, regarding those sales figures — I really
don’t think . . .
. . . there are no problems about production. Now as regards
marketing, . . .
As far as ... is concerned can be used in a similar way.
As far as marketing is concerned, I think the best thing is to have
a meeting with the Sales Manager and the advertising people.
As for often suggests lack of interest, or dislike.
I’ve invited Andy, Bob and Mark. As for Stephen, I don’t care if
I never see him again in my life.
3 Structuring
There are a very large number of expressions which can be used to
show the structure of what we are saying. Most of these are more
common in a formal style (for instance, in speeches, lectures, or
reports).
a Divisions
firstly, . . . secondly, . . . thirdly, . . . finally, . . .
first of all, ... to begin with, . . .
to start with, . . . (less formal)
in the first place, ...
for one thing, . . . for another thing, . . . (less formal)
another thing is ... (informal)
moreover in addition similarly
as well as that (less formal) on top of that (informal)
besides (introducing a stronger argument than the one before)
b Contrast with what came before
all the same yet and yet still
on the other hand however
He’s not doing a very good job. All the same, you’ve got to admit
■that he’s doing his best.
He claims to be a socialist, and yet he has two houses and a R oils
Royce.
It’s not a very nice flat. On the other hand, it’s cheap, (or Still, it’s
cheap.)
discourse markers 172

c Logical consequence
thus (very formal) therefore (formal) so (less formal)
She was therefore unable to avoid an unwelcome marriage.
So she had to get married to a man she didn’t like.
d Exemplifying and excepting
for instance for example such as including
in particular apart from excepting)
with the exception of etc /,et 'setra/
and so on and so forth
e Generalizing
on the whole in general as a rule
in most cases in many cases broadly speaking
to some extent mostly
f Clarifying
I mean that is to say in other words

4 Dismissal of previous discourse: at any rate, anyway, any­

how
These three expressions are often used to mean ‘what was said
before doesn’t really matter — the main point is as follows’.
I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive; maybe half past seven or a
quarter to eight. Anyway, I’ll certainly be there before eight
o’clock.
What a terrible experience! Anyhow, you’re safe, that’s the main
thing.
5 Change of subject: by the way, incidentally, I say
By the way and incidentally are used to introduce a new subject
that has no connection with the previous discourse.
‘Old Freddy’s had another crash.’ — ‘Oh, yes? Foor old chap. By
the way, have you heard from Joan recently?’
‘Lovely sunset.’ - ‘Yes, isn’t it? Oh, incidentally, what happened
to that tent I lent you?’
I say (British only), can be used to break into a conversation or to
attract attention.
I say! Do you know there’s a spider in your hair?

6 Showing our attitude to what we are saying

Frankly and honestly are often used to introduce critical remarks.
‘ What do you think of my hair?’ - ‘Frankly, dear, it’s a disaster.’
Honestly, John, why do you always have to be so rude?
I think, I feel, I reckon, I guess (American English), and in my
view/opinion (more formal) are used to make opinions sound less
 172 discourse markers

categorical or dogmatic — they suggest that we are ‘just giving a

personal opinion’.
I think you ought to try again.
I really fee! she’s making a mistake.
I suppose can be used to enquire politely about something (respect­
fully inviting an affirmative answer).
I suppose you’re very busy just at the moment?
It can also be used to suggest unwilling agreement.
‘Can you help me for a minute?’ — ‘I suppose so.’
So to speak, sort of (informal), kind □/’(informal) and more or less
are ways of making an opinion sound much less definite.
It’s very bad. I mean, it’s almost a crime, so to speak.
I sort of think it’s more or less a crime, really.
7 Showing one’s attitude to the other person
After all is used in persuading; it suggests ‘this is a strong argument
that you haven’t taken into consideration’.
I think we should let her go on holiday alone. After all, she is
fifteen; she’s not a child any more.
No doubt can be used to persuade people politely to do things.
No doubt you’ll be paying your rent in the near future, Mr
Snooks?
I’m afraid suggests an apologetic attitude: it can introduce a polite
refusal, or bad news.
I’m afraid I can’t help you.
I’m afraid I forgot to buy the stamps.
8 Referring to the other person’s expectations: actually, in
fact, as a matter of fact, to tell the truth
These expressions are used when we show whether somebody’s
expectations have been fulfilled or not. Actually, in fact and as a
matter of fact can all be used to say that somebody ‘guessed right’.
‘ Was the concert nice?’ - "Yes, as a matter of fact, it was terrific. ’
‘Did you enjoy your holiday?’ — 'Very much, actually.’
These expressions can also be used to add further details.
Yes, the holiday was terrific. In fact, it was the best we’ve ever
had.
All four expressions are used when we say that expectations were
not fulfilled.
‘How was the holiday?’ - ‘Well, actually, we didn’t go.’
‘How much were the cigarettes?’ — ‘To tell the truth, I forgot to
buy them.’
‘I hope you passed the exam.’ - ‘No, as a matter of fact, I didn’t.’
disinterested 173

Actually is especially common in introducing corrections (see 9).

'Hello, John.’ — ‘Actually, my name’s Philip.’

disinterested /dis'intrastid/ and 173

uninterested /An'intrastid/
Disinterested is usually used to say that a person has no reason to
support one side or another in a matter (eg a disagreement),
because he will not get any personal advantage, or has no financial
interest, if one side wins.
I can’t give you disinterested advice, because I’m a business
colleague of your employer.
Uninterested (in) means ‘not feeling or showing any interest (in)’.
I was completely uninterested in what he had to say.

divorce 174
Typical mistake: *My sister divorced last year.

Divorce is used with a direct object (you divorce somebody). When

there is no object, we use the expression to get divorced or to get a
divorce. Compare:
Sarah wants to divorce Robert.
My sister got divorced last year.
It’s much easier to get a divorce than it used to be.
The difference between worry and get married is similar. See 372.

do: general 175

Do is really two different verbs: an auxiliary verb (see 90) and an
ordinary verb.
1 Auxiliary verb
The auxiliary verb do has several different uses.
a It is used to make question and negative forms of ordinary verbs (if
there is not already another auxiliary verb). Compare:
/ know John. Do you know John?
I like salmon. I don’t like trout.
but: / have seen John. Have you seen John?
I can eat salmon. I can’t eat trout.
For details and problems, see 511-513.
b It is used in ‘question-tags’ (see 515), ‘short answers’ (see 548) and
similar structures, to replace an ordinary verb (if there is no other
auxiliary).
 176 do

You know John, do you? So do I.

‘Does he know I’m here?’ — ‘Yes, he does.
but: ‘Can you tell him?’ - ‘Yes, I can.’
C It is used in affirmative sentences to make emphatic and persuasive
forms. (For details and problems, see 177.)
Do sit down.
You do look nice today.
d It is used in some‘inversion’structures. For details, see 343-345.
At no time did he lose his self-control.
Note the pronunciation of does /dAz/, and of the contracted nega­
tive forms don’t /daunt/, t/oesw’r/'dAznt/and didn’t/'didnt,I.
Do and does can have ‘weak’ pronunciations /da/ and /daz/ (see
622) when they are not stressed.
"Where do /da/they get their money?
Does Idaz/ Philip know?
2 Ordinary verb
When do is used as an ordinary verb, it is often confused with make.
For details of the differences, see 180.
In questions and negatives, do can be used twice: once as an
ordinary verb, and once as an auxiliary verb. (See 178.)
When do you do your exercises?
We don’t do much work on Fridays.
Note the pronunciation of the past participle done /dAn/.

do: auxiliary verb in questions and negative sentences 176

1 Typical mistake: *Does he knows?
*1 didn’t thought.
*He didn't to answer.

Do is followed by the infinitive without to.

Does he know? I didn’t think. He didn’t answer.

2 Typical mistake: *Do you can swim?

*Do you have seen Mary?

Do is not used with other auxiliary verbs.

Can you swim? Have you seen Mary?
Do can be used with be and have (when they are not auxiliary
verbs). For details, see 95 and 280-286. For the use of do
with need, dare and used to, see 399, 166 and 614.
do 177

3 Typical mistake: *IVho did say that?

Do is not used in questions which have who, what or which as their

subject.
Who telephoned? Who said that?
What happened? Which one got broken?
But if who, what or which is the object of the sentence, do is used.
Who did you see? {Who is the object, you is the subject.)

4 Typical mistake: *1 did never like her.

Do is used in negative sentences with not, but not normally with
never or other negative adverbs (see 403).
I never liked her.
Note, however, that do can be added for emphasis; in this case,
never is put before do (for details of emphatic word-order, see
24.3).
I never did like her.

5 Typical mistake: *1 wonder what she did want.

Do is not usually used in ‘indirect questions’ (questions in reported
speech - see 535).
I wonder what she wanted.

do: auxiliary verb in affirmative sentences 177

Do is often used as an auxiliary verb in affirmative sentences. This
happens especially in three cases.

1 — when we want to avoid repeating a verb which we have already

used. (See 199.3.)
It’s important to listen to people carefully, and 1 usually do.
She said she’d help me and she did.
‘Do you like anchovies?’ — 'Yes, I do.’ - ‘So do I.’
‘Do you mind if I sit here?’ — ‘No, do.’
2 — for‘emotive emphasis’, to show that we feel strongly about what
we are saying.
You do look nice today!
I do like you!
She does talk a lot, doesn’t she?
Do sit down!
Do shut up!
 179 do

When do is used with imperatives (e g Do sit down!), it often makes

an invitation sound more polite, welcoming or friendly.
Do come in! Do have another potato!
For the use of Jo with be (eg Do be quiet! Do be careful!), see 95.

3 — for ‘contrastive emphasis’, to show a contrast between, for

example, true and false, or present and past, or a rule and an
exception.
‘Why didn’t you tell him?’ — 'I did tell him.’
I don’t take much exercise now, but I did play football quite a bit
when I was younger.
I don’t have much contact with my family. I do see my mother
occasionally, though.
Do is also often used to say that something we were expecting
actually happened.
One day a big wolf waited in a dark forest for a little girl to come
along carrying a basket of food to her grandmother. Finally a
little girl did come along, . . .
In all these cases, do is pronounced with strong stress. For the
emphatic use of other auxiliary verbs, see 201.

do: auxiliary verb and ordinary verb together 178

Students are sometimes confused by sentences in which do is used
twice.
Don’t do it! What did you do? Do do some work.
The second do is the infinitive of the ordinary verb do, which is
used to talk about work, activity in general, etc (see 180).
1 did the housework yesterday. Do something!
Like any other ordinary verb, do can be used with the auxiliary verb
do in questions, negations, and emphatic sentences, and in these
cases, do is used twice. Compare:
Don’t break it! Don’t do it!
What did you say? What did you do?
Do have some coffee. Do do some work.

do + -ing 179
Do is often used with an -ing form when we want to talk about an
activity that takes a certain time, or that is repeated (for example,
jobs and hobbies). There is usually a ‘determiner’ (the, my, some,
much, etc) before the -ing form.
I usually do most of my washing and ironing on Mondays.
Can you do the shopping for me?
do 180

I hate doing the filing.

I did a lot of running when I was younger.
This evening I think I’ll stay at home and do some reading.
Go is also used to make some rather similar expressions (go shop­
ping, go swimming, etc). See 271.

do and make 180

Typical mistake: *1 am always doing this mistake.
These two words have very similar meanings, and it is often
difficult to choose between them.

1 When we talk about an activity without saying exactly what it is,

we use do.
Do something! What are you doing?
I don’t know what to do. I like doing nothing.

2 Do is usually the correct word when we are talking about work.

I’m not going to do any work.
I dislike doing housework. I hate doing the cooking and shop­
ping and cleaning and washing up. Let’s get a maid to do all the
boring jobs.

3 Make often expresses the idea of creation or construction.

I’ve just made a cake. Let’s make a plan.
My father and I once made a boat.

4 In other cases there are no clear rules. If you are not sure which
word is correct, look in a good dictionary or choose make —it is
more likely to be right. Learn the following expressions:
do good/harm/business/one ’s best/a favour/a good turn.
make an offer/arrangements/a suggestion/a decision/an
attempt/an effort/an excuse/an exception/a mistake/a noise/a
habit of . . .-ing/a phone call/the most of . . ./the best
of/money/a profit/love/war/peace/a bed.

do so 181

1 The expression do so can sometimes be used to avoid repeating a

verb (or verb + object), in a similar way to do (see 199.3). Do so is
most common in a formal style, and is used especially before
adverbs and adverb phrases.
He told me to open the door, and I did so as quietly as possible.
 182 double negative

Eventually she divorced Stephen. It was a pity she had not done
so earlier.
‘Have you written that letter?’ - 7 will do so immediately, sir.’

2 Do so is mainly used to refer to voluntary, deliberate actions. We

do not usually use do so to replace verbs like like, remember, think,
fall, lose.
I like the saxophone, and I always have (done). (Not: *. . . and I
have always done so.)
She lost her money. I wasn’t surprised that she did. (Not: *. . .
that she did so.)

3 We use do so mainly to refer to the same action, with the same

subject, that was mentioned before. Compare:
I always eat peas with honey. My wife never does. (Not: *My
wife never does so.)
I promised to get the tickets, and I will do so as soon as possible.
I haven’t got time to get the tickets. Who’s going to do it? (Not:
*Who’s going to do so?)
She rode a camel; she had never done so before.
‘I rode a camel in Morocco.’ — ‘I’d love to do that.’ (Not: *. . . to
do so.)
4 Note that so cannot be used after other auxiliary verbs besides do.
It is not possible to say */ can so or *She was so.
For the use of so after think, believe, hope, imagine, suppose and
similar verbs, see 558.
For the use of so after say, see 559.

double negative 182

Typical mistake: 7 opened the door, but I couldn’t see nobody.

1 In some languages, a negative word \ike nobody or nothing has to

be used with a negative verb. In standard English, nobody, nothing,
never etc are themselves enough to make the sentence negative, and
not is unnecessary.
I opened the door, but I could see nobody.
Nothing matters now - everything’s finished.
I’ve never understood what she wants.
Nobody and nothing are rather emphatic words, and we often use
the structuresnot. . . anybody and not. . . anything instead. (Any­
body and anything are not negative words - see 562.4.)
I opened the door, but I couldn't see anybody.
I’m sorry, I can’t tell you anything.
dream 183

At the beginning of a sentence, only nobody and nothing are used.

Nothing matters. (Not *Not anything matters.)

2 Double negatives are possible in standard English, but then both

negative words have their full meaning. Compare:
Say nothing. ( = Be silent.)
Don’t just say nothing. ( = Don’t be silent; say something.)

3 In many English dialects double negatives are used with a single

negative meaning. If a Londoner says I don’t want nothing, he
means ‘I want nothing’, ‘I don’t want anything’.
4 In informal spoken English, a negative verb (without a negative
meaning) is sometimes found after expressions of uncertainty or
doubt.
I shouldn’t be surprised if they didn't get married soon. (Or: ...
if they got married soon.)
I wonder whether I oughtn’t to go and see a doctor - I’m feeling
a bit strange. (Or: . . . whether I ought to .. .)

dream 183
The verb to dream can be followed by the prepositions of or about.
About is probably more common in spoken English.
I dreamt about you last night.
What does it mean if one dreams of mountains?
When we use dream in the sense of imagine (with the idea of
thinking about things that probably won’t happen), the preposition
is usually of.
Sometimes I dream of running away to a desert island.
I never dreamt of happiness like this.
Dream /dri:m/H^s two past tenses, dreamt /dremt/ and dreamed
/dri:md/. There is no important difference between them; dreamt is
unusual in American English.
Note the common expression to have a dream.
I had a really strange dream last night.

dress: noun 184

Typical mistake: *He was wearing a national dress.

The countable noun (see 163) a dress means an article of women’s

clothing (it goes from the shoulders to below the hips).
She was wearing a beautiful dress.
 186 drunk

There is also an uncountable noun dress (not used with the article
a/an). It means ‘clothing , clothes’; it is not very common in
modern English, and is used mostly to talk about special kinds of
clothing (for example, national dress, evening dress, battledress).
He was wearing (his) national dress.

dress: verb 185

Typical mistakes: *He was dressing in a dark suit at the meeting.
*She was dressed with green and orange
pyjamas.

The verb dress is used to express two different ideas: wearing

clothes, and putting clothes on.
1 Wearing clothes
To say what somebody is wearing on a particular occasion, we can
use the passive to be dressed in (note the preposition).
He was dressed in a dark suit at the meeting.
She was dressed in green and orange pyjamas.
The active to dress usually gives the idea of repetition or habit.
She always dresses in green.
He dresses well.

2 Putting clothes on
To dress is also used to talk about putting clothes on.
It only takes me five minutes to dress in the mornings.
Could you dress the children for me?
However, in informal English it is probably more common to talk
about dressing oneself by using the expressions get dressed andput
on.
Get dressed and come downstairs at once!
I put on a pullover this morning because I thought it was going to
be cold.

drunk/drArjk/and drunken/'drAtjkan/ 186

In older English, drunken was used instead of drunk in ‘attributive
position’ (before the noun).
What shall we do with the drunken sailor?
Drunken is now unusual, and most people use drunk in both
attributive and predicative position.
There are a lot of drunk drivers on the roads on Saturday nights.
Sybil’s drunk again.
during 187

during and for 187

Typical mistake: *My father was in hospital during six weeks.

During is used to say when something happened; for is used to say

how long it took.
There was a storm during the night: it rained for three or four
hours.
My father was in hospital for six weeks during the summer.

during and in 188

Both these prepositions can be used when we are talking about
periods of time {during the summer /in the summer). In many cases
there is no difference, but sometimes one seems more natural than
the other, and occasionally only one of them is possible.

1 Both in and during can be used to talk about something that

happens: (i) right through a particular period of time; (z) at some
point (or at several points) between the beginning and the end of the
period.
(i) We’ll be on holiday in/during August.
(z) I woke up in/during the night.
I woke up three times in/during the night.

2 We prefer in when we are saying exactly when something happens;

to say in this period, not in that one.
No, it was in 1970, not 1969.
We usually go on holiday in July, but last year we went in
September.
{During would seem rather strange in these sentences.)
During helps to stress the idea of duration: it means in that period
of a certain length.
The shop’s closed during the whole of August. (Not: *. . . in the
whole . . .)
In most cases, when we are not stressing the idea of contrast or of
duration, both in and during can be used with no real difference of
meaning.

3 When we refer to an activity, rather than to a period of time, only

during can be used.
He had some amazing experiences during his military service.
(Not: *. . . in his military service.)
Compare:
He had some amazing experiences during/in his childhood.
 190 each

each and every: meaning -109

Each and every do not mean quite the same. Every puts people or
things into a group, like all-, we often use every to generalize. (For
the exact difference between all and every, see 3 8.) Each separates;
when we say each violinist, each child or each player, for example,
we think of the people doing things differently, separately, or one at
a time. Compare:
Every professional violinist practises for several hours a day.
Each violinist has his own way of playing the Beethoven
concerto.
We want every child to succeed.
Each child will find his own personal road to success.
Every player was on top form.
The Queen shook hands with each player in turn after the game.
The difference is not always very important, so we can often use
each or every with no real difference of meaning.
Yow look more beautiful each/every time I see you.
When we are stressing the idea of a whole group, each is not used.
For instance, we can say almost every month, or every single one
without exception, buteach is not used with words and expressions
like almost, practically, nearly, or without exception.
Note that each can be used to talk about two or more people or
things, but every always refers to three or more, never to two. (The
idea of ‘every two’ is given by both.}
Each sex has its own physical and psychological characteristics.
(Not: *Every sex . . .)
For an explanation of the grammatical rules for the use oieach and
every, see 190 and zzo.

each: grammar 190

1 Each is used as a ‘determiner’ (see 171) with a singular (countable)
noun.
Each day is better than the one before.
I’ve inspected each repair myself.
Note that only one determiner can be used in a noun phrase (see
171). You can say each sister or my sister(s), but not *each my
sister.
2 When there is another determiner (article, possessive or demonstra­
tive), each of is used with a plural noun.
Each of my aunts gave me socks for Christmas.
I’ve invited each of my colleagues in turn.
each other 191

(Note that each of is not possible when there is no other determiner.

You cannot say *each of aunts.')
Each of is also used before a personal pronoun.
Each of them gave me socks.
She phoned each of us.

3 Each can also be used as an independent pronoun, without a noun

following. Note that the verb is singular.
I had some crazy dreams last night. Each was funnier than the
last.
In cases like this, however, it is more common to use the expression
each one.
Each one was funnier than the last.

4 Another way to use each is after the subject. The subject and verb
are plural.
We each have our own attitude to bringing up children.
In this structure, each comes after auxiliary verbs, and after are and
were.
My sisters have each married businessmen.
The witnesses were each perfectly certain of what they said.
Each can also come after an indirect object (but not usually after a
direct object).
I bought the girls each an ice cream.
She sent them each a present.
But not:
*She kissed them each.

5 When a possessive or personal pronoun is used later in the sentence

to refer back to an expression v/itheach, it can be singular or plural.
(See 432.)
Each persoh. explained it in his/their own way.
Each of the women wore what she/they liked best.

each other and one another 191

Grammars sometimes say that each other is used to refer to two
people or things, and one another to more than two. This ‘rule’
does not reflect actual usage: there is little or no difference of
meaning between the two expressions. If there is any difference, it
seems to be that we prefer one another (like one) when we are
making very general statements, and not talking about particular
people.
Compare:
 193 either

They sat for two hours without talking to each other/one

another.
The translation of‘se parler’ is ‘to talk to one another’. (Not: *.. .
‘to talk to each other’.)

effective /rfektiv/ and efficient/I'fijant/ 192

1 We say that somebody isefficient if they work without wasting time
or energy, in a well-organized way. A good secretary is efficient-, an
inefficient secretary puts papers in the wrong place, forgets things,
or takes too long to do small jobs. A machine or system that works
well is also called efficient.
I’ve sorted out all my old letters and filed them alphabetically —
isn’t that efficient of me?
The German telephone system is highly efficient.

2 We say that something is effective if it solves a particular problem

that we have, or gets the result that we want.
My headache’s much better. Those tablets really are effective.
I think a wide black belt would look very effective with that
dress.

either: adverb 193

1 Either has two pronunciations in British English: /'ai6a(r)/ and
/’i:3a(r)/ . In American English, it is usually pronounced only
/’i:da(r)/ .
2 Typical mistake: 7 don’t like opera.’ - *7 also not.’ (Or: *7 don’t
too. ’)
Either is instead of too and also in negative sentences. Compare:
7 like opera.’ — 7 do too.’
7 don’t like opera.’ — 7 don’t either.’
I don’t enjoy tennis, and I don’t much like swimming either.
In ‘short answers’, structures withwor andneither are also possible.
7 haven’t read any Dickens.’ — ‘Nor/neither have I’ (Or: 7
haven’t either.’)
For details of the structures with nor and neither, see 406.

3 Either can be used with or to talk about two possibilities (and

sometimes more than two).
You can either come with me now or walk home.
Either you leave this house or I’ll call the police.
You can either have soup, fruit juice or melon.
either 194

In a formal style, people are often careful to ‘balance’ sentences like

these, so that the same kind of structures follow either and or.
Compare the following two sentences: the second is not exactly
wrong, but many people would feel that the style was bad.
I should like to Hue in either an expensive flat or an old country
house.
I should either like to live in an expensive flat or an old country
house.
Other ‘balanced’ structures are both . . . and . . . (see 116); neither
. . . nor . . . (see 407) and not only . . . but also . . . (see 420).

either: determiner and pronoun 194

1 Either usually means ‘one or the other’. Occasionally it can mean
‘both’ (particularly with the words end and side).
Come on Tuesday or Wednesday. Either day is OK.
There were roses on either side of the door. (=on both sides.
Note singular noun with either, plural noun with both.)

2 When either is used with a noun, it is a ‘determiner’ (see 171). It

cannot be used together with another determiner (e g article, pos­
sessive or demonstrative). You can say the room, my room, or
either room, but not “the either room or *either my room. Either is
followed by a singular noun and verb.
Either day is OK. (Not: *. . . are OK.)
Either kind of school is quite suitable. (Not: *Eith er kinds . . .are

3 Either is used as a pronoun, alone or with of + plural noun phrase.

'Do you want whisky or gin?’ - ‘Oh, I don’t mind. Either.’
Has either of your parents visited you?
When either of is followed by a noun phrase, there must be another
determiner (possessive, demonstrative or article). You can say
either of the rooms, or either of my rooms, but not *either of rooms.
Before a personal pronoun, either of is always used.
Either of you could do it. (Not: *Either you . . .)
In sentences with either of, the verb is normally singular.
Either of the children is quite capable of looking after the baby.
(Not: “Either of the children are . . .)
But in negative sentences a plural verb is quite common, especially
in an informal style.
/ don’t think either of them are at home. (Or: ... is at home.)
(None and neither can also have plural verbs. See 171.6.)
For the pronunciation of either, see 193.
 196 ellipsis

elder /'elda(r)/and eldest /'eldist/; 195

older/'aulda(r)/and oldest /'auldist/
Elder and eldest are often used instead of older and oldest before
the words brother, sister, son, daughter,grandson, granddaughter.
My elder brother was in a car accident last week.
The eldest daughter does all the housework.
Note the difference between elder and eldest. My elder son is the
older of my two sons; if I say my eldest son, I probably have at least
three sons. If I say my elder sister, I only have one sister older than
myself. Elder and eldest can also be used as pronouns.
She’s the elder of the two. The eldest is six years old.
Some people prefer to say older brother, oldest son, etc, and the
words elder and eldest are probably slowly disappearing from
informal English.

ellipsis: general 196

1 We often leave out words when the meaning can be understood
without them. Instead of a knife and a fork we can say a knife and
fork-, instead of Have you seen John? we can say Seen John?
Leaving out words in this way is called ‘ellipsis’; there are several
kinds.
a Ellipsis of subject and/or auxiliary verb at the beginning of a
sentence. For details, see 197.
(Have you) Seen any good films lately?
(She) Doesn’t know what she’s talking about.
b Ellipsis with and, or, but. For details, see 198.
a knife and (a) fork
She was poor but (she was) honest.
Are you coming on Monday or (on) Thursday?
C Ellipsis after adjectives. For details, see 14.
'What kind of potatoes would you like?’ - ‘Boiled (potatoes),
please. ’
d The use of to instead of a complete infinitive. For details, see 3 28.
A4y parents hoped I would study medicine, but I didn’t want to
(study medicine).
e Ellipsis after auxiliary verbs. For details, see 199.
He said he’d write, but he hasn’t (written).
I haven’t phoned her yet, but I will (phone her).
We also use ellipsis after auxiliary verbs in ‘short answers’ (see
548), ‘reply questions’ (see 514) and ‘tags’ (see 515, 524).
‘Have you finished?’ — ‘Yes, 1 have.’
ellipsis 197

‘I can whistle through my fingers.’ — ‘Can you, dear? That’s

clever.’
You don’t want to buy a car, do you?
Elliptical structures can be used after so (see 557), neither and nor
(see 406).
T’m getting cold:’ — So am I (getting cold).’
‘We haven’t paid the rent.’ — ‘Nor have we.’

2 When a word or expression is left out, a ‘substitute’ word is

sometimes put in its place.
‘Which piece would you like?’ — ‘The small one.’ ( = ‘The small
piece.’)
‘Is Arthur coming?’ — ‘Ithinkso.’ (=7 think that he’s coming.”)
She likes jazz, and I do as well. (=. . . I like jazz as well.)
For details of ‘substitution’, see 581.

ellipsis: at the beginning of a sentence 197

1 In informal spoken English, we often leave out words at the begin­
ning of sentences if the meaning is clear from the context. Words
that can be left out are articles, possessives, personal pronouns and
auxiliary verbs.
Car’s giving trouble again. (— The car’s . . .)
‘What’s the matter?’ — ‘Stomach’s sore.’ ( = ‘My stomach’s . . .’)
Couldn’t understand what he wanted. (= / couldn’t under­
stand. . .)
Seen Andy? ( = Have you seen Andy?)

2 Personal pronouns can always be left out before ordinary verbs, if

this leaves the meaning clear.
Wonder what she’s doing.
Hope to see you soon.
Looks just like his father.
A personal pronoun cannot always be left out before an auxiliary
verb. We can usually drop a subject pronoun before a negative
auxiliary verb, and sometimes before a ‘modal’ auxiliary verb like
must (see 388), but we do not drop the subject before affirmative
have, be or will.
Can’t do it.
Haven’t seen him.
Won’t work, you know.
May see you tomorrow.
Must dash.
Doesn’t know what she wants.
But not:
 197 ellipsis

*Have seen him.

* Will see you soon.
*Am coming tomorrow.
(Sentences like the last three examples are possible in telegrams, but
not in speech.)
However, it is possible to drop the subject pronoun and the aux­
iliary, if this leaves the meaning clear.
See you soon.
Coming tomorrow.
Forgotten your name.

3 In affirmative sentences, ellipsis is most common with first-person

or third-person subjects (see the examples in section 2, above).
Note that the ‘replacement’ subject there can also be left out.
Nobody at home. (=There is nobody . . .)
Ellipsis is less common with second-person subjects (except in
questions), but is perfectly possible in cases where the meaning is
still clear.
Can’t go in there. (=You can’t. . .)
Need your oil changing.
Have to wait a bit, I’m afraid.
Keeping well, I hope.

4 In questions, we can leave out an auxiliary verb (do, have, be or

will). The subject can be dropped as well if this leaves the meaning
clear.
You ready?
Ready?
Your father got a car?
Anybody want more?
You be here tomorrow?
Auxiliary verbs alone are not left out before I or it. So you can say
Am I getting in your way? or Getting in your way?, but not *1 getting
in your way? And Is it raining? or Raining? are both possible, but
not *lt raining?
5 Ellipsis is very common in sentences that have some sort of ‘tag’
stuck on the end.
Can’t swim, myself.
Dutch, aren’t you?
Going on holiday, your kids?
Like my pint, I do.
Getting in your way, am I?
For more information about tags, see 515, 524.
ellipsis 198

ellipsis with and, but and or 198

1 When expressions are joined by and, it is very common to leave out
words to avoid repetition. Various kinds of word can be left out.
a When two verbs have the same subject or object, it is not necessary
to repeat it.
He sang and (he) played the guitar.
She peeled (the onions) and chopped the onions.
b Repeated auxiliary verbs can also be left out.
You could have come and (you could have) told me.
c And repeated main verbs.
Please clean my father’s office and (clean) the kitchen.
I’ve explained twice and I’m not going to (explain) again.
d Articles, possessives, demonstratives and other ‘determiners’ (see
171) may be left out to avoid repetition.
a man and (a) woman
my wife and (my) children
those books and (those) papers
several trains and (several) buses
e A noun that is repeated with two or more adjectives can be left out,
and so can a repeated adjective.
middle-aged (women) and elderly women
young boys and (young) girls
f Repeated conjunctions and prepositions may be left out.
in France and (in) Germany
She was late because she had overslept and (because she had)
missed the train.
2 Similar structures are possible with but and or.
She was poor but (she was) honest.
Is it a colour (film) or (a) black and white film?

ellipsis (and substitution) with auxiliary verbs 199

1 We often use an auxiliary verb alone, instead of auxiliary verb +
main verb. This generally happens when the main verb has been
used before, so that it is unnecessary to repeat it. Note that the
auxiliary verb has a ‘strong’ pronunciation (see 6zz).
‘Get up.’ — ‘I am /aem/.’ (=7 am getting up.’)
He said he’d write, but he hasn’t. (=. . . he hasn’t written.)
When we leave out the main verb in this way, we often leave out
other words that follow it (for example, the object).
I can’t see you today, but I can tomorrow. (=...! can see you
tomorrow.)
 ''199 ellipsis

‘Can I borrow the car for an hour this afternoon?’ - ‘Of course
you can’t.’ ( = ‘. . . you can’t borrow the car for an hour this
afternoon.”)
Ellipsis is also possible after be and have when these are not
auxiliary verbs.
‘I’m tired.’ — ‘I am too.’
‘Who has a dictionary?’ — 7 have.’
But note that ellipsis is not usually possible after other ordinary
(non-auxiliary) verbs. (For exceptions, see 32.8.)
‘What do you think of the play?’ — ‘I like it.’ (Not: *7 like.’)

2 When there is more than one auxiliary verb, we usually only repeat
the first.
‘You wouldn’t have won if 1 hadn’t helped you.’ — ‘Yes I would.’
( = ‘Yes I would have won . . .’)
Peter hasn’t been told, but I have. (=...! have been told.)
But we repeat a second auxiliary verb if it has a different form from
before.
7 think Mary should be told.’ - ‘She has been.’ (Not: *‘Shehas.‘)

3 When there is no auxiliary verb, we can use do instead of repeating

a main verb. (This is not ellipsis, but substitution - see 581.)
She likes jazz, and I do as well. (=. . . I like jazz as well.)
‘I hope you enjoyed yourself’ — ‘Yes, I did, thanks.’
In British English (but not American), do can also be used in this
way after another auxiliary verb.
‘Come and stay with us.’ - 7 may (do), if I have the time.’
In some cases, do can be used together with so.
‘Put the car away, please.’ - ‘I’ve already done so.’
For details of structures with do so, see 1 81.

4 Auxiliary verbs are often used in this way in ‘tags’ (see 524, 515),
‘short answers’ (see 548) and ‘reply questions’ (see 514).
You’ve lost weight, haven’t you?
She wants a holiday, does she?
‘You’re getting better at tennis.’ — ‘Yes, I am.’
‘I’ll be seeing you again next week.' — ‘Will you? That’s nice.’
Similar structures are possible after so (see 557), neither and nor
(see 406).
T’ve forgotten the address.’ — ‘So have I.’
‘It’s Tuesday tomorrow.’ — ‘So it is.’
She doesn’t like Mozart, and neither do I.
else 200

else 200
Else can only be used in certain structures.

1 After anybody, everything, somewhere, and all the other words

which begin any-, every-, some-, no- and finish-body, -one,-thing,
-where. Else can also be used after all, (meaning ‘everything’) in a
formal style.
Would you like anything else to drink?
It’s too crowded here. Let’s go somewhere else.
Nobody else understands me as well as you do.
When all else fails, pray.
There is a possessive form else’s /‘elsiz/.
You’ll have to borrow somebody else’s car. I’m using mine.

2 After who andwhat (butnotwhich), and after where,how andwhy

(but not usually when).
Who else ordered steak?
Where else did you go besides Madrid?

3 With the words little and (not) much.

Little else is known of Marlowe’s life.
There isn’t much else to do now except pray.

4 With or, to mean ‘otherwise’ or ‘if not’.

Let’s get moving, or else we’ll miss the train.
Threats (especially among children) often finish in or else!
You’d better stop hitting my little brother, or else!

5 Elsewhere is a formal word for ‘somewhere else’.

If you are not satisfied with my hospitality, go elsewhere.

emphasis 201
‘Emphasis’ means making one part of a sentence more important
than it would normally be. There are several different ways of
showing emphasis in English.

1 In speech, the most important is by changes in pronunciation.

Emphasized words are spoken with a higher intonation and a
louder voice than normal, and the vowels may become longer. We
may also pause before emphasized words. Some short common
words (especially auxiliary verbs, conjunctions and prepositions,
eg have, but, from) change their pronunciation when they are
emphasized. For details of these words with ‘weak’ and ‘strong’
forms, see 6zz.
 201 emphasis

In writing — particularly when we write down speech — this kind of

emphasis can be shown by using capital letters, or by underlining
(in handwriting and typing), or by using italics or fat type (in
printing).
Give it to ME! This is the last opportunity.
Nobody loves me! Come now.
Often, changes in emphasis can give a completely different meaning
to a sentence. Compare:
Jane phoned me yesterday. (=It was Jane who phoned, not
somebody else.)
]ane phoned me yesterday. {—She didn’t write or call, she
phoned.)
Jane phoned me yesterday. ( = Me, not somebody else.)
Jane phoned me yesterday. {^Yesterday, not today.)
Special emphasis is often put on auxiliary verbs. This can give more
emotional force to the whole sentence, or it can express some kind
of contrast (for example, between true and false, or present and
past).
It was/woz/a nice party!
Gosh, you have /hsev/ grown!
I am /aem/ telling the truth - you must /mAst/ believe me!
I couldn’t swim last year, but I really can /ksen/ now.
When there is no auxiliary verb, do can be used in the affirmative to
carry emphasis (see 177).
You’re quite wrong — she does like you!
Do come in!
When auxiliary verbs are stressed, the position of some adverbs is
different from normal. (See 24.3 for details.) Compare:
You have certainly grown.
You certainly have grown! (emphatic)

2 Emphasis can also be shown by using special words, such as really,

(see 521), certainly, definitely. In spoken English, such and so are
very common as emphasizers.
Thank you so much. It was such a lovely party. I really enjoyed
it.
Swearwords can also be used for emphasis (but be careful how you
use them — see 589).
What a bloody stupid place to put a bottle!

3 Finally, different parts of a sentence can be given more importance

by using special grammatical constructions.
a Part of a sentence can be moved to the front (especially in informal
speech).
enjoy 202

That film - what did you think of it?

Asleep, then, were you?
There are some structures of this kind in which ‘inverted’ word
order is necessary. For details, see 345, 346.
Under no circumstances can visitors be allowed to walk on the
grass.
b Structures with it and what (‘cleft sentences’) can be used to give
one part of a sentence more importance. For details, see 138.
It was late In the afternoon when I woke up.
What I need is a drink.
C Repetition of certain words is possible for emphasis.
She looks much, much older now.
I’ve been a blind, blind fool!
You bad, bad boy!
d Another way of repeating is by using ‘tags’.
He’s a funny chap, he is.
She’s a nice girl, is Mary.
For details of the use of tags, see 524.

enjoy 202
Typical mistake: *1 enjoyed very much at the party last night.

Enjoy can’t be used without an object. When we talk about having

fun, having a nice time in general, we use the expression to enjoy
oneself.
I enjoyed myself very much at the party.
Well, have a good holiday — enjoy yourself, and don’t do any­
thing that I wouldn’t do!
You can also enjoy an activity, a meal, etc.
She really enjoys her food: it’s a pleasure to watch her eating.
I very muth enjoyed the party.
I don’t enjoy travelling very much. (Not:*. . .enjoy to travel. . .)

enough 203
Enough can be used in several different ways in a sentence. It can
qualify an adjective or adverb (warm enough, quickly enough); it
can be used as a determiner with a noun (enough bread); and it can
be a pronoun (enough of this; that’s enough).

1 Enough with adjectives and adverbs

Typical mistake: *You’re not working enough carefully.

 203 enough

Enough comes after adjectives and adverbs.

good enough fast enough
soon enough carefully enough
I’d like to be a professional singer, but I don’t think I’ve got a
good enough voice.

2 Enough with nouns

Typical mistake: *Have we got enough of bread?

Enough comes before nouns. Enough of is used before a determiner

(article, possessive or demonstrative), buto/ is not used when there
is no determiner. Compare:
Is there enough of the blue material?
I’ve had enough of this nonsense.
Is there enough blue material?
Have we got enough bread?
Enough of is also used before a pronoun.
We didn’t buy enough of them.
It used to be common to put enough after a noun; this is not very
frequent in modern English.
Have I got time enough to go to the bank? (Or:. . . enough time
...?)
Like most other ‘determiners’ (see 171), enough can be used as a
pronoun alone, without a noun.
Enough is enough. That’s enough, thank you.

3 Structure after enough

Typical mistake: "It’s late enough that we can stop work.

The normal structure after enough is (for + object) + to +

infinitive.
It’s late enough for us to stop work.
Have you got enough money to lend me £5?

4 Enough as complement

Typical mistake: The beer isn't enough.

*Was the time enough?

Enough can be used as the complement of the verb be when the

subject is a pronoun (eg That’s enough-, It was enough), but not
when the subject is a noun (e g beer, time). Instead, we put enough
with the noun in a different structure.
There isn’t enough beer. Did you have enough time?
enter 204

5 When enough is used with an adjective and a noun, two positions

are possible. The word-order depends on whether enough refers to
the adjective or the noun. Compare:
I haven’t got big enough nails to mend the cupboard.
I haven’t got enough big nails to mend the cupboard.
In the first sentence, enough qualifies the adjective which it follows:
the nails I’ve got aren’t big enough. In the second case, enough
qualifies the noun phrase (adjective + noun): I’ve got some big
nails, but not enough of them.

enter 204
Typical mistake: *She entered Into the room.
When enter means ‘come/go into’, it is used without a preposition.
She entered the room without making a sound.
(In informal English, come into and go into are much more com­
mon than enter.')
Enter into is used before abstract words like discussion, agreement.
Britain has entered Into a new trade agreement with Ireland.

especial(ly)/i'spejl(i)/and special(ly)/'spejl(i)/ 205

We use special(ly) to mean ‘for a particular purpose’.
You need a special licence to marry a foreigner.
These shoes were specially made for me.
When we want to say that something is unusual, extreme, particu­
larly important, we can use either special(ly) or especial(ly).
I took (e)special trouble over this job.
It’s not (especially cold today.
Especial(ly) ik more common in a formal style. It is used most often
before a preposition phrase or a conjunction.
especially on Sundays especially in the North
especially when we have visitors

even 206
1 Typical mistake: *She got very angry; even she told me to get out
of the house.
If we want to say that an action is surprising, we put even with the
verb (in ‘mid-position’ — see 24).
She even told me to get out of the house.
 208 even though

He’s done everything - he’s even been a racing driver.

Even can go in other places to give special emphasis to particular
parts of the sentence.
Anybody can do this. Even a child could do it.
He’ll eat anything - even raw potatoes.
You’ve got to work every day, even on Sundays.
Do not use also to suggest that something is surprising.
Typical mistake: *Anybody can do this. Also a child could do it.

2 In negative sentences, even has a special use. Not even is used to

suggest that the minimum has not happened, the smallest thing that
we might expect is not there, and similar ideas.
He can’t even write his own name.
I haven’t seen one flower yet this year — not even a snowdrop.
3 Even if and even though
Typical mistake: *Even 1 become a millionaire, I shall always be a
socialist.
Even is an adverb. It can be used to emphasize if or though, but it
cannot be used alone as a conjunction.
Even if I become a millionaire, I shall always be a socialist.
Even though I didn’t know anybody at the party, I had a good
time.

even with comparatives 207

Note the special use of even to emphasize comparatives.
You’re even more beautiful than before.
Harry’s nice, but his brother’s even nicer.

even though and even so 208

Typical mistake: He’s a very nice person. *Even though, I don’t
really trust him.
In the expression even though, though means the same as although.
It is a conjunction, used for joining two clauses together. It cannot
be used with only one clause.
Even though he's very nice, I don’t really trust him.
Even so is an adverb phrase, meaning however or in spite of that.
He’s a very nice person. Even so, I don’t really trust him.
eventually 209

eventually 209
Typical mistake: *17/ stay here eventually — it depends.

To talk about things that might happen, we use possible, perhaps,

if, may, might, etc.
1 might stay here — it depends.
Eventual and eventually are not used in this way. They mean ‘in the
end’, ‘final(ly)’, ‘after a long time’. The eventual profits from a
business are the profits that will finally be made, not the possible
profits.
1 went home before the end of the meeting. What was the
eventual decision?
The car didn’t want to start, but eventually I managed to get it
going.

ever 210
Typical mistake: *1 will ever remember you.

J Ever usually means ‘at any time’ (for the meaning oiany, see 55). It
is not the same as always, which means ‘at all times’ or‘all the time’
(see 49).
I will always remember you.
Ever is opposite in meaning to never, which means ‘at no time’.
‘Come and see me if you are ever in London.’ — ‘No, I’m afraid I
never go there.’

2 Ever is used mainly in questions. It can also be used in affirmative

sentences with if, and with words that express a negative idea (like
hardly, stop).
Do you ever go to the opera?
We hardly ever go out.
I’m going to stop her ever doing that again.
Come and see us if you are ever in Glasgow.
Ever can be used together with not (eg/ haven’t ever been there),
but we usually use never instead of not ever (e g I’ve never been
there). See 408.

3 Ever is used with the present perfect tense (see 495.3) to mean ‘at
any time up to now’.
Have you ever been in a submarine?
It can also be used with a past or past perfect tense.
Did you ever meet Jake Allwright at university?
She asked me if I had ever been in trouble with the police.
 212 whoever

4 We can use ever after comparative + than.

You’re looking lovelier than ever.

5 Ever has a special use in the expressions forever (also written for
ever), ever since, and in compounds like ever-loving, evergreen.
Here it means ‘always’, and can be used in affirmative sentences.
I shall love you forever.
For the difference between ever andalready oryet, see zn. Forthe
use of whoever, wherever, who ever, where ever, etc, see 21 z— 219.

ever, already and yet 211

Typical mistake: *Have you already been to Canada in your life?

Ever means ‘at any time in the past’.

Have you ever been to Canada?
Yet and already are both used when we are thinking about a time
close to the present. Yet is used to talk about things we expect to
happen.
‘I’m travelling round the world.’ — ‘Have you been to Canada
yet?’
Already suggests that things have happened earlier than expected,
or earlier than they might have happened.
Good heavens! Are you back home already?
For more information about ever, see 210.
For details of the use of yet, already and still, see 579.

whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, 212

wherever and however used as conjunctions
Whoever, whatever and so on mean something like ‘It doesn’t
matter, it doesn’t make any difference who/what, etc’. There is a
grammatical difference. The expressions It doesn’t matter
who/what, etc can be used with one or more clauses. But whoever,
whatever, etc are conjunctions: they can only be used to join two
clauses together. Compare:
It doesn’t matter where you go; I’ll go with you.
It doesn’t matter where you go.
Wherever you go, I’ll go with you.
But not: *Wherever you go. Other examples:
‘There’s someone at the door.’ - ‘Whoever it is, I don’t want to
see them.’
Whatever you say to her, she still keeps smiling.
Come and see me whenever you’re in Liverpool.
whoever 213

The expressions no matter who, no matter what, etc can be used as

conjunctions in the same way as whoever, whatever, etc.
No matter what you say to her, she still keeps smiling.
For details of the use of whoever, whatever, etc, see the following
sections. For the use of who ever, what ever, etc in questions, see
219. For details of the use of It doesn’t matter who /what etc and
not matter who/what etc., see 374.

whoever 213
Whoever means no matter who.
Whoever telephones, tell them I’m out.
I’m not opening the door, whoever you are.
The object form is whoever, not *whomever.
Whoever you marry, make sure he can cook.
The clause with whoever can be the subject or object of the verb in
the other clause; in this case, whoever means ‘anybody who’, or
‘the person who*.
Whoever told you that was lying.
I’ll give my ticket to whoever wants it.

whatever 214
Whatever means ‘no matter what’. It can be used with a noun (as a
‘determiner’ — see 171) or alone (as a pronoun). Note the word­
order: whatever comes first in its clause, even if it is the object of the
following verb.
Whatever problems you have, you can always come to me for
help.
Whatever you do, I’ll always love you.
Keep calm, whatever happens.
Sometimes the clause with whatever is the subject or object of the
verb in the other clause. In this case, whatever means ‘anything
that’.
Whatever you want is fine with me.
Prisoners have to eat whatever they’re given.

whichever 215
Whichever is used in a similar way to whatever (but nearly always
with a following noun). For the exact difference between which and
what, see 529.1, 531.
Whichever day you come, we’ll be pleased to see you.
I’ll take whichever tent you’re not using.
 219 who ever ...? what ever .. .?

whenever 216
Whenever means ‘no matter when’ or ‘any time when’.
Yow can phone me whenever you like.
Whenever you come, you’ll be welcome.
It can be used to suggest repetition (in the sense of ‘each time
when’).
Whenever I see you 1 feel nervous.
Whenever he went to London he stayed at The Ritz.

wherever 217
Wherever means ‘no matter where’.
Wherever you go you’ll find Coca-Cola.
We found the people friendly wherever we went.

however 218
1 However can be used to mean ‘in whatever way’, ‘no matter how’.
However you travel, it’ll take you at least two days.

2 With an adjective or adverb, however means roughly the same as

‘even if . . . very’ or ‘it doesn’t matter how’. Note the word-order
{however + adjective/adverb + subject + verb).
However rich people are, they always want more. {=Even if
people are very rich ... or It doesn’t matter how rich people are

However fast you drive, I always feel safe with you. (Not: *How-
ever you drive fast. ..)
However much he eats, he never gets fai.

3 Do not confuse this use of however (as a conjunction) with the use
of however as an adverb (meaning ‘but’ or ‘on the other hand’).
1 feel a bit tired. However, it’s probably just the weather.

who ever .. .? what ever . ..? etc 219

Ever can be used with the interrogative words who, what, when,
where, why and how. It expresses surprise (sometimes mixed with
admiration, anger, or other emotions).
How ever did you manage to get the car started? I tried for hours,
and I couldn’t.
Who ever is that strange girl with Roger?
What ever do you think you’re doing?
Why ever didn’t you tell me you were coming?
every 220

The same meaning can be expressed in an .informal style by using

the expression on earth instead of ever, or (more strongly) by using
the hell.
How on earth did you manage to get the car started?
Who on earth told you that?
What the hell do you think you’re doing?

every, everybody, everything, etc: grammar 220

Typical mistakes: *Everybody are ready.
*/ see her every days.

Every is used with singular nouns and verbs; everybody, everyone

and everything are also used with singular verbs.
Everybody Is ready. I see her every day.
Everything I like is either illegal, immoral or fattening.
The only exception is when every is followed by a number with a
plural noun.
I go to Paris every six weeks or so.
Note that plural possessives and personal pronouns can be used to
refer back to every. (See 432.)
Everybody was wearing their shorts.
I told every single student what I thought of them.
Every cannot be used as a pronoun (without a noun). You can say
Every room was occupied, but not *Every was occupied or *Every
of the rooms was occupied. Instead, we use every one.
Every one (of the rooms) was occupied.
For the difference between every one zndeveryone, see 111. For the
difference in meaning between every and each, see 189.

everyday /'evndei/ and every day/.evn 'del/ 221

Everyday is an adjective meaning ‘ordinary’ ‘usual’ ‘routine’.
In everyday life, you don’t very often meet an elephant in a
supermarket.
You don’t meet elephants every day.

everyone /'evriwAn/ and every one /.evn 'wah/ 222

Everyone means the same as everybody; every one is usually used to
refer to things, not people.
I would like everyone to be happy.
She took my bottles of whisky and emptied every one down the
sink.
 225 exclamations

exam /ig'zasm/ and examination /ig.ztemi'neifn/ 223

Exam is the short form of examination-, it is particularly common
in spoken English.
Be careful to use the correct verbs to talk about exams. When you
are actually trying to answer the questions, we say that you are
taking, doing or (in British English) sitting an examination. Later,
when you learn the result, you find that you have passed the exam
( = succeeded) or failed the exam.
I did O Level this summer. I took eight subjects and passed six,
hut I failed maths and physics.
Note
If you pass the final examination of a university you get a degree.
Diploma is not the normal British word for a university (or school)
qualification, although some special certificates are called ‘dip­
lomas’. Graduating, in British English, means getting a university
degree. In America you can also graduate from high school, and the
certificate is called a high school diploma. British people leave
school (not graduate) with the General Certificate of Education
(GCE) or the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE).

except 224
When except is followed by a verb, we usually use the infinitive
without to.
I couldn’t do anything except just sit there and hope.
She did nothing except complain the whole time she was here.
Except is normally followed by object-forms of personal pronouns
(me, him, etc), except in a very formal style.
Everybody understood except me.
But can be used in a similar way to except. See 123.r.

exclamations with how and what 225

1 How

Typical mistake: *How you sing beautifully!

How is often used to introduce exclamations. Several structures are

possible:
How + adjective
How + adjective +subject +verb
How + adverb +subject +verb
How + subject +verb
Note that an adjective or adverb comes immediately after how.
exclamations 226

Strawberries! How lovely!

How cold it is! (Not: *How it is cold!)
How beautifully you sing!
How you’ve grown!

2 What

Typical mistake: *What rude man!

What is used in exclamations with nouns (or adjectives + nouns).
With singular countable nouns, the article a or an is necessary.
What a rude man! What a fuss she made!
What an idiot! What lovely flowers!
For the structure of expressions like How strange a remark, see 18.

exclamations in the form of questions 226

1 Negative interrogative structures are often used as exclamations.
The meaning is affirmative.
Hasn’t she grown! (=She has grown a lot!)
Wasn’t it a great match!

2 Non-negative interrogative structures can also be used as exclama­

tions. This is particularly common in American English.
Am I hungry!
Did he look annoyed!
For other kinds of exclamation, see 2.2.5 and 309.
For information about negative questions, see 404.

excuse me, pardon and sorry 227

1 In British English, Excuse me does not mean the same as Sorry.
Excuse me is normally used before we do or say something that
could annoy somebody; Sorry is used afterwards, to apologize.
Excuse me is often used when we are going to disturb or interrupt
somebody, or when we want to attract somebody’s attention.
Excuse me, could I get past? . . . Oh, sorry, did I step on your
foot?
Excuse me, could you tell me the way to the station?
Besides Sorry, we can also apologize by saying 1 beg your pardon
(more formal). (In American English, Excuse me and Pardon me
are often used for apologizing.)
Sorry, I hope you haven’t been waiting long.
I beg your pardon; I didn’t realize this was your seat.
 229 experience

2 If we do not hear or understand what people say, we usually say

Sorry? What? (informal) or (I beg your) pardon? with a rising
intonation. Americans also say Pardon me? or Please?
’It’s the plumber at the door.’ ‘Sorry?’ ‘I said it’s the plumber.’
'See you on Tuesday.’ ‘What?’ ‘See you on Tuesday.’
'You’re going deaf.’ 7 beg your pardon?’

expect and wait (for) 228

Typical mistake: *1’11 wait for you at exactly ten o’clock.

We use wait (for) when we want to emphasize the idea of delay, or

of time passing; it is often used to talk about situations when
somebody is too early, or something is late coming.
I had to wait twenty minutes for a bus this morning.
Don’t wait up for me tonight. I might come in very late.
Wait a minute — I’m not ready.
I can’t wait suggests great impatience.
/ can't wait to see you all again.
Expect is used when there is no idea of delay, earliness or lateness. It
simply suggests that we know something is going to happen.
I’m expecting a letter from George. She’s expecting a baby.
I’ll expect you at exactly ten o’clock.
Expect can also be used in the sense of imagine or suppose.
I expect you’re tired after the journey.
For the use of expect with so and not (eg I expect so), see 558.

experience /ik’spianans/ and experiment/ik'spenmant/ 229

Typical mistake: *Newton carried out several experiences on
light and colour.
The tests which scientists do are called experiments. We also use the
word for any kind of action which people (not only scientists) do to
see what the result will be. There is also a verb to experiment
/ik'spenment/.
Newton carried out several experiments on light and colour.
Try some of this perfume, as an experiment.
I’m going to experiment with a new recipe for fish soup.
Experiences are not things you do deliberately to see what will
happen. They are just the things that you ‘live through’, the things
that happen to you in life.
I had a lot of interesting experiences during my year in Africa.
explain 230

Experience can also be used as an uncountable noun (see 163). It

means something like 'learning by doing things’ or 'the knowledge
vou get from doing things’.
Salesgirl wanted - experience unnecessary.
There is also a verb to experience.
Have you ever experienced the feeling that you were going mad?

explain 230
Typical mistake: *Please explain me how to join a tennis club.

Explain is not one of the verbs that can be used with two objects
(see 617). You canexplain something (to somebody), but you can’t
*explain somebody something.
I explained my problem (to the policeman).
Could you explain (to me) how to join a tennis club?

the fact that 231

It is not usual to use a t/?at-clause as the subject of a sentence. We
can say, for instance, He was worried that he had no girl-friends, or
The problem was that she was a foreigner. But it would be unusual
(and very formal) to say That he had no girl-friends worried him a
lot, or That she was a foreigner made it more difficult for her to get a
job.
However, a common structure is to have The fact + that-c\ause as
the subject of a sentence.
The fact that he had no girl-friends worried him a lot.
The fact that she was foreign made it difficult for her to get a job.
Another way of avoiding a tfeat-clause subject is to use an -ing form,
or to use the tZ7at-structure with 'introductory it’ (see 349).
Having no girl-friends worried him a lot.
It worried him a lot that he had ...
Sometimes we also have to use the expression the fact that to
introduce an object clause. This happens in cases when a verb or
adjective is followed by a preposition that cannot be left out (for
instance, pay attention to, orresponsible for). A preposition cannot
normally be followed by the conjunction that, so it is necessary to
say the fact that.
The judge paid no attention to the fact that she had just lost her
husband. He held her completely responsible for the fact that her
children had been shoplifting.
More often, however, a verb or adjective can be followed directly
by a that-clause without a preposition, and the fact is not necessary.
 232 fairly

He Insisted that he was innocent.

I’m aware that you dislike me.
For more information about the use of conjunctions after preposi­
tions, see 490.

fairly, quite, rather and pretty 232

1 These four words are easy to confuse. They can all be used to
change the strength of adjectives and adverbs (e g fairly nice, quite
nice, rather nice, pretty nice), but they do not all mean exactly the
same.
Fairly is the weakest of the four. If you say that somebody is fairly
nice, or fairly pretty, it is not much of a compliment. If you describe
a film as fairly good, you probably mean that it is just worth seeing,
but not worth going a long way to see. A person who speaks a
language fairly well can communicate successfully on everyday
subjects, but might not be able to take part in a difficult discussion.
Quite is a little stronger than fairly. If you say that a film is quite
good, you are recommending it: it is not the best film ever made, but
it is certainly worth seeing. A person who speaks a language quite
well might even manage a difficult discussion.
Rather is stronger again; it often means more than is usual, or
more than expected, or even more than you want. If a film is rather
good, it is better than most. A person who speaks a language rather
well is certainly a good linguist. If you say that a person is rather
nice, you sound pleasantly surprised - perhaps you were not
expecting them to be so nice. If it is rather hot, you may feel a bit
uncomfortable.
Pretty is similar to rather, but is used mostly in informal style. It is
unusual in careful written English.
One way of looking at this is to regard the four words as points on a
line going from not to very.
not_______ fairly_______ quite_______ rather/pretty______ very
nice nice nice nice nice
Note, however, that the meanings can change according to the
intonation used. Also, British people like using ‘understatement’
(so that a man may describe a woman as ‘quite nice’ when he’s
madly in love with her).
More examples of the use of the four words:
He’s just written a new book. It’s fairly interesting, but certainly
not his best.
I was quite impressed by her singing - it wasn’t bad at all.
There's something rather strange about the way he talks to you; I
don’t feel comfortable with him.
25 is pretty old to take up ballet dancing.
far 233

2 Special points to note

a Only rather can be used with comparatives. You can say rather
warmer, but not 'fairly warmer. (Other expressions that can be
used with comparatives are a little, a bit, much. See 146.)
Only rather can be used with too. See 607.
b In American English, quite is not very often used to change the
meaning of adjectives and adverbs in this way.
C Quite has another meaning (= completely), in both British and
American English, when it is used with certain words (e g quite
finished, quite alone). For more information about this, see 516.
d Both<jw/te andrather can be used before an article, and with a verb.
(For example: quite a nice day; I rather like her.) Pretty and fairly
cannot be used in this way. For more details, see 516 and 517.
e The expression pretty well means almost (e g Pretty well everybody
agrees with me).

far and a long way 233

Far is unusual in affirmative sentences, especially in an informal
style. It is not exactly incorrect to say We walked far, or I live far
from the centre of town, but most people would use a long way.
We walked a long way.
I live a long way from the centre of town.
In questions and negative sentences, far is perfectly natural.
How far did you walk?
I don’t live far from the centre of town.
Far is, however, normal in affirmative sentences after too and so,
and in the structure as far as; it is also common in the expression far
from (meaning ‘not at all’).
You’ve gone too far. It’s OK as far as I know.
I haven’t ha^ any problems so far.
I’m far from satisfied with your results.
Note that far is not often used as an adjective in modern English.
Instead of a far country, we would usually say a distant country.
Other words which are often avoided in affirmative sentences are
much, many, and long (referring to time). See 393 and 366.

farther /'fa:da(r)/ and further/'faidafr)/ 234

1 In British English, both words are used to refer to distance, with no
difference of meaning.
Inverness is farther/further away than Glasgow.
In American English, only farther is used in this sense.
 235 feel

2 Further (but not farther') can also be used to mean ‘additional’,

‘extra’, ‘more advanced’.
College of Further Education.
For further information, see page 283.

feel 235
Feel has several different meanings. It can be used in the progressive
tenses in some meanings, but not others. In some meanings, feel is
used with adjectives.

1 ‘to touch something in order to learn about it or experience it’

Feel the car seat. It’s wet.
Progressive tenses are possible.
‘ What are you doing?’ — ‘I’m feeling the shirts to see if they’re dry
yet.’

2 ‘to receive physical sensations’

I suddenly felt an insect crawling up my leg.
Progressive tenses are not used, but we often use can feel to talk
about a sensation that is going on at a particular moment.
I can feel something biting me!

3 ‘to give somebody sensations’ Adjectives are used.

Your hands feel cold against my skin.
Progressive tenses are not used.

4 ‘to experience the condition of one’s own mind or body’ Adjectives

are used.
I feel fine.
Do you feel happy?
Tell me if you feel cold.
Progressive tenses can be used, with little difference of meaning.
I’m feeling fine.
How are you feeling?

5 ‘to think, have an opinion’.

I feel (that) you’re making a mistake.
I’ve always felt (that) there was something strange about her.
Progressive tenses are not used.

6 Note the expression feel like (=‘want’, ‘would like’).

I fee! like a drink. Have you got any beer?
female 236

female and feminine; male and masculine 236

Female and male are used to say what sex people, animals and
plants belong to.
A female fox is called a vixen.
I spent two years working as a male nurse.
Feminine and masculine are used to talk about the qualities or
behaviour that are supposed to be typical of men and women.
She has a very masculine laugh.
The letter was addressed in a feminine handwriting.
Feminine andmasculine are also used to refer to grammatical forms
in certain languages.
The word for ‘moon’ is feminine in French and masculine in
German.

(a) few and (a) little 237

Typical mistake: *1 have few interest in politics.

Few ij used with plural nouns; little is used with singular uncount­
able nouns.
Few politicians realize the importance of solar energy.
I have little interest in politics.
For the difference between few and little with and without articles,
see 238.

few and a few; little and a little 238

1 Without articles, few and little usually have rather negative mean-,
ings. They often suggest ‘not as much/many as one would like’, or'
‘not as much/many as expected’, or a similar idea.
The average^fAP has little real power.
Few people can speak a foreign language perfectly.
A few and a little are more positives their meaning is closer to
‘some’. They often suggest ideas like ‘better than nothing’ or ‘more
than expected’.
Would you like a little champagne?
You don’t need to go shopping. Th ere are a few eggs in the fridge,
and I’ve got a little bread and cheese - it’ll be enough for supper.
Compare:
His theory is very difficult; few people understand it.
His theory is very difficult, but a few people understand it.
 240 finally, at last

2 Note that/ew and little (without articles) are unusual in an infor-

rnal_style_. We usually prefer to say not many, not much, only a few
or only a little.
Come on! We haven't got much time!
Only a few people are perfectly bilingual.

fewer and less 239

In theory, fewer (the comparative of few} is used before plural
words, and less (the comparative of little) before uncountable
words.
There are fewer exploited workers than there used to be.
1 earn less money than a postman.
However, in modern English a lot of people use less instead offewer
before plural words, especially in an informal style. Some people
consider this incorrect.
I’ve got less friends this year than ever before.
For the use of lesser, see 359.

finally, at last and in the end 240

These expressions are not used in quite the same way.

1 Finally has two meanings.

a It can be used to introduce the last element in a series.
We need to increase productivity. We need to reduce unemploy­
ment. And finally, we need to make our exports competitive on
world markets.
b It can also be used (in a different position in the sentence, i e before
the verb), to suggest that one has been waiting for a long time for
something.
After putting it off three times, we finally managed to have a
holiday in Greece.
(Eventually is used in a similar way. See 209.)

2 At last is also used to suggest - very strongly - the idea of a long

wait or delay.
When at last they found him he was almost dead.
]ames has passed his exams at last.
It can be used as an exclamation.
At last! Where the hell have you been?
(Finally and in the end cannot be used as exclamations.)
finished 241

3 In the end is used when we want to suggest that something happens

after a lot of changes, problems, or uncertainty. (Finally could be
used here, but is normally placed before the verb.)
We made eight different plans for our holiday, but in the end we
went to Brighton again.
I left in the middle of the film. Did they get married In the end?
The tax-man always gets you in the end.

finished 241
Finished can be used either as a past participle (eg I’ve nearly
finished), or as an adjective meaning ‘ready’ (eg I’m nearly
finished). In cases like these there is no difference of meaning; the
adjective construction (be finished) is common in an informal style.
Howsoonwillyou be finished, dear? (Or-.. . .have finished. . .)
Hang on - I’m/I've nearly finished.
I went to get the car from the garage, but they weren’t/hadnt
finished.
Note also the use of finished to mean ‘exhausted’.
What a terrible day! I’m absolutely finished.

fit and suit 242

Typical mistake: *Red and black are colours that fit me very well.

Do not confuse these two words. If your clothes fit you, they are the
right size, neither too big nor too small. If they suit you, they look
good on you; the style and colour are both right.
Red and black are colours that suit me very well.
Do you think this style suits me?
These shoes don’t fit me — have you got a larger size?

for /fo:(r), fa(r)/: purpose 243

Typical mistake: "We went to the pub for having a drink.

For can be used to talk about somebody’s purpose, but only when it
is followed by a noun.
We went to the pub for a drink.
I went to the college for an interview with Professor Taylor.
For is not used before a verb. The infinitive alone is used to express
a person’s purpose (see 3x7).
We went to the pub to have a drink.
I went to the college to see Professor Taylor.
 244 for

But note that for can be used before the -ing form of a verb to
express the ‘purpose’ of an object (i e ‘what it is used for’).
Is that cake for eating or just for looking at?
An altimeter is used for measuring height above sea-level.

for-t-object + infinitive 244

1 After certain adjectives, the special structure for + object +
infinitive is often used.
It’s important for the accounts to be ready by Friday.
It’s unusual for her door to be open — I wonder if something’s
wrong.
I’m anxious for the party to be a success.
The same meaning could often be expressed with a tbat-clause (I'm
anxious that the party should be a success), but this is usually more
formal in style. For details, see 598.3.
This /br-structure is used after three kinds of adjectives:
a Adjectives that express importance or urgency, for instance, impor^
tant, essential, vital, necessary, pointless, unimportant, unneces­
sary. The sentence is often introduced by It is (see 349).
It’s essential for the classrooms to have plenty of light.
It’s pointless for three of us to go: one will be enough.
b Adjectives that express frequency, for instance, common, normal,
unusual, rare. The It is structure is often used.
It’s unusual for foxes to come so close to the town.
Do you think it’s normal for a child to get so tired?
C Adjectives that express personal reactions to the future, for
instance, anxious, eager.
I’m anxious for the painting to be ready on time.
They say they’ll be delighted for Mary to go and stay.
The infinitive of there is (ie there to be) can be used in this structure.
It’s important for there to be a fire-escape. (=. . . that there
should be .. .)
I’m anxious for there to be plenty of discussion.

2 A /br-structure is often used after too and enough.

It’s too heavy for you to lift.
I think it’s late enough for us to put Philip to bed.

3 The /br-structure can also be used after certain nouns, for instance,
plan, idea, suggestion.
Have you heard about the plan for Jack to stand for the Liberals
in the General Election?
His idea Is for us to travel in two different cars.
for 245

4 This structure is not very common after verbs. For example, you
cannot say *He wants for us to leave now. However, it can be
used after the verbs arrange, suit and take (time).
Can you arrange for the gold to be delivered on Monday?
When will it suit you for us to call?
It took twenty minutes for the smoke to clear.

for, since, from and ago 245

Typical mistakes: *1 know her for ten years
*We’ve been here since three months.
*I‘ve been waiting from four o’clock.
*She waited since the early morning, but he
didn’t come.
"That hotel has been closed many years ago.

1 For
For is used to say how long an action or a situation lasts. It can be
used to talk about the past, present or future.
I once studied the guitar for three years.
That house has been empty for six weeks.
We go to the seaside for a week every August.
My boss will be away for the next ten days.
By next Christmas I’ll have been here for seven years.
When for is used to talk about a period of time continuing up to the
present, it is used with the present perfect tense, not the present (see
494)-
I’ve known her for a long time. (Not: */ know her . . .)
We’ve lived in this street for fifteen years. (Not: "We live . . .)
When we are talking about a particular past moment, we use for
with the past perfect to refer to a period of time continuing up to
that moment.
When she arrived, I had been waiting for two and a half hours.
I met her last Christmas, but I'd known her by sight for years
before that.
Note that for is generally dropped in the expression (for) how long.
How long have you been waiting (for)?

2 From
Instead of saying how long an action or situation lasts, we can say
when it starts and when it finishes. This idea is usually expressed
with from ... to ... or from .. . till/until . . .
I was asleep from three to six. (-for three hours)
We usually go to Devon from June to September.-(-for three
months)
 245 for

Mother will be away from Tuesday till Saturday.

From is also used if we do not say when the action or situation
finishes.
He studied the piano from the age of three.
From her earliest childhood, she was fascinated by hospitals.
I’ll be here from two o'clock onwards.
3 Since
Since (and not/row) is used to give the starting point of actions and
situations that continue up to the moment of speaking.
Compare:
I was there from three o 'clock, but nobody came. (Not: *. . . since
three o’clock . . .)
I’ve been here since three o'clock, but nobody’s come yet; I think
I’ll go home soon. (Not: *. . . from three o’clock . . .)
I’ll be here from three o'clock tomorrow. (Not: *. . . since three
o’clock . . .)
Since is normally used with the present perfect (for details, see
section 6, below, and 493.2).
What have you been doing since this morning?
It's been raining since two o’clock.
We've lived in three different towns since last year.
I haven't been well since the summer.
When we are talking about a particular past moment, we use since
with the past perfect to give the starting point of an action or
situation that had gone on up to that moment.
When she arrived, I was pretty fed up, because I'd been waiting
since eight o’clock.
I met her last Christmas, but I’d known her by sight since 1972.

4 For and since

When for and since are used with the present perfect, it is easy to
confuse them. Remember that for is used to say how long some­
thing has lasted, since is used if we say when it started. Compare:
for three days since Tuesday
for a long time since breakfast

5 Ago
Ago is not used to talk about the length of actions and situations, or
when they start. When we useago, we simply say when past events
happened: but we say it by ‘counting backwards’ from the present,
not by giving dates. Ago is used with a past tense. See 32.
I saw him three days ago. (=.. . last Tuesday)
That hotel was closed many years ago. (=. . . in 1950)
I caught this cold two weeks ago. (=. . . at the end of May)
forget 246

6 Tenses with since

Since is normally used with a present perfect (or past perfect) tense.
However, this only means that the main verb in the sentence is
perfect. If since introduces a subordinate clause, the verb in this
clause can be a past tense or a present perfect, depending on the
meaning. Compare:
I’ve known her since 1956.
I’ve known her since we were children.
I’ve known her since I’ve lived in this street.
Since can be used with a present tense in the structure It is
(+expression of time) since . . .
It’s a long time since the last meeting. (Or: It’s been a long. . .)
It’s at least fifteen years since that holiday in the Alps. (Or: It’s
been . . .)
There is also a past form of this structure.
It was ages since my last meal, and I was very hungry. (Or: ft had
been ages . . . and I was . . .)
For more information about the use of the present perfect tense,
see 493-495.
Note that since has another meaning (something like because).
When since is used in this sense, any tense is possible.
Since you weren’t at the meeting, we took the decision without
you.

forget and leave 246

Typical mistake: *I’ve forgotten my umbrella at home.
We do not use the word forget if we give the place; instead, we use
leave. Compare:
I’ve forgotten my umbrella. I’ve left my umbrella at home.

forward /'f3:wad/ and forwards /'foiwadz/ 247

As an adverb, we can usually use either forward or forwards.
He walked forward(s) for a few steps.
She kept moving backward(s) and forward(s).
Only forward can be used in the expression look forward to, and
only forward is used as an adjective.
I look forward to seeing you again.
You’re not allowed to make a forward pass in rugby.
Other words ending in -ward(s), like backward(s), northward(s),
homeward(s), follow a similar rule.
 249 fronting

in front of /in ‘frAnt av/ 248

Typical mistake: *There’s a nice little cafe In front of our house.
We do not use in front of to talk about things which are on opposite
sides of a road, river, room, etc. The normal words are opposite or
facing.
There’s a nice little cafe opposite our house.
We stood there facing each other, not knowing exactly what to
say.
In front of is the opposite of behind. A person or thing that is in
front of you is nearer the front of a line, queue, classroom etc than
you are.
There was a fabulous boy in front of me in the cinema queue.
Sorry we’re late. There was a slow lorry in front of us for about
twenty miles.
Note the difference between in front of and in/at the front of.
I always prefer to travel in the front of the car.
Who’s that boy at the front of the queue?
For the difference between in front of and before, see 102.

fronting 249
1 In informal spoken English, it is quite common to begin an affirma­
tive sentence with the object or complement, in order to give this
more immediate importance.
Very good lesson we had yesterday.
Great party that was!
This is called ‘fronting’. Fronting is also possible in a more formal
style, in certain kinds of sentence.
This question we have already discussed at some length.
However, it is more common to use the passive, in a formal style, in
order to bring a noun to the front of the sentence.
This question has already been discussed . . .

2 Some adverbs and adverbial expressions can be put at the begin­

ning of the sentence. For details, see 23.
Sometimes I wonder what I am doing here.
Once upon a time an old woman lived alone in the middle of a
forest.
Inversion (see 345, 346) is necessary after some adverbial expres­
sions.
Under no circumstances can we accept cheques.
Round the corner came Mrs Porter.
the future 250

3 Fronted adjectives are possible in a structure withes and though.

For details, see 80.
Young as I was, I realized what was happening.
Tired though she was, she went on working.
A similar structure is possible in a few expressions with fronted
nouns before that. This is unusual in modern English.
Fool that I tvas!

4 In a very informal style, articles, pronouns and auxiliary verbs are

often left out in order to bring an important word to the front of the
sentence. (This is called ‘ellipsis’; for details, see 197.)
Postman been?
Seen John?
Can’t see anything.
Lost my glasses.
Sometimes the subject is put at the end of the sentence (with or
without an auxiliary verb) in a ‘tag’.
Nice day, isn’t it?
Crazy, your brother.
Likes his beer, Stephen does.
Going on holiday, are you?
For details of structures with tags, see 524, 515.

the future: introduction 250

1 Forms
Several different verb-forms can be used to talk about the future.
Three common structures are ’(i) the ‘shall/will future’, (2) the
going to structure, and (3) the present progressive.
(1) I’ll see you next week.
(2) Who’s going to look after the baby tomorrow?
(3) Harry and Mary are coming this evening.
These three structures do not have exactly the same meanings. The
differences between them are rather complicated, and it is not
always easy to choose the correct form. Foran explanation of their
uses, see the next few sections.
Other verb forms that can be used to talk about the future are:
(4) the present simple (see 255)
'What time does the next train leave for Dundee?
(5) the future progressive (see 256)
Will you be having dinner out this evening?
(6) the future perfect (see 257)
On June 9 th I’ll have been here for sixteen years.
 250 the futu/e

(7) the am to structure (see 97)

The Prime Minister is to visit Canada next month.
In time-clauses (after when, as soon as,until, after, before etc), after
if, and in other subordinate clauses, we often use a present tense
with a future meaning. (See 152, 595.)
I’ll let you know when she arrives.
You’ll have to give me anything you find.
To express the idea of‘future in the past’, we use a past form of one
of the above structures. (See 258.)
I knew she would arrive before long.
Something was going to happen that was to change the world.

2 Meanings: ‘pure future’ and ‘present-future’

Sometimes when we talk about the future, we are just predicting.
We are saying what we think will happen, without any reference to
the present.
Do you think it’ll rain?
We’ll be in Manchester before ten, I expect.
She’s going to have a difficult year.
You will meet a tall dark stranger and go on a long journey.
At other times, we are really talking about the present and the
future together. This happens, for example, when we talk about
future actions which are already decided, or which we are deciding
as we talk: making plans, promises, threats, offers, requests.
We’re going to France next summer. (It is already decided.)
I promise I’ll ask you if I need help.
If you do that again I’ll hit you.
Shall I give you a hand?
Will you come to dinner this evening?
We also connect the present and future when we are talking about
things which we can see now are certain to happen.
Look at those clouds — it’s going to rain.
My God — we’re going to crash!
Some of the grammatical rules for talking about the future depend
on this difference between ‘pure future’ and ‘present-future’, par­
ticularly the rules for the use of the shall/will future, the going to
structure, and the present progressive. In brief:
a When we predict (pure future), we use the shall/will future or the
going to structure, but not usually the present progressive.
I think it’ll rain (or It's going to rain) this evening. (But not: *1
think It’s raining this evening.)
You’re going to hate this party. (Or: You’ll hate tjiis party. But
not: *You’re hating . . .)
pure future 251

When we mention conditions (e g with if), we can use theshall/will

future to predict, but not usually the going to structure.
If you come out for a walk, you’ll feel much better. (Not: *lfyou
come out for a walk, you’re going to feel. . .)
b When we talk about things that have already been decided
(present-future), we use the going to structure or the present pro­
gressive, but not usually the shall/will future.
She’s going to have a baby in June. (Or: She’s having a baby in
June. But not “She’ll have . . .)
Where are you going (to go) for your holidays? (But probably not
“Where will you go .. .?)
When we talk about things which we can see now are certain to
happen, we usually use going to.
Look - It’s going to rain! We’re going to crash!
C If we talk about a future actionat the moment when we decide to do
it, we use will (usually the contraction ’ll).
I’m tired. I think I'll go to bed.
‘Come to supper.’ — ‘OK, thanks, I’ll bring a bottle.’
Look! She’s wearing my. coat! I’ll kill her!
I promise I'll pay you back.
For more details, see the next three sections.

pure future: predictions 251

Prediction means ‘saying what we think will happen’. The
shall/will future and the going to structure can both be used for
predicting, but the present progressive normally cannot. (The pres­
ent progressive is used to talk about future events that have already
been decided; going to can also be used in this sense — see next
section.)
Do you think the car’ll start? (Or: Do you think the car Is going to
start? But not “Do you think the car is starting?)
You’ll always be a failure. (Or: You're always going to be . . .)
Smith will beat Patterson with a knock-out in the second round.
(Or: Smith Is going to beat. . .)
When we mention conditions (saying that one thing will happen if
another does), we usually use theshall/will future, not the going to
structure.
Your marriage will never fail if you keep buying her flowers.
(Not: “Your marriage is never going to fall if.. .)
If I give you money you’ll only spend it on drink. (Not: *. . .
you're only going to spend it.. .)
The same is true if the condition is implicit (understood, but not
mentioned in words).
 252 present-future

‘Come out for a drink.’ — ‘No, I’ll miss my TV programme.’

After the (informal) expression I bet, a present simple tense can be
used with a future meaning. (The same is true with I hope — see
2-97-)
I bet I get there before you.
One (rather dictatorial) way of giving orders is by usingwill, to talk
as if we were simply predicting the future.
You'll start work at 6 o’clock.
The regiment will attack at dawn.

present-future: events that are already determined 252

1 Actions that have already been decided

Many sentences are about the future and the present at the same
time. If we say She’s going to have a baby or The Browns are
coming to dinner, we are not only talking about a future event, but
also about an existing present situation: a woman is pregnant, or
an invitation has been given and accepted. In cases like these, we
most often use a present verb-form to talk about the future: either
(i) the present progressive, or (z) the present formam/are/is going
to + infinitive.
(i) The Browns are coming to dinner. (Not: "The Browns will
■■■)
Tom's getting his new glasses next week.
(z) I’m going to work this evening.
She’s going to have a baby. (Not: *She will. . .)
There is not a great difference between the two structures. The
present progressive is very common with verbs of movement.
Are you coming to the pub?
I’m popping round the corner for a packet of cigarettes.
Where are you going for your next holidays?
The going to structure often expresses strong resolution or deter­
mination.
I’m going to get to the top if it kills me.
I’m going to keep asking her out until she says yes.

2 Present evidence for the future

Sometimes we say that something is going to happen because we
can see it coming; we have ‘present evidence’. In this case, we
usually use going to.
Look - it's going to rain. We’re going to crash!
For the use of be to and be about to to talk about future actions
that are already decided, see 97 and 3. For the use of the simple
present-future 253

present with this meaning, see 255. For the future progressive, see
256.

present-future: making decisions, threats, promises, 253

offers and requests

1 Decisions
If we talk about a decision at the moment when we are making it,
we generally use the future with will. (Shall is not very common in
this meaning except in questions; the contracted form ’// is very
frequent.)
‘The phone’s ringing.’ — ‘I’ll answer it.’
‘Come to a party.’ — ‘OK. I’ll bring my boyfriend.’ (Not:. . I’m
going to bring my boyfriend.’ This would mean that she had
decided to bring him before getting the invitation.)
‘I’m going out for a drink.’ — ‘Wait a minute and I’ll come with
you.’
We use shall if we are asking what decision we ought to make.
What shall I do?
Shall we tell her?
Sometimes, there is not much difference between a decision made at
the moment of speaking (expressed with will or ’ll), and a decision
made a few moments before (expressed with going to or the present
progressive)
I think I’ll go to bed.
I think I’m going to (go to) bed.

2 Threats and promises

Threats and promises are decisions, either to do something defi­
nitely, or to do it under certain circumstances. We usually use will
(’ll) in the first person, but going to is also possible.
I promised won’t get drunk again. (Or:. . . I’m not going to. . .)
1 swear I’ll pay you back.
If you don’t stop flirting with my husband I’ll let you have him.
I’ll hit you if you do that again.
Shall can be used in the second and third person.
You shall have a teddy-bear for Christmas.
He shall suffer for this!
However, this use of shall is not very common in modern English,
and we usually find other ways to express the ideas.
I’ll give you a teddy-bear.
He’s going to suffer for this.
 254 future

3 Offers and requests

When we make offers and requests, we are asking for future actions
to be decided. Compare:
Will you give me a hand? (=Please decide whether to give me a
hand.)
Are you going to give me a hand? (—Have you already decided
. . .?)
We usually useShalll. . .? for offers and will you. . .? for requests.
Shall I carry your bag?
Will you get me a newspaper when you’re out?
For ways of making offers and requests with can and could, see
132; for would, see 636.

future: shall and will 254

1 To talk about the future, will can be used in all persons. In affirma­
tive sentences, the contracted form ’ll is common (particularly after
pronoun subjects); the negative contraction is won’t /waont/.
I will probably never be rich.
Where will you be this time tomorrow?
We’ll see what we can do for you.
This won’t take long.
Shall, is also possible in the first person (usually with the same
meaning as will'). The contraction is ’ll, and the negative contrac­
tion is shan’t /Ja:nt/.
I shall probably never be rich. (Or: I’ll probably . ..)
We shan’t have much time to see your mother.

2 When we are talking about strong intentions for the future, making
offers, volunteering, or insisting, we use will or ’ll with I and we,
but not shall.
‘There’s the door-bell.’ — ‘I’ll go.’ (Not: *1 shall. . .)
/ will stop smoking — I really will! (Not: *1 shall. . .)
No, no - I’ll pay - it’s my turn. (Not: *7 shall. . .)
This ‘modal’ use of will comes from the older use of will to mean
‘wish’ or ‘want’. For details, see 630.
Will can also be used to talk about habits or characteristics (e.gPigs
will eat anything). For details of this, see 631.

3 In questions, we often useshall I andshall we to ask what we ought

to do, or to offer to do things for people, or to make suggestions.
For details, see 547.
What shall I do? Shall we go out for a drink?
Shall I open the window for you?
future 255

Will is not possible in questions with these meanings. Compare:

What time shall I come this evening? ( — What time ought I to
come? A question about obligation)
What time will I be in Manchester if I take the 10.30 train? (A
simple question about the future)
This ‘modal’ use of shall is also found in should — see 549.

future: use of the present simple 255

Typical mistakes: */ see John tomorrow.
*1 telephone you this evening.
*Come on — I buy you a drink.
*1’11 be happy when I’ll be back home.

1 The present simple is not very often used in simple sentences to talk
about the future. Normally, other tenses are used (see 250- 254).
I’m seeing John tomorrow.
I’ll telephone you this evening.
Come on — I’ll buy you a drink.
However, we do use the present simple to talk about future events
which are already ‘on a programme’. This is particularly common
when we refer to timetables.
What time does the next train leave for Worcester?
The summer term starts on May 4th.
On Friday next, the Queen returns to London after her tour of
the Commonwealth.

2 The present simple is also common in subordinate clauses of sen­

tences about the future, after conjunctions of time, condition, and
some others.
I’ll be happy when I’m back home. (Not: *. . . when I’ll be back
home.)
Tell me as soon as she arrives.
Supposing it snows — what shall we do?
I’ll give a pound to anybody who washes my car.
The present progressive is also possible in these cases (depending on
the meaning).
I’ll be happy when I’m sitting at home again drinking a pint of
beer and watching TV.
Note that if the meaning of the main clause is present (for instance,
in reported speech), we can use a future verb in the subordinate
clause. For more details, see 623.
I don’t know when she’ll be here.
 257 future perfect

3 The present simple is often used with a future meaning after/bet

and I hope.
I bet you don’t get up before ten tomorrow.
I hope they have a nice time in Spain next week.

future progressive 256

The future progressive (will/shall be. . .-ing) can be used to say thqt
an action will be in progress (going on) at a particular moment in
the future.
This time tomorrow I’ll be lying on a beach in Tunisia.
Don't telephone after eight — I’ll be having a dinner party.
It is often used to suggest that something in the future has already
been fixed or decided.
Professor Gorb will be giving another talk on Etruscan stringed
instruments at the same time next week.
‘Shall I pick up your shopping for you?’ ‘Oh, I couldn’t possibly
trouble you. ’ ‘It’s all right, I’ll be going past the shops anyway. ’
We can use the future progressive as a polite way of asking about
somebody’s plans. (By using this tense to ask ‘What have you
already decided?’ we show that we don’t want to influence the
other person.)
IV/// you be having dinner at home this evening?
Will you be using the car tomorrow? If not, can I borrow it?
A progressive form can also be used with going to.
I’m going to be working all day tomorrow, so I won’t have time to
buy Mother’s present.

future perfect 257

We use the future perfect (will/shall have +past participle) to say
that something will have been completed, or finished, by a certain
time in the future. (For the exact meaning of by in this case, see
126.)
I’ll have been here for seven years next February.
The painters say they’ll have finished the downstairs rooms by
Tuesday.
A progressive form is possible.
I’ll have been teaching for twenty years this summer.
future in the past 258

future in the past 258

Sometimes when we are talking about the past, we want to talk
about something which was in the future at that time; which had
not yet happened. To express this idea, we use similar structures to
the ones that we normally use to talk about the future (see Z50), but
we change the verb-forms.
Instead of am/are/is going to we use was/were going to.
Last time I saw you, you were going to start a new job.
Instead of the present progressive, we use the past progressive.
When she phoned I didn’t have much time to talk, because I was
leaving for Germany in two hours.
Instead of shall/will we use should/would.
In 1968,1 arrived in the town where I should spend eight happy
years.
He published his first book at the age of twenty. Three years later
he would be a famous poet.
(For should/would + perfect infinitive, see 390, 550.)
Instead of am/are/is to, we use was/were to.
I looked at the street where the parade was to take place.
(For was/were to + perfect infinitive, see 97.)

gender 259
There are very few problems of grammatical gender in English:
generally people are he or she and things are it. However, there are
one or two points that can cause difficulty.
1 Animals
Animals are often called he or she when they are thought of as
having personality, intelligence or feelings. (Pet animals are called
he or she Fry their owners, but not always by other people.)
Compare:4
a Go and find the cat and put him out.
Once upon a time there was a rabbit called Luke. He lived in a
forest. . .
1 think Felicity’s upset about something. She's not giving much
milk these days.
That fox has got away three times this year, but we’ll get him
before he’s much older.
b I saw a weasel last night — It was just down at the end of the
garden.
His dog had to be destroyed because it started attacking sheep.
 260 genial

2 Cars etc
Some people use she for cars, motorbikes and other kinds of
vehicle; sailors often use she for ships.
‘How’s your new car?’ — ‘Terrific. She’s going like a bomb.’
3 Countries
Countries are often referred to as if they were female.
France has decided to increase her trade with Romania.
4 People
When we refer to a member of a group (ega student, a politician),
there is often a problem with the choice of pronouns. One solution
is to use he or she.
If a student needs advice about careers, he or she should consult
the Careers Officer.
However, this is frequently avoided, and we tend to use he to refer
to any member of a group of this kind.
A politician may try to be completely honest, but he always finds
he has to compromise.
With the words anybody/anyone, nobody/no-one, somebody/
someone, everybody /everyone (and other indefinite expressions
like a person), we often use they, them, their with a singular
meaning, instead of he or she (see 432).
If anybody's lost a purse, they can get it from the office.
Some words ending in -man have feminine forms (eg policeman,
policewoman). Others (eg chairman) do not; generally a woman
who presides over a committee is called a chairman (and in British
English addressed as ‘Madam Chairman’), although there is a move
to replace words like this by forms like chairperson.
The names of several occupations and roles have different forms
for men and women. Examples are: actor, actress-, host, hostess-,
waiter, waitress-, postmaster, postmistress-, mayor, mayoress-, ste­
ward, stewardess; monk, nun; bridegroom, bride; duke, duchess;
hero, heroine; author, authoress; widower, widow.

genial, genuine, etc 260

The words genial, genius, genuine, ingenious and ingenuous are
easy to confuse.

1 Genial /'djimial/means something like ‘warm’, ‘friendly’, ‘cheer­

ful’, ‘extrovert’. It is used for the sort of person who gives you a
loud welcome, a warm smile and a big handshake. Dickens s Mr
Pickwick is an example. Genial has no suggestion of intelligence.
genitive’s 261

I like going to see Uncle Harry — he’s such a friendly, genial

person.

2 A genius /'djimias/ is an exceptionally intelligent or gifted person,

somebody like Marie Curie or Leonardo da Vinci. The adjective to
express this idea is brilliant.
There have been many brilliant women scientists, but very few
women have been mathematical geniuses.

3 Genuine /'djenjuin/ means ‘real’, in the sense of ‘honest’ or ‘not

false’.
She gave me a really genuine welcome.
Do you think that’s a genuine Picasso? (ie Do you think that
picture was really painted by Picasso?).

4 Ingenious /in'dsimias/ means ‘clever at finding imaginative solu­

tions to problems’.
I’ve invented an ingenious way of switching off the light without
getting out of bed.
She’s ingenious at thinking of excuses for being late.
The noun that expresses this idea is ingenuity /.indji'njmati/.
The prisoners showed enormous Ingenuity in finding ways of
escaping.

5 Ingenuous /in'djenjuas/ means ‘simple’, ‘naive’, ‘with no experi­

ence of life’.
When Mary left convent school at sixteen, she was a quiet
ingenuous little girl. But a year later ...!
The noun is ingenuousness.

genitive’s 261

1 Spelling
To make the genitive (or possessive) case of nouns, we normally
add ’$ to a singular, and an apostrophe ’ to a plural; irregular
plurals have~s7
my father’s car my parents’ car
the children’s future
Singular names ending in -s usually have possessive forms in’s,
especially in British English.
Denis’s new job Charles’s wife
However, with many older, foreign and classical (ancient Greek
and Roman) names, we just add an apostrophe.
 262 genitive

Guy Fawkes’ night Cervantes’ Don Quixote

Socrates’ ideas Tacitus’ prose style
Note that the genitive’s can be attached to a whole phrase.
The Duke of Edinburgh’s tailor.
James the First’s foreign policy.
The woman next door’s husband.

2 Pronunciation
The genitive of a singular noun is pronounced exactly like a plural
ending.
doctor’s /'doktaz/ dog’s /dogz/
president’s /'prezidants/ Jack’s /d3asks/
George’s /'dsoidsiz/ Denis’s /'denisiz/
With classical names ending in -s (like Socrates, Oedipus), we
sometimes pronounce a genitive’s even though it is not written.
Socrates’ idealism /'sokrati:ziz/
Oedipus’ little problem /'i:dipasiz/
The apostrophe which is added to make the genitive of regular
plural nouns does not change the pronunciation at all.
my parents’ car/'pearants/

3 Use
The genitive can be used in several different ways; for example, to
talk about possession, relationship, physical features and charac­
teristics, non-physical qualities, and measurement.
my father’s house John’s mother Henry’s landlady
the cat’s tail the plan’s importance three days’journey
The genitive is not the only way to connect nouns together. We can
also use a noun as an adjective (eg the car door), or we can use a
prepositionfe grZ?e top of the page). For the differences between the
use of the genitive and these other structures, see 421-425. Some
other special points about the use of the genitive are explained in
the next three sections.

genitive with article 262

Typical mistakes: */ met the Jack's new girl-friend yesterday.
"There’s a Bach's violin concerto on the radio
this evening.

Articles are not normally used in genitive expressions when the first
word is a proper name.
Jack’s new girl-friend
a Bach violin concerto
genitive 263

genitive with no following noun 263

The ’$ genitive can be used as a pronoun, with no following noun..
(with the same kind of meaning as mine, yours, etc).
"Whose is that?’ — ‘Virginia’s’.
Escalation is neither in Russia’s interests nor in the West’s.
The ’s genitive is also used without a following noun in several
other cases. Shops are often referred to in this way.
Mary was at the hairdresser’s.
Is there a butcher’s near here?
However, it is also possible to use the singular without’s.
She’s at the hairdresser.
PFirms and institutions, hospitals, churches and cathedrals often
' \ have names ending in an -s genitive. The names of firms are often
written without an apostrophe.
Harrods Selfridges Bank at Barclay’s (or Barclays')
Woolworth’s (or Woolworths) are opening a new branch in
High Street.
St Paul’s (Cathedral) St John’s (College)
People’s houses can be referred to in this way when we are talking
about the host-guest relationship.
We had a lovely evening at Peter and Helen’s.
Roger was down at the Watsons’ last night.

double genitive 264

Note the special construction: of+genitive (possessive)
He’s a friend of my father’s. ( = one of my father’s friends)
He turned up wearing an old coat of Patrick’s.
Where’s that stupid brother of yours?
She’s supposed to be a distant cousin of the Queen's.
The word own is used in a rather similar structure. See 449.
I wish 1 had a room of my own.

get: general 265

Get is one of the most common verbs in spoken English. It is used
much less often in written English, and some teachers and examin­
ers feel that it is ‘bad style’ to use get in writing.
Get has four main meanings.

1 Used with a direct object, it means something like receive, obtain,

fetch. The exact meaning depends on the sentence. See 266.
I got a letter from Lucy this morning.
 266 get

2 Used with anything else (adjective, infinitive, participle, preposi­

tion, adverb particle), get usually suggests some sort of change or
movement. Again, the exact meaning depends on the other words
in the sentence. See 267.
Dorothy got married last week.
Get away from me!

3 When there is a direct object followed by an adjective, infinitive,

participle, preposition or adverb particle, the meaning is cause to
change, cause to become, etc. See 268.
Get her to stop smoking in the bathroom, can you?
1 can’t get my feet warm.

4 The past participle got is used in some of the spoken forms of the
verb to have, referring to possession, relationship, or obligation.
See 283, 284.
I’ve got a cousin who lives in Athens.
Have you really got to go?
The structure have got is also used in American English, but in
other structures the American past participle of get is gotten.
She’s finally gotten her brakes fixed.
After I’d gotten out of the water I went over to Harry’s.

get + direct object 266

When get is followed by a direct object, it usually means ‘receive’,
‘obtain’, ‘fetch’ ‘take’ or something similar. (The exact meaning
depends on the kind of object that follows.)
Did you get my letter?
Could you get a pound of tomatoes and a can of beer on your
way home?
I’ll come and get you from the station this evening if you like.
In a few expressions, get has a different meaning.
I didn’t get the joke. Did you get what he was talking about?
(Get =‘understand’)
I’ll get you for this, you bastard. (Get = ‘get revenge on’)
Note that Could I get.. .? is not used to mean ‘Could I have . . .?’

Typical mistake: *Could I get a pint of bitter, please?

Compare:
Could I have a glass of beer? ( = ‘Please give me one.’)
Could I get a glass of beer? ( = ‘Can I go to the fridge and help
myself?’)
get 267

get + adjective, infinitive, participle, preposition 267

or adverb particle
1 When get is followed by anything except a simple direct object, it
almost always refers to some kind of change of state: things or
people become different, move to new places, begin new activities,
etc. The exact meaning depends on the kind of word that follows
get, and on the other words in the sentence. With an adjective, get
has a similar meaning to become, but with some adjectives, go is
used instead of get {eg go brown, go mad) — see 2.69.
When you get old your memory gets worse.
He’s nice when you get to know him.
Let’s get going — we’re late.
How did the window get broken;'
Would you mind getting off my foot?
Get out.'
Get lost! (=‘Go away!’ — very informal)

2 When adverb particles or prepositions are used withget, the kind of

change referred to is nearly always a movement.
with adverb particles: get away get back get in
get up
with prepositions: get off the table get over the wall
There are some exceptions (e g get over something = ‘recover from
something’), and there are one or two idioms in which there is no
idea of change at all (eg get on with somebody).

3 When get is followed by a past participle, the meaning is very

similar to that of a passive verb-form, and get acts as an auxiliary
verb in a similar way to be.
That picture got damaged (or was damaged) when we were
moving.
How did the window get broken? ( = ‘How was the window
broken?’)
However, not all passive sentences can be constructed with get. For
instance, you could not say *Our house got built in 1827 or
*Parliament got opened by the Queen last week.
Get +past participle seems to be used particularly in two cases:
when we are talking about things that are dope suddenly, unexpec­
tedly or by accident, and when we are talking about things which
we ‘do to ourselves’ (like getting dressed) — actions which are
reflexive rather than passive.
He got caught by the police driving at 60 through Cambridge.
My brother got hit by a cricket ball.
I got invited to lots of parties last holidays.
More and more people are getting attacked in the underground
these days.
 269 get

get washed get dressed get lost get confused

get engaged/married/divorced
Note that get married is much more common than marry when
there is no direct object. Compare:
She got married in June.
She married a boy she met on holiday. (Or: got married to .. .',
Get engaged and get divorced are also common.

get + direct object + adjective, infinitive, participle, etc 268

The structures in 267 can usually include a direct object (for
example, you can get ready or you can get something ready, you
can get moving or you can get something moving-, you can get up or
you can get somebody up). When there is an object, the meaning is
cause to change, cause to move, cause to become, etc.
I can’t get my hands warm.
Try to get the car going.
Let’s get her to buy us lunch.
Get your hair cut!
Please get your elbow out of my stomach.
The structure with the infinitive often has the special sense of
persuade.
Get her to stay for dinner if you can.
You’ll never get me to agree.
The structure with the past participle (to get something done) is
often used to refer to situations where you ask somebody to do
something for you.
1 must get my hair cut.
You ought to get your watch repaired.
However, this structure can also be used in cases where nobody is
asked to do the action.
We got our roof blown off in the gale last night.
If you’re not careful you’ll get your teeth pushed down your
throat.
Have can be used in similar ways. See 286.

get and go: change 269

With some adjectives, we use go (and not get) to mean ‘become’.
This is normal with colour words.
Leaves go brown (not *get brown)
people go red, pale, or white with anger, blue with cold, green
with seasickness or envy, purple with rage
get 270

Turn is also used in these expressions, and is more common than go

in a formal style of English.
Go is also used with adjectives in many cases where people or
things change for the worse (especially when the change is perma­
nent or difficult to reverse).
people go mad, crazy, bald, deaf, blind, grey (but go is not used
with old, tired, ill)
horses go lame, machines go wrong, beer goes flat, jam goes
sugary, meat goes off (or goes bad), milk goes off (or goes sour),
cheese goes mouldy, bread goes stale or goes hard, iron goes
rusty.
Note that come is used in some expressions to say that things finish
up all right.
My dream has come true.
It’ll all come right in the end.

get and go: movement 270

Get is often used instead of go to talk about movement. This is
particularly common when we think more about the end, or result,
of the movement than about the movement itself. This is why get is
often followed by prepositions and adverb particles.
I always get up at 7 o'clock. (Not: *. . . go up . . .)
Get out!!! (Not: *Go out!!!)
Get is often used in cases where the movement involves some
difficulty.
It wasn’t easy to get through the crowd.
I don’t know how we’re going to get up that rock-face.
He got into the house through the window.
How do I get to the police station?
Get to can mean ‘arrive at’.
What time^oes this train get to Bristol?
In the middle of the afternoon we got to a wide river.
For the difference between get in and get on with words like car,
bus, boat, plane, see 485.

go + -ing 271
There are several expressions like to go swimming, in which we
use an -ing form after go. They are mostly concerned with sport
and physical recreation.
Let’s go climbing next weekend.
Did you go dancing last Saturday?
 273 good

Common expressions of this kind are:

go boating go climbing go dancing
go fishing go hunting go riding
go sailing go shooting go shopping
go skiing go swimming go walking
Come . . ,-ing is also possible in certain situations (for the differ­
ence between come and go, see 141).
Come swimming with us tomorrow.

be gone and have gone 272

It is quite common to use be with gone, when we just want to say
that somebody or something has disappeared, is finished, or is ‘no
longer there’.
When I came back my car was gone.
Is the butter all gone?
When we are thinking of the movement, or its direction or destina­
tion (and not just the disappearance), we use have.
Nobody knows where ]ane has gone.
Where have all the flowers gone?
For the use of be with finished, see 2.41.

good and well 273

Typical mistakes: *Yozz play very good.
*When I’m with you I’m well.

1 When we are talking about health, well can be used as an adjective.

‘How are you?’ — ‘Quite well, thanks.’
I don’t feel very well.
Note that well is the kind of adjective that is only used after a verb
(see t6). You can say She’s well but not *a well girl.
To express other meanings besides health, well cannot be used as an
adjective.
When I'm with you I’m fine/I feel fine.

2 To talk about quality or skill, we use good as an adjective and well

as an adverb.
It’s basically a good car, and it runs well, but I don’t think the
passenger space is very well designed.
Note the difference of word-order. Good can come before a noun,
but not well (adverbs are not usually put between the; verb and the
object). Compare:
greetings 274

He speaks good English. He speaks English well.

Typical mistake: *He speaks well English.

greetings 274
1 Common formal greetings are Good morning, Good afternoon,
Good evening. These expressions can also be used when leaving
people. Note that Good night is only used when leaving people,
never when meeting them. The most usual answer to Good morn­
ing, etc, is to use the same expression. Less formal greetings are
Hello or Hi. Goodbye (formal and informal), Bye (informal), Bye-
bye (informal - used a lot by children) and See you (informal) are
used when leaving people.

2 How are you? is the commonest way to ask about someone’s

health. Common answers are: Very well, thank you or Fine, thank
you-, Very well (or Fine), thanks is more informal.
Informal enquiries arc: How're/Hotu’s things? How’s everything?
How’s it going? Informal answers are: Not too bad; So-so; Can’t
complain; M ustn’t grumble (British only); (It) could be worse; OK;
All right.
Note that How do you do? does not mean the same as How are
you? It is used when one is introduced to a stranger. The normal
answer is to use the same expression — How do you do? In Ameri­
can English, How are you? is used both when asking about some­
one’s health and in introductions.

3 After we have given an answer to How are you? we often (formal)

repeat (And) how are you? or (informal) add And you? or What
about you? (less formal) to the answer.

had better 275

Typical mistakes: *You have better hurry up.
*Yom had better to hurry up.
The expression had better is followed by the infinitive without to.
The meaning is present or future, not past. When we say that
somebody had better do something, we don’t usually mean that the
action recommended would be better than another one - we
simply mean that he ought to do it. (In other words, there is not
usually an idea of comparison in this expression, despite the use of
the word better.)
Good heavens — it's seven o’clock! I’d better put the meat in the
oven.
 277 happen

You'd better hurry up if you want to get home before dark.

In negative structures, better comes before not (we don’t say
"hadn’t better).
You’d better not wake me up when you come in.
‘Let’s take Harry’s car.’ — ‘No, we’d better not.’
Better can come before had for emphasis (see 24.3).
‘I promise I’ll pay you back.’ ‘You better had.’
Had is sometimes dropped in very informal speech.
You better go now. I better try again later.

half/ho:f/ 276
Typical mistakes: "Only half us could come.
"I live half of a mile from here.
"Give me the half.
Half can be used before a noun, with or withouto/'(like<7// and both
— see 36-37 and 115).
More than half (of) my friends are foreigners.
She spends half (of) her time travelling.
Before a personal pronoun, half of is always used.
‘Can I have my records back?’ — ‘OK, but I’ve only had time to
listen to half of them. ’
Only half of us could come last Tuesday.
Of is not used with half when we are talking about measurements
or quantities.
My old home is about half a mile from here.
Half a dozen eggs and half a pound of butter, please.
Cecily drank half a bottle of Scotch last night.
The expression one and a half is followed by a plural noun.
I’ve been waiting for one and a half hours. (Or:. . .anhour anda
half).
Half can be used as a pronoun, with no following noun. The article
the is only used before half if there are adjectives or other words
which say exactly which half we are talking about. Compare:
I gave her half, and kept half for myself. (Not: *. . .the half. . .)
I gave her half, and kept the other half for myself.

happen 277
1 Typical mistake: "What’s happen?
Happen is a verb, not an adjective.
What’s happening? What’s happened?
hard 278

2 Note the structure happen to, used to stress the idea that an event
happens by chance.
If yon happen to see Joan, ask her to phone me.
I happen to know you’re wrong.
For the structure should happen to (with if), see 307.2.

hard /ha:d/ and hardly /'ha:dli/ 278

Hard can be used as an adjective or an adverb.
It’s a hard job. You have to work hard.
The meaning is quite different from hardly. Hardly means almost
not. Compare:
I hardly studied at all last term. (=1 did very little work.)
I'm going to study hard next term, because the exams are getting
close.
Hardly can go in different places in the sentence, depending on
whether it changes the meaning of the subject, the verb, or some­
thing else.
Hardly anybody understands what’s going on.
‘Can I kiss you?’ — ‘No, 1 hardly know you.’
I’ve hardly slept at all this week.
It’s hardly surprising.
I’ve learnt hardly anything this year. (Or: I’ve hardly learnt any­
thing . . .)
For the exact position of hardly when it goes with the verb, see 24.
Note that.hardly anything, hardly anywhere, hardly anybody are
much more common than almost nothing, almost nowhere, or
almost nobody.

hardly, scarcely, and no sooner: time 279

Hardly (andscarcely andno sooner) can be used to suggest that one
thing happened very soon after another (usually with the past

I had hardly closed my eyes when the telephone rang. (Or: I had
scarcely closed . . .)
I had no sooner closed the door than somebody started knocking
on it.
Note the structure: hardly and scarcely are followed by a when-
clause; no sooner by a i/jan-clause.
In a formal or literary style, these structures are sometimes used
with inverted word-order (see 345.2).
 280 have

Hardly had I closed my eyes when I began to imagine the most

fantastic shapes.
No sooner had she agreed to marry him than she began to have
serious doubts.

have: introduction 280

Have is used in several ways. It can have the forms of an auxiliary
verb (questions and negatives without do}.
‘Have you seen Mary?’ - ‘No, I haven’t.’
‘Haven’t you ever seen Hamlet?’ - ‘No, but I’ve read it.’
I have a headache. I haven’t a headache. Have you a headache?
It can also have the forms of an ordinary verb (questions and
negatives with do).
Where did you have lunch?
I don’t often have headaches.
The choice of forms depends on the meaning. There are some
differences between British and American English. A.summary of
the different ways of using have follows. For more details of each
use, see sections 281 to 286.
1 Perfect tenses, etc
Have is used as an auxiliary verb to make the perfect tenses of
verbs, perfect infinitives, etc.
I haven’t forgotten Mrs Lewis’s extraordinary behaviour.
She’s sixteen and has never been kissed.
I expect to have heard by next week.
Having been there before, 1 knew what to expect.
For more details, see 281.
2 Have + object (actions)
Have is used with a direct object to refer to various kinds of action.
It has the forms of a normal verb (questions and negatives with do,
did).
The phone ahvays rings while I'm having a bath.
Where did you have lunch?
For more details, see 282.
3 Have + object (states)
Have can also be used with a direct object to refer to various kinds
of state - for instance, possession, relationship, illness. In older
English, simple auxiliary verb forms were usually used in these
cases.
How many brothers have you?
have 281

In modern English (especially in an informal style), it is more

common to construct the verb with got, or with do (in questions
and negatives).
How many brothers have yon got? (British)
How many brothers do you have? (especially American)
Do you often have headaches?
I've got a new car.
The exact rules are quite complicated, and there are differences
between British and American English. For details, see 283.
4 Have (got) to (obligation)
Have orhave got can be used with a to-infinitive to express the idea
of obligation. The meaning is similar to must, but not exactly the
same (see 285).
The verb forms are most often constructed with got or with do (in
questions and negatives).
Sorry, I’ve got to go. (Or: ... I have to go.)
How often do you have to see the dentist?
Here again, the grammar is complicated, and there are differences
between British and American usage. For details, see 284.

5 Have + object + verb-form

When have is followed by a direct object and a participle or
infinitive (without to), the meaning is cause somebody to do some­
thing or cause something to be done. The forms of have are those of
an ordinary verb (do in questions and negatives). These structures
are very similar to uses ofget followed by an object and a verb-form
(see 268).
We’ll soon have you walking again.
Did you have the car repaired?
Have Mr Schultz come In now, please, (especially American)
For details, see 286.

have: auxiliary verb 281

Have is used as an auxiliary verb to form the present and past
perfect tenses, as well as perfect infinitives and structures with
having + past participle.
Have you seen George anywhere?
I was sure I hadn’t met him before.
I expect to have finished in a couple of weeks.
Having thought it over, Molly decided against seeing Peter again.
He said he regretted having been so rude.
For details of the use of these forms, see 472, 319, 451.1.
 282 have

When have is an auxiliary verb, questions and negatives are formed

without do (see first two examples above). Progressive tenses are
not used, and there are no forms with got.
Typical mistakes: *Do you have seen George?
*l’m not having seen him anywhere.
*She’s got broken her arm.
In informal spoken and written English, contracted affirmative and
negative forms of the auxiliary have are common. (For details, see
157.) ‘Weak’ pronunciations are more common than ‘strong’
forms except when the auxiliary is used without a following verb.
Compare:
What have /av/ you been doing? Yes, I have /htev/.
For details, see 622.

have + object: actions 282

Have can be used with an object to refer to a large number of
different activities. The meaning depends on the particular expres­
sion: in some cases, have could be replaced by ent ordrink, in others
by take, receive, spend, go for, or other verbs. Common expres­
sions of this kind are:
to have breakfast/lunch /tea /dinner /a meal /a drink /coffee /
a beer /a glass of urine
to have a bath /a wash /a shave/a shower/a rest/a lie-down/
a sleep /a dream
to have a holiday/a day off/a good time/a nice evening/a bad
day
to have a talk/a chat/a conversation /a disagreement /
a row/a quarrel / a fight-, to have a word with somebody
to have a swim/a walk
to have a try /a go
to have a look
to have a baby ( = to give birth)
to have difficulty (in . . . -ing) to have trouble (. . . -ing)
to have a (nervous) breakdown
In all these cases, have has the forms of an ordinary verb. Questions
and negatives are made with do, did-, progressive tenses are pos­
sible. Got is not used. There are no contractions or weak forms.
Did you have a good holiday?
We were having a really interesting chat when John arrived.
I have lunch at 12.30 most days.
Typical mistakes: *Had you a good holiday?
*l’ve lunch at 12.30 most days
have 233

have + object: states; have got 283

Have is used with a direct object to refer not only to actions (see
2.82.), but also to various kinds of state, condition or situation: for
instance, possession, illness, family relationship.
That was the best car I ever had.
Do you often have headaches?
I'd like to have a sister.
In older English, simple auxiliary verb forms (without do, did or
got) were generally used in these cases.
Have you any brothers or sisters?
My father has a house in Westminster.
This is still quite common in a formal style of English, but in an
informal style it is more usual to use longer verb-forms. There are
two possibilities. Either the word got is added to the verb, or ‘full’
verb-forms (with do in questions and negatives) are used instead of
auxiliary verb-forms.
Have you got any brothers or sisters?
Do you have any brothers or sisters?
My father's got a house in Westminster.
There are differences between British and American usage: see
below for details.
Note that with these meanings of have (possession, relationship,
etc) progressive forms are nor possible: you cannot say *l'm having
a headache or "She’s having got a new car.
1 British English
a When we are talking about states like possession, relationship,
illness, etc, the normal spoken (informal) present-tense forms of
to have are as follows:
I’ve got have I got? / haven’t got
you’ve got have you got? you haven’t got
be's/she’s/it’s got has he/she/it got? he /she /it hasn’t got
we’ve got have we got? we haven’t got
they’ve got have they got? they haven’t got
I’ve got a new car.
My mother's got two sisters.
Have you got a headache?
It's a nice flat, but it hasn’t got a proper bathroom.
I’ve got an appointment with Mr Lewis at ten o’clock.
b Got-forms are less common in the past tense, and in past questions
and negatives, do-forms are often used.
/ had flu last week. (Not: *1 had got flu . . .)
It was difficult to get there because I didn't have a car.
Did you have nice teachers when you were at school?
 283 have

C Got is not used with infinitives, participles, or -ing forms. You can­
not say *to have got a headache or "having got a brother.
d In more formal spoken or written English, simple auxiliary-verb
forms are generally used instead of got-forms.
The company has a reputation for efficiency.
Have you an appointment?
e When there is an idea of repetition or habit, the got-forms are not
used, and do is used in questions and negatives. Compare:
I haven't got any whisky.
We don’t usually have whisky in the house.
I've got toothache.
I often have toothache.
Have you got time to come out for a drink?
Do you ever have time to go to the theatre?
f Do-forms are also becoming common in British English even when
there is no idea of repetition, under the influence of American
English. (See below.)
Sorry, I don't have any whisky.
Do you have time for a drink?
g When have is used with got, weak forms and contractions are
common (see 622, 157).
What have/av/yow got in the fridge?
I’ve got a ticket for the cup final.

2 American English
a In American English, have can be used as a normal verb (with do in
questions and negatives) when talking about all kinds of states as
well as actions. (American usage is therefore much simpler than
British.)
I have a problem.
Do you have a light?
I’m sorry, I don’t have any whisky.
b Cot-forms are also possible in informal speech; in very informal
speech, have is often dropped.
I(’ve) got a problem.
(Have) you got a light?
c Got- and <7o-forms may be mixed.
'l('ve) got a new apartment.’ — 'Oh, do you?'
d Note that when get is used to mean receive, become, etc (see 266),
the American past participle is gotten.
She’s just gotten a raise in salary.
have (got) to 284

have to /'haw tu:. 'hsefta/, have got to: obligation 284

Have or have got is used, with a following infinitive, to express the
idea of obligation.
Hoiv often do you have to travel on business?
Sorry — I've got to go notv.
The grammar is quite similar to the use of have to talk about states
(sec 283). The main points are as follows:
1 In British English, we make a distinction between habitual or
repeated obligation, and non-habitual obligation. When there is
the idea of repetition, we use ordinary verb-forms, with do in
questions and negatives.
I don't usually have to work on Sundays.
Do you often have to speak French in your job?
When we are talking about one thing that we are obliged to do, it is
more usual to use got-forms (particularly in informal English).
1 haven’t got to work tomorrow.
Have you got to do any interpreting next week?
Got-forms are unusual in the past, and are replaced by ordinary
verb-forms. There are no got-forms of infinitives and participles.
Did you have to go to church on Sundays when you were a child?
To talk about the future, both have (got) to and will have to are
common.
I’ve got to get up early tomorrow — we're going to Devon. (Or:
I’ll have to . . .)
2 In American English, ordinary verb-forms (with do in questions
and negatives, and without got), can be used for all meanings. This
is also becoming common in British English because of American
influence.
/ have to go now.
What time do you have to be in Boston tomorrow?
You don't usually have to tell her things twice.
Got-forms are also possible in informal spoken American English,
particularly in affirmative sentences. (Have is left out in a very
informal style.)
'l('ve) got to go.’ - ‘Oh, do you?’
You(’ve) just got to help me.

have (got) to and must 285

1 Both of these verbs are used to talk about obligation. Their mean­
ing is not quite the same.
Must is most often used to talk about an obligation that depends on
 286 have

the person speaking or listening: if [ say that you or I must do

something, I probably mean that / feel it is necessary. Have (got) to
is generally used to talk about obligations that come from ‘outside’.
If I say that somebody has to do something, I probably mean that
another person wants it done, or that there’s a law, a rule, an
agreement, or something of the kind. Compare:
I must stop smoking. (I want to.)
You must try to get to work on time. (I want you to.)
/ must make an appointment with the dentist. (I’ve got tooth­
ache.)
This is an awful party - we really must go. (I want us to go.)
You’ve got to go and see the boss. (He wants you to.)
Catholics have to go to church on Sundays. (Their religion tells
them to.)
I’ve got to see the dentist tomorrow. (I have an appointment.)
This is a lovely party, but we’ve got to go because of the baby­
sitter.
2 Must, in questions, asks about the wishes of the person one is
speaking to.
‘Do your homework.’ — ‘Oh, must I?’
3 Must has no past form; past obligation is usually expressed by
using had to (but must can be used in reported speech).
When I was your age I had to get up at y every morning.
I told him he must make a decision.
4 The negative forms mustn't and don’t have to/haven't got to have
quite different meanings. Compare:
You mustn’t tell George. (= Don’t tell George.)
You don’t have to tell George. (= You can if you like but it isn’t
necessary).
5 Instead of don’t have to andhaven’t got to, needn’t is often used in
British English (see 399).
You needn’t tell George.
For more information about must, see 394-395-

have + object + verb-form 286

Have can be followed by object + infinitive (without to), object
+ -ing, and object +past participle.
Have Mr Smith come in now, please, (especially American)
We’ll soon have your car going again.
1 really must have my watch repaired.
hear 287

Three meanings are possible.

1 ‘Cause somebody or something to do something’ or ‘Cause some­
thing to be done’. (The object + infinitive structure is used most
often, in this sense, in American English. The exact meaning is ‘tell
somebody to do something’.)
I had everybody fill out a form, (especially American)
He had us laughing all through the meal.
If you don’t get out of my house I’ll have you arrested!
2 ‘Experience an event or action’
It's lovely to have people smile at you in the street.
I woke up in the night and found we had water dripping through
the ceiling.
King Charles I had his head cut off.
3 These structures are very common with will not (won’t), in the
sense of ‘refuse to allow or accept a situation’.
I won’t have you tell/telling me what to do.
I will not have my house turned into a hotel.
Get is used in similar ways. See z.68.

hear and listen to 287

Typical mistake: *Suddenly I listened a strange noise.
When we just want to say that sounds come to our ears, we use the
verb hear. Listen to suggests that we are concentrating, paying
attention, trying to hear as well as possible. (Note that if listen is
followed by an object, the preposition to must be used.) Compare:
Suddenly I heard a strange noise.
I heard some people passing in the street.
Can you hear me?
Listen carefully, please.
I heard them talking in the next room, but I didn’t really listen to
what they were saying.
We use hear when we talk about experiencing musical perform­
ances, radio broadcasts, talks, lectures, etc.
Did you hear Jack’s talk on Tuesday?
I heard Oistrakh play the Mendelssohn concerto last night.
But: I spent the night listening to records, (no public performance)
Hear is not normally used in progressive tenses (see 502.6). Instead
of saying */ am hearing or *1 was hearing we use can or could with
the infinitive. (See also 129.)
I can hear somebody coming.
 289 help

The difference between hearandlisten to is similar to the difference

between see and look at (or watch). See 368.

hear and see + object + verb-form 288

Typical mistake: *1 heard him went down the stairs.

1 Hear and see can be followed by object + infinitive (without to) or

object+-ing.
I heard him go down the stairs.
I heard him going down the stairs.
There is often a difference of meaning. We use an infinitive after
hear and see to say that we heard or saw the whole of an action or
event, and we use an-mg form to suggest that we heard or saw.part
of an action. (See 339.6.) Compare:
/ saw her cross the road, (from one side to the other)
I saw her crossing the road, (tn the middle of the road, on her
way across)
I heard him play Chopin’s first ballade, (right through)
1 heard him practising Chopin’s first ballade.
2 Hear andsee can also be followed by an object and a past participle
(with a passive meaning).
I heard the word ‘suffer’ repeated several times in a strange voice.
Have you ever seen a television thrown through a window?
3 After passive forms of hear andsee, to is used with the infinitive
(see 463).
He was never heard to say ‘thank-you’ in his life.
fustice must not only be done; it must be seen to be done.
Some other words (eg watch, notice, observe) can be used in
structures similar to see and hear. The infinitive structure is not
used after passive forms of watch and notice.

help 289
Help can be followed by an object and infinitive with or without to
- the structure without to is more common in an informal style.
Can somebody help me (to) find my ring?
Help me (to) get him to bed.
It is also possible to use help without an object.
Would you like to help peel the potatoes?
For the expression can’t help . . . -ing, see 133.
here 290

here and there 290

Typical mistake: What are you doing in my room?’ — ‘I’m going
to stay there till you pay me the money you owe
me’.
We make a clear difference between here and th ere in English. Here
is used for the place where the speaker is; there is used for other
places.
(On the telephone) ‘Hello, is John there?’ — ‘No, I’m sorry, he’s
not here.’
Don’t stay there in the corner all by yourself. Come over here and
sit down with us.
There are similar differences between this and that, come and go,
and bring and take. See 603, 141 and 117.

here and there: at the beginning of a sentence 291

Here and there can be put at the beginning of a sentence. Note the
word-order: the verb comes before the subject unless the subject is a
pronoun.
Here comes Mary! Here she comes.
Here’s your watch. Here it is.
There's the vicar! There he is.
There goes Mrs Patterbridge!
Do not confuse there /dea(r)/ (meaning over there) with the quite
different word there /6a(r)/ used in expressions like There’s a man
at the door. See 600.

here’s, there’s and where’s with plural subjects 292

In an informal style, it is possible to use here’s, there’s and where’s
before plura^nouns.
Here’s your keys.
There’s some children at the door.
Where's those records I lent you?

high and tall 293

Typical mistakes: *He’s a very high man.
*She’s got beautiful tall legs.
*Mont Blanc is the tallest mountain in Europe.
Tall is only used to talk about the height of people, trees, buildings,
and a few other things (like pylons or factory chimneys) which are
 295 holiday

bigger vertically than in other directions, and which are not joined
to anything else at their tops. It is not used for mountains or legs.
He’s a very tall man.
There’s a lovely tall tree in our garden.
She’s got beautiful long legs.
Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe.
Note thathigh can mean ‘a long way from top to bottom’ and also
‘a long way above the ground’. A child standing on a chair might be
higher than his father, but not taller.

hire, rent and let 294

Hire and rent both have two meanings: ‘to pay for the use of
something’ and ‘to sell the use of something’. In British English,
rent is mostly used in situations involving a long period of time (one
rents a house, a flat, a TV). Hire refers to shorter periods (one hires
a boat, a car, a bicycle, evening dress, a hall for a meeting).
How much would it cost me to rent a two-room flat?
He makes his living hiring (out) boats to tourists.
Let is used (in British English) to mean ‘selling the use of houses,
rooms, etc’.
We let the upstairs room to a student.
In American English, rent is used not only for long-term use but
also for short-term use (British hire'). The American expression to
rent a car is also becoming very common in British English. Hire, in
American English, can be used to mean ‘give a job to’.

holiday and holidays 295

Typical mistake: *George is in holidays this week.
Normally, we use the singular holiday for a short period of, say,
one or two days; a longer period can be called a holiday orholidays.
We’ve got a holiday next Tuesday.
I had to work on Bank Holiday Monday.
Where are you going for your summer holiday(s)?
We always use the singular in expressions like three weeks’ holiday,
six months’ holiday, and in the expression on holiday (note the
preposition).
Leave is used mostly by people in the army, navy, etc; a holiday due
to illness is often called sick leave.
Vacation is used in British English for university holidays; in
American English it is the normal word for a long holiday, and this
usage is coming into British English.
home 296

home 296
Typical mistake: *l'm tired: I think I’ll go to home.

The preposition to is not used before home.

I think I'll go home. She came home in a bad temper.
In American English, home (with no preposition) is often used
when there is no idea of movement (British English usually at
home).
Is anybody (at) home?
I stayed (at) home all day yesterday.
There is no special preposition in English to express the idea of
being at somebody else’s home (French chez, German bei, Danish
hos, etc). One way of saying this is to use at with a possessive.
We had a great evening at Philip’s, (or at Philip’s house/place)
Ring up and see if Jacqueline is at the Smiths’, could you?

hope 297
The verb hope is often followed by a present tense with a future
meaning, especially in the first person.
I hope she likes ( = will like) the flowers.
I hope the cavalry arrive (=will arrive) soon.
In negative sentences, the negation is usually put with the verb that
follows hope. Compare:
I don’t think/suppose/expect/believe/imagine she’ll come.
But: I hope she won’t come. (Not: *1 don’t hope she'll come.)
1 hope she doesn’t dislike the flowers.
In short answers, so and not are used with hope, (see 558.)
‘Do you think Andrew realizes?’ - 7 hope so.’ (or ‘I hope not.’)
We can use hope in the past perfect tense to talk about unfulfilled
hopes or disappointments.
/ had hoped that Jennifer would become a doctor, but she wasn't
good enough at science.
Hope can also be followed by an infinitive. In this structure, it
expresses more confident hopes or plans.
I hope to spend a year in America after 1 leave school.

hopefully 298
Hopefully has two meanings. One is similar to ‘full of hope’,
‘hoping’.
She sat there waiting hopefully for the phone to ring.
 299 how

The other meaning (a much newer one) is similar to ‘it is to be

hoped that’ - it shows the speaker’s attitude to what he is saying.
Hopefully, inflation has started to drop.
Some people consider the second use ‘incorrect’.

how and what . . . like? 299

Typical mistakes: **How's your mother?’ - *'She’s a very nice per­
son. ’
"How is the educational system in your country?
*How was the weather like?

1 How is not usually used to ask about the nature (or permanent
characteristics) of people and things. To express this idea, we use
What . . . like?
‘What’s your mother like?’ — ‘She’s a very nice person.’
What’s the educational system like in your country?
2 How is used especially to ask about things which change: tempor­
ary states, moods, etc.
How’s work these days?
How’s life?
‘How does the boss look this morning?’ - ‘Furious.’
But What . . . like? is often used for the weather.
What’s the weather like this morning? (Or: How’s the weather
...?)
What’s it like outside?
3 How is used to ask about people’s health. Compare:
‘How’s Ron? — ‘He’s very well.’
‘What’s Ron like?’ - ‘Tall and dark. Rather nice, but very shy.’
4 We also use how to ask about people’s reactions to their experi­
ences.
How was the film?
How’s your steak?
‘How’s your new job?’ — ‘Great!’
In cases like these, it is often possible to use both structures, but
with a slight difference of meaning. If we say What was the film
like?, we ask for a description and criticism; if we say Hotv was the
film? we ask for a personal reaction — we mean ‘How did it affect
you?’
5 Do not confuse the structure What. . .Jike? with the use of the verb
to like. Compare:
how 300

‘What’s your new girlfriend like?’ — 'She’s lovely.’

‘What does your- new girlfriend like?’ - ‘She likes fast cars,
dancing, chocolate and me.’

how in questions and exclamations 300

Typical mistakes: *How I can learn to cook like you?
*Good heavens! How has she grown!
*How the trees are beautiful!
How is used to introduce both questions and exclamations. The
word-order is not the same. In exclamations, affirmative word­
order is used: the verb comes after the subject. Compare:
How can I learn to cook like you?
How she’s grown!
When how is used with an adjective or adverb in ex­
clamations, this comes immediately after how.
How beautiful the trees are!-
How well she plays!
For the difference between/jotf and what in exclamations, see 225.

how do you do? 301

Typical mistake: *‘How do you do?’ — 'Fine, thanks.’

How do you do? is not at all the same asHow are you? People say
How do you do? only when they are introduced to somebody that
they don’t know. The reply is exactly the same: How do you do?
Mrs Lewis: I don’t think you two know each other.
James Baldwin — Celia Black.
James Baldwin:'! How do you do?
Celia Black: J How do you do?
For information about how to introduce people to each other, see
342-

•ic /-ik/ and -ical /-ikl/ 302

A lor of adjectives end in -ic or -ical. There is no general rule to tell
you which ending is correct for a particular word.
1 Adjectives ending in -leal
Some of these are related to nouns which end in -ic.
critical cynical logical mechanical musical
tactical topical
 302 -ic

Others:
biological chemical grammatical lexical
mathematical medical physical radical
surgical zoological
and many others ending in -logical
2 Adjectives ending in -ic
academic artistic athletic catholic dramatic
domestic emphatic energetic fantastic linguistic
majestic neurotic phonetic public pathetic
systematic tragic semantic syntactic schizophrenic
Some of these words ended in -ical in older English {eg fantastical,
majestical, tragical}.
New adjectives which come into the language (e g aerodynamic,
electronic) generally end in -ic (except the ones in -ogical).
3 A few adjectives can have both forms without any important
difference of meaning or use. Examples are:
algebraic(al) arithmetic(al) egoistic(al) fanatic(al)
geometric(al) strategic(al)

4 In some cases, both forms exist but with a difference of meaning.

a Classic usually means ‘a famous or supreme example of its type’.
Vosne Romanee is a classic French wine.
Classical refers to the culture of Greece and Rome, or to works of
art of the so-called ‘classical period’ in the 18th century. (Classical
music often just refers to any serious music, especially oldermusic.)
She’s specializing in classical languages.
Do you want to learn classical, jazz or folk guitar?
b Comic is the normal adjective for artistic comedy.
comic verse Shakespeare’s comic technique
comic opera
Comical is a rather old-fashioned word meaning ‘funny’.
a comical expression
C Economic refers to the science of economics, or to the economy of a
country, state, etc.
economic theory economic problems economic miracle
Economical means ‘not wasting money’
an economical little car an economical housekeeper
d Historic is used in the sense of ‘making history’.
January ist 1973 — the historic date when Britain joined the
Common Market.
if 303

Historical means 'connected with the study of history’. It can also

be used to talk about whether somebody really existed.
historical research Was King Arthur a historical figure?
e Lyric is used for a kind of poetry that expresses strong personal
feelings.
Elizabethan lyric verse
Lyrical usually means ‘full of praise’.
Martha was absolutely lyrical about my mushroom salad.
f Politic is a rather unusual word for ‘wise’, ‘prudent’.
I don’t think it would be politic to ask for a loan just now.
Political means ‘connected with politics’.
political history a political advantage

5 Note that whether the adjective ends in -ic or -ical, the adverb
always ends in -ically z-ikli/. The only exception is publicly.
6 Many nouns ending in -ics can be both singular and plural (eg
mathematics, politics}. See 430.

if: introduction 303

1 Typical mistake: *lf I will have enough money next year, I will go
to Japan.
There are many ways to make sentences with if. Most tenses are
possible.
Oil floats if you pour it on water.
If that was Mary, why didn’t she stop and say hello?
If you’ve got exams tomorrow, why aren’t you studying?
Give my love to Lawrence if you see him.
We don’t usually use will or shall in the //-clause to refer to the
future. A present tense is used instead.
If J have enough money next year, I will go to Japan.
However, will can be used in the //-clause with the meaning of
willingness or insistence (not futurity). For more details, see 306.
If you will come this way, I’ll take you to the manager’s office.
If you will get drunk every night, it’s not surprising you feel ill.

2 When we are talking about ‘unreal’ events and situations, we use

special tenses with if. For example, we use a past tense in the
//-clause to talk about ‘imaginary’ present or future situations.
If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.
For details, see next section.
 304 if

3 In sentences with if, we can either use some (something, some­

where, etc) or any (anything, anytvhere, etc). Some gives a slightly
more ‘positive’ meaning, but there is not very much difference.
If I have some spare time next weekend we’ll go fishing. (Or: . . .
any spare time)
If we catch any fish we'll have them for dinner. (Or: some fish. . .)
For the difference between if not and unless, see 610.
For the difference between //and whether, see 615.

if: ‘unreal’ situations 304

We use special tenses with if when we are talking about ‘unreal’'
events and situations: things that will probably not happen,
‘imaginary’ present situations, events that didn’t happen.
1 Talking about the present and future
Typical mistakes: */f I got rich I’ll travel round the world.
*lf I get rich I’d travel round the world.
*lf I would have longer holidays I would be per­
fectly happy.
*lf I have a car things would be fine.
*1 liked you better if you were quieter.

a To talk about ‘unreal’ or improbable present and future situations,

we use the following structure:
in the //-clause: past tense
in the main clause: conditional (would + infinitive - see 151)
Either the //-clause or the main clause can come first.
If I got rich I’d travel round the world.
If I had longer holidays I would be perfectly happy.
If I had a car things would be fine.
I would like you better if you were quieter.
If I knew her name I would tell you. •
Note that the difference between//1 got and///get, or if I had and
if 1 have, is not a difference of time. Both structures can refer to rhe
present or rhe future: the past verb-form suggests that the situation
is less probable, or impossible, or imaginary. Compare:
If I become president, I’ll. . . (said by a candidate in an election)
If I became president, I’d .. . (said by a schoolboy)
If I win this race . . . (said by an athlete)
If I won first prize . . . (said by somebody who has bought a
lottery ticket)
b The past tense +conditional structure is also used with//to make a
suggestion sound less definite, more tentative (for instance, if we
want to be more polite).
if 305

It would be nice if you helped me a little with the housework.

Would it be all right If I came round at about seven ?
Would is not usually possible in the //-clause (you cannot say *lf
I would become president . . .). But it can be used in requests to
express willingness (see 306).
I should be grateful if you would reply as soon as possible. (—...
if you were willing to reply ...)
If you would come this way ...
C Were is often used instead of was after if, especially in a formal
style, and in the expression If I were you ... (see 553).
If my nose were a little shorter I would be quite pretty.
If 1 were you I’d start packing now.
For other cases when a past tense is used with a present or future
meaning, see 470.
2 Talking about the past
Typical mistakes: *lfyou worked harder last year you would prob­
ably have passed your exam.
*lf you would have asked me I would have told
you the whole story.
When we want to talk about things that did not happen in the past
(imagining what would have happened if things had been differ­
ent), we use the structure if + past perfect, with the perfect condi­
tional (see 151) in the other part of the sentence.
If you had worked harder last year, you would probably have
passed your exam.
If you had asked me I would have told you the whole story.
I don’t know what would have happened if]ane hadn't been able
to speak Greek.

if with could and might 305

Note that could and might can replace would in conditional struc­
tures. In this case, could means would be able to, and might means
would perhaps or would just possibly.
If I had another £500, I could buy a car.
If you asked me nicely, I might take you out to lunch.
If my parents hadn’t been poor I could have gone to university.
if the illness had been diagnosed a day earlier it might have made
all the difference.
 307 if

if with will and would 306

It is a common elementary mistake to use will or would together
with if. Structures like *lf it will . . . or *If I would . . . are not
always possible (see 303 and 304). However, there are three cases
in which will and would are possible in the //-clause.
1 Modal will, would
Will and would are not only used as auxiliary verbs to make the
future and conditional. They are also used as ‘modal’ auxiliaries
(see 3 88) to talk about wishing or willingness. In this case, they can
be used together with if.
If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.
If you will be kind enough to wait, I’ll have your luggage
brought in.
I'd be grateful if you would give me a little help.
Wait over there, if you wouldn’t mind.
Pass me that box, if you would.
2 Indirect speech
In indirect speech (when if has more or less the same meaning as
whether), it can be followed by will or would.
I’d like to know if you will be using the car tomorrow.
Can you tell me if it would be cheaper to travel by train or by bus?
For the exact difference between if and whether, see 625.

3 When the//-clause refers to aresult of the action of the main clause,

will can be used. (Normally the //-clause refers to a condition that
comes before). Compare:
If you give me ten pounds .(first), I'll stop smoking.
If it will make you happier (as a result), I'll stop smoking.

if: special structures '307

1 If with should
We can suggest that something is unlikely to happen, or is not
particularly probable, by using should with if.
If you should run into Peter Bellamy, tell him he owes me a letter.
This is especially common when we are giving orders, advice, or
suggestions.
2 If with happen to
Happen to is used to suggest that something happens by chance (e g
I happen to know you’re wrong). It is often used with if.
If you happen to pass a baker’s, pick me up a loaf would you?
if 307

Should and happen to can be used together.

If you should happen to finish early, give me a ring.
3 If . . . were to . . .
We can use were to + infinitive in the //-clause. This makes a future
possibility sound less probable; it can also be used to make a
■suggestion more tentative.
What would you do if war were to break out?
If you were to move your chair a bit to the right we could all sit
down.
4 If it were not for .. .
This structure is used to say that one particular circumstance has
changed everything.
If it weren’t for his wife's money he'd never be a director.
( = Without his wife’s money . . .)
The past form is If it hadn't been for . . .
If it hadn’t been for your help I really don’t know what I’d have
done.
5 Omission of if: conversational
If is sometimes left out in conversational style.
You touch me again, I’ll kick your teeth in. (= If you touch . . .)
A common alternative to using //-clauses is to join two sentences
with and.
Take my advice and your troubles will be over. (= If you take .. .1
6 Omission of if: literary inversion-structures
In a literary style, the structures were I/you/he/etc, should 17
you/he/etc and had I/you/he/etc are used instead of if
I/you/he/etc were, if I/you/he/etcshould andif I/you/he/etc had.
Were she my daughter, I could suggest several steps I should
consider it profitable to take.
Had I realized what you intended I should not have wasted my
time trying to explain matters to you.
Should you change your mind, let us know.
7 Extra negative
In an informal style, an extra not is sometimes put into //-clauses
after expressions suggesting doubt or uncertainty. This not does
not give a negative meaning. For details of this structure, see 181.4.
I wonder if we shouldn't ask the doctor to look at Mary. ( = 1
wonder if we should ask . . .)
A wouldn’t be surprised if she didn’t get married soon. (=... if
she got married ...)
 310 if

8 If I’d have ...

In informal spoken English, an extra have is sometimes put into if-
clauses referring to the past. This is considered ‘incorrect’, and is
not normally written, but it is common even in educated people’s
speech.
If I’d have known I'd have told you. (=If I had known ...)

if so and if not 308

These are two useful expressions which are used instead of com­
plete clauses.
Have you got a free evening next week? If so, let’s have dinner.
( = if you have, let’s . . .)
"You may have some difficulty operating the machine at first. If so,
do not hesitate to telephone our service department.
Is anybody feeling cold? If not, let’s put the central heating off.
For other similar uses of so and not, see 557-559.

if only 309
If is used with only (usually with a past or past perfect tense) to
suggest a strong wish or regret.
If only I had more money, I could buy some new clothes.
If only we can get to the next petrol-station we’ll be all right.
If only you hadn't told Jackie what I said, everything would have
been all right.
Would can be used together with if only when it has the ‘modal’
meaning of willingness, intention, etc (see 636).
If only she wouldn’t play the violin in the middle of the night,
she’d be an ideal guest.
If only can be used to begin exclamations.
If only I knew what you wanted!
If only she didn’t snore!
If only you would listen to reason!
If only next week would come!

if: other words with the same meaning 310

Many words and expressions can be used with a meaning similar to
if, (and with similar verb forms). Some of the commonest are
provided, providing, supposing, as long as, on condition that.
Supposing you fell in love with your boss, what would you do?
You can borrow my bike provided/providing you bring it back.
I’ll give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday
morning.
if 311

You’re welcome to stay with us, as long as you share the rent.
For the use of suppose and what if, see 585.

if meaning (although 311

In a rather formal style of English, if can be used with a similar
meaning to (al)though. This is most common in the structure
if+adjective (with no verb). If does not give so much importance as
(al)though to the contrast, exception or concession that is referred
to.
His style, if mannered, is pleasant to read.
The profits, if a little lower than last year’s, are still extremely
healthy.

ill and sick 312

This is a confusing pair of words.
1 Sick can be used to talk about bringing up food from the stomach,
or wanting to do this. Be sick means ’vomit’.
I feel sick. Where’s the bathroom? I’m never sea-sick.
He was sick three times in the night.
2 Sick can also be used with the same meaning as ill. There are slight
differences of usage.
a In American English, sick is the, word normally used to talk about
bad health.
The President is sick.
b In British English both sick and ill are used. Sick is used attribu-
tively (before a noun); ill is generally used predicatively (after a
subject and verb).
He spent years looking after his sick mother.
Sorry I didn’t phone you: I’ve been ill.
3 Note the use of sick of to mean ‘very tired of, ‘fed up with’.
I’m sick of your complaining.

immediately, the moment, etc (conjunctions) 313

In British English, immediately can be used as a conjunction, to
mean ‘as soon as’.
Tell me immediately you have any news.
I knew something was wrong immediately I arrived.
 314 imperative

The moment, the minute, the instant and the second can be used in
the same way (in both British and American English).
Telephone me the moment you get the results.
1 loved you the instant I saw you.

imperative 314
In expressions like Have a drink, Come here, Sleep well, the verb-
formsAave, come,sleep can be called ‘imperatives’. The imperative
has exactly the same form as the infinitive without to-, it is used for
giving orders, making suggestions, and encouraging people to do
things. Note the following points.
1 The imperative does not usually have a subject, but it can be used
with one (a noun or pronoun) if it is necessary to make it clear who
is being spoken to.
Mary come here; the rest of you stay where you are.
Somebody answer the phone!
Nobody move.
Relax, everybody.
You before an imperative can suggest anger.
You get out!
You take your hands off me!
2 An imperative can be made more emphatic by putting do before it.
This often happens in polite requests, complaints and apologies.
Do sit down.
Do forgive me — I didn’t mean to interrupt.
Do try to make less noise, children.
3 Negative imperatives are constructed with do not (or don’t).
Don't worry.
Do not lean out of the window.
4 Always and never come before imperatives.
Always remember to smile.
Never speak to me like that again.
5 Although do is not normally used with be to make questions and
negatives, do is used to make negative and emphatic imperatives
of be (see 95).
Don’t be so stupid!
Don’t be late.
Do be quiet!
in 315

6 Some languages have a first-person-plural ‘imperative’ form (used

to suggest that the group one is with should do something). English
does not have this, but there is a structure with Let us (or
Let's) + infinitive which has a similar meaning.
Let’s go home.
Let's have a party.
Let’s not get angry.
Don’t let’s get angry.
Note the two negative forms in the examples above (Let's not. . .
and Don’t let's . . .). The first is considered more ‘correct’, and is
more common than the other in written English.
7 Passive imperatives are often constructed with get (see 2.67).
Get vaccinated as soon as you can.

8 After imperatives, the question-tags (see 515) are will you? won’t
you? would you? can you? can’t you? and could you?
Give me a hand, will you?
Sit down, won’t you?
Get me some cigarettes, can you?
Be quiet, can’t you?
9 There is a special way of using the imperative (followed by and...)
in which it is similar to an //-clause (see 307.5).
Walk down our street any day and you’ll see kids playing
football.
Do that-again and you’ll be in trouble.

in and into (prepositions) 315

As a general rule, into is used to talk about a movement which ends
in a particular place; for position without movement, in is used.
He came into the room laughing, but he went out crying.
My mother’s the woman in the chair by the window.
With many verbs, in can be used instead of into to refer to move­
ment. This is not possible after go, come, walk, run, for example,
but it is common after many verbs that describe a movement with
an end (such as put, sit down, throw, jump, fall). Compare:
She came Into my study holding a newspaper.
I walked out into the garden to think.
He put his hand In/into his pocket.
Go and jump In/into the river.
My uncle sat down In my best armchair and looked at me.
Throw it In/lnto the wastepaper basket.
Aunt Mary fell In/lnto a hole in the garden.
 317 in spite of

In is not possible with all verbs of this kind (we say dive into a
swimming pool, not *dive in a swimming pool'). If you are not sure,
use into for movement; it is almost always correct.
As an adverb, in is always used; into is not possible.
Come in!

in case and if 316

Typical mistake: *1’11 come and see you in case I pass through
London.
In case does not mean the same as if. We use in case to talk about
precautions: things we do in advance, in order to be safe or ready if
there is a problem later. You insure things in case they get stolen, or
catch fire, or get broken. The order of events is not the same with/w
case and if. Compare:
You should insure your house in case there’s a fire.
You should telephone 999 if there’s a fire.
(You insure the house before the fire; you telephone after the fire
has broken out. In case expresses a precaution;;/refers to a result
or consequence.)
Take John’s address with you, in case you have time to see him
when you’re in London.
I’ll come and see you if I pass through London.
In sentences about the past, in case is often followed by should (see
55Z), especially in a formal style.
I packed a swimsuit in case I should have time to go to the beach.
The expression in case of (often found in notices) has a wider
meaning than in case-, it can be used in similar situations to if.
In case of fire, break glass. (=lf there is a fire . . .)

in spite of 317
In spite of is a preposition which is made up of three words.
In spite of + noun means the same (more or less) as
although + clause.
We went out in spite of the rain. (=. . . although it was raining.)
We understood him in spite of his accent. (=. . . although he had
a strong accent.)
In spite of is the opposite of because of. Compare:
He married her because of her looks. (She was beautiful.)
He married her in spite of her looks. (She was ugly.)
indeed 318

indeed 318
Typical mistakes: Thank you indeed.
*1 was pleased indeed to get your letter.
Indeed is used to strengthen the meaning of very + adjective/
adverb, but it is not usually used in this way without very.
Thank you very much indeed.
I was very pleased Indeed to hear from you.
In ‘short answers’, indeed can be used with an auxiliary verb to
express emphatic agreement.
‘It’s cold.’ - ‘It is indeed.’
‘Henry made a fool of himself’ — ‘He did indeed.’

infinitive: negative, progressive, perfect, passive 319

1 Negative infinitive
Typical mistakes: Try to not be late.
Try to don’t be late.
The negative infinitive is made by putting not before to.
Try not to be late.
I decided not to become an astronomer.
2 Progressive infinitive'
Like the progressive tenses, the progressive infinitive (to be. . dug)
is used for actions which are or were going on at the time we are
talking about.
It’s nice to be sitting here with you.
I noticed that he seemed to be smoking a lot.
The progressive infinitive (without to) can be used with ‘modal
auxiliary’ vefbs (see 388). The meaning of the structure depends on
the verbs that are used.
This time tomorrow I’ll be sitting in the train to Budapest.
(Future progressive: see 2.56.)
If I had a free choice, I’d be lying on the beach now. (Conditional
progressive, see 151.)
Why’s she so late? She can’t still be working. Of course, she may
be having trouble with the car. (For the use of can and may, see
130 and 377.)
3 Perfect infinitives
The perfect infinitive of a verb is made by putting to have before the
 319 infinitive

past participle. It has the same kind of meaning as the perfect or

past tenses.
It’s good to have finished work for the day. (=It’s good when you
have finished ... or I’m pleased because I’ve finished . . .)
We’re leaving at six o’clock, and hope, to have done most of the
journey by lunchtime. (=. . . and hope that we will have done
She said she was sorry to have missed you. (=. . . that she had
missed . . .)
I’m sorry not to have come on Thursday. (=. . . that I didn’t
come . . .)
We often use perfect infinitives to talk about ‘imaginary’ past
actions and events: things that didn’t happen.
I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot. (Or: I meant to tele­
phone . . .)
He was to have been the new ambassador, but he fell ill.
For the use of the perfect infinitive (without to) with ‘modal aux­
iliary verbs’ (eg can have heard, may have returned, must have
forgotten), see 390.
Perfect infinitives are often used after seem, appear.
1 appear to have made a small mistake.
He seems to have missed the train.
Perfect progressive infinitives are made by putting to have been
before the -ing form.
He seems to have been sitting there all day.
For the use of the perfect infinitive aftershould like andshould have
liked, see 363.4.
4 Passive infinitives
The passive infinitive of a verb is made by putting to be before the
past participle.
She ought to be told about it.
I didn’t expect to be invited.
Perfect passive infinitives exist.
Nothing seems to have been forgotten.
Progressive passive infinitives are possible, but are not normally
used.
*Td like to be being massaged right now.
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with similar
meanings, particularly after be.
There’s a lot of work to do/to be done.
For details, see 330.
infinitive 320

infinitive without to 320

Typical mistakes: *1 must to go now.
*Can you to help me?
*She lets her children to stay up very late.
*1 heard her to say that she was fed up.
*Why not to take a holiday for a few days?
The infinitive is used without to in several different cases.
1 Modal auxiliary verbs
After the modal auxiliary verbs will, shall, would, should, can,
could, may, might and must, we use the infinitive without to. It is
also used after the expressions would rather and had better, and
after need and dare when they are used as auxiliary verbs (see 399,
166).
I must go now.
Can you help me?
I’d rather go alone.
You'd better see what she wants.
Need I do the washing up?
How dare you call me a liar?
After ought, used, be and have, the to-infinitive is used. See 447,
614, 97 and 284.
2 Let, make, hear, etc -
Certain verbs are followed by an object and the infinitive without
to. They are: let, make, see, hear, feel, watch, notice, help (in an
informal style), and (in a few constructions) have and know.
She lets her children stay up very late.
I made them give me the money back.
I didn’t see you come in.
I heard ijer say that she was fed up.
Did you feel the earth move?
Could you help me unload the car?
Have Mrs Hansen come in, please. (Mainly American.)
I’ve never known him (to) pay fora drink. (Perfect tenses ofknow
only.)
When these verbs are used in the passive, they are followed by the
to-infinitive.
He was made to pay back the money.
She was heard to say that she disagreed.
For more information about see, hear, watch etc+object +verb,
see 288.
For more information about help, see 289.
For details of the structure with have, see 286.
 321 infinitive

3 Why (not)
Why + infinitive (without to) can be used to introduce questions.
The point of the question is usually to suggest that it is stupid or
pointless to do something. Why not + infinitive (without to) intro­
duces suggestions and advice.
Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices in town.
Why stand up if you can sit down? Why sit down if you can lie
down?
Why not let me lend you some money?
Why not take a holiday?
4 And, or, except, but, than
When two infi nitive structures are joined by and, or, except, but or
than, the second infinitive is often without to.
I’d like to lie down and go to sleep.
Do you want to have lunch now or wait till later?
We had nothing to do except (to) look at the posters outside the
cinemas.
I’ll do anything but work on a farm.
It’s easier to persuade people than (to) force them.
Rather than is usually followed by the infinitive without to.
Rather than wait any more, I decided to go home by taxi.
5 Do
Clauses which explain the exact meaning of do can have the
infinitive without to.
All I did was (to) give him a little push.
What a fire-door does is (to) delay the spread ofa fire long enough
for people to get out.

infinitive as subject of sentence 321 \

In older English, an infinitive subject could easily be put at the
beginning of a sentence, like any other subject.
To err is human, to forgive divine.
In modern English, it is more common to begin the sentence with it
(‘preparatory subject’), and to put the infinitive later. See 349.'
It’s easy to make mistakes. (Instead of To make mistakes is easy.)
It was impossible to explain what I meant.
It is also used as a ‘preparatory object’ for the infinitive in certain
constructions. (For details of these structures with it, see 350.)
An-ing form is often used instead of an infinitive as the subject of a
sentence, particularly when we are talking about ap activity in
general. The-big form can be put at the beginning of the sentence.
infinitive 322

Selling insurance is a pretty boring job.

But if we are talking about one particular action, the infinitive is
more usual. •
It was difficult to sell my car.

infinitive after verb 322

It is very common for one verb to be followed directly by another.
This happens, for instance, if we talk about our attitude to an
action: the first verb describes the attitude, and the second refers to
the action.
/ enjoy playing cards.
1 hope to see you soon.
In some of these cases, the second verb is in the infinitive; in others,
the -ing form is used. The choice depends on the first verb. For
instance,hope can be followed by an infinitive (or by a that-clause);
enjoy is always followed by an -ing form. Some verbs (e g try,
remember) can be followed either by an infinitive or by an -ing
form, with a difference of meaning (see 339). Some verbs (eg th ink)
cannot be followed directly by another verb.
Typical mistakes: *1 enjoy to play cards.
*1 hope seeing you soon.
*1 think to start work after Christmas. (Correct
structure: / think that I’ll start. . . or I’m thinking
of starting . . .)
In order to know what structures are possible after a particular
verb, you should consult a good dictionary (for example, the
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English). The
commonest verbs which are followed directly by an infinitive are:
/ afford agree appear arrange ask attempt
, bear beg begin care choose consent
| dare decide determine expect fail forget
! happen hate help hesitate hope intend
I learn like love manage mean neglect
\ offer prefer prepare pretend promise
\ propose refuse regret remember seem start
' swear trouble try want wish
Some of these verbs can also be followed by the -ing form, often
with a different meaning. See 339.
Some of these verbs, and a number of others, can be used in the
construction verb +object +infinitive (for example, I wanted her
to come back early). For details of tnis, see 32.3.
Note that these verbs are all followed by the infinitive with to
(except sometimes dare — see 166).
 **—... -

323 verb

Typical mistakes: *1 want go away this weekend.

*1 hope see you soon.
For the use of the infinitive without to, see 320.
For the use oiand instead of to (in expressions like try and under­
stand, come and stay) see 52.
For special uses of to be +infinitive, see 97.

^verb + object + infinitive 323

Typical mistakes: *She didn’t want that I go.
*They don't allow that people smoke.
Want, allow, and some other verbs are normally used with an
object and an infinitive.
She didn’t want me to go. (Not: *. . . that I go.)
They don’t allow people to smoke.
I didn’t ask you to pay for the meal.
The following list contains the commonest verbs which are used in
this construction. Many of them can also be used in other construc­
tions (for instance, with an -ing form or a that-clause); for detailed
information about each verb, see the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English.
^advise allow ask bear beg cause
command compel encourage expect forbid
force get (see 268) hate help (see also 289)
instruct intend incite leave like mean
need oblige order permit persuade prefer
press recommend request remind teach tell i
tempt trouble want warn wish (see 63z) I
For the use of let, make, see, hear, feel,jjzztch, notice, have and
knotv with the infinitive without to, see'yzo.'f
Think, believe, consider, know, find, ima^mffsuppose and feel can
be followed by object + infinitive, but the structure is rather literary
and not very common (though it is more frequent in the passive).
These verbs are more often used with a fAat-cIause.
1 thought him to be an excellent choice. (More normal: I thought
that he was . . .)
She was believed to have taken part in revolutionary activities.
(Or: It was believed that she had taken part . . .)
There are some common verbs that cannot be used in the structure
verb + object + infinitive-, for instance, suggest.
Typical mistake: */suggested her to go home. (Correct structure:
I suggested that she (should) go home.)
infinitive 324

infinitive after adjective 324

Many adjectives can be followed by infinitives. The combination
adjective + infinitive can express various meanings, depending on
which adjective is used. For information about particular cases, see
the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English.
f 1 was very pleased to see you yesterday.
/ She was upset to hear that her sister was ill.
I He was surprised to learn how much he’d spent.
I / Relativity theory isn't easy to understand.
\i Cricket's not terribly interesting to watch.
\ She's very nice to talk to.
In sentences like the last three, note that it is not necessary to put an
object after the verb.
Typical mistakes: “Cricket's boring to watch it.
*She's nice to talk to her.
When a verb is used wjth a preposition, this often comes at the end
of the sentence in adjective + infinitive structures.
She’s easy to get on with. It’s not a bad place to live in.
Enough and too are often used with an adjective + infinitive con­
struction (see 2.03 and 607).
Do you think the water’s warm enough (for us) to goswimming?
My mother's getting too old to travel.
Would you be kind enough to open a window?
Note also the structure so + adjective +as + to-infinitive. This is
not very common, but the formula so kind as to is sometimes used
to ask people to do things.
Would you be so kind as to tell me the time?
The rain was so heavy as to make our picnic impossible.
For structures with for (e g I’m anxious for a decision to be made),
see 244.

infinitive after noun 325

Infinitives can often be used directly after nouns in English. This
may happen in several ways.
1 Nouns related to verbs
Some nouns, \ike wish,refusal, offer, can be followed by infinitives,
just like the related verbs. Compare:
I don't wish to change. I have no wish to change.
He refused to co-operate. His refusal to co-operate . . .
However, in many cases the verb and the noun are used in different
structures.
 325 infinitive
I intend to go. My intention of going . . .
I hope to arrive. There’s no hope of arriving . . .
For information about the structures possible with particular
nouns, see the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
Other nouns
An infinitive is often used to say what will be done with something,
or what effect it will have.
Have you got a key to unlock this door?
1 need a box to hold my chessmen.
Have you anything to cure a bad cold?
it was a war to end all wars.
When we are talking in general (and not about a particular action),
we can use for + -ing instead of the infinitive, with a similar
meaning.
A vase is a kind of pot for holding flowers.
‘What’s that stuff for?’ - ‘Cleaning silver.’
In the examples above, the noun (key, box, war, etc) is the subject
of the infinitive: the key unlocks the door, the box holds the
chessmen. Very often, however, the noun is the object of the
infinitive.
Is there any milk to put on the cornflakes?
I gave her a comic to read.
He needs a place to live in.
Can you give me some work to do?
You just regard me as a thing, an object to look at, to use, to
touch, but not to listen to or to take seriously.
In cases like these, a passive infinitive is sometimes possible, par­
ticularly after there is. For details, see 330.
There’s work to do/to be done.
It is important not to put an object after the infinitive in this
structure. _____________________
Typical mistakes: */ gave her a comic to read it.
*He needs a place to live in it.
When the infinitive is used with a preposition (see 324), another
structure is possible: preposition +whom/which + infinitive. This
is more common in a formal style.
Mary needs a friend to play with. Or: ... a friend with'whpm to
play-
He’s looking for a place to live in. Or: . . . a place in which to
live.
I’m looking for something to clean the carpet with. Or: . . .
something'with which to clean the carpet.
infinitive 326

Note that this is only possible when there is a preposition. You

can’t say *1 want something which to read.

infinitive after interrogative conjunction 326

1 After certain verbs, it is possible to use the interrogative conjunc-
tionsbom, what, who, where, when or whether with a to-infinitive.
/ wonder who to invite.
Can you tell me how to get to the station?
Show ns what to do.
I don't know whether to answer his letter.
Ask my brother where to put the car.
Did you find out when to pay?
The verbs are know, ask, tell, explain, show, wonder, consider, find
out, understand, and others with similar meanings.
2 Note that it is not possible to begin a question with How to . . .?
Where to .. .?, etc.
Typical mistakes: *How to tell her?
*Who to pay?
Instead, we say, for example:
How shall I tell her?
Who should I pay?
For questions beginning Why (not) +infinitive (without to), see
310.3

infinitive of purpose 327

Typical mistakes: *1 went to Brighton for learning English.
*1 went to Brighton for learn English.
The infinitive with to is used to talk about people’s purposes, the
reasons why they do things.
My brother got a job to earn money for his holiday.
He started drinking to forget.
He stopped for a minute to rest.
The same idea can be expressed by using in order to or so as to.
I got up early in order to have time to pack.
We went via Worcester so as to miss the traffic jams.
He stopped for a minute in order to rest.
In negative sentences, in order not to or so as not to are used; the
infinitive alone is not usually correct.
I’m going to start now, in order not to miss the beginning.
 329 split infinitive

Typical mistake: *1 'm going to start now, not to miss the

beginning.
For the use of go, come, try etc with and instead of to, see 52.
For the difference betweenstop + infinitive andstop +. . . -ing see
339-

to used instead of whole infinitive 328

Instead of repeating the whole of an infinitive expression, we can
simply use the word to.
I went there because I wanted to. (=. . . because I wanted to go
there.}
Perhaps I’ll go to Brazil this summer: I’d very much like to.
‘Are you and Gillian getting married?' — 'We hope to.
I think he should get a job, but you can’t force him to if he's not
ready (to).
1 don't dance much now, but I used to a lot.
He'll never leave home: he hasn’t got the courage (to).
Sometimes the to can be dropped (particularly after adjectives and
nouns): see the fourth and sixth examples above. It can also be
dropped after some verbs (such as try}.
‘Can you start the car?' - ‘OK, I’ll try.'
After want and would like, to cannot normally be left out.
Typical mistakes: 'Are you interested in going to University?’ -
*'Yes, I would like.'
*My parents encouraged me to be a doctor, but I
didn't want.
However, to is often dropped when want or like are used in
subordinate clauses (for instance, after when, if, tvhat, as}.
Come when you want.
I’ve decided to do what I like.
Come and stay as long as you like.

split infinitive 329

A ‘split infinitive’ is a structure in which to and the rest.of the
infinitive are separated by an adverb.. _
I'd like to really understand Nietzsche.
He began to slowly get up off the floor.
Split infinitive structures are quite common in English, especially in
an informal style. A lot of people consider them ‘bad style’, and
avoid them if possible, placing the adverb before the to. or in
.end-position in the sentence (see 23-25).
active and passive infinitive 330

He began slowly to get up off the floor.

However, it is not always possible to construct sentences in other
ways without changing tKcTneaning:
Your job is to really make the club a success. (Here really intensi­
fies the meaning of make.)
Your job is really to make the club a success. (Here Your job is
really . . . means ‘The real purpose of your job . .
(The famous American writer Raymond Chandler got very angry
when his British publisher ‘corrected’ his split infinitives. He wrote
a letter saying ‘When I split an infinitive, god damn it, I split it so it
stays split.’)

active and passive infinitive with similar meaning 330

1 The idea of obligation can sometimes be expressed by an infinitive
after a noun.
I’ve got letters to write.
These carpets are to be cleaned as soon as possible.
If the subject of the sentence is the person who has to do the action,
the active infinitive is used.
I have work to do. (Not: “I have work to be done.)
If the subject of the sentence is the action that has to be done (or the
person or thing that the action is done to), we use the passive
infinitive.
Thesesheetsaretobewashed. (Not: “These sheets are to wash.)
This form isto be filled in in ink. (Not: “Th is form is to fill in . . .)
The cleaning is to be finished by mid-day. (Not: *... to finish ...)
2 In some structures (for example, after there is),, both active and
passive infinitives are possible with a similar meaning. We use the
active infinitive if we think more about the person who has to do the
action than about the action itself.
There’s a lot of work to do/to be done.
There are six letters to write/to be written today.
Give me the names of the people to contact/to be contacted.
We usually say that a house is to let, but to be let is also possible.

3 The passive infinitives to be seen, to he found, and to be congratu­

lated are common after be.
He was nowhere to be seen. You are to be congratulated.
The dog was nowhere to be found.
4 Note the difference, between something/anything/nothing to do
and something/anything/nothing to be done.
 332 -ing form

There’s nothing to do - I’m bored. (= There are no entertain­

ments.)
There’s nothing to be done — use'll have to buy another one.(=
There’s no way of putting it right.)

5 To blame is often used in a passive sense (meaning ‘responsible for

something bad that happened’).
biobody was to blame for the accident.

•ing form: terminology 331

The form of a verb ending in -ing (e gwriting, arguing) is sometimes
called (a) the present participle and sometimes (b) the gerund,
depending on whether it is used (a) more like a verb or adjective or
(b) more like a noun.
I sat smoking and wondering tvhat to do. (present participle)
Smoking is bad for you. (gerund)
In fact, the distinction is not really as simple as this, and some
grammarians prefer to avoid the terms participle and’gerund. See A
Grammar of Contemporary English, by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech
and Svartvik (Longman, 1972), Chapter 4 Section 11, for a detailed
treatment of this point.
In this book, the term-ing form is used (instead ofgerund) for cases*
where the-/»g form is used more like a noun ($ee 332-339). The
word participle is used for other cases (see 451-456).

-ing form: subject, object or complement of a sentence 332

Thc -/ȣ form often acts like a verb and a noun at the same time. It
can be followed by an object (eg beating a child, writing letters),
but it can also itself be the subject, object or complement of a
sentence.
Beating a child will do more harm than good.
I hate writing letters.
One of my bad habits is biting my nails.
Like any other noun, the -ing form can be used with an article or
possessive or demonstrative adjective.
the rebuilding of Coventry
a questioning of our basic principles
I hate all this useless arguing.
Note that when the Jng form is used with an article, it cannot
usually have a direct object!
the designing of a new factory (Not: “the designing a new fac­
tory)
-ing form 333

-ing form with possessive adjective or's 333

The possessives my, your, etc, and genitives like John's, can be used
with -big forms.
Do you mind my making a suggestion?
I'm annoyed about John’s forgetting to pay.
In informal English it is more common to use forms like me, you,
John instead, especially when these forms are functioning as the
grammatical object of the sentence.
Do you mind me making a suggestion?
I'm annoyed about John forgetting to pay.
Note that the verbssee,hear, feel,smell are not usually followed by
possessive + -ing. See 288.
I saw him getting out of his car. (Not: */ saw his getting . . .)

■ing form after verb 334

Typical mistakes: */ enjoy to travel.
*She doesn’t mind to be disturbed while she's
working.
When one verb is followed by another, the second verb is not
always in the infinitive. You can say / want to travel or I hope to
travel, but not */ enjoy to travel. Enjoy is usually followed by the
-ing form, and so are quite a number of other verbs. The most
common are:
admit appreciate avoid consider contemplate
delay deny detest dislike endure enjoy
escape excuse face feel like finish forgive
give up can’t help imagine involve leave off
mention mind miss postpone practise
put off resent resist risk can’t stand
suggest understand
For example A
/ really appreciate having time to relax.
Have you considered getting a job abroad?
Excuse my interrupting . . .
You mentioned having been in hospital last year.
Prevent is followed by object + (from) + -ing.
There’s nothing to prevent him (from) taking the money.
The -ing form is also used in the following cases:
to burst out crying/laughing to go swimming/shopping (see
271) to spend/waste time/money doing something
to keep (on) doing something (see 353)
 337 to + -ing
•ing form with passive meaning 335
After, need, require and want, the -ing form is used in a passive
sense.
Your hair needs cutting. (=. . . to he cut.)
Does your suit require pressing, sir? ■
The car wants servicing. (British English only)
Need can also be followed by a passive infinitive.
The garden needs to be watered. (Or: . . . watering.)

■ing form after preposition 336

Typical mistakes: *You should check the oil before to start the car.
*He walked away without to look back.
The -ing form is used after all prepositions (includingto, when to is
a preposition; see 337). The infinitive is impossible in these cases.
You should check the oil before starting the car.
You can’t make an omelette without breaking eggs.
We got the job finished by working sixteen hours a day.
He’s always talking about moving to the country.
I look forward to hearing from you.

to +-ing 337
Typical mistake: *1 look forward to hear from you. (Correct struc­
ture: ... to hearing from you.)
Sentences like I look forward to hearing from you may seem
strange, if you expect the verb in every to +verb structure to be the
infinitive. The point is that to is really two different words. One of
Qiem is just a sign of the infinitive. (It is used with most infinitives,
but is left out in some cases, for example after can or must.)
I want to go home. You can go home now.
The other to is a preposition.
Laurence has gone to Denmark.
I’m looking forward to Christmas.
Do you object to Sunday work? .
I’m not used to London traffic. ( ' 1 7
When this preposition is followed by a verb, we use the -ing form
(as we do after all prepositions; see 336).
I’m looking forward to seeing you at Christmas.
Do you object to working on Sundays?
I’m not used to driving in London.
I prefer riding to walking.
-ing form 338

It you arc nor sure whether to is a preposition or not, try putting a

noun after.it_Lf you can, it is a preposition (and is followed by the
-ing form of a verb). Compare: '
I'm not usedfto British traffic conditions.
I'm not used to driving on the left.
1 object to music in restaurants.
I object to having loud music playing while I eat.
If to cannot be followed by a noun, it is not a preposition, and-ing
is not used. You cannot say */ want to dinner, so you do not say *1
want to eating.
Common examples of to + -ing are: look forward to . . .-ing, object
to . . .-ing, he used to . . .-ing (see 61 5), in addition to . . .-ing, be
accustomed to . . .-ing (but be accustomed to + infinitive is also
possible).

-ing form: special cases 338

Note the use of the-ing form after as, like, than, any/some/no etc
good and any/some/no etc use.
As well as getting on everybody’s nerves, he’s got a habit of
borrowing money and forgetting to pay it back.
Why don’t you do something useful, like cleaning the flat?
There’s nothing that depresses me more than waking up with a
hangover on a wet Monday.
Is it any good trying to explain?
It’s not much use my buying salmon if you don’t like fish.
For the use of the -ing form after worth, see 635.

-ing form or infinitive? 339

Some verbs can be followed by either an-ing form or an infinitive,
usually with a difference of meaning. The most important cases are:
advise allow attempt can’t bear begin
continue forbid forget go on hate hear
intend like love permit prefer propose
regret remember see start stop try watch
This is also the case with certain adjectives:
accustomed afraid certain interested sorry
sure used.
For derails, see below.

1 With remember, forget, stop, go on and regret, the difference is

connected with time. The -ing form refers to things that happen
earlier (before the remembering, forgetting, etc take place); the
infinitive refers to things that happen after the remembering, etc.
 339 -ing form

a Remember + -ing = remember what one has Jone, or what has

happened
I shall always remember meeting yon for the first time.
Remember + infinitive = remember what one has to do
Remember to go to the post office, won’t you?
Typical mistakes: */ don’t remember to have said that.
*Please remember putting out the cat before you
go to bed.
b Forget + -ing = forget what one has done, or what has happened
I shall never forget seeing the Queen.
Forget + infinitive = forget what one has to do
She’s always forgetting to give me my letters.
Typical mistake: *Don't forget writing to Aunt Mary.
C Stop +-ing =stop what one is doing, or does
I really must stop smoking.
Stop + infinitive = make a break or pause in order to do something
Every half hour I stop work to smoke a cigarette.
Typical mistake: *You should stop to smoke — it’s bad for you.
d Go on + -ing = continue what one has been doing
Flow long do you intend to go on playing those blo.ody records?
Go on + infinitive = change; move on to something new
Fie welcomed the new students and then went on to explain the
college regulations.
e Regret + -ing = be sorry for what has happened
I don’t regret telling her what I thought, even if it upset her.
Regret + infinitive = be sorry for what one is going to say
/ regret to inform you that we are unable to offer you employ­
ment. '
2 With the adjective interested, the -ing form refers to what will (or
may) happen, and the infinitive refers to what has happened.
Interested in +-ing = interested by the idea of doing something
I’m interested in working in Switzerland. Do you know anybody
who could help me?
Interested + infinitive = interested by what one learns or experi­
ences
I was interested to read in the paper that scientists have found out
how the universe began.
-ing form 339

3 Like +-ing = enjoy

I like walking in the rain.
(The infinitive is also possible with this meaning, especially in
American English.)
Like + infinitive = choose to; be in the habit of; think it right to
I like to get up early so that I can get plenty of work done before
lunch.
I heard you talking and I didn’t like to disturb you, so I went
away.
Note that would like means ‘wish’ or ‘want’, and is always fol­
lowed by the infinitive.
What would you like to do tomorrow? (Not: *What would you
like doing tomorrow?)
4 Wit\\love,hate and prefer there is not much difference between the
two structures.
I love lying/to lie on my back and staring/to stare at the sky.
Some people hate working/to work in the early morning.
Personally, I prefer working/to work in the morning.
When we are referring to one particular occasion, it is more com­
mon to use the infinitive.
Would you like to have lunch now, or would you prefer to wait?
I’d love to come and see you some time.
I hate to break things up, but it’s time to go home.
I hate to mention it, but you owe me some money.
‘Can I give you a lift?’ — ‘No, thanks. I (would) prefer to walk.’
For details of the sentence-structure with prefer, see 483.

5 Allow, advise, forbid and permit are followed by an-ing form when
there is no personal object. If we say who is allowed, advised, etc,
the infinitive is used.
Sorry, we don’t allow smoking in the lecture room.
We don’t allow people to smoke in here.
I wouldn’t advise taking the car — there’s nowhere to park.
I wouldn’t advise you to take the car . . .
6 After see, watch and hear, an -ing form suggests that we observe
part of a complete action; when we start looking or listening it is
already going on. The infinitive is used when we want to suggest
that we observe the whole action from beginning to end.
When I walked past his house I heard him practising the violin.
I heard Oistrakh play the Beethoven violin concerto last week.
When 1 glanced out of the window 1 saw Mary crossing the road.
I watched him step off the pavement, cross the road, and dis­
appear into the post-office.
 339 -ing form
7 Try + -ing — make an experiment; do something to see what will
happen.
I tried sending her flowers but it didn't have any effect.
Try putting in some more vinegar — that might make it taste a bit
better.
Try + infinitive = make an effort; attempt to do something difficult.
Please try to understand.
I once tried to learn Japanese.
8 Afraid of + -ing andafraid +infinitive can often both be used with
little difference of meaning.
I’m afraid to fly/of flying.
I’m afraid to tell/of telling her.
However, when we are talking about things which happen to us
unexpectedly, without our wanting or choosing them, only the
-ing form is possible.
I’m afraid of crashing. (Not: *. . . to crash.}
I don't like to speak French because I’m afraid of making mis­
takes. (Not: *. . . to make . . .}
Compare:
I’m afraid of diving/to dive into the swimming-pool. (=/ don’t
tvant to do it.}
I'm afraid of falling into the swimming-pool. (=1 don’t want it to
happen to me. Here, * ... to fall is impossible.)
9 Begin and start can be followed by -ing or infinitive structures,
usually with no real difference of meaning. It is perhaps more
common to use an-ing form when we are talking about the begin­
ning of a long or habitual activity.
How old were you when you first started playing the piano?
The-hzg form is not used after a progressive form of begin orstart.
I was beginning to get angry. (Not: *. . . getting . . .}
After begin and start, the verbs understand and realize are only
used in the infinitive.
She began to understand what he really wanted. (Not: *. . .
understanding . . .}
10 After propose, attempt, intend, continue, can’t bear and be accus­
tomed to, both structures are possible with little difference of
meaning, but the infinitive is probably more common after pro­
pose, attempt and intend.
I can’t bear getting/to get my hands dirty.
He intends to double the advertising budget.
inn 340

11 Sorry is used with an infinitive when we apologize for something

that we are doing or about to do.
Sorry to disturb you - could I speak to you for a moment?
When we apologize for something that we have done, we use a
perfect infinitive, or for + -ing, or a tbrU-clause.
Sorry to have woken yon up yesterday.
I'm sorry for waking you up (or for having woken you up) yester­
day.
I'm sorry that I woke you up yesterday.
For the use of the infinitive and -big form with certain andsztre, see
i 36.
For the difference between used to + infinitive and be used to
+ -ing. see 615.

inn and pub 340

Typical mistake: *C.an you tell me the way to the nearest inn,
please?
In modern English, a place where you can drink beer and spirits is
called a pub (=public house). The old word inn is only used in the
names of some pubs (such as The New Inn, The Swan Inn).
‘Where’s the nearest pub?’ - 'The Swan Inn, just round the
corner.'

instead of , . .-ing 341

Typical mistake: T stayed in bed all day instead to go to work.
Instead is not used alone as a preposition; we use the two words
instead of. If instead of is followed by a verb, the -ing form is, of
course, necessary (see 336).
/ stayed in bed all day instead of going to work.
She went shopping instead of having lunch.

introductions 342
ft is quite easy to introduce people to each other in English. One
way is just to say the names, pointing at each person as you name
them. Imagine you want to introduce Mary and Carmen to each
other. First of all (talking to Mary), you can point at Carmen and
say ‘Carmen’; then you turn to Carmen and say ‘Mary’. Or instead
of just saying the names, you can say ‘This is Carmen’ and ‘This is
Mary' (but not “That’s Carmen’; see 603).
 343 inversion
If you want to speak in a more formal way (perhaps to introduce
older or more important people to each other), you can say to the
first person, ‘Can I introduce Mr/Mrs X?’, or ‘May I introduce
■. or ‘Have you met . . .?’, or ‘I don’t think you’ve met . .
When you speak to the second person, youcanjustsay ‘Thisis. .
When people are introduced, they usually say ‘Hello’, ‘Hi’
(friendly and informal), or ‘How do you do?’ (more formal). ‘How
do you do?’ does not mean the same as ‘How are you?’, and is not
really a question at all. It is just an expression that people use when
they are introduced.
It is quite common to introduce people using their Christian
name and surname (instead of Mr, Mrs, etc + surname). You can­
not always do this; it depends on the people’s age, social class, and
social attitudes, and on your relationship with them. If you are not
sure, it is safer to use Mr, Mrs etc. For more information about the
use of names and titles, see 396.

inversion: general 343

Inversion means putting the verb before the subject. This happens
in questions, and in a number of other cases. There are two main
kinds of inversion. In the more common kind, an auxiliary verb
comes before the subject, and the rest of the verb comes after. If
there is no auxiliary, do, does or did is added.
Has your mother spoken to Arthur?
I saw Mary yesterday. Did you see her?
Only yesterday did I realize what was going on.
In the other sort of inversion, the whole verb comes before the
subject; do and did are not used. (This sort is found mainly after
adverbial expressions of place, and in expressions like said John,
answered Peter. See below.)
On the stairs was sitting a small dark-haired girl.
Round the corner came a milk-van.
‘I love you, ’ whispered John.
Inversion is common in ordinary spoken English only in questions,
and after/? ere, there, neither, nor andso; other uses of inversion are
found mainly in written English or in a very formal style of speak­
ing (for instance, in public speeches).
The main cases when inversion is used are as follows:
1 Questions
Inversion is common in questions, but is not always used. See 513.
Inversion is not usually used in indirect questions. See 535.
Have you seen John?
You’ve seen John?
I wondered whether he’d seen John.
inversion 343

2 Sentences with If
In a literary style, inversion can be used instead of if in some kinds
of sentence. See 307.
Had I known what was going to happen, I would never have left
her alone. (=lf I had known . . .)
3 After as
Inversion sometimes happens after as in a literary style. See 73.2.
She travelled a great deal, as did most of her friends.
4 After neither, nor and so
In all styles of English, inversion is possible after these three words
(depending on the meaning). See 344.
7 don’t like Mozart.’ - 'Nor do /.’
5 After negative adverbial expressions
In a formal style, many adverbs and adverbial expressions with
negative meanings can be put at the beginning of the sentence;
when this happens, we use inversion. See 345.
Under no circumstances can we accept cheques.
Hardly had I arrived when a quarrel broke out.
6 After adverbial expressions beginning with only
This kind of inversion is also most often found in a formal style. See
345-
Only then did I understand what she meant.
7 In exclamations
Exclamations often have the same form as negative questions. In
American English, especially, they are often like ordinary ques­
tions. (See 226.)
Isn’t it cold! Am I fed up!
In a rather old-fashioned literary style, inversion is sometimes
found in exclamations after how and what. (For the normal word­
order after how and what, see 225.)
How beautiful are the flowers!
What a peacefid place is Skegness!
8 After adverbial expressions of place
In this kind of inversion, the whole verb is put before the subject.
Do and did are not used. This structure is common in literary and
descriptive writing.
Under a tree was sitting one of the biggest men I have ever seen.
On the bed lay a beautiful young girl.
 345 inversion

This structure is often used in speech with here and there (see 291).
Here comes Freddy! There goes the vicar!
There's a man at the door.
Note that inversion is not used if the subject is a pronoun.
Here she comes!
9 Verbs of reporting
Inversion is often used, in writing, with verbs like say andas/i, after
direct speech. Do and did are not used. For details, see 347.
"What do you mean?' asked Henry.
Inversion is not used if the subject is a pronoun.
"What do you mean?’ he asked.

inversion after neither, nor and so 344

Neither, nor andso can be used to introduce sentences in which we
say that people (or things or situations) are the same as others that
have just been mentioned. Inversion is used.
‘My mother’s ill this week.’ — ‘So's my sister.’
‘I can’t speak French.’ — ‘Nor can I.’
‘My husband never touches a drying-up cloth. ’ — ‘Neither does
mine. ’
This structure is not literary or formal. It is perfectly normal
English, and no other word-order is possible when neither, nor and
so are used in this way.
So can also be used in a different sense, to introduce surprised
agreement with what has been said. In this case, inversion is not
used.
‘That’s Isabel, look!’ — ‘So it is!'
For more information about the use of neither, nor andso, see 406
and 557-559-

inversion after negative expressions and ‘Only. . . ’ 345

Certain expressions with a negative or restrictive meaning can be
put at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. When this happens,
inversion is used.
1 Seldom, rarely and never in comparisons
This is a rather literary structure, not common in ordinary English.
Seldom had I seen such a remarkable creature.
Rarely could she have been faced with so difficult a choice.
Rarely had his father been more helpful.
Never have I felt better.
inversion 346

2 Hardly, scarcely and no sooner

These expressions can be used to begin sentences in which we say
that one thing happened immediately after another. Hardly and
scarcely are followed by . . . when; no sooner is followed by . . .
than.
Hardly had I arrived when I had a new problem to cope with.
Scarcely had we started lunch when the doorbell rang.
No sooner was she back at home than she realized her mistake.
3 ‘Only . .
Inversion is used when adverbial expressions which include the
word only come at the beginning of sentences. This, too, is a rather
literary structure.
Only after a year did I begin to see the results of my work.
Only in a few countries does the whole of the population enjoy a
reasonable standard of living.
Inversion is also used after not only (in ‘not only . . . but also . . .’
sentences).
Not only did we lose all our money, but we also came close to
losing our lives.
4 *... no ..
Expressions containing the word no often come at the beginning of
sentences for emphasis; for example, in notices. Inversion is used.
At no time was the President aware of what was happening.
Under no circumstances can customers’ money be refunded.
In no way can Mrs Pethers be held responsible.
On no account are visitors allowed to feed the animals.
Note that in all these structures, the negative expression can be
placed later in the sentence, without inversion. This usually makes
a less literary or formal impression.
I had seldom seen such a remarkable creature.
I had hardly arrived when I had a new problem to cope with.
I only began to see the results of my work after several months.
The President was at no time aware of what was happening. (Or:
The President was not aware of what was happening at any
time.)

inversion after adverbial expressions of place 346

In narrative and descriptive writing, it is common to begin sen­
tences with adverbial expressions like On a hill, In the valley,
Round the corner, etc. When these are followed by intransitive
verbs like come, lie, stand, walk, inversion is common. The whole
verb is put before the subject, and do/did is not used.
 348 irregular verbs

On a hill in front of them stood a great castle.

A few miles further on lies the enchanting suburb of Balbam,
gateway to the South.
Round the corner walked a large policeman.
Under the table was lying a half-conscious young man.
For inversion after here and there, see 191.

inversion with verbs of reporting 347

In narrative writing, direct speech is often followed by expressions
like answered John, said the old lady, he replied, grunted Pete,
which tell you who spoke, or how they spoke. In these, the verb
often comes before the subject, especially if the subject is a long one.
When the subject is a pronoun, the verb normally comes after it.
Compare:
‘I'ue had enough,’ John said. (Or: . . . said John).
‘Let’s go,’ suggested Henry. (Or: . . . Henry suggested)
‘Who’s paying?’ shouted the fat man in the corner.
‘You are,’ I answered.

irregular verbs 348

1 A complete list of irregular verbs can be found in any grammar or
dictionary. This is a list only of common verbs that students often
make mistakes with. If you have difficulty with irregular verbs, it
might be a good idea to learn these ones by heart.
infinitive past tense past participle
beat/bi:t/ beat /bi:t/ beaten/‘bi:tn/
bite/bait/ bit /bit/ bitten/' bitn/
blow/blao/ blew/blu:/ blown/blaon/
choose/tfu:z/ chose/tfaoz/ chosen,"tjaozm
deal /di :l/ dealt /delt/ dealt 'delt,
dig /dig/ dug /dAg/ dug dAg
eat/i:t/ ate /et/ eaten /'i:tn/
fall/fo:!/ fell/fel/ fallen /'fodan/
feel/fid/ felt/felt/ felt /felt/
fly /flat/ flew/flu:/ flown /flaon,'
freeze/fri:z/ froze/fraoz/ frozen/'fraozn/
hang /hteg/ hung/hAg/ hung/hAg/
hide/haid/ hid /hid/ hidden /'hidn/
hit/hit/ hit /hit/ hit /hit/
hold/hauld/ held /held/ held/held/
lay/lei/ laid /leid/ laid /leid/
lead/li:d/ led /led/ led /led/
leave/li:v/ left /left/ left/left/
irregular verbs 348

lie/lai/ lay /lei/ lain /lein/

lose/lu:z/ lost /lost/ lost/lost/
mean/mi:n/ meant /ment/ meant/ment/
meet /mi:t/ met /met/ met /met/
rise /raiz/ rose /raoz/ risen /'nzn/
run /rAn/ ran /raen/ run /rAn/
sell /sei/ sold /saold/ sold /saold/
shake 'feik/ shook /fok/ shaken /'feikan/
shine /fain/ shone /Jon/ shone /Jon/
show/fao/ showed/faod/ shown /faon/
sing /sir)/ sang /saerj/ sung /saij/
spend /spend/ spent /spent/ spent /spent/
steal /sti:l/ stole /staol/ stolen /'staolan/
stick /stik/ stuck /stAk/ stuck /stAk/
strike /straik/ struck /strAk/ struck /strAk/
swim/swim/ swam /swasm/ swum /swAm/
tear/tea(r)/ tore /ta:(r)/ torn /torn/
throw/0rao/ threw /0ru:/ thrown/Oraon/
wake/weik/ woke/waok/ woken /'waukan/
(see 91)
wear/wea(r)/ wore /wa:(r)/ worn /worn/
win/win/ won /wAn/ won /wAn/
wind/waind/ wound /waond/ wound/waond/

2 Verbs that are often confused

infinitive pasf tense past participle
fall /foil/ fell/Pel/ fallen /'fo:lan/
feel/fi:l/ felt/felt/ felt /felt/
fill /fil/ filled /Hid/ filled /Hid/
flow/flao/ flowed/flaod/ flowed /flaod/
(of a liquid = move)
fly/flai/ flew /flu:/ flown/flaon/
(= move in the air)
lay/lei/ laid/leid/ laid /leid/
(= put down flat)
lie/lai/ lay/lei/ lain/lein;
(= be down flat)
lie/lai/ lied/laid/ lied /laid/
(= say untrue things)
leave/li:v/ left /left/ left/left/
(= go away)
live/liv/ lived /livd/ lived /livd/
(= be alive)
 349 it
raise /reiz/ raised /reizd/ raised/reizd/
(=move something up)
rise/raiz/ rose /raoz/ risen /'nzn/
(= get higher)
strike /straik/ struck /strAk/ struck /strAk/
(= hit)
stroke /straok/ stroked /straokt/ stroked /straokt/
(— pass the hand lovingly
over the surface of)

For more details about lay and lie, see 357.

3 The following verbs are different in British and American English.
a burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill and spoil are all regular
in American English. In British English, they can be regular, but
irregular past tenses and participles with -t are more common
(burnt, dreamt, leant, learnt, smelt, spelt, spilt and spoilt}.
b wake can be regular in American English.
C fit, quit and wet are regular in British English, but irregular in
American: the infinitive, past tense and past participle are all the
same (eg to fit, fit, fit}.
d dive is regular in British English, but irregular in American:
dive [dawj dovel&sovl c/rTed/daivd/
e The American past participle of get is usually gotten (see 265.4).
f Note the American pronunciation of ate /eit/ and shone/Jaon/.

it: preparatory subject 349

1 When the su bject o f a sentence is an infinitive ora thatTclausCx thisjs
not usually j>ut at the beginning^ Sentences like To be with you is
nice or That you should like him is interesting are possible, but
uncommon. More often, we begin the sentence with it and put the
real subject later.
It’s nice to be with you.
It’s difficult to understand what she’s talking about.
It’s interesting that you should like him.
It worried me a bit that she didn’t phone.
This kind ofstructure can express many different ideas. Some of the
commonest are:
it 349

importance
It's essential to book in advance.
It's important that she comes straight to me when she arrives.
difficulty
It’s not easy to get him to change his mind.
It must be hard to live on your salary.
possibility
It’s probable that ive'll be a little late.
Is it possible to go by road?
usefulness
It’s not very useful to read the whole book.
It’s pointless to go there on Monday — there’s a public holiday.
normality and frequency
It’s unusual to see Peter with a girl.
Is it customary to tip hairdressers?
time taken
It took me three hours to get home last night.
emotional reaction
It was really astonishing that she refused to talk to you.
It shocked me that Peter didn’t tell anybody where he was.
It’s Interesting to see different cultures and ways of life.
It was lovely to see you again.
It would be a pity to miss it.
truth
Is It true that she’s ill?
convenience
Will It suit you to come tomorrow evening?
It'll be best to go early.
ideas coming into one’s head
It occurred to me that she might have forgotten the date.
It didn’t occur to you to phone, I suppose?
It struck me that the boss was behaving pretty strangely.
appearance
It appears that Geoffrey might change his mind.
It seems obvious that we can’t go on like this.
In some of these structures, should may be used with the verb in the
that-clause (in American English, subjunctives are common). For
details, see 55z and 580.
It’s interesting that you should think that.
 350 it

It’s important that everybody should be told all the facts.

(British.)
It’s important that everybody be told all the facts. (American.)

2 Other clauses besides that-c\auses can also be put later in the

sentence (with it as a preparatory subject).
It doesn't interest me whether you succeed or not.
It doesn’t matter when you arrive — just come when you can.
It’s surprising how many unhappy marriages there are.
It’s a mystery what he sees in her.
It wasn’t very clear what she meant.
3 It is used as a preparatory subject for the for+object+infinitive
structure (see 244). — '
It will suit me best for you to arrive at about ten o’clock.
It’s essential for the papers to be ready before Thursday.
4 It can also be used as a preparatory subject for an -ing form, This
structure is rather informal, except with a few expressions like it’s
worth and it’s no use (see 635 and 351).
It was nice seeing you.
It’s crazy her going off like that.
Is it worth reserving a seat?
It’s no use trying to explain — I’m not interested.
It’s not much good expecting Andrew to help.

5 It is used to introduce some sentences with if, as if and as though.

It looks as if we’re going to have trouble with Mrs fenkins again.
It’s not as if this was the first time she’s been difficult.
It will be a pity if we have to ask her to leave, but it looks as though
we may have to.
6 An introductory zt-structure can be used to give special emphasis to
one idea in a sentence. Compare:
Mrs Smith came on Tuesday.
It was Mrs Smith who came on Tuesday, (emphasis on Mrs Smith)
It was on Tuesday that Mrs Smith came, (emphasis on on
Tuesday)
For details of this kind of sentence (‘cleft sentences’), see 138.

it: preparatory object 350

When the object of a sentence is an infinitive or a t/zat-clause, we
sometimes use it as a preparatory object. Normally, this only
happens when there is an adjective connected with_the object.
it’s/there’s no use . . ,-ing 351
I--- 5 objCCl" -
George made (It clear that he disagreed.
I thought it peculiar that she hadn’t written.
The blister on-'nry foot made it painful to walk.
I find It difficult to talk to you about anything serious.
I think it important that we should keep calm.
When there is no adjective, it is not normally used.
Typical mistakes: *1 cannot bear it, to see people crying. (Correct
structure: I cannot bear to see . . .)
"I remember it, that we were very happy. (Cor­
rect structure: I remember that . . .)
-$S.Note, however, the structures with owe and leave.
We owe'Tt to society to make our country a better place.
I'll leave it to_you[to decide.

it’s/there’s no use . . .-ing 351

Typical mistake: "It’s no use to ask her — she doesn’t know any­
thing.
In this structure, use is followed by an-mg form. Either/? is or there
is can be used.
It’s/there’s no use asking her - she doesn’t know anything.
The structure can be used in questions (with any instead of no).
Is it/there any use trying to phone him?
Personal or possessive pronouns can be used before the-ing form
(for the difference, see 333).
It’s no use you(r) talking to her - let me do it.

just and just now 352

Just has sevi^ral different meanings: for details, see the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.
When just means a moment ago, the present perfect tense is nor­
mally used in British English.
‘Where's Eric?’ - ‘He’s just gone out.’
I’ve just had a phone call from Sarah.
In American English, the past tense is common in this case.
‘Where’s Eric?’ — ‘He just went out.’
I just had a phone call from Sarah.
Be careful with the expression just now. This can mean a moment
ago, but is used with a past tense (British and American).
Sarah rang up just now. I felt a sudden pain just now.
 354 know

keep (on) . . . -ing 353

Typical mistake: *My parents kept on to encourage me to study.
Keep (on) cannot.be followed by an infinitive. With an-ing form, it
has two meanings: repeat and continue. In this structure, keep on
means the same as keep, but perhaps with more emphasis on the
idea of repetition or determination.
A'lv parents kept encouraging me to study.
1 don't know what's wrong with me today: I keep breaking
things.
Keep smiling.
He keeps on phoning me, and I really don’t want to talk to him.
Whatever happens, keep on trying.
For other meanings of keep, see the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English.

know 354
Typical mistakes: *1 know to make Spanish omelettes.
*We know each other since 1974.
*1 am knowing exactly what you mean.
‘'You’re late.’ - *‘I know it.’
1 Know cannot be followed directly by an infinitive. We use the
expression know how to.
I know how to make Spanish omelettes.
For more information about the use of how, what, whether, etc
with infinitives, see 326.
2 In order to say how long you have known somebody, use a present
perfect tense, not a present tense. (See 494.)
We’ve known each other since 1974.
3 Know is one of the verbs that cannot normally be used in progres­
sive tenses. (See 502.6.)
I know exactly what you mean.
4 There is a difference between the answers I know and I know it. I
know refers to facts; I know it refers to other things (for instance,
places, books, songs, games, films). Compare:
‘You’re late.’ — ‘I know.’
‘I went to a nice restaurant called The Elizabeth last night.’ — ‘I
know it. ’
last 355

last and the last 355

Typical mistakes: */ saw Frieda only the last week.
"Were you at the meeting on the last Tuesday
morning?
1 When we want to talk about the week, month etc immediately
before this one, we use last without the. (Note that the prepositions
of time on, in, at are not used with last in these time-expressions.)
I saw Frieda only last week.
Were you at the meeting last Tuesday morning?
We talked about that last Christmas.
2 The last can be used to talk about a period that continues up to the
present moment. Compare:
/ had flu last week. (=during the week before this one)
I’ve had flu for the last week. ( = during the seven days up to
today)
Last year was difficult, ( — the year up to last December)
The lastyearhas been difficult. (=the twelve months up to now)
The last can also mean ‘the last in a scries’ (with no relation to the
present).
In the last week of the holiday a strange thing happened.
That was the last Christmas I spent at home.
Note the word-order in expressions like the last three weeks (not
usually the three last weeks).
There is a similar difference between next and the next. See 4 1 i.

last and latest 356

Typical mistakes: "Have you heard the last news?
*His last novel’s being published next week.
We usually use latest for things which are new. Last means either
before this one or at the end of a series. Compare:
'What do you think of his latest play?’ — ‘I like it much better
than his last one. ’
Cymbeline was one of Shakespeare’s last plays.
'Have you heard the latest? Jane's married!’ - ‘Oh yes?
The last I heard, she was going to become a nun.’

lay /lei/ and lie /lai/ 357

Typical mistakes: *1 found her laying on the floor asleep.
*1 laid down and closed my eyes.
These two verbs are easily confused.
 360 let

1 Lay is a regular verb, except for its spelling. Its forms are: to lay,
laying, laid, laid. It means to put down carefully, or to put down
flat. It has an object.
/ laid the papers out on the table.
Lay the tent down on the grass and I’ll try to see how to put it up.
Note the special expressions to lay a table (=to put plates, knives,
etc on the table) and to lay an egg (a bird’s way of‘having a baby’).
2 Lie is an irregular verb. Its forms are: to lie, lying, lay, lain. It
means to be down, to be flat. It has no object.
Don’t lie in bed all day. Get up and do some work.
I threw myself flat and lay motionless for ten minutes.
3 Note that the verb lie meaning ‘say things that are not true’ is
regular.
You lied to me when you said you loved me.

left 358
The participle left is used in a special way to mean ‘remaining’, ‘nor
used’, ‘still there’. It comes after nouns, and words like anything,
nothing, nobody. It is often used in a there is construction.
There are two eggs left, if you're hungry.
I haven’t got any money left.
There’s nothing left in the fridge.
After the explosion, only two people were left alive. (Or: ...
there were only two people left alive.}

lesser 359
Lesser is used in a few expressions (in a rather formal style) to mean
‘not so great’ or ‘not so much’.
the lesser of two evils ( — the less bad of two bad possibilities)
a lesser-known writer (artist, etc)
For the use of less and fewer, see 2.39.

let 360
Typical mistakes: */ let her to talk without interrupting.
*His parents let him doing what he liked.
*1 didn’t let him knew what I was thinking.
Let is followed by object + infinitive without to.
I let her talk without interrupting.
I didn’t let him know what I was thinking.
letters 361

Let Mrs Pennyweather have a copy of the letter, please.

Let can’t normally be used in passive sentences. Instead, we use
allow (with a to-infinitive), or another word with the same mean­
ing.
After questioning he was allowed to go home.
For information about other words which are followed by the
infinitive without to, see 32.0.

letters 361
It is not difficult to write letters in English. A special style is not
usually considered necessary, even for business letters; for most
letters, an ordinary formal style is perfectly suitable. There are a
few rules about how to begin and end different kinds of letter, and
how to arrange a letter on the page.
1 Put your address at the top right-hand corner (house-number first,
then street-name, then town, etc). Do not put your name above the
address: your name only comes at the end.
2 Put the date under the address. There are several ways of writing
the date, for instance, zi.3.80, or zi March 1980, or March zist,
1980. For details, see 168.

3 In a business letter, put the name and address of the person you are
writing to on the left-hand side of the page (beginning one line
lower than the ending of your own address).
4 Put the ‘salutation’ (Dear X,) on the left of the first line, not in the
middle.
5 Begin the first sentence under the end of the person’s name.
6 If you begin bear Sir(s) or Dear Madam, finish Yowrs faithfully,. . .
If you begin with the person’s name (Dear Mrs Smith), finish Yours
sincerely, ... or (more informally) Yours, . . . We sometimes use
Yours truly instead of Yours faithfully /sincerely. Friendly letters
may begin with the first name (Dear Keith) and finish with an
expression like See you or Love.
7 On the envelope, we put the first name before the surname. The first
name may be written in full (Keith Parker), or we may use the initial
(K. Parker). If the person has more than one first name, it is
common to use only the initials (K. S. Parker). It is common to put a
‘title’ (Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, Dr; see 396) before the name. These titles
are usually written with a full stop (Mr., Ms.) in American English,
 361 letters

but not always in British English (see 577). Some British people put
Esq1 (= Esquire, an old courtesy title) after a man’s name, instead of
using Mr. Before the name of a firm, we often write the title Messrs
(an abbreviation of the French word Messieurs, meaning ‘Gentle­
men’).

8 American usage is different from British in certain ways.

a In dates, the month is put before the day (3.21.80) — see 168.
b After the salutation, Americans normally put a colon (Dear Mr
Hawkes:). British people put a comma (Dear Mr Hawkes,). This is
considered very informal in American English.
c Gentlemen is used instead of Dear Sirs.
d Yours faithfully is not used; common endings are Sincerely, Sin­
cerely yours, Yours sincerely or Yours truly.
e Americans are often addressed (and sign their names) with the first
name in full, followed by the initial of a middle name (Keith S.
Parker). This is unusual in Britain.
9 Examples of letters

a Very formal

93 Rushton Lane,
Worcester,
WC6 iRJ.
17 May 1980.
The Secretary,
Western School of Art,
17 Riverside Road,
Bangor,
Gwynedd,
GW6 4AH.
Dear Sir,
I should be grateful if you would send me
information about the regulations for admission to the
Western School of Art. Could you also tell me whether
the School arranges accommodation for students?
I look forward to hearing from you,
Yours faithfully,

Arnold Bassenthwaite
letters 361

b Formal

Rowntree Academy for Young Ladies,

14 Backlaw Street,
Brackley,
Devon,
TQ3 4BD.
13.4.1980.
Dear Mr Jenkinson,
1 wonder whether you would like to come and
lecture to our students again this term? They very much
enjoyed your talk on Etruscan Pottery last November,
and several of them have asked for a repeat performance.
We shall, of course, pay your normal fee. Perhaps you
would be kind enough to telephone me so that we can fix
a date.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,

Diana Rowntree

Envelope

Mr E. K. Jenkinson,
137 Park End Street,
Torquay,
Devon.
TQi5AW
 361 letters
c Informal

48A Marylebone Street,

London,
WiB 6DH.
March 19 th.

Dear Keith,
Thanks for putting me up last weekend. It was
good to see you again.
One thing - I left a pair of jeans behind in my
bedroom. Do you think you could send them on to me?
I’ll pay for the postage next time I see you.
Thanks again,
Yours,

Envelope

Keith Parker,
4 Horsebrush Close,
Oxford.
OX 1 3JB
fetters 361

d Neutral

2.5 Kensington Grove,

London W8.
June 3rd, 1980
Dear Alison,
I’m writing to thank you so very much for having
Jonathan and myself to stay at Lockey House last week.
It’s been a long time since we were so relaxed, and enjoyed
ourselves so much. This was entirely due to the friendly
welcome from you and Stephen. And of course being away
from town and in a quiet village, in a fine house with a
lovely garden, must have helped!
We’re looking forward enormously to having you
two here for the first weekend of July. Jonathan has
already booked seats for ‘Private Lives’ at The Royal
Court on the Saturday night - as well as a table at La Tour
Blanche for supper afterwards.
Matiy thanks again for giving us such a wonderful
time.
With love from us both,

Envelope

Mrs A. S. H. Kemp,
Lockey House,
Langford,
Lechlade,
Gloucestershire.
 363 like

SSEse 3®2
Like is similar to prepositions in its use: it is followed by nouns,
object pronouns (me, him, etc), and by -ing forms.
His sister looks just like him.
I want to do something nice, like going to a party.
For the difference between like and as, see 73; for the structure
What. . . like?, see 299.

like and would like 363

Typical mistakes: *Do you like something to drink now?
‘Do you like dancing?’ — *‘Yes, please.’
“Would you like playing tennis with me?
‘Do you like ballet?’ — *‘Yes, I like.’
1 When like is followed by a verb, it usually means ‘enjoy’ (habitual­
ly) or ‘choose’ (as a habit).
‘Do you like dancing?’ — ‘Yes, but I don’t often get the chance.’
I very much like swimming in the sea.
In the evenings, I like to see friends or listen to music.
Like can be followed by an -ing form (especially when it means
‘enjoy’), or by an infinitive. For details, see 339.3.
Note that like cannot normally be used without an object.
‘Do you like ballet?’ — ‘Yes, I like it.’ (Or: ‘Yes, I do.’)
Say some more nice things to me. I like it. (Not: */ like.)

2 The conditional would like is very often used to mean ‘want’,

especially in polite requests and offers. Would like is always fol­
lowed by the infinitive.
Would you like something to drink now?
Would you like to play tennis with me?
Would you like to help me with the washing up?
I’d like to go for a walk, if that’s all right.
‘How about playing tennis?’ - ‘Yes, I’d like to.’
Note the use of to (instead of the whole infinitive phrase) in the last
example. For details, see 328.
3 Like (without would) often has a similar meaning to want in
subordinate clauses (especially in expressions such as if you like,
when you like, what you like).
Come when you like.
‘Can I go now?’ — ‘If you like.’
Note that in the>e cases, like can be used without an object.
like . . . very much 364

4 Would like can be used with a perfect infinitive (see 319) to talk
about things which we wish we had done.
I’d like to have seen his face when he opened the letter. (= / wish
I’d seen his face . . .)
I’d like to have gone to university.
This idea can also be expressed with the structure / would have
liked (followed by an ordinary infinitive or a perfect infinitive).
I'd have liked to see his face when he opened the letter.
I'd have liked to have seen his face when he opened the letter.

like . . . very much, word order 364

Typical mistake: *1 like very much going to parties and dancing
and meeting people.
It is unusual to separate the verb from the object in English. In the
example above, like going should come together; very much (or any
other adverb) must be put either before the verb or after the object.
/ very much like going to parties and dancing and meeting people.
1 like you and your sister very much.
For more information about the position of adverbs, see 23- 25.

likely 365
Likely has a similar meaning to probable, but the grammar is a little
different.
1 It can be used in infinitive structures.
I’m likely to be very busy tomorrow.
Are you likely to be out late tonight?
Do you think it’s likely to rain?
We’re unlikely to need any outside help.
2 Like probable, it can be used in a construction with It. . . that. . .
It’s quite likely that the meeting will go on until late.
3 Like probable, it can be used as an ordinary adjective, placed before
a noun.
What’s a likely date for the next General Election?
For the exact meanings of likely, see the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.
 367 look
long and for a long time 366
1 Typical mistake: *l’ve been waiting tong for this opportunity.

Long (as an adverb in expressions of time) is most common in

negative sentences and questions. In affirmative sentences it is
unusual (except with so, too, as ... as .. . and enough), and is
normally replaced by (for) a long time.
I’ve been waiting for a long time for this opportunity.
‘Have you been working here long?’ - ‘No, not long, but my
brother’s been in the firm for a very long time.’
Far, much and many are also avoided in affirmative sentences: see
2-33 and 393.
2 In negative sentences, different meanings are sometimes possible
with long and a long time.
He didn’t speak for long means ‘He only spoke for a short time’.
He didn’t speak for a tong time can mean ‘It was a long time
before he spoke’.
He didn’t work for long means ‘He soon stopped working’.
He didn’t work for a long time can mean ‘He was unemployed
for a long time’.
•A long time can refer to the negative idea expressed by the whole
verb (e g didn’t speak); long only refers to the idea expressed by the
infinitive (eg speak).

look 367
Typical mistakes: “You're looking very unhappily - what's the
matter?
*The boss looked at me angry.
Look has two meanings.
1 One of them is similar to appear or seem: if we say that a person
looks tired, or looks angry, we mean that he seems tired or angry,
he shows it by his expression or behaviour. In this meaning, look is
followed by adjectives, not adverbs. (Other verbs like this are be,
seem, appear,sound, feel,smell, taste. See 13.) Look can be used in
the present simple or progressive without much difference of mean­
ing.
You’re looking very unhappy — what’s the matter? (Or: You look)
Jacqueline looks excited today.
2 The other meaning of look is related to seeing. (It is most often used
with prepositions or adverbial particles, eg at, back, into, out of,
look (at) 368

round, through.) For example, if you look at something, you point

your eyes towards it, try to see it, study it with your eyes. In this
meaning, look is used with adverbs.
The boss looked at me angrily.
She looked excitedly round the room.
J spent the evening looking unhappily through my photograph
album.
For the difference between look, watch and see, see 368.

look (at), watch and see 368

1 See is used when we just want to say that visual impressions come to
our eyes. Seeing is not always deliberate - it may be accidental; you
can see things without thinking about them, and even without
realizing that you are seeing them.
I suddenly saw a spider on the ceiling.
1 waved at my father, but he didn’t even see me.

2 Look (at) suggests concentration, intention: if we look, we are

paying attention or trying to see what is there.
/ looked but could see nothing.
He looked at her with his eyes full of love.
Look carefully at this — I think it’s important.
(Note the use of at when look is used with an object.)
3 Watch is like look (at), but suggests that something is happening, or
going to happen. We watch things that change, move, or develop.
Watch that man — I want to know everything he does.
I usually spend Saturday afternoon watching a football match.

4 Note that although we say watch TV, we usually use see to talk
about public performances of plays and films. Compare:
Did you watch 'The Avengers’ last night? (A TV serial)
Have you seen 'Last Tango in Paris’? (A film)
We saw an extraordinary production of ‘Hamlet’ last summer.

5 See is not usually used in progressive tenses. Instead, we use can or

could with the infinitive (see 129).
I can see somebody coming. (Not: *1 am seeing . . .)
For other meanings of see, see 543.
For structures with the infinitive and the -ing form after these verbs,
see 288.
The difference between hear and listen to is similar to the difference
between see and look at/watch. See 287.
 371 make

look after and look for 369

Typical mistake: *1 spent ages looking after her before I found her.
Look after means the same as take care of. Nurses and doctors look
after patients; parents look after small children. Look for means try
to find. Compare:
Could you look after the kids while I go shopping?
I spent ages looking for her before I found her.
We do not usually use look for to talk about going to get somebody
if we know where they are. It is better to use fetch or get.
I’ve got to go to the station at three o’clock to fetch Daniel. (Not:
*... to look for Daniel.)

look here! 370

Look.here does not normally mean look at this or look at me. It is
often an exclamation, usually rather angry, and means something
like Yom can’t do that or Yom can’t say that.
Look here! What do you think you’re doing with my camera?
Look here! I’m not going to take orders from you.

make 371
1 Typical mistakes: *1 made her to cry.
*1 made her crying.
When make is followed by an object and verb, we use the infinitive
without to.
I made her cry.
I can't make the TV work.
In passive structures, however, the infinitive with to is used.
She was made to repeat the whole story.
For information about other verbs which are used in the same way,
see 463.
2 Make (meaning ‘prepare’, ‘manufacture’, etc) can be used in a
structure with two objects.
Can you make me a birthday cake by Friday?
For more information about this structure, see 617.
For the difference between make and do, see 180.
marry 372

marry 372
Typical mistake: *She married with a builder.
The verb marry is used without a preposition.
She married a builder.
Will you marry me?
When there is no direct object, it is more common to use the
expression get married (especially in informal English).
Lulu and Joe got married last week. (Lulu and Joe married... is
not so natural.)
When are you going to get married?
The expressions get married and be married can both be used with
the preposition to and an object.
She got married to her childhood sweetheart.
I’ve been married to you for sixteen years and I still don’t know
what goes on inside your head.

the matter (with) 373

The expression the matter (with) is used in sentences with some­
thing, anything, nothing and what, with a similar meaning to
wrong (with).
Is anything the matter?
Something’s the matter with my foot.
Nothing’s the matter with the car — it's just that you’re a bad
driver.-
What’s the matter with Frank today?
There is often used as an introductory subject for anything, some­
thing and nothing (see 600.5).
Is there anything the matter?
There’s something the matter with the washing machine.

no matter and it doesn’t matter 374

Typical mistake: *No matter what you say.
1 The expression no matter is a conjunction, and is used to join two
clauses together. It cannot be used with only one clause.
No matter what you say, 1 won’t believe you.
No matter is used with who, what, which, where, when and how.
Clauses with no matter who, no matter what, etc are rather like
clauses with whoever, whatever, etc (see 212). They suggest that
the action they refer to will not make any difference. No matter
 375 may

what you say, I won't believe you (or Whatever you say, 1 won’t
believe you) gives the impression that explanations are useless; they
will make no difference to the speaker’s opinion.
Note the use of a present tense with a future meaning after no
matter (see 595).
No matter who telephones, say I’m out.
No matter where you go, you’ll find Coca-Cola.
No matter when you come, you’ll be more than welcome.
No matter how hard you try, you’ll never lose your English
accent.
Sometimes an expression like no matter what, no matter when is
used at the end of a sentence without a following verb.
I'll always love you, no matter whet. (=... no matter what
happens.)
There is a slight difference between clauses with whoever, what­
ever, etc and clauses with no matter who, etc. A clause with no
matter cannot be used as the subject or object of the other clause.
Clauses with whoever etc can be used in this way (see 212-218).
I’ll eat whatever you gwe me. (But not: * I’ll eat no matter what
you give me.) •

2 The expression it doesn’t matter is not a conjunction, and it can be

followed by one clause.
It doesn’t matter what you say.

may and might: introduction 375

1 Forms
May and might are ‘modal auxiliary verbs’, like for example can,
must and ought. (For general information about modal auxiliary
verbs, see 388.) These verbs have no infinitives or participles (To
may, *maying, *mighted do not exist); when necessary, we use
other expressions instead.
She wants to be allowed to open a bank account. (Not: *. . . to
may open . . .)
Like other modal verbs, may has no-s on the third person singular
(he may, not *he mays)-, questions and negatives are made without
do (may I?, not *do I may?)-, may and might are followed by
infinitives without to.
He may not agree with your suggestion.
Might it be better to stop now?
Contracted negative forms (see 1 57) exist: mightn't is com mon, but
mayn't is very unusual.
may 376

2 Meanings
The commonest usesofwrty andmight are to talk about possibility,
and to ask for (and give) permission.
We may be moving to London next year.
Yon know, I think it might rain.
'May I have some more wine?’ — ‘Yes, of course you may.’
1 wonder if I might ask you a favour?
For details of these uses, see the following sections.
Can and could arc also used to talk about possibility and permis­
sion. For the differences between can, could, may and might, see
130 and 1 31.

may and might: permission 376

1 May andmight are both used toask for permission. They are rather
formal; might carries the idea of being tentative or hesitant, and is
not very common.
May I put the television on?
1 wonder if I might have a little more cheese?
May (but notmigbt) is also usedtogiTe permission; way wot is used
to refuse it, or to forbid.
Yes, of course you may.
Students may not stay out after midnight without written permis­
sion.
May not andmustnot (used to forbid) often have similar meanings.
Must not is more emphatic.
Visitors may not (or must not) feed the animals.
In a more informal style, can and could are usually used to ask for
and give permission. (See 131.)
2 May and might can only normally be used to request, give and
refuse permission. They are not usual when we talk about permis­
sion in other ways. Instead, we use can and could. (See 131.)
These days, children can do what they like. (Not: *. . . may do
what they like.)
When I was ten, 1 could watch most TV programmes if I asked
my parents first. (Not: *. . . I might watch . . .)
3 Might does not normally have a past sense, but it can be used as the
past tense of may in ‘indirect speech’ to report the giving of permis­
sion.
‘What are you doing here?’ - ‘The manager said that I might
look round.’
For a detailed explanation of the differences between can, could,
may and might, see 131.
 377 may

may and might: possibility 377

1 May and might are often used to talk about one kind of possibility:
the possibility (‘chance’) that something will happen, or is happen­
ing. Might is not the past of may; it suggests a smaller (present or
future) probability than may.
We may go climbing in the Alps next summer. (= Perhaps we’ll
go . . .)
I wonder where Emma is. She may be with Nelly, I suppose.
Peter might phone. If he does, could you ask him to ring later?
'I might get a job soon.’ - ‘Yes, and pigs might fly.’
May is not used interrogatively in questions about possibility.
Instead, we express the idea in another way.
Is it likely to rain, do you think? (Not: Way it rain?)
Do you think she’s with Nelly? (Not: *May she be . . .?)
2 Might can have a conditional use.
If you took some exercise, you might not be so fat. ( = . . . you
possibly would not be so fat.)
3 Can is not used in the same way as may and might. We use can to
talk about a more general or ‘theoretical’ kind of possibility, not
about the chances that something actually will happen or is hap­
pening. Compare:
One can travel to Holland by boat, by hovercraft or by air.
I may fly to Amsterdam next week.
Could is quite often used in a similar sense to might, however.
War could break out any day.
You could be right.
Note the difference between may not and cannot (or can’t).
She may not be at home. (= It is possible that she is not at home.)
She can’t be at home. ( = It is not possible that she is at home.)
For more details of the differences between may, might, can and
could (referring to possibility), see 130.
4 Both way andmight can be used with perfect infinitives (see 390) to
talk about the possibility that past events happened.
‘Polly’s very late.’ — ‘She may have missed her train.’
‘What do you think that noise was?’ — ‘It might have been a cat.’
Might can also be used in this structure to say that a past event was
possible, but didn’t happen.
You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed
yourself.
may 378

may and might: reported speech 378

After a past reporting verb, may changes to might.
She said, 'May I go?' She asked if she might go.
He said, ‘I may'be late.’ He explained that he might be late.

may . . . but... 379

May can be used in an argument or discussion to refer to a point
which one is going to answer.
It may be a very fast and comfortable car, but it uses a lot of
petrol.
He may be clever, but he hasn’t got much common sense.
She may have had a lovely voice when she was younger, but. . .

may in wishes 380

May is used (especially in a formal style) to introduce wishes for
people’s health, happiness, success, etc.
May you both be happy!
May the New Year bring you all your heart desires.
May God be with you.
May she rest in peace. (Prayer for a dead person.)

may/might as well 381

This phrase is used in an informal style to suggest that one should
do something because there is nothing better, more interesting,
more useful etc to do. There is no real difference between may and
might here.
All the pubs are closing — we may as well go home.
‘Shall we go and see Fred?’ - 'OK, might as well.’
Might as well il'also used to compare one unpleasant situation with
another.
This holiday isn’t much fun — we might as well be back home.
You never listen - I might as well talk to a brick wall.

might after so that, in order that 382

In sentences about the past, might is sometimes used in clauses
introduced by so that or in order that. This is a rather unusual,
literary structure, and in modern English it is more common to use
could or should in these cases (see 561 and 552.2).
Whole populations of American Indians were wiped out so that
civilization might advance.
 385 mean

Builders worked day and night In order that the cathedral might
be finished in time.

might: suggestions, requests and criticisms 383

Might is often used to suggest to people what they should do, or
should have done. The structure can be used to criticize.
Yom might try asking your uncle for a job.
If you’re going to the shops, you might bring me back some
potatoes.
You might ask before you borrow my car.
She might have told me she was going to stay out all night.

maybe and perhaps 384

These two words mean almost the same. Maybe is common in
informal, conversational English, but is not used so often in a
formal style.
Maybe/Perhaps the weather will get better.
Julius Caesar is perhaps the greatest ofShakespeare’s early plays.

mean 385
1 Typical mistake: “Please, what means‘hermetic’?
Mean is used like any other ordinary verb: questions are made with
do.
Please, what does ‘hermetic’ mean?
2 Another mistake is to use mean instead of think, and meaning
instead of opinion.
Typical mistake: *7 mean that the left will win the next elections.
What’s your meaning about it?
Mean and meaning cannot be used in this way. Their main use is to
explain the exact sense of words, expressions, etc. Compare:
‘Hermetic’ means ‘airtight’.
‘Turn out’ has got several meanings.
I think that the left will win the next elections. What’s your
opinion?
3 I mean is very often used in speech when we want to make our ideas
clearer; when we want to protest or complain; or when we are
hesitating about what to say next.
means 386

Would you like to come out tonight? I mean, only if you want to,
of course.
He’s funny — I mean, he’s really strange.
Thirty pounds for a fifty-hour week. I mean, it’s not right, is it?
It's just not right.
He's a very kind person. I mean. . . he . . . he . . . I mean, he’s . . .
he’s very generous.
4 What do you mean? can express anger or protest.
What do you mean, I can’t sing?
What do you mean by waking me up at this time of night?

means 386
1 Note that the singular of this word ( = ‘method’) ends in -s.
In the nineteenth century a new means of communication was
developed — the railway.
2 Typical mistake: *We must help him by all means.
By all means is not the same as by all possible means, or by all the
means in our power. We use by all means (= ‘certainly’, ‘of course’)
to give permission. Compare:
We must help him by all possible means.
‘Can I borrow your sweater?’ — ‘By all means.’
By all means get a new coat, but don’t spend more than £40.
By no means (or not by any means') is not the opposite of by all
means. It is similar to not by a long way, or definitely not.
‘Is that all you’ve got to say?’ — ‘By no means.’
Galileo was by no means the first person to use a telescope.
Mozart is not by any means my favourite composer.
For information about other singular words that end in-s, see 430.

mind 387
Mind (in the sense of object to, dislike, be annoyed by) is usually
found in questions and negative sentences. The expressions Do you
mind . . .? and Would you mind . . .? are often used to ask for
permission, or to ask people to do things. Mind can be followed by
an //-clause or an -ing structure.
I’d like to ask you a few questions, If you don’t mind.
‘Do you mind the smell of tobacco?’ — ‘Not at all.’
Would you mind opening the window? (Or: ... If I opened ...?)
‘Do you mind if I smoke?’ — ‘No, go ahead.’
I don't mind him (or his) coming in late if he doesn’t wake me up.
 388 modal auxiliary verbs

The difference between him and his in the last example is a matter
of style. In modern English, we use object-forms more often than
possessives with -ing forms in informal, conversational style. (See
333-)
After 1 don’t mind, a present tense is usually used with a future
meaning.
/ don’t mind what you do.

modal auxiliary verbs: general 388

When the three auxiliary verbs be, have and do are used to make
tenses, passives and questions, they have important grammatical
functions but no real ‘dictionary meaning’. (If you want to under­
stand expressions like Do you smoke? Where have you been? or I
think this was written by Mozart, it is not very useful to look up Jo,
have and was in the dictionary.) There is another group of auxiliary
verbs which generally have more ‘dictionary meaning’. They are
can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, ought and
need. (Need can also be an ordinary non-auxiliary verb.) These
verbs are often called mo dal auxiliaries. They have several points in
common which make them quite different from other verbs.
1 They are not used (except sometimes in the negative) to talk about
things which are definitely happening, or have definitely happened.
Modal verbs are used when we say that we expect things to happen,
or that events are possible, or necessary, or improbable, or impos­
sible, or when we say that things did not happen, or that we are not
sure whether they happened. (For more details, see 389.)
I can’t swim.
She could be in London or Paris or Tokyo — nobody knows.
I may come tomorrow if 1 have time.
You might have told me Frances was ill.
What would you do if you had a free year?
I think they should have consulted a doctor earlier.
2 Modal verbs have no-s on the third person singular; questions and
negatives are made without Jo; they are followed by the infinitive
without to of other verbs (except for ought).
You needn’t look at me like that. Can your mother drive?
He must be here by nine o’clock. That ought to be enough.
3 Modal verbs have no infinitives, and other expressions are used
instead, when necessary.
I’d like to be able to skate. (Not: *... to can skate.)
You’re going to have to work harder. (Not: *. . . to must work
harder.)
modal auxiliary verbs 389

4 Modal verbs have no past forms. Could and would are used with
past meanings in some cases (but never to say that particular events
actually happened on definite occasions; see i 28, 636). Otherwise,
other expressions are used.
After climbing for six hours, we managed to reach the top. (Not:
*. . . we could reach the top.)
I had to go to Chester yesterday. (Not: *1 must . . .)

5 Modal verbs can be used with perfect infinitives (see 390) to talk
about things which did not happen, or which we are not sure about,
in the past.
Yom should have told me at once.
Her car may have broken down.
Some modal verbs have weak pronunciations (see 622). Will,shall,
would and should (conditional auxiliary) have contracted forms,
and all modal verbs can have contracted negative forms (see 157).
What shall /JI/ we do? 1 hope you can /kn/ come.
We'll see you tomorrow evening, then.
I’d keep quiet if I were you.
You can’t help liking her.
You shouldn't be so pessimistic.
It won't make much difference if we’re late.
For detailed information about particular modal verbs, look up the
entry for each verb.

modal auxiliary verbs: certainty, probability, possibility 389

Each modal auxiliary verb has at least two meanings. One use of all
modal verbs is to talk about the possibility or probability of a
situation or event. Some of these verbs are used to say that a
situation is certain; others that it is probable or possible; others that
it is impossible.
1 Certainty
Verbs used: shall, shan’t, will, won’t, must, can’t, couldn’t, would,
wouldn’t.
1 shall see you tomorrow.
I shan’t be late.
Things will be all right.
It won’t rain this evening.
You must be tired.
That can’t be John - he’s in Dublin.
I knew it couldn't be John.
This child would one day rule all England.
I told you you wouldn’t be able to do it.
 390 modal auxiliary verbs
2 Probability
Verbs used: should, shouldn’t, ought to, oughtn’t to, may (not)
He should/ought to be here soon.
It Shouldn’t/oughtn’t to be difficult to get there.
We may be buying a new house.
The water may not be warm enough to swim.
3 Weak probability
Verbs used: might, might not, could.
I might see you again — who knows.
Things might not be so bad as they seem.
We could all be millionaires one day.
4 Theoretical or habitual possibility
Verb used: can.
How many people can get into a telephone box?
Scotland can be very warm in September.
5 Conditional certainty or possibility
Verbs used: would, wouldn’t, could, couldn’t, might, mightn’t.
If we had enough time, things would be easy.
I wouldn't do this if 1 didn’t have to.
If John came we could all go home.
I couldn't do anything without your help.
If you stopped criticizing I might get some work done.
It mightn’t be a bad thing if we took a holiday next week.
The other meanings of modal.verbs are varied, and depend on the
particular verb. Some of them are used to refer to obligation, others
to permission, others to willingness, ability, or futurity. For details,
see the sections on the particular verbs.

modal auxiliary verbs with perfect infinitives 390

Modal verbs usually refer to the present or the future (except for
certain uses of could, would and must-, see 128, 636 and 395).
However, all modal verbs except shall (in some of their meanings)
can be used together with perfect infinitives to talk about the past.
(The perfect infinitive without to is used, except after ought.) This
structure h’as a special meaning: it is used for speculating (thinking
about what possibly happened) or imagining (thinking about how
things could have been different).
She’s two hours late - what can have happened?
You could have told me you were coming.
I think I may'have annoyed Aunt Mary.
more 391

Yow were crazy to ski down there - you might have killed
yourself.
George is behaving very strangely. I think he must have been
drinking.
‘1 met her soon after the war.’ — ‘Oh, yes. That will have been
around March 1946, I suppose.’
The potatoes would have been better with a bit more salt.
The plant’s dead. Maybe I should have given it more water.
We ought to have got here earlier: the train’s packed.
You needn’t have brought wine — we’ve got plenty.
For more details, see the entries for particular verbs.

more 391
Typical mistake: *More of people in Britain are drinking wine
these days.

1 More is a determiner (see 171); it is the comparative of much and

many. It can be used together with an uncountable or plural noun,
without of.
We need more time.
More people are drinking wine these days.
More of is used before a noun which has a determiner (article,
possessive or demonstrative) with it. More of is also used before
personal pronouns.
Can I have some more of the red wine, please?
You can’t have any more of my tobacco.
I don’t think any more of them want to come.

2 More can also be used as a pronoun, without a noun.

I’d like some more, please.
For the use of more to make comparative adjectives and adverbs,
see 142— 148. For the use of far, much and many with more, see
618.2.

most 392
Typical mistakes: *The most people agree with my attitude.
*Most of people are afraid of something.
1 Most (meaning ‘the majority of’ or ‘the largest part of’) js a detp.r-
miner (see 171). It can be used before a noun alone, or a noun with
an adjective. It cannot be used directly together with another
determiner (like the, my, these).
Most people agree with my attitude.
 393 much, many, a lot

Most meat is expensive.

Most pop music drives me out of my mind.
2 Most-can. also Jbe_us.e.dL.a.s_a .pronoun, like other determiners (see
171.3). Together witho/,.it can be used before another determiner
_PL_another pronoun.'
I’ve eaten most of the salad:
I’m pretty happy most of the time.
I’ve read most of your books.
Most of us feel the same about the war.
Most of cannot be used before a noun that has no determiner
(article, possessive or demonstrative word). You can say most, of
the people, or most of these people, but not *most of people. (But
you can say most people-, see i above.)
3 Most can also be used with an adjective to make a superlative form,
and as the superlative oimuch or many. (In this meaning, it can be
used after the or other determiners.)
He’s one of my most interesting friends.
'You’ve got the most money, so you can pay for the rest of us.
For details of these uses of most, see 142— 148.

much, many, a lot etc 393

Typical mistakes: “John’s got many friends because he’s got much
money.
“Celia talks much.
Much and many are used most often in questions and negative
sentences. In affirmative sentences they are not so common, and we
generally use expressions like lots (of), a lot (of) and plenty (of).
This is particularly true in an informal style (for instance, in conver­
sation). Compare:
'How much money have you got?’ — ‘It’s OK, I’ve got plenty.’
‘Didyou have much trouble with the customs?’ — ‘Rather a lot.’
‘There isn’t much food left, is there?’ — ‘There’s lots of bread and
soup.’
Celia talks a lot.
He’s got plenty of men friends, but he doesn’t know many girls.
We’ve played lots of matches this season, but we haven’t won
many.
A lot of my friends are thinking of emigrating, but I don’t suppose
many of them will in the end.
There is not much difference between aJpJ_(Q.f)..an.djQisJof)-, they
can both be used with singular_.LuncountabJe)_pr.plural_woxds.
must 394

When a lot is used with a plural word, the verb is plural; when lots
is used with a singular word, the verb is singular. Compare:
A lot of us were invited at the last minute.
'Where are my shirts?’ — ‘There are a lot in the washing machine.'
There’s still lots of snow in the garden.
Lot and plenty are rather conversational words. In a more formal
style, a great deal (of) (+ singular) and a large number (of) (+ plur­
al) are often used in affirmative sentences instead of much and
many.
Mr Lucas has spent a great deal of time in the Far East.
The auditors have found a large number of mistakes in the
accounts.
In a more formal style,much andmany are also quite often used in
affirmative sentences.
Much research has been carried out in order to establish the
causes of cancer. In the opinion of many scientists, . . .
Much and many are perfectly normal in affirmative sentences after
too, so and as, and in some expressions with very.
Celia talks too much.
You’ve bought too many tomatoes.
There’s so much violence these days.
Try to get as many opinions as you can.
Thank you very much.
I enjoyed the concert very much.
Other words which are often avoided in affirmative sentences are
far and long (referring to time). See 233 and 366.
For other uses of much and many see 618.2 and 52.9.2.

must /mAst, mas(t)/: forms and meanings 394

1 Forms
Must is a ‘modal auxiliary verb’ (see 388- 390). It has no infinitive
or participles (*to must, *musting, “musted do not exist), and no
past tense. Other expressions (for example, forms of have to) are
used instead when necessary. Compare:
I must get up at five tomorrow.
I hate to have to get up in the morning.
We must tell Mother.
Did you have to tell her?
Like other modal verbs, must has no -s on the third person singular
(he must, not *he musts)-, questions and negatives are made without
do (Must I?, not *Do I must?); must is followed by the infinitive
without to (eg 7 must go). There is a contracted negative form
mustn’t /'mASnt/.
 394 must

He mustn't find out what’s happening.

Must has a weak form (see 622).
We must /mas/ get moving as soon as possible.
2 Meanings
a obligation
Must can be used to give strong advice or orders, to oneself or other
people.
I really must stop smoking.
You must be here by 8 o’clock at the latest.
Generally, when must is used, the obligation comes from the
speaker (as in the two examples above). If we talk about or report
an obligation that comes from ‘outside’ (a regulation, or an order
from somebody else, for example) must is possible, but have to is
more common (see 285).
I have to work from 9.00 a.m. till 5.00 p.m.
In questions, must is used to ask about the wishes or intentions of
the person one is speaking to.
Must I clean all the rooms?
Why must you always leave your dirty clothes in the bathroom?
In negative sentences, don’t need to, needn’t or don’t have to is used
to say that there is no obligation; mustn’t is used to tell people not
to do things. Compare:
You needn't work tomorrow if you don’t want to. (Not: *You
mustn’t. . .)
You mustn’t move any of the papers on my desk.
Must can only be used to refer to present and future obligation. To
talk about the past, had to is used.
I had to leave early because I wasn’t feeling well.
b deduction
Must can be used to say that we are sure about something (because
it is logically necessary).
Mary must have some problem: she keeps crying.
’I’m in love.’ — ‘That must be nice.’
There’s the doorbell. It must be Roger.
Must is only used in this way in affirmative sentences. In questions
and negatives, we use can and can’t instead.
That can’t be the postman — it’s only seven o’clock.
What do you think this letter can mean?
Must is used with the perfect infinitive for deductions about the
past (can and can’t in questions and negatives).
‘We went to Majorca.’ — ‘That must have been nice.’
‘The lights have gone out.’ — ‘A fuse must hawr
must 395

I don’t think he can have heard you. Call again.

Where can John have put the matches? He can't have thrown
them away.

must in reported speech 395

In reported speech (see 533—538), must can be used after a past
reporting verb as if it were a past tense.
I decided that I musi stop smoking.
1 felt there must be something wrong.

names and titles 393

1 Talking about people
When we talk about people, we can name them in three ways.
(a) We can use the first name (also called Christian name, or — in
America - given name). This is informal: first names are used
mostly to refer to people we know well and are friendly with, or to
children.
Where’s Peter? He said he’d meet me outside the cinema.
How’s Maud getting on at school?
(b) We can use the first name and surname (= family name). This
can be formal or informal.
Isn’t that Peter Connolly, the actor?
We’re going on holiday with Mary and Daniel Sinclair.
(c) We can use a ‘title’ (Mr’ Mrs, Ms or Miss) with the surname. This
is more formal, and is used when we do not know people, wish to
suggest respect, or need to be polite.
Can I speak to Mr Lewis, please?
We’ve got a new teacher called Mrs Campbell.
Ask Miss Andrews to come in, please.
Note the pronunciations of the titles: Mr /'mista(r)/, Mrs /'misiz/,
Ms /miz/ and^Miss /mis/. Mr (= Mister) is not usually written in
full, and the other words cannot be.
Ms is used to refer to women who do not wish to have to say
whether they are married or not. It is common in America, and
becoming common in Britain.
Dr /'dvkta(r)/ is used as a title for doctors (medical and other).
Professor (abbreviated Prof) is used as a title only for certain
high-ranking university teachers. Note that the wives of doctors
and professors do not ‘share’ their husbands’ titles. We do not say,
for example, *Mrs Dr Smith.
The choice between these three ways of naming people depends
on several things: how well we know the people (and how well the
people we are talking to know them); how much respect we want to
show; the ages of the people concerned; and what is usual in the
 397 nationality words

social group. Ir is unusual to talk about people by using all three

elements (title + first name + surname): we would only say Vfr
Peter Matthews if we wanted to be very precise - for instance, to
distinguish him from Dr John Matthews.
The surname alone is often used to talk about public men (politi­
cians, artists, and so on).
I don't think much of Hughes as a dramatist.
Wilson was a very skilful politician.
Surnames alone are also sometimes used for male employees, and
for members of all-male groups (eg soldiers, schoolboys, footbal­
lers).
Tell Patterson to come and see me at once.
Let’s put Billows in goal and move Carter up.
The surname alone can also be used to talk about women: this is
more common in the United States than in Britain.
2 Talking to people
Talking to people is not quite the same as talking about them. We
have a choice between only two possibilities.
(a) We can use the first name. This is usually friendly and informal.
Hello, Pamela. How are you?
(b) We can use title + surname. This is more formal or respectful.
Good morning, Mr Williamson.
Note that we do not usually use both the first name and the
surname of somebody we are talking to. It would be unusual to say
‘Hello, Peter Matthews’ for example.
Note also that .Vlr, Mrs, Ms and Miss are not usually used alone. We
do not say, for instance, *Good morning, Mr. (But children in
Britain often address women schoolteachers as Miss.}
For the forms used on the envelopes of letters, see 361.
For ways of introducing people, see 342.

nationality words 397

In order to talk about people and things from a particular country,
you have to know three words.
(a) The adjective used to refer to the country, its culture, products,
etc (e g Greek sculpture, Danish design, French wine, Japanese
industry}.
(b) The word used for a person from the country (eg a Greek,
a Dane, a Frenchman, a Japanese}.
(c) The word used (with the definite article) to refer to the whole
nation (eg the Greeks, the Danes, the French, the Japanese}.
Usually, this is very easy, because the word for a person is the
same as the adjective, and the word for the whole nation is the
plural of this (Greek, a Greek, the Greeks-, Mexican, a Mexican,the
nationality words 397

Mexicans). However, in some cases there is a special form for the

word for the person, and this is used in the plural for the nation
(Danish, but a Dane, the Danes); in some other cases, there is a
special form for the word for the person, but the word for the
nation is the same as the adjective (French, a Frenchman, the
French).
Nationality words which end in -s, -sh, -ch (except Czech) or -ese
have plurals without -s (three Swiss; the Japanese).
The names of national languages are usually the same as the
adjective forms (Greek, French, Danish), but there are one or two
exceptions (see below).
Note that all ‘nationality words’ (adjectives as well as nouns) have
capital letters.
Group 1 (regular)
country adjective person nation
Czechoslovakia Czech a Czech the Czechs
Greece Greek a Greek the Greeks
Thailand Thai a Thai the Thais
Also Yugoslav, Iraqi, Israeli, Pakistani, Eskimo, Filipino, Basque,
Arab. Note the two adjective forms Arab and Arabic. Arabic is used
for the language.
In this group come all the adjectives ending in -(i)an.
America American an American the Americans
Angola Angolan an Angolan the Angolans
Belgium. Belgian a Belgian the Belgians
Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian the Brazilians
Chile Chilean a Chilean the Chileans
Germany German a German the Germans
Iran Iranian an Iranian the Iranians
Italy Italian an Italian the Italians
Laos Laotian a Laotian the Laotians
Mexico Mexican a Mexican the Mexicans
Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan the Moroccans
Norway Norwegian a Norwegian the Norwegians
Russia Russian a Russian the Russians
In this group come all the adjectives ending in -ese.
China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese
Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese the Portuguese
Also Japanese, Javanese, Burmese, Lebanese, Sudanese, Viet­
namese, Congolese. These words have no -s on the plural. Swiss
also comes in this group.
In this group come all the countries whose names end in -a or -o.
 398 near (to)
Group 2 (special word for the person; word for the nation the
plural of this)
country adjective person nation
Denmark Danish a Dane the Danes
Finland Finnish a Finn the Finns
Iceland Icelandic an Icelander the Icelanders
New Zealand New Zealand a New the New
Zealander Zealanders
Poland Polish a Pole the Poles
Scotland Scottish/ a Scot the Scots
Scotch
Sweden Swedish a Swede the Swedes
Turkey Turkish a Turk the Turks
Also Jewish, a Jew, the Jews.
The Scots prefer the adjective Scottish, but other people often use
the word Scotch. The whisky is always called Scotch. A Scot can
also be called a Scotsman.
Group 3 (special word for the person; word for the nation the
same as the adjective)
country adjective person nation
Britain British a Briton/ the British
Britisher
England English an Englishman the English
France French a Frenchman the French
Holland Dutch a Dutchman the Dutch
Ireland Irish an Irishman the Irish
Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish
Wales Welsh a Welshman the Welsh
The words ending in -man have feminine forms in -woman and
plurals in -men and -women. There is no difference in pronuncia­
tion between the singular and plural: Dutchman and Dutchmen are
both pronounced /'dAtfman/. British people do not usually use the
words Briton or Britisher. Briton appears mostly in newspaper
headlines - (eg TWO BRITONS KILLED IN AIR CRASH) - and
Britisher is used mainly by non-British speakers such as Americans
or Australians (see in).

near (to) 398

Near, nearer and nearest can all be used (without to) as preposi­
tions.
W<? live near the station. Come and sit nearer me.
Who’s the girl sitting nearest the door?
need 399

However, nearer and nearest are more often used with to.
I tried to get nearer to the fire.
I like the picture that’s nearest to the window, over there.
Near is mainly used with to when we are not talking about physical
or geographical closeness.
I came very near to hitting him.
1 could see that she was very near to tears.

need 399

1 Forms
Need has two sets of forms: those of a ‘modal auxiliary verb’ (see
38.8), and those of an ordinary verb. When weed is used like a modal
verb, it has no -s on the third person singular, no infinitives or
participles, and no past tense; questions and negatives are made
without do, and the verb is followed by the infinitive without to.
There is a contracted negative needn’t.
He needn’t stay if he doesn’t want to.
When weed is used as an ordinary verb, it has-s on the third person
singular present, questions and negatives are made with do, there
are infinitives and participles and a past tense (to need, needing,
needed), and the verb is’followed by the infinitive with to.
One needs to have a visa to go to the United States.
Did you really need to spend all that money on one pair ofshoes?

2 Use
a The ordinary verb forms of weed are much more common than the
modal auxiliary forms. The only modal form which is often used is
needn’t. Question forms like Need we? and Need he? sometimes
sound unnatural in conversation, and modal forms are not used at
all in ordinary affirmative sentences (*He need go now is impos­
sible).
You needn't try to explain. (Or: you don't need to try . . .)
Do we need to stay this evening? (Or: Need we stay this evening?)
He needs to get a new pair of trousers. (Not: *He need get. . .)
When modal forms are used, they usually refer to immediate neces­
sity; they are often used to ask for or give permission — usually
permission not to do something. Ordinary verb forms are more
common when we talk about habitual, ‘general’ necessity. Com­
pare:
(1) We needn't book a table - the restaurant won’t be full this
evening.
Need I do the washing-up? I’m in a hurry.
(2) Do you need to get a visa if you go to Mexico?
 400 needn't

b Present-tense forms oineed can be used to talk about the future, but
will need to is often used to give advice. Compare:
(i) Need I come in early tomorrow? (Or: Do I need to come in
...?)
1 need to get the car serviced soon.
(z) You 7/ need to start work soon ifyou want to pass your exams.
c Affirmative modal forms are possible after negative verbs, and in
sentences which express doubt or negative ideas.
I wonder if tve need take sleeping-bags.
I don't think he need go just yet.
The only thing you need do is fill in this form. (= Yom don't need
to do anything else.)
Note that these affirmative modal forms are mainly used in a
formal style. In informal usage we would probably use the ordinary
verb forms.
I wonder if we need to take sleeping-bags.
I don’t think he needs to go just yet.
The only thing you need to do is fill in this form.
d Note the difference between needn’t and mustn’t. Needn’t is used
to say that there is no obligation; mustn’t expresses an obligation
not to do something (see 394.2). Compare:
You needn’t tell Jennifer — she already knows.
You mustn’t tell Margaret — 1 don’t want her to know.
Necessity can also be expressed by using must and have to-, see 394
and 285.
Another verb that has both modal and ordinary forms is dare; see
166.
For the structure needn’t + perfect infinitive, see the next section.
For the structure need . . . -ing (with a passive meaning), see 335.
For the structure There's no need to .. ., see 600.

needn’t + perfect infinitive 400

If you say that somebody needn’t have done something, it means
that he did it, but that it was unnecessary: he wasted his time.
You needn’t have woken me up: I don’t have to go to work today.
I needn’t have bought all that wine — only three people came.
The ordinary past [didn’t need to) is not quite the same. Compare:
She needn’t have hurried. (It wasn’t necessary to hurry, but she
did.)
She didn’t need to hurry. (It wasn’t necessary to hurry; we don’t
know whether she did.)
I needn’t have gone to the station.' (I made an unnecessary
journey.)
negative sentences 401

I didn’t need to go to the station. (It was unnecessary to go — I

don’t say whether I went or not, but I probably didn’t.)
For general information about the use of modal verbs with perfect
infinitives, see 390.

negative sentences 401

1 Basic rules

Typical mistakes: *1 don’t can swim.

*1 like not this soup.
Negative sentences are made by putting not after an auxiliary verb,
if there is one in the clause (eg is not, have not, cannot). In an
informal style, contracted negatives are usual (eg isn’t, haven’t,
can’t)-, see 157.
We haven’t forgotten you.
It isn’t true. I can’t swim.
You shouldn’t be so silly.
When there is no auxiliary verb in the clause, do is used with not to
make negatives.
I like the salad, but I don’t like this soup.
He wants a girl friend, but he doesn’t want to get married.
You didn’t understand what I said, did you?
Have, need, dare and used are sometimes used as auxiliary verbs
and sometimes as ordinary verbs. For this reason, their negative
forms are sometimes made without do and sometimes with do.
You haven’t got a light, have you?
I don’t often have headaches.
For details of these verbs, see 180-183, 399, 166 and 614.
2 Imperatives
Negative imperative sentences (see 314) begin with don’t +verb.
Don’t worry - I’ll look after you.
Don’t believe a word he says.
Don’t can also be used before be (see 95).
Don’t be so rude.
3 Infinitives and -Ing forms

Typical mistake: *It’s important to don’t worry.

Negative infinitives are made by putting not before the infinitive.
Do is not used. Negative -ing forms are made in the same way.
 401 negative sentences

It’s important not to worry.

I told her not to be late.
What I enjoy most on holiday is not working.
4 Other parts of a sentence
Not can be used with other parts of a sentence, not only the verb.
Ask the vicar, not his wife.
Come early, but not before six.
It’s working, but not properly.
It is unusual to use not with the subject. Instead of saying, for
instance, *Not George came, but his brother, we would probably
say It wasn’t George that came, . . . (see 138).
For the difference between not and no with nouns, see 414.
5 Other negative words
Other words besides not can give a sentence a negative meaning.
Compare:
He’s not at home.
He’s never at home.
He’s seldom/rarely/scarcely ever/hardly ever at home.
The auxiliary do is not used with these other words. Compare:
He doesn’t work.
He never works. (Not: *He does never work.)
He seldom /rarely/scarcely ever/hardly ever works.
For more details of the use of these words, see 403.
6 ‘Non-assertive words’
Some words (for example some, something, already) are not usu­
ally used in questions and negative sentences. Instead, we use other
words (for example any, anything, yet). Compare:
I’ve found some mushrooms.
I haven’t found any mushrooms.
She’s already awake.
Is she awake yet?
For information about the use of ‘non-assertive words’ like any,
yef, see 418. *’r
7 ‘Transferred negation’
When verbs like think, believe, suppose, imagine are used to intro­
duce negative ideas, it is generally the first verb [think, etc) that is
made negative.
I don’t think you’ve met my wife. (Not: *1 think you haven’t met
...)
For details bf this, see 402.
transferred negation 402

8 Negative questions
Negative questions are often used to express special meanings (for
instance surprise).
Haven't you finished work yet? It's bed-time.
For details, see 404.

transferred negation 402

1 Typical mistake: */ think you haven’t met my wife.
When verbs like think, believe, suppose, imagine are used to intro­
duce negative ideas, it is generally the introducing verb (think, etc)
that is made negative.
1 don’t think you've met my wife.
1 don’t believe she’s at home, but I’ll go and see.
Hope is an exception (see 297).
I hope it won’t rain. (Not: I don’t hope . . .)
2 These verbs can be used in a negative 'short answer’ structure with
not after the verb.
'Will it rain?' - 7 hope not.'
‘It's not worth trying any more.’ — 'No, I suppose not.’
'Is my car ready?' — ‘I believe not.’
With believe, imagine and think, the structure with not ... so is
more common than the structure with not after the verb. Both
structures are common with suppose.
'Are they open on Tuesdays?’ — ‘I don’t think so.'
'Is Lydia coming?’ - 'I don’t suppose so.’/‘I suppose not.’
Note that *1 don’t hope so is impossible; we always say / hope not.
For the structure with so (J think so, etc) see 558.
3 When seem and appear are followed by infinitives, either the first
verb or the infinitive can be made negative.
Sibyl doesn’t seem to like you.
Sibyl seems not to like you.
The first structure is more common in an informal style.

sentences with negative adverbs 403

1 The adverbs never, seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly and barely can
make sentences negative in a similar way to not.
For instance, sentences with these words usually contain any (not
some'), anybody, anything and other ‘non-assertive forms’ (see
41 8). Compare:
 404 negative questions

/ haven’t got any spare time.

1 never have any spare time.
She doesn’t eat anything.
She hardly eats anything.
But: She usually eats something.
And after sentences containing these words, we usually use an
affirmative ‘question-tag’ (see 515)- Compare:
You don’t panic, do you?
You never panic, do you?
You seldom panic, do you?
You hardly ever panic, do you?
But: You often panic, don't you?
2 Little and few have the same effect on sentences.
There’s little point in doing anything about it, is there?
He has few good reasons for staying, has he?
3 Note that the auxiliary do is not used in sentences with these
negative adverbs. Compare:
He does not work.
He never works.
Typical mistake: *He does never work.
For inversion after negative adverbs, see 345.

negative questions 404

1 Form
Typical mistake: *Does not she understand?
The word order is different in contracted and uncontracted forms.
When contractions are used, n’t is put together with the auxiliary
verb, but in uncontracted negative questions (more formal), not
comes after the subject. Compare:
Doesn’t she understand? (Or: Does she not...?)
Haven't you booked your holiday yet? (Or: Have you not...?)
Can the directors not make a decision before next week? (Or:
Can't the directors...?)
2 Meaning
Be careful when using contracted negative questions. They often
suggest that the answer ‘Yes’ is expected.
Didn’t you go and see Helen yesterday? How is she?
neither 405

For this reason, they are often used in invitations and exclama­
tions (see zz6).
Won’t you come In for a minute?
Isn’t It a lovely day?
Negative questions can also suggest surprise that something is not
being done, or has not happened. This surprise can sound critical.
Hasn't Albert telephoned yet?
Aren’t you supposed to be working?
Haven’t you got any letter for me? (=I’m surprised — even
annoyed — that you haven’t given me any letters.)
To make polite enquiries or requests, we usually use other struc­
tures; for example, ordinary (non-negative) questions.
Have you got any letters for me?
Polite enquiries and requests are often made by using a negative
statement followed by a question-tag (see 515) or an expression
like I suppose.
You haven't got any letters for me, have you?
You haven't seen a small black cat anywhere, have you?
You couldn't lend me a pound, I suppose?
In answers to negative questions, yes and no are used according to
the facts, not according to the form of the question (see 639).
'Haven’t you written to Wendy?’ — ‘Yes.’ (=1 have written to
her.) — 'No.' (=1 haven’t written to her.)
‘Didn’t the postman come?’ — ‘Yes.’ (=He did come.) — ‘No.’
(=He didn’t come.)

neither /’naida(r), 'ni:da(r)/ and neither of 405

Typical mistake: *Neither his parents realized what was happen-
mg.
1 Neither (without of) is used before a singular noun when there is no
article or possessive or demonstrative word. The verb is singular.
Neither parent realized what was happening.
Neither car Is exactly what I want.

2 When the noun has an article or a possessive or demonstrative

word with it, we use neither of. The noun is plural; the verb can be
singular or (in an informal style) plural.
Neither parent realized what was happening
Neither car Is exactly what I want.
Neither of my sisters are very tidy, (informal.)
Neither of is also used before the pronoqns us, you, them.
Neither of them can understand.
 407 neither . . . nor. .

\either can be used alone, as a pronoun.

‘Which one do you want?’ — ‘Neither is any good.'
For information about other words of the same kind (‘determin­
ers’), see r 71.

neither and nor 406

Neither and nor are both used at the beginning of clauses (and
short answers) to mean also not. They are followed by inverted
word-order (the same as in questions; see 512). There is no real
difference of meaning between neither and nor in this construc­
tion; nor is perhaps less common in a formal style.
‘I can’t swim.’ — ‘Neither can I.’ (Not: *‘I also can’t’ or *7 can’t
too’)
‘Jack didn’t like the play.’ — ‘Nor did we.’
The unions do not want a strike, and neither do the manage­
ment. ’
Instead of neither or nor, we can use not. . . either (with normal
word-order).
‘I can’t swim.’ — ‘I can’t either.’
I don’t like him and I don’t like her either.
For the use of so in similar structures, see 557.

neither .. . nor . .. 407

1 This structure is used to join together two negative ideas (the
opposite of both . . . and . . .).
Neither James nor Virginia was at home.
I neither smoke nor drink.
In an informal style, two singular subjects joined by neither. . .nor
. . . can be followed by a plural verb.
Neither James nor Virginia were at home.

2 In a formal style, people are often careful to ‘balance’ sentences like

these, so that the same kind of words follow neither and nor.
Compare the following two sentences: the second is not exactly
wrong, but many people would fed that the style was bad.
I trust neither the manager nor the accountant, (neither + ndun; I - )
nor + noun)
I neither trust the manager nor the accountant, (neither + verb;
nor -l-noun)
Other ‘balanced’ structures of this kind are made with both . . . and
(see 116),either. . . or (see 193) andnoionly. . . butalso (seeqzo).
never 408

never 40a
Typical mistakes: *My mother did never have the chance to travel.
*She isn’t neverat home - she’s out all the time.
“Never you tell me tvhat you’re really thinking.

1 Never makes sentences negative (like not), but do is not normally

used with never (see 401.5).
My mother never had the chance to travel.
We never work on Saturday mornings.
Do can be used (after never) for emphasis (see 177).
/ never 'did like her, you know.
2 We do not normally put not and never together: never is enough to
make the sentence negative.
She Is never at home — she’s out all the time.
If not is used, it contradicts the meaning of never.
It’s not true that I’m never at home - I’m there sometimes.
3 Never is not normally put at the beginning of a sentence.
Yow never tell me what you’re really thinking.
(The same is true of always — see 49)
But never can come at the beginning of an imperative sentence.
Never eat garlic with strawberries.
And there is a literary structure (rather old-fashioned) in which
never can begin a sentence with inverted word-order (see 345.1).
Never... was so much owed by so many to so few. (Churchill)
The usual position of never is before the verb.
Yow never tell me what you’re really thinking.
For the exact position when there are auxiliary verbs, see 24.

4 When never means ‘at no time up to the present’, it is normally

used with the present perfect tense (see 495.3).
I’ve never been able to eat cucumbers.
You’ve never been here before, have you?
For the use of ever, see 210.

newspaper headlines 409

Headlines are the short ‘titles’ above newspaper articles (eg RUS­
SIAN WOMAN LANDS ON MOON). The headlines in English-
language newspapers can be very difficult to understand. One
reason for this is that newspaper headlines are often written in a
 409 newspaper headlines

special style, which is very different from ordinary English. In this

style words are used in unusual ways, and there are some special
rules of grammar.
1 Vocabulary
Short words save space, and so they are very common in newspaper
headlines. Some of the short words in headlines are unusual in
ordinary language (eg curb, meaning ‘restriction’), and some are
used in special senses which they do not often have in ordinary
language (e g bid, meaning ‘attempt’). Other words are chosen not
because they are short, but because they sound dramatic (e g blaze,
meaning ‘fire’). The following is a list of special ‘headline’ words.
bid (to) attempt
NEW EVEREST BID BY JAPANESE WOMEN
back to support
AMERICA BACKS BRITISH PEACE MOVE
bar ban, prohibit; prohibition
NEW BAR ON IMMIGRANTS
blaze fire
THREE DIE IN HOTEL BLAZE
boost encourage(ment); (to) increase
GOVERNMENT PLAN TO BOOST EXPORTS
call for (to) demand (for), (to) appeal for
MP CALLS FOR CABINET CORRUPTION INQUIRY
clash violent disagreement; to disagree violently
STUDENTS IN CLASH WITH POLICE •
curb restrict; restriction
NEW PRICE CURBS PROPOSED
drama dramatic event, tense situation
PRINCE OF WALES IN HEATHROW KIDNAP DRAMA
drive united effort
DRIVE TO SAVE WATER 1
envoy ambassador
QUEEN SEES FRENCH ENVOY
gems jewels
£2.0,000 GEMS STOLEN
haul amount stolen in robbery, or seized by police or customs
BIG GOLD HAUL IN TRAIN ROBBERY
head leader; to lead
COMMONWEALTH HEADS TO MEET IN OTTAWA
PM TO HEAD TRADE MISSION
newspaper headlines 409

hit affect badly

SNOWSTORMS HIT TRANSPORT
hold keep under arrest
BRITON HELD IN SOUTH AFRICA
key important, vital
KEY WITNESS DISAPPEARS
link connection, contact
NEW TRADE LINK WITH CHINA
mission delegation (official group sent to conference, to investi­
gate, etc)
SHOTS FIRED AT UN MISSION
move step towards a particular result (often political)
MOVE TO BRING BACK DEATH PENALTY
oust drive out, replace
MODERATES OUSTED IN UNION ELECTIONS
pact agreement
NUCLEAR PACT RUNS INTO TROUBLE
pit coal mine
NEW PIT STRIKE THREAT
plea call for help
BIG RESPONSE TO PLEA FOR FLOOD VICTIMS
PM Prime Minister
PM RESIGNS
poll election; public opinion survey
SOCIALISTS AHEAD IN POLL
premier head of state
PREMIER IN SPY SCANDAL
probe investigate; investigation
CALL FOR STUDENT DRUG PROBE
POLICE PROBE RACING SCANDAL RUMOURS
quit resign
THREE MORE MINISTERS QUIT
raid (to) attack; robbery
POLICE RAID DUCHESS’S FLAT
£500,000 GEM RAID
riddle mystery
MISSING ENVOY RIDDLE DRAMA
scare public alarm; alarming rumour
TYPHOID SCARE
 409 newspaper headlines

split disagreement)
LABOUR SPLIT ON PRICES
switch (to) change
DEFENCE POLICY SWITCH
swoop (to) raid
POLICE SWOOP ON DRUG GANG
threat danger
PIT STRIKE THREAT
top exceed
IMPORTS TOP £z5om
vow (to) promise
EXILED PRINCE VOWS TO RETURN
2 Grammar
Newspaper headlines often follow rather different grammatical
rules from other kinds of writing.
a Headlines are not always complete sentences.
MORE EARTHQUAKE DEATHS
b Headlines often contain strings of three, four or more nouns.
FURNITURE FACTORY PAY CUT RIOT
In expressions like this, all the nouns except the last one act as
adjectives (see 21). The easiest way to understand headlines of this
kind is to read them backwards. FURNITURE FACTORY PAY
CUT RIOT refers to a RIOT about a CUT in PAY for the workers
in a FACTORY that makes FURNITURE.
C Articles and the verb to be are often left out.
SHAKESPEARE PLAY IMMORAL, SAYS HEADMASTER
d Newspaper headlines have a special tense-system. It is unusual to
find complex forms like is coming or has produced; generally the
simple present form (comes, produces) is used, whether the head­
line is about something that has happened, something that is hap­
pening, or something that happens repeatedly.
BRITAIN SENDS FOOD TO FAMINE VICTIMS
STUDENTS FIGHT FOR COURSE CHANGES
FAT BABIES CRY LESS, SAYS DOCTOR
Sometimes the present progressive tense is used (usually to describe
something that is changing or developing), but the auxiliary verb
(is, are) is usually left out.
WORLD HEADING FOR ENERGY CRISIS
BRITAIN GETTING WARMER, SAY RESEARCHERS
To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive. (This is
next 410

really a contracted form of the be + infinitive construction; see 97.)

QUEEN TO VISIT SAMOA
PM TO ANNOUNCE CABINET CHANGES ON TUESDAY
e Passive sentences are constructed with no auxiliary verb, just the
past participle.
MAN HELD BY POLICE IN MURDER HUNT (= A man is
being held . . .)
NUNS KILLED IN EXPLOSION
Headlines like these are sometimes easy to misunderstand. For
instance, BLACK TEENAGERS ATTACKED IN RACE RIOT
means that the teenagers were attacked, not that they attacked
somebody. If the black teenagers did the attacking, the headline
would probably use the simple present tense (BLACK TEEN­
AGERS ATTACK . ..).

next and nearest 410

Typical mistake: *Excuse me. Where’s the next telephone box?
The normal word for most near or closest is nearest. Next is
generally used when we are thinking of things coming one after
another in a series. Compare:
Excuse me. Where’s the nearest telephone box?
We get off at the next stop.
I’m looking forward to his next visit.
When will we get our next pay rise?
There are, however, one or two expressions in which next is used
with a similar meaning to nearest-, next door, next to nothing, next
of kin (an official expression for a person’s closest relative).

next and the next 411

Typical mistakes: *Goodbye! See you the next week!
"Will you be at the party on next Tuesday?
When we want to talk about the week, month, year etc immediately
after the present one, we use next without the. Note also that the
prepositions on, in, at are not used with next in these time­
expressions.
Goodbye! See you next week!
Will you be at the party next Tuesday?
I’ll be abroad next Christmas.
The next can be used to talk about a period that starts at the present
moment. Compare:
 412 no

I’m going to Corsica next week. (= the week after this one)
I’m going to be very busy for the next week. (= the seven days
starting today)
Next year will be difficult. (= the year starting next January)
The next year will be difficult. (= the twelve months starting now)
The next can also mean ‘the next in a series’ (with no relation to the
present).
We missed the train, and had to wait twenty minutes for the next
one.
When’s the next meeting?
There is a similar difference between last and the last. See 355.

no and none 412

No is a determiner (see 171). It can be used before singular (count­
able and uncountable) nouns and plural nouns. It means almost the
same as not a or not any, but is used instead of these (1) at the
beginning of a sentence, and (2) in other places when we want to
make the negative idea emphatic.
(1) No cigarette is completely harmless.
No beer? How do you expect me to sing without beer?
No tourists came to Little Crudthorpe that summer.
(2) I can’t get there — there’s no bus.
Sorry I can’t stop — I’ve got no time.
There were no letters for you this morning, I’m afraid.
Nobody, no-one, nothing and nowhere are used in similar ways.
No can only be used with a noun when there is no article or
possessive or demonstrative word. (No is like any — it cannot be
used with another determiner). Before the, my, your, etc, and this,
that, etc, we use none of. None of means not any of-, it is used, like
no, (1) at the beginning of a sentence, and (2) in other places when
we want to make the negative idea emphatic.
(1) None of the furniture got wet, fortunately.
None of my friends live near here.
None of those buses go to Cambridge.
(2) I liked none of that music. He’s paid none of his bills.

None of is also used before pronouns, and none can be used alone
as a pronoun.
None of them came in time.
‘How many of the books have you read?’ — ‘None at all.’
When none of is used with a plural noun, the verb can be either
singular or plural; a plural verb is more common in an informal
style (see examples above).
None of her relations are/ls interested.
no 413

Neither is used instead of mo or none when we are talking about

two people or things.
Neither of his parents helped him.
For details of the use of neither, see 405.
For the difference between none and no-one, see 419.
For information about other determiners, see 171.

no with comparatives, etc 413

No (meaning ‘not at all’) can be used as an adverb before compara­
tives:
Are you really fifty? You look no older than thirty-five.
Some people can eat what they like and get no fatter.
We can also use no with different.
I hadn't seen him for fifteen years, but he was no different.
Note also the expressions no good and no use.
I’m no good at tennis.
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
Any can also be used with comparatives, different, good and use.
See 55.

no and not 414

Typical mistake: *The students went on strike, but no the
teachers.
To make a sentence or part of a sentence negative, we generally use
not (see 401).
The students went on strike, but not the teachers.
I can see you tomorrow, but not on Thursday or Friday.
'Are you happy?’ — 'Not really.’
'Who’s paying?’ — ‘Not me.’
If no is used together with a noun, it means not a or not any (see
412).
No teachers went on strike.
I’ve got no Thursdays free this term.
She had no idea what I meant.
Sorry — there’s no time to talk.
Note that no is a determiner, and cannot be used together with
another determiner; *no the teachers is impossible (see 412).
No can also be used with an -ing form; see 415.
NO SMOKING
For more information about mo (and none) see 412.
 418 non-assertive words

no ... -ing 415

No is very often used with an-ing form to say that something is not
allowed. The structure can be used alone (as in notices), or after
there is.
NO SMOKING NO PARKING NO WAITING
Sorry — there’s no smoking in the waiting-room.

no doubt 416
No doubt is often used to mean ‘probably’ or T suppose’.
No doubt it’ll rain soon.
"You’re tired, no doubt. I’ll make you a cup of tea.

no more, not any more, no longer, not any longer 417

Typical mistake: *1 found that she no more lived there.
No more is used to talk about quantity or degree.
There’s no more bread.
He’s no more a genius than I am.
In modern English, no more is not used to talk about time, in the
sense of ‘once but not now’. Instead, we use not. . . any more, no
longer (usually before the verb), and not. . . any longer. (Not. . .
any more is informal; the other two expressions are more formal.)
Annie doesn’t live here any more.
I no longer support the Conservative Party.
People cannot close their eyes to the facts any longer.

non-assertive words 418

1 The words some, something, somebody, someone and somewhere
are not always used in questions and negative sentences. Instead,
we often use any, anything, anybody, etc. These are called ‘non-
assertive words’. Compare:
Somebody telephoned. Did anybody telephone?
I’ve bought you something. I haven't bought you anything.
Two other non-assertive words are ever and yet. Compare:
I sometimes go to the theatre. Do you ever go to the theatre?
She’s already here. Is she here yet?
2 Non-assertive words are not only used in questions and negative
sentences. They are also often used in sentences with if, and
together with adverbs, verbs, prepositions and adjectives that have
a negative meaning.
no-one 419

Let me know if you have any trouble.

I wonder if she found anything.
She seldom says anything.
I’ve hardly been anywhere since Christmas.
He denied that he had ever seen her.
Please forget that I ever told you anything about it.
I’d rather do it without anybody’s help.

3 Assertive words are used in questions when we want to make a

‘positive’ suggestion. (See 562.)
Did you say something? ( = / think you said something.')
Would you like some more chips? (invitation to have some more)

no-one/‘nauwAn/and none/nAn/ 419

Typical mistakes: *No-one of my friends wished me a happy birth­
day.
*l’ve read no-one of his books.
No-one means the same as nobody. It cannot be followed by of.
No-one wished me a happy birthday.
I stayed in all evening waiting, but no-one came.
In order to express the meaning not a single one (of.. J, we usually
use none (of) or not . . . any (of)-,not one (of) is more emphatic.
None of my friends wished me a happy birthday.
I haven’tread any of his books. (Or: I’ve read none of his books.)
Not one of my shirts is clean.
No-one is spelt without a hyphen (no one) in American English.
For more information about none, see 412.

not only . . . but also . . . 420

This structure is usually ‘balanced’, so that the same kind of words
follow only and also.
She not only sings like an angel, but also dances divinely.
Compare the following two sentences. The second is not exactly
wrong, but many people would feel that the style was bad (at least
in writing).
He plays not only the piano, but also the violin, (only + noun;
also + noun)
He not only plays the piano, but also the violin, (only + verb;
also + noun)
Other‘balanced’structures of this kind are made with both . . .and
(see 116), either ... or (see 193) and neither . . . nor (see 407).
 422 nouns in groups

nouns in groups: introduction 421

Typical mistakes: *the car of my sister
*a factory of bicycles
*a tvar’s film
*the page’s top
*a bird nest
*a disappointment feeling
When we put nouns together in a sentence, it is not always easy to
choose the right construction. There are three common structures
which are easy to confuse.
1 We can use the’s genitive (‘possessive case’) for the first noun, and
put the other noun after it.
my sister’s car a bird’s nest coiv’s milk
the prisoner’s complaint
2 We can put one noun before the other, like an adjective.
a bicycle factory a tvar film the table leg coffee beans
3 We can use a preposition.
the top fpfythe page a feeling of disappointment
a man from Birmingham a book on 18th-century music
An idea cannot usually be expressed in all three of these ways. For
example, we can say a table leg, but not *a table’s leg-, cow's milk,
but not *cow milk-, my brother’s house, but not (in normal English)
*the house of my brother. Sometimes two structures can express the
same idea (we can say the earth’s gravity or the gravity of the earth-,
a man from Birmingham ora Birmingham man), but usually the
different structures express different meanings (compare a box of
matches and a matchbox). Unfortunately, the exact details are
rather complicated: this is one of the most difficult points in English
grammar.
The next section gives the main rules for the use of these three
structures, and the following sections (423-425) give more
detailed information about each one.

nouns in groups: general rules 422

1 The’s genitive and the ‘noun as adjective’ structure
a Note first of all that, in these structures, only the second word is
used like a noun; the first is similar to an adjective, ^.child’s bicycle
is a kind of bicycle; my father’s house is a particular house; a
ring-finger is a finger (not a ring); a race-horse is a kind of horse; a
horse-racv is a kind of race.
nouns in groups 422

b The relationship between the first word and the second is not the
same in the two structures.
When we use the ’s genitive, the first word is usually rather like
the subject of_a_S£ntence,_and the second word is like a verb or
object. (There are some exceptions; see 4x3.1.)
my father’s house (my father has aJhouse)
the committee’s report (the committee made a report)
a child’s bicycle (a child rides this kind of_bicycle)
the government’s decision (the government decided)
the train’s arrival (the train arrived) v
So if an expression has the forma’s'6, we can usually say ‘a has b’,
or 'a does something to b’, or 'a does b'. When we use the ‘noun as
adjective’ structure, the relationship is usually completely different.
Generally, the second word is more like a subject, and the first is
like an object - very often the object of a preposition.
a book case (a case that holds books)
an oil well (a well that produces oil)
a sheepdog (a dog that looks after sheep)
a Birmingham man (a man from Birmingham)
a garden chair (a chair in or for the garden)
the airport bus (the bus that goes to the airport)
So if two nouns are joined in an expressions b, we can usually say
'b does something to a’ or ‘b produces a' or ‘b goes to a' or ’b is
in/from/for/with/about/etc a’.
C There is another difference between the two structures. Compare
these two sentences:
Please don’t put the dog’s food under the kitchen table, Lucy.
Dog food costs nearly as much as steak.
We can use the.’s genitive structure when the first noun is a
particular individual; one person or one dog, for instance. The
dog’s food is the food that a particular dog is going to eat. But when
we use the htoun as adjective’ structure, the first noun usually refers
to a yyhole class. Dog food is food for dogs in general. (The ’s
genitive is also used with a ‘class’ meaning in some expressions; see
4x3.4.)
2 The of structure
a In many cases, a structure with of [the b of a) can be used instead of
the’s genitive (a’s b). This is not so common when the first noun is
the name of a person or animal. We can say Mary’s car or the cat’s
milk, but not *tbe car of Mary or *the milk of the cat. But in other
cases, it is common. Often, both structures are possible.
the arrival of the train (Or: the train’s arrival)
the plan’s importance (Or: the importance of the plan)
Algeria’s history (Or: the history of Algeria)
 423 nouns in groups

Sometimes, only the of structure is possible in expressions of this

the cost of the roof (Not:*t^e roofs cost)

the windows of the house (Not:*tfee house's windows)
the bottom of the glass (Not:*t^e glass’s bottom)
For more details, see 423.5.
b Instead of the ‘noun as adjective’ structure, it is sometimes neces­
sary to use a preposition phrase (with of, from, for, about or
another preposition). For instance, we do not usually use nouns as
adjectives before the word piece-, we say a piece of paper, not *a
paper piece. This is also usually true with words like back, front,
outside (for example, we say the back of the bus, not*the bus back).
And we can say a Birmingham man (using the town as an adjec­
tive), and a Devon man (county), but not *a Greece man (country):
we either say a Greek or a man from Greece. For details,866424.3.
nouns in groups: the's genitive: details 423
1 When we connect two nouns a and b into a genitive structured’s b,
the first noun a is often like a kind of subject (and b is like a kind of
verb or object). We use the expression a’s b in situations where we
could say 'a has b’ or 'a does something to b’ or 'a does b’.
‘a has b’
The’s genitive structure very often corresponds to a sentence with
have. Various meanings are possible: possession, family relation­
ship, physical characteristics, and many others.
my father's car (my father has a car)
the bull’s horns (the bull has horns)
the ship’s funnel Philip’s mother Mary’s complexion
the paragraph’s meaning my mother’s headache
the earth’s gravity a child’s toy a butcher’s shop
‘a does something to/with b'
The’s genitive structure can correspond to a sentence with another
verb (not/jdi/e), in which the first noun is the subject and the other is
the object.
the girl’s story (the girl told the story)
the general’s letter (the general sent the letter)
the crowd's sympathy (the crowd felt sympathy)
a bird’s nest (the bird made the nest)
a spider's web a hen’s egg cow’s milk
In many expressions, the first noun is the ‘user’ of the second.
a children’s story a women's college a men’s lavatory
boy’s socks a doll’s house
nouns in groups 423

‘a does b’
In other cases, the first noun corresponds to a subject and the
second to a verb.
the government's decision (the government decided)
the prisoner’s escape (the prisoner escaped)
the volcano’s eruption (the volcano erupted)
Mme Curie’s discoveries ’(Mme Curie discovered things)
the train's arrival (the train arrived)
a baby's smile (a baby smiled)
2 In a few cases, the first noun in an’s genitive structure corresponds
to the object of a verb; the second noun corresponds to the verb.
the prisoner’s release (somebody released the prisoner)
the President's assassination (somebody assassinated the Presi­
dent)
3 The’s genitive is very common in expressions where the first word
refers to a point or period of time (but see 424.1b and 425.4).
yesterday’s paper today’s news tomorrow’s programme
next week's arrangements an hour’s delay a night's sleep
two days’ journey ten minutes' walk
In expressions of time beginning with a number, the ‘noun as
adjective’ structure can also be used.
a ten-minute rest a five-day week
For measuring other things besides time, the ‘noun as adjective’
structure is the usual one (see 424.2b).
a three-mile walk a five-pound chicken
But note expressions like a pound’s worth, three dollar’s worth,
and the phrase a stone's throw ( = a short distance away).
4 The ‘classifying genitive’
In many genitive expressions, the first noun has a ‘particular’.
meaning. In my father’s car, my father is a particular individual.
And compare the dog’s meat (meat for a particular dog) and dog
meat (a kind or class of meat - meat for any dog). But some genitive
expressions have a ‘class’ meaning. For instance, in a bird’s nest, a
hen's egg or cow’s milk, we are nor talking about particular birds,
hens or cows; we are just naming a kind or class of nest, egg or milk.
These ‘classifying genitive’ expressions have a very similar meaning
to the ‘noun as adjective’ structure, which is also used for classify­
ing: compare cow’s milk and goat cheese, or lamb’s wool and calf
skin. For a detailed comparison, see 425.
In ‘classifying genitive’ expressions, articles and other determiners
refer to rhe whole expression, not just to the first word. Compare:
that man’s house (=the bouse belonging to that man — that only
refers to man)
 424 nouns in groups

that bird’s nest (=the bird’s nest over there — that refers to the
whole expression bird’s nest)
Sometimes an expression can be understood in two ways: this
lady’s bicycle can refer to a bicycle that belongs to a particular lady,
or simply to a particular bicycle of a certain kind.
5 The of structure
The’s genitive is most common in expressions where the first noun
is animate (refers to something alive). In other cases, we often use
the of structure. Compare:
my father’s name the dog’s name the nameofjthe street_
mother's hat the roof of the house £ J -rj< f:.r-.•
However, it is not easy to give very clear rules for the difference
between the two structures. The’s genitive can be used with quite a
lot of inanimate nouns, especially nouns that have some relation­
ship to human activity, eg, plan, report, university, book.
the plan's importance (Or: the importance of the plan)
the report’s conclusions (Or: the conclusions of the report)
the university’s president (Or: the president of the university)
the book's author (Or: the author of the book)
The’s genitive is often used with place-names.
Manchester’s early history (Or: the early history of Manchester)
Africa’s future (Or: the future of Africa)
If the first noun is animate, the of structure cannot be used instead
of the genitive in expressions where a’s b corresponds to a has b. In
other expressions, the of structure is often possible. Compare:
my father’s house (But not: *the house of my father)
Jack's landlady (But not: *the landlady of Jack)
the Queen’s arrival or the arrival of the Queen • ■” ' y
the crowd’s sympathy or the sympathy of the crowd
In some expressions, the of structure is the only one possible. We
can say the windows of the house orthe bottom ofthe glass, but not
*the house’s windows or *the glass’s bottom.
For information about the spelling and pronunciation of the ’s
genitive (and about some special ways of using it), see 261-264.

nouns in groups: the ‘noun as adjective' structure; 424

preposition structures: details
1 When we use a noun as an adjective, before another noun, the first
noun usually has an ‘object’ relationship to the other noun. If we
wrote a sentence or a longer phrase to express the same idea, the
first noun would be the object either of a verb or of a preposition.
a sheep dog is a dog that looks after sheep
nouns in groups 424

a chess board is a board for playing chess

a shoe shop is a shop that sells shoes
a war story is a story about war
a mountain plant is a plant from the mountains
a furniture exhibition is an exhibition of furniture
In expressions like these, the first noun often ‘classifies’ the second:
it says what kind it is. A sheep dog is a kind of dog; a mountain
plant is a kind of plant, etc. The first noun may have a plural
meaning (a shoe shop is a shop that sells shoes), but it does not
usually have a plural form, because it is used like an adjective (there
are a few exceptions; see 433.1). We put two nouns together like
this usually to describe a common, well-known kind of thing that
needs a special name. We say, for example, a history book or an
economics book; but if somebody wrote a book about the planet
Venus we probably wouldn’t call it *a Venus book — we’d say a
book about Venus. For the same reason, we can talk about a corner
table in a restaurant (restaurants often have corner tables), but we
wouldn’t say *the corner girl to describe a girl sitting in a corner
(girls sitting in corners are not a well-known class of girls).
In speech, most expressions like these are stressed on the first word,
(eg 'meat-ball), but not all {eg meat 'pie). Some are written sepa­
rately (e g furniture exhibition), some are written with a hyphen (eg
writing-desk), and some are written as one word (eg bathroom).
There are no clear rules for this, and some words may be found
written in two or even all three of the possible ways (eg head
master, head-master, headmaster). It is necessary to look up indi­
vidual expressions in a dictionary to find out how to pronounce and
write them.

2 The exact relationship between the first word and the second
depends on the particular expression. There are a large number of
possible meanings that can be expressed. For instance, the first
noun can say what the second is made of, or where it is found, or
where it comes from, or what it is a part of. Some of the possible
meanings ark illustrated below.
a Place
The first noun gives the place that the second comes from, or is
found in, or is used in, or happens in.
a Sussex man a 'newspaper article a garden gnome
the office 'party a 'traffic jam a 'boat ride
a 'table lamp Oxford station
b Time
The first noun gives the time when the second happens, or the time
when the second is meant to be used (but see 425.4).
a 'day bed a 'nighflight afternoon 'tea a daydream
 424 nouns in groups

c Material
The first noun says what the second consists of.
an iron bridge chocolate ice- cream a 'snowflake
a thriller series a puzzle book a four-room 'flat
We usually use wooden instead of wood, and often woollen instead
of wool.
a wooden 'horse a woollen (or wool) 'sweater
d ‘Functional relationship’
The first noun says something about the function, job or role of the
second: what it is used for, or in what circumstances it works, or
what it relates to.
a book-case a 'bus-station an 'oil-well rice 'farming
a 'conference room car 'keys a 'shoe-shop
'peace talks holiday 'plans a 'typewriter ribbon
the 'telephone bill a po'lice chief a 'theatre manager
a'drug addict a'war story 'train times a'steam-engine
e Direct object
The second noun refers to an activity (or to a person who carries
out the activity). The first noun is the direct object of the verb that
describes that activity.
adtdt edu'cation (somebody educates adults)
a blood-test (somebody tests blood)
child -care marathon running an 'animal trainer
f Complement
If the second noun was the subject of a clause, the first noun would
be the complement (after be).
a woman 'driver (the driver is a woman)
a 'girl-friend (the kind of friend who is a girl)
a frogman (a man who is like a frog)
a 'bench seat (a front seat that goes right across the width of a
car; it is like a bench)
Note that in plural expressions like these, the plural women (and
sometimes men) can be used as the first noun.
women drivers women astronauts men drivers
(But: 'girl-friends, child 'stars, etc)
g Part
The second noun refers to a part or section of the first.
the 'table leg the car 'door a 'door-knob vio'lin strings
a 'hilltop the valley 'bottom the 'seaside the 'river
bank
If we expressed the same ideas with of, the first noun would be the
nouns in groups 424

object of the preposition (eg the leg of the table; the door of the
car). However, these expressions are very similar to some’s genitive
expressions (see 423. t). The table leg is like John's leg, and the table
could be the subject of a sentence with have (the table has a leg; the
car has a door; etc). In general, we express this kind of idea with an
's genitive if the first noun is animate, and with a 'noun as adjective’
structure if it is inanimate. See 425.3 for more details.
h Measurement
In expressions of measurement (except some expressions of meas­
urement of time), we usually use the 'noun as adjective’ structure.
a ten-pound turkey a five-litre ‘can a pint 'mug
For expressions of time, see 425.4 and 423.3.
3 Preposition structures
a The 'noun as adjective’ structure is used mostly to describe com­
mon, well-known kinds of things. In an expression like a road sign,
for instance, we do not think separately of the two ideas road and
sign; we think immediately of a particular kind of metal plate with
writing or a picture on it. The compound 'road sign is almost like a
single word. On the other hand, if we talk abouts/gns of damage or
signs of improvement, the two ideas are still separate; they have not
joined together into a single, common, well-known concept. In
cases like these, we prefer to use a preposition structure. Compare
also the 'postman, the 'milkman, the 'gasman, the in surance man
(all people who may call regularly at a British house), and a man
from the health department (not a regular visitor). Or compare a
mountain 'top, a 'tree-top with the top of the loudspeaker.
b Even when we are talking about well-known, common objects or
ideas, we can often use preposition structures, especially if we are
talking about particular examples. Compare:
a picture frame a frame for that picture
'leg muscles the muscles in my right leg
a 'tree-trunk (Not: *a trunk of a tree) the trunk of the old
pear tree
C We always use the preposition structure (with of) to talk about a
container with its contents. Compare:
a 'matchbox (perhaps empty) a box of matches (with
matches in)
a 'coffee-cup a cup of coffee
a petrol can a can of petrol
d We usually use the o/'-structure with words like piece, bit, slice,
lump, which mean 'a certain quantity’.
a piece of paper a slice of cake a bunch of flowers
a pinch of salt
 425 nouns in groups

® We also use the ©/-structure in most expressions with back, front,

side, top, bottom, edge, middle, end, inside, outside and similar
words.
the back of the bus the edge of the paper
the middle of the night the top of the page
the outside of the box the end of the film
In a few very common expressions, the ‘noun as adjective’ structure
is used.
the 'seaside the 'roadside a 'treetop
a mountain 'top the 'mountain-side
f The ©/-structure is used in some expressions to describe the charac­
teristics of a person or thing.
a woman of medium height a man of great courage
a coin of no value a decision of great importance
g In older English, the ©/-structure was often used to say what
something was made of. (For example a dress of fine linen; a bridge
of stone) In modern English, this still happens in some figurative
expressions. Compare:
an iron 'rod He ruled them with a rod of iron
a gold 'watch The flowers were like a carpet of gold
h The ©/-structure is used in some expressions which name places.
the city of Rome the village of Lower Garsfield
4 More than two nouns can be joined in the ‘noun as adjective’
structure. Two, three or more nouns can be used as adjectives.
oil production costs road accident research centre
In newspaper headlines, this kind ofstructure is extremely common
(because it saves space).
DEATH DRUG RESEARCH CENTRE SPY DRAMA
Expressions like these can be understood by reading them back­
wards. The headline above is about a ‘drama’ concerning a spy in a
centre for research into a drug that causes death. Formore informa­
tion about newspaper headlines, see 409.

nouns in groups: difficult cases 425

There are four cases in which it is difficult to choose between the’s
genitive structure and the ‘noun as adjective’ structure.
1 ‘Produced by/from animals’
The’s genitive is usuajly used for products from living animals.
nouns in groups 425

cow’s milk lamb's wool sheep’s wool

a bird’s egg a hen's egg goat’s cheese (or 'goat cheese)
The ‘noun as adjective’ structure is usually used when the animal is
killed to provide something.
calf-skin chamois 'leather 'cowhide fox 'fur
chicken 'soup a lamb chop
When we talk about parts of animals’ bodies, we usually use the’s
genitive whether the animal is living or dead.
a sheep’s heart a cow's horn a frog’s leg
2 ‘Used by’
The’s genitive very often connects together a ‘user’ and a ‘thing that.
is used’.
a girl’s blouse boy’s socks the directors' lift
women’s magazines a children’s hospital a bird's nest
a doll's house (British English)
However, the ‘noun as adjective’ structure is also common, espe­
cially in cases where the ‘user’ does not control what is happening
'baby clothes 'baby-food a 'baby carriage
a 'doll-house (American English) a 'dog kennel
a 'birdcage
Note the difference between a baby’s bottle, a baby’s pram (British
English) and# 'baby bottle, a 'baby carriage (American English).
3 Parts
To talk about parts of inanimate things (things without life), we
usually use the ‘noun as adjective’ structure (or a preposition
structure; see 424.2g).
a 'table leg the car 'door a 'motorbike engine
the 'hillside
But we use the’s genitive to talk about parts of people’s and animals
bodies (compare a man’s leg and a table leg).
a baby’s arm Mary’s nose a cow’s horn a frog’s leg
The’s genitive can also be used sometimes to talk about parts of
things, but only when we are talking about a particular example.
Compare:
a car engine usually lasts for about 80,000 miles.
That car’s engine is making a funny noise.
4 Expressions of time
The ‘noun as adjective’ structure is used when the expression of
time has a ‘general’ meaning.
the nine o’clock 'news (a news broadcast that is on at nine
o’clock every night)
 427 number

the Sunday joint (a meat dish that is eaten every Sunday)

a day bed (a bed for use during the day — any day)
a Sunday paper (a paper that comes out on Sundays)
The ’s genitive is used when we are talking about particular
moments, times, days, etc.
What did you think of last Sunday’s match?
yesterday’s paper today’s post tomorrow’s weather
The’s genitive can also be used in expressions of time with numbers
(see 423.3).
three days’ journey five minutes’ rest
(Or: a three-day 'journey, a five-minute 'rest)

nowadays 426
Typical mistake: *1 don’t like the nowadays fashions.
Nowadays is an adverb (meaning these days, at the present time),
not an adjective or a possessive form. It cannot come in the same
place as an adjective. Compare:
1 don’t like modern fashions.
I don’t like today's fashions.
I don’t like the fashions nowadays.

number: general 427

1 Numberjs the word used by grammarians to talk about the differ­
ences between singular and plural. There are not many problems
connected with number in English. Generally, if we want to talk
about one thing we use a singular noun or a singular pronoun (eg
it), and a singular verb-form (in cases where the verb shows the
difference between singular and plural).
This is my new car — it runsyery well.
If we talk about more than one thing we use a plural noun or a
plural pronoun (eg they), and a plural verb-form in cases where
there is a difference.
Have you seen the new Fords? They run very well.
Sometimes it is not easy to decide whether something is ‘one thing’
or ‘more than one thing’, so there are nouns which are plural in
some languages and singular in others. For instance, spaghetti, hair
and furniture are singular (uncountable) in English. For more
information about words like this, see 163.
2 Some singular words can be used with plural verbs and pronouns.
The team are playing magnificently, aren’t they?
number 427

Some plural expressions can be used with singular verbs and pro­
nouns
Five pounds doesn’t buy as much as It used to.
There are some plural nouns which look singular:
police people cattle
And there are some singular nouns which look like plurals:
news a series a means a crossroads
For information about these points, see the following sections.

3 When nouns are used as adjectives, singular forms are usually used
even when the meaning is plural. For details, see 433.
a shoe shop (= one that sells shoes) a five-pound note
4 A mixture of singular and plural forms sometimes happens in an
informal style when demonstratives are used with kind, sort or
type. For details, see 565.
these kind of cars
5 Here’s, there’s and where’s can be followed by plural subjects in
informal speech. For details, see 292.
Here's your keys.
6 In some kinds of sentence, the determiners none, neither, either and
any can be used with plural verbs. For details, see 171.6.
None of my friends are (or is) likely to come.
7 They, them and their are often used to refer to the singular words
somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, nobody, no-one, every­
body and everyone (and to some other expressions). For details, see
432.
If anybody wants to give their name for the trip to Scotland, will
they please dq it before lunchtime?
8 After numbers, we sometimes use the singular forms of
measurement-words and counting-words. For details, see 436.
three dozen five foot six inches
9 In very informal speech, us is sometimes used to mean ‘me’, espe­
cially as an indirect object.
Give us a kiss, darling.
10 Note that after the expression one of, we use a plural noun and a
singular verb (see 442).
One of my ear-rings has fallen off.
 428 number

number: singular words with plural verbs 428

1 Singular words which refer to groups of people (like family, team,
government') can often be used as if they were plural, especially in
British English. '■
My family have decided to move to Nottingham.
This generally happens when we think of the group as people,
doing the sort of things that people do (for instance, making plans,
wanting things, being disappointed, amusing themselves). In these
cases, a pluraj verb is used,, and the group is referred to by the
pronouns they and tvho.
My family are wonderful. They do all they can for me. I don’t
know any other family who would do so much.
‘How are the team?’ - ‘Oh, they’re very optimistic.’
The government are hoping to ease import restrictions soon,
Examples ofwords and expressions which can be used in this way:
family team government committee club class
school union choir orchestra staff jury firm
The B.B.C. The Bank of England The Ministry of
Defence The Labour Party The British Public
England (the football team) Liverpool (the football team)
Note that these words are not so often used with plural verbs when
they have a(n), each, every, this or that before them. Compare:
The team are full of enthusiasm.
A team whichjs full of enthusiasm is more likely to win. (Not: *A
team who are full. . .)

2 These words can also be used with singular verbs and pronouns.
This happens when we see the group as an impersonal unit.
The team is at the bottom of the third division.
The government is made up of senior members of the four main
right-wing parties.
The average family (which now consists offour members at most)
is a great deal smaller than it used to be.
Note the use of which (not wfto) in the last example.
3 The expressions a number of and a_group_of_are used with plural
nouns and pronouns, and the verb that follows is also plural.
A number of my friendsthink I should take a holiday.
A group of us have decided to hire a boat and travel through
Holland by canal.
A lot of and th e_msj.OXiLy-.af.can be used with either singular or
plural nouns and verbs (see 393).
A lot of trouble (is paused by racism.
A lot of problems_:dre)caused by unemployment.
number 429

The majority of the damage Is easy to repair.

The majority of criminals are non-violent.

4 None, neither and either can be followed by of + plural noun or

pronoun. In a formal style, a singular verb is used, but in an
informal style a plural verb is also possible.
None of the cures really works/work.
Has/have either of them been seen recently?
Neither of my brothers has/have been outside England.

number: plural nouns without -s 429

Some English words which come from foreign languages have
special plurals.
fungus — plural fungi (Latin)
formula — plural formulae (Latin) or formulas
kibbutz — plural kibbutzim (Hebrew)
phenomenon — plural phenomena (Greek)
For a complete list see a good grammar.
A few other words which do not end in -s are plural (and have no
singular forms). The most important are cattle, people, police and
youth.
Cattle are selling for record prices this year.
People are funny.
The police are searching for a tall dark man with a beard.
The youth of today don't know what they want.
Other words are used to express these ideas in the singular: a cow, a
person, a policeman and a young person.
Do not confuse thtf plurals people (= human beings) and youth
(= young people) with the singular nouns a people ( = a nation) and
a youth (=a young man).
Some words show no difference between the singular and the
plural. Examples are fish, sheep, aircraft. For a complete list, see a
good grammar.
Plural words for some nationalities do not end in -s (eg Chinese).
For details, see 397.

number: singular words ending in -s 430

Some English words look plural but are used with singular verbs.
Some of the most common arenews, billiards, draughts (and other
names of games ending in -s), measles (and some other illnesses).
The expressions The United Nations and The United States usually
also have singular verbs.
Here is the news. Draughts is an easier game than chess.
 431 number

Measles takes a long time to get over.

The United States has a very violent history.
Some words show no difference between the singular and the
plural, both forms ending in -s. Examples are: crossroads, works
(= factory), barracks, means (see 386), series, headquarters.
At the bottom of the hill there's a dangerous crossroads.
There are three crossroads before you turn right.
Lecturing Is a very inefficient means of communication.
The fastest means of transport are not always the most comfort­
able.
Words that end in -ics (like mathematics, athletics, politics') are
sometimes used as plurals, but more often as singulars.
Politics is a complicated business. What are your politics?
Mathematics has the same educational function as classics used
to have.

number: plural expressions with singular verbs 431

1 Typical mistakes: "Where are those five pounds I lent you?
"Twenty miles are a long way to walk.
When we talk about five pounds or twenty miles we consider it to
be a single thing (an amount or a distance), not five or twenty
separate things. Expressions like these (used to refer to quantities,
amounts, etc) usually have singular verbs, even if the noun is plural.
Pronouns and demonstrative adjectives used for or with them are
also singular.
Where's that five pounds I lent you?
Twenty miles Is a long way to walk.
Three pints isn't enough to get me drunk.
These expressions can also be used with another, an extra, an
additional, a good and every.
I want to stay for another three weeks.
We’ll need an extra ten pounds.
He’s been waiting for a good twenty-five minutes.
I go to Ireland every six weeks.
Note that the expression more than one is followed by a singular
noun and verb.
More than one person is going to lose his job.
2 Some expressions joined by and have singular verbs. This happens
when we think of the two nouns as making up ‘one thing’.
Fish and chips Is getting very expensive.
‘War and Peace’ is the longest book I’ve ever read.
For here’s, there’s and where’s with plural subjects, see 292.
number 432

number: anybody, etc 432

anybody, anyone, somebody, someone, nobody, no-one, every­
body andeveryone are used with singular verbs. However, we often
use plural pronouns and possessive adjectives [they, them, their) to
refer to these words, especially in a conversational style.
If anybody calls, tell them I’m out, but take their name and
address.
Nobody came, did they?
Someone left their umbrella behind yesterday. Would they please
collect it from the office?
Everyone thinks they're the centre of the universe.
In these sentences they, them and their do not have plural mean­
ings. They are used instead of the expressions he or she, him or her,
his or her, as a way of purposely not specifying the sex of the person
referred to. They can also be used with whoever, and with indefinite
expressions like a person.
Whoever comes, tell them to go away.
When a person has no will to live, they are often very difficult to
help.
In a more formal style, he, him andhis (not necessarily referring to a
male person) are generally used instead of they, etc.
When a person has no will to live, he is often very difficult to
help.

number: nouns used as adjectives 433

1 When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is
almost always singular (even if the meaning is plural). People who
repair shoes are called shoe-repairers; people who sell houses are
called house-agents-, packets that you put cigarettes in are called
cigarette packets-, a brush for teeth is called a toothbrush. This is
true even with nouns (like pyjamas, trousers) which are always
plural: we usually say trouser pockets and pyjama jacket. Other
' examples:
car-racing picture gallery ticket office
child welfare grape harvest note-case
There are some exceptions. Sports, customs, arms, clothes and
accounts are used as adjectives without any cBangei
sports car customs officer arms production
clothes shop accounts department
Singular nouns ending in-ics (\ikeathletics, economics; see 4}o) are
used asaBjectivcs without any change.
athleticsdraining an economics degree
a mathematics teacher
 434 how to say numbers

These words have meanings that are different from adjectives

ending in -ic (see 302). Compare:
athletics training an athletic young man
an economics degree economic problems
We usually use the plurals men and women as adjectives.
men drivers women pilots

2 Plural_express‘ons with numbers also become singular when they

are used asjidjectiyes. Compa£e:
five pounds a five-pound note
ten miles a ten-mile walk
three days a three-day expedition
ninepence a ninepenny stamp
For details, see 436.2.
For general information about nouns used as adjectives, see 21 and
424.

how to say numbers 434

1 And
In British English, and is used before the last two figures (tens and
units) of a number. (In American English, this is unusual.)
325 three hundred and twenty-five (US: three hundred
twenty-five)
719 seven hundred and nineteen (US: seven hundred nine­
teen)
3,077 three thousand and seventy-seven (US: three thousand
seventy-seven)
Note that in writing, commas (not full stops) are used to separate
thousands.
2 A and one
Typical mistake: *1 want to live for hundred years.
a The words hundred, thousand and million can be used in the
singular with a or one, but not alone. A is more common in an
informal style;<Q«e)is used when we are speaking more precisely.
Compare: .
I want to live for ^hundred years.
The journey took exactly one hundred days.
I’ve saved a thousand pounds.
Pay the inspector of taxes one thousand pounds only. (On a
cheque)
how to say numbers 434

A is also common in an informal style with measurement-words.

Compare:
A pint of beer will soon cost a pound.
Mix one pint of milk with one pound of flour
b Note that a is only used with hundred, thousand, etc at the begin­
ning of a number. Compare:
146 a hundred and forty-six
3,146 three thousand, one hundred and forty-six
C We can say a thousand for the ‘round number’ i,ooo, and we can
say a thousand before and, but we say one thousand before a
number of hundreds. Compare:
1,000 a thousand
1,031 a thousand and thirty-one
1,100 one thousand, one hundred
1,498 one thousand, four hundred and ninety-eight
Compare also:
a mile one mile, six hundred yards
a pound one pound twenty-five (£1.2.5)
a foot one foot four (inches)
an hour and seventeen minutes one hour, seventeen minutes
3 Hundreds and thousands
We often say eleven hundred, twelve hundred, etc instead of one
thousand one hundred etc. This is most common with round num­
bers between 1,100 and 1,900.
4 Fractions
Simple fractions are expressed by using ‘ordinal numbers’ (third,
fourth, fifth, etc).
Vs an eighth (or one eighth) V7 three sevenths
1V9 one and five ninths
More complex fractions are often expressed by using the word
over.
3l7Zso9 three hundred and seventeen over five hundred and nine
Expressions like V4 hour, 5*7/io mile are said three quarters of an
hour, seven tenths of a mile. Note that one and a half takes a
plural noun (e g one and a half kilometres). See 276. For the use of
o/with half, see 276.
5 Decimals
Decimal fractions are said with each figure separate. We use a full
stop (called ‘point’), not a comma, before the fraction.
0.5 (= ¥2) nought point five, or point five (US: zero point five)
3-375 (=3%) three point three seven five
 434 how to say numbers

6 Nought, zero, nil, etc

The figure o is normally called nought (/no:t/) in British English, and
zero U'ziarao,') in American English.
When numbers are said figure by figure, o is often called
/ao/ (like the letter O).
My account number is four one three two six o six nine.
In measurements (for instance, of temperature), o is called zero.
Zero degrees Fahrenheit = 17.8 degrees below zero Centigrade.
Zero scores in team-games are usually called nil in British English
(American zero). In tennis, table-tennis and similar games, the
word love is used. (This is derived from the French I'oeuf,
meaning the egg. presumably because o can be egg-shaped.)
Manchester three; Liverpool nil.
Five-love; your service.
7 Dates

Typical mistake: *My birthday’s on seventeen June,

There are two ways of saying dates.
The first of January. January the first.
The seventeenth of June. June the seventeenth.
(In American English, dates are generally said January first, June
seventeenth, etc.) When dates are written, the, of, and often the
ordinal ending (-th, etc) are dropped.
i(st) January 1976. February i6(th), 1978. ■
When dates are expressed entirely in figures, Americans put rhe
month before the day. 8.6.79 means June the eighth in Britain, but
August the sixth in the United States.
The numbers of years are usually said in two halves.
1066 ten sixty-six
1789 seventeen eighty-nine
1984 nineteen eighty-four
921 nine twenty-one
For more details, see 168.
8 Telephone numbers
In phone numbers, we say each figure separately, o is called /so/.
Instead of six six, two two, etc, British speakers usually say double
six, etc.
307-4922 three 0 seven — four nine double two. (US: . . .
two two.)
52816 five two eight one six
how to say numbers 434

9 Kings and Queens

Ordinal numbers are used for kings and queens.
Henry VIII Henry the Eighth (Not: "Henry Eight)
Louis XIV Louis the Fourteenth
Catherine 11 Catherine the Second
10 Areas
In giving dimensions, we say, for example, that a room is twelve
feet by fifteen feet (iz' x 15') or that a garden is thirty feet by
forty-eight feet (30' x 48').
A room twelve feet by twelve feet can be called twelve feet square-,
the total area is 144 square feet (12' x 1 2').
In. an informal style, foot is often used instead of feet in measure­
ments.
‘How tall are you?’ — ‘Five foot eight.’
My bedroom’s about eight foot by twelve.
11 Money
The singular of pence is penny.
1 p one penny (Informal: one p /pi:/ )
5P five pence (Informal: five p /pi:/ )
In sums which consist of pounds and pence together, the letter p is
dropped from the writing, and the word pence is usually dropped
from the spoken form.
£3.75 three pounds seventy-five
When sums of money are used as adjectives, singular forms are
usual (see 436.2).
a five-pound note
However, pence is sometimes used in adjective expressions.
a five pen^e stamp (or a fivepenny stamp)
Examples of American usage:
it one cent (Or: a penny)
23^: or So.23 twenty-three cents
Sr.95 a dollar ninety-five (Or: one ninety-five)
Does this machine take pennies? (one-cent coins)
Does this machine take nickels? (five-cent coins)
Does this machine take dimes? (ten-cent coins)
Does this machine take quarters? {twenty-five-cent coins)
Does this machine take half-dollars? {ffty-cent coins)
For the use of singular verbs with sums of money, etc, see 431.
 435 numbers

numbers: calculations 435

1 Addition
How do you say ‘2 + 2=4’, or ‘712 + 145 =857’?
In small additions, we usually say and for +, and is or are for =.
Two and two are four.
Six and five is eleven.
"What’s eight and six?
In larger additions, (and in more formal style) we use plus for +,
and equals or is for =.
Seven hundred and twelve plus a hundred and forty-five
is/equals eight hundred and fifty-seven.
2 Subtraction
How do you say ‘7—4 = 3’, or ‘619 —428 = 191’?
In conversational.style, dealing with small-numbers, people say
four from seven leaves/is three, or seven take away four leaves/is
three. In a more formal style, or dealing with larger numbers, minus
(/'mamas/) and equals are used.
Six hundred and nineteen minus four hundred and twenty-eight
equals a hundred and ninety-one.
3 Multiplication
How do you say ‘3 x 4 =12’, or ‘17 X 381 = 6477’?
In small calculations, the most common approach is to say three
fours, six sevens, etc, and to use are for =.
Three fours are twelve.
Six sevens are forty-two.
In larger calculations, there are several possibilities. One way is to
say times for x, and is or makes for =.
Seventeen times three hundred and eighty-one is/makes six
thousand, four hundred and seventy-seven.
In a more formal style, we say multiplied by and equals.
17 multiplied by 381 equals 6477.
4 Division
How do you say ‘9 + 3 = 3’, or ‘261 + 9 = 29’?
The simplest way is to use divided by and equals.
Two hundred and sixty-one divided by nine equals twenty-nine.
But in smaller calculations, people might say, for example, three
Into nine goes three (times).
numbers 436

5 Example of a spoken calculation

Here is a multiplication (i 46 x 281), together with all its steps, in
the words that an English speaker might say as he was doing it.
1 46
281
29200
11680
1 46
41026
A hundred and forty-six times two hundred and eighty-one.
1 Put down two noughts.
2 Two sixes are twelve; put down 2 and carry 1; two fours are
eight and one are nine; two ones are two.
3 (Next line) Put down one nought.
4 Eight sixes are forty-eight; put down 8 and carry 4; eight fours
are thirty-two and four is thirty-six; put down 6 and carry 3;
eight ones are eight and three is eleven.
5 (Next line) One times 146 is 146.
6 (The addition) Six and nought and nought is six; eight and four
and nought is twelve; put down 2 and carry 1; six and two are
eight and one is nine and one is ten; put down o and carry 1;
nine and one are ten and one is eleven; put down 1 and carry 1;
two and one are three and one are four.
7 (Total) forty-one thousand and twenty-six.
(Note how is and are are used interchangeably.)

numbers: grammatical points 436

1 Measurements, etc
Note the use of the verb to be in measurements.
She’s five feet eight (inches tall).
I’m sixty-eight kilos.
What shoe size are you?
In measurement of height, foot is often used instead of feet, espe­
cially in a conversational style.
My father’s six foot two.
The British slang word quid (= pound sterling) and the old British
unit of weightstowe (= fourteen pounds) are both used in the plural
without -s.
Can you lend me five quid? She weighs eight stone six.
For the use of singular verbs with plural expressions of measure­
ment, see 431.
 436 numbers

2 ; Adjective forms
When expressions of measurement, amount and quantity are used
as adjectives, they are normally singular.
a ten-mite walk (Not: "a ten-miles walk)
a twenty-pound note
six two-pound tickets
ten two-hour lessons
four three-penny stamps (Or: . . . three-pence . . see 434.11)
a three-month-old baby
Possessives are often used in expressions of time.
a week’s holiday
two hours’ delay
four days’ journey
Sometimes the possessive and adjective constructions are mixed,
and you find the indefinite article with a plural possessive. This is
not usually considered ‘correct’.
a two-hours’ delay
a three-months’ old baby
3 Hundred, thousand, dozen, etc
Typical mistake: *She had at least four hundreds of lovers.
When these words are used after a number or several, they do not
have -s and of is not used.
She had at least four hundred lovers.
It cost several thousand pounds.
In other cases, the plural form is hundreds (of), dozens (of), etc.
I’ve seen it hundreds of times.
But you’ve got dozens of dresses.
HUNDREDS KILLED IN EXPLOSION (Newspaper headline).
For the use of of with half, see 276.
4 a and per
Typical mistake: *It costs two pounds for week/by week.
In expressions where we relate two different measures, we usually
use the indefinite article in speaking; per is often used in writing.
It costs two pounds a week. (. . . £2 per week.)
The temperature’s rising by about three degrees an hour.
My car does about thirty miles a gallon. (Usually written: miles
per gallon, miles to the gallon, or m.p.g.) ' ,
We’re doing seventy miles an hour. (Written: miles per hour or
m.p.h.)
often 437

5 There are . . . of us
When we count the number of people in a group, we usually
express the result with there are ... of...
There are only seven of us here today.
Thereweretwelveofusinmyfamily. (Not: *We were twelve. . .)
There is a great deal of information about the speaking and writing
of numerical expressions, and weights and measures, in Appendix
4 and Appendix 5 of The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
of Current English.

often /'ofn. 'oftan/ 437

. Typical mistake: */ often fell yesterday when I was skiing.
Often is used to mean ‘frequently on different occasions’. If we
want to say ‘frequently on the same occasion’, we generally use a
different expression (like a lot of times, several times, frequently'),
or the structure keep (on) -ing. Compare:
I fell several times yesterday when I was skiing.
I kept falling yesterday when I was skiing.
I often fell in love when I was younger.
For the position of often (and other adverbs of frequency), see 24.

once /wAns/ 438

Typical mistake: "Come and see me once.
When once has the vague meaning of at sometime, it is only used to
talk about the past. To refer to the future, we use one day or some
time. Compare:
I met her once in Venezuela.
Once upon a time there was a large dinosaur called Daniel.
Come and see me some time.
We must have lunch together one day.
However, when once has the more precise meaning of ‘one time’
(‘not twice or three times’), it can be used to talk about the future.
I’m only going to tell you once.

one and you 439

One and you can both be used to mean people in general.
‘How do you get from Oxford to South Wales?’ — ‘One takes the
motorway from Newbury.’
 440 one

One is used in conversation mostly by ‘careful’ speakers, especially,

perhaps, by middle and upper class people and intellectuals.
One simply doesn’t drink red wine with fish.
To really appreciate Italian painting, one should see it in Italy.
In a formal style, (for instance, in written English), one is more
common than you. Compare;
If you want to make people angry, just tell them what you’re
really thinking.
If one wishes to make oneself thoroughly unpopular, one has
merely to tell people exactly what one has on one’s mind.
For more information about one, see the next section.

one: indefinite personal pronoun 440

Typical mistakes: ‘One is serving me.
*One is knocking at the door.
*One speaks English here.
*In the Middle Ages one believed in witches.
One means ‘anybody (including the speaker)’. It is only used to talk
about people in general, and is not used to refer to an individual, to
a precise group of people, to a particular event, or to a group which
could not include the speaker. Compare:
One can't make an omelette without breaking eggs.
One believes things because one has been conditioned to believe
them.
One shouldn’t get upset about stupid things.
One gets to South Wales by taking the motorway from Newbury.
I’m being served.
Somebody's knocking at the door.
English is spoken here. (Or: We speak English here.)
In the Middle Ages people believed in witches.
One can be used as subject or object; there is also a possessive one’s,
and a reflexive pronoun oneself.
He talks to one like a schoolmaster.
One’s family can be a real nuisance at times.
One should always give oneself plenty of time to pack.
In American English, if one has been used at the beginning of a
sentence, he, him,his sndhimself are often used to refer back to this
one.
One cannot succeed at this unless he tries hard. (GB: . . . unless
one tries hard.)
One should be careful in talking to his colleagues. (GB: ... to
one’s colleagues.)
one(s) 441

one(s): substitute word 441

1 One is often used to replace or to avoid repeating a noun.
I’m looking for a flat. I’d really like one with a garden.
Can I have a melon — a nice ripe one?
There is a plural, ones.
The new designs are much better than the old ones.
T’d like a pound of apples.’ - 'Which ones?’ - ’The red ones.’
Articles can be used before one(s) (e g a green one, the one in the
corner). Note that the article a/an is not used with one if there is no
adjective. Compare:
I’d like a big one with cream on.
I’d like one with cream on. (Not: *. . . a one with cream on.)
2 One can only replace a countable noun. It is not possible to use one
instead of words like milk, energy, happiness.
Typical mistakes: *If you haven’t got fresh milk I’ll take some
tinned one.
*1 don’t get my happiness from other people; I
make my own one.
Instead of using one to replace uncountable nouns, we repeat the
noun. Sometimes it can be left out; see 14.
Don’t get artificial silk - we must have real silk.
If you haven’t got fresh milk I’ll take some tinned.

3 One(s) can be left out after superlatives and after this, that, these,
those; also after either, neither and other determiners used as
pronouns (see 171).
I think my dog’s the fastest (one).
‘Which (one) would you like?’ - ‘That (one).’
Either (one) tyill suit me.
Ones is not usually used after both. In American English, ones is
not used after these and those (and this is unusual in British
English).
‘Would you like the red one or the blue one?’ — ‘Both.’
I don’t think much of these. (GB: . . . these ones is possible)
After numbers, ones is only used if there is an adjective. Compare:
I caught nine. I caught nine big ones.

4 We do not usually say my one(s), your one(s), etc. Instead we say

mine, yours, etc.
Your car isn’t fast enough. Let’s take mine.
But one(s) can be used with a possessive if there is an adjective.
Let’s take your new one.
 443 only

5 The one is not used before of to express possession and similar

ideas. __________________________
Typical mistake: *He put down his gun and picked up the one of
Henry.
Instead, we use a possessive.
He picked up Henry’s.
After comparative structures, the expression that of is possible.
The position of a grandparent is easier than that of a parent.
For more information about substitute words, see 581.

one of . . . 442
Typical mistakes: *One of my friend is a pilot.
"One of our cats have disappeared.
One of is followed by a plural noun phrase (the meaning is one of
them, not *one of him/her/it}. The verb is singular (because the
subject is one).
One of my friends is a pilot.
One of our cats has disappeared.

only 443
Only can go in different places in a sentence. When it refers to the
subject, it normally comes before it.
Only you could do a thing like that.
Only my mother really understands me.
When only refers to another part of the sentence, it usually goes in
‘mid-position’, with the verb. (For the exact position, see 14.)
I only like people who like me.
The bus only runs on Tuesdays.
She only talks like that when she’s nervous.
I’ve only been to India once.
Sometimes sentences like this are ambiguous (they can be under­
stood in more than one way).
I only kissed your sister last night. (Does this mean I didn’t do
anything else to her, I didn ’t kiss anybody else last night, or Last
night was the only time I kissed herl)
In speech, the intonation shows what is meant (by giving special
importance to the part of the sentence that only refers to). In
writing, the context generally makes things clear, so sentences like
this are not really ambiguous very often. However, if we want to
open 444

express the meaning more precisely, we can put o„/y directly before
the object, complement or adverbial expression.
They make only malt whisky in this distillery.
I’ve been camping only in Ireland.
Another way to show the exact meaning is to use the only with a
relative clause.
Your sister was the only girl I kissed last night.
Last night was the only time I kissed your sister.
Only with an adverb of past time can meannot before or as recently
as.
I saw her only yesterday - she seems much better.
For the use of inversion after expressions withow/y (Only then did I
realize . . .), see 345.

open and opened 444

Typical mistake: *Are the banks opened today?
The adjective is open. Opened is only used as a verb, to refer to the
action of opening. Compare:
Are the banks open today?
There must be an open window somewhere — I can feel cold air
coming in.
She opened her eyes and sat up. .
The safe was opened with dynamite.
Note thatclosed andshut can both be used as adjectives and verbs.
Her eyes are closed/shut.
She closed/shut her eyes.

opposite /'opazit/: adjective 445

Typical mistake: *1 noticed that the opposite man was staring at
' me.

1 The adjective opposite is put after the noun when it means ‘facing
the speaker’ or ‘facing the person we are talking to/about’.
I noticed that the man opposite was staring at me.
The man you’re looking for is in the shop directly opposite.
The people in the house opposite never draw their curtains.
In American English, this idea is usually expressed by using across
(from).
the man sitting across from me
the house across the street
 447 ought

2 When the adjective opposite is used before a noun, it means that

this noun is one of a pair which are facing each other, or opposed to
each other in some way.
I’ve got exactly the opposite attitude to yours.
I think the picture would look better on the opposite wall.
His brother was fighting on the opposite side.
She went off in the opposite direction.
For the difference between opposite and contrary, see 158.
For the difference between opposite and in front of, see 248.

other(s) and another 446

1 Typical mistake: *Where are the others photos?
When other is used as an adjective, it has no plural form. Others is
only used as a pronoun, to mean other ones or other people.
Compare:
Where are the other photos?
Have you got any other colours?
Some metals are magnetic and others aren’t.
Can you tell the others that I’ll be late?

2 Another (see 53) can be used in the sense of ‘an additional’, ‘an
extra’.
Can I have another pint of bitter, please?
Another can also be used in this way before a plural expression
beginning with a number or few.
Another three pints, please.
I’ll be here for another few weeks.
More can be used instead of another (note the word-order), but
other is not used in this sense.
Three more pints, please. (Not: *Three other pints.}

ought 447
1 Ought is a ‘modal auxiliary’ verb (see 388). Like other modal verbs,
it has no infinitive, no -ing forms, and no -s on the third person
singular.
She ought to understand.
Questions and negatives are not (normally) made with do.
Ought we to go now? It oughtn’t to take much longer.
However, ought is different from other modal verbs in one way: it
is followed by the infinitive with to.
You ought to see a dentist.
out of 448

2 Ought is used in two ways.

a One is to say that we think something is probable (because it seems
logical or normal).
'We’re spending the winter in Iceland.’ — ‘That ought to be nice.’
Henry ought to be here soon — he left home at six.
b Ought is also used to impose and ask about obligation: to advise
people (including oneself) to do things, or to tell people that they
have a duty to do something, or to enquire about one’s duty.
What time ought I to arrive?
I really ought to phone Mother.
You ought to be more careful.
People ought not to drive like that.
C In both of these meanings, ought to has a very similar meaning to
should. For the (very slight) difference, see 550. Ought to and
should are like weaker forms of must. Compare:
That must be Henry. (— I’m certain it’s Henry.)
That ought to be Henry. (= There’s a reason to think it’s Henry.)
You must tell the police, (an order, or very strong advice)
You ought to tell the police, (advice)

3 Ought to can be followed by a perfect infinitive (in both meanings)

to talk about the past.
I’m sorry — I ought to have phoned to tell you I was coming.
She ought to have arrived at her office by now.
4 Adverbs like always, never, really can go before or after ought. In
an informal style, the position before ought is more common.
You always ought to carry some spare money.
You ought always to carry some spare money (more formal)
In negative sentences, not comes before to (see 401.3).
You ought not to go/You oughtn’t to go. (Not: *... to not go.)

out of 448
Typical mistakes: *She ran out from the room.
*She ran out the room.
The opposite of the prepositions into and in is out of.
She ran out of the room.
I took Henry’s letter out of my pocket.
Compare:
She ran into the room. I put Henry’s letter In my pocket.

For the difference between in and into, see 315.

 451 participles

own 449
Typical mistake: *It’s nice if a child can have an own room.
Own can only be used after a possessive word.
It’s nice if a child can have his own room.
He’s his own boss.
She likes to have her own way.
Bournemouth’s got its own symphony orchestra.
It was my mother’s very own engagement ring.
Own can be used without a following noun (see 14.5).
‘Would you like a cigarette?’ — ‘No thanks, I roll my own.’
Note the structure a ... of one’s own.
It’s nice if a child can have a room of his own.
I’d like to have a car of my own.
We’ve got a house of our own now.

part of 450
When part of is used without an adjective, it is usually not preceded
by an article (like half of).
Part of the trouble is that I can’t remember where I parked the
car. (Not: *A part . . .)
Philip was in Australia part of last year.

participles (-/ng and -ed): general 451

1 Names
In grammars, the forms of a verb ending in -ing are often called
‘present participles’. (When these forms are used like nouns, they
can have a special name - ‘gerunds’. See 331.) Examples of present
participles: breaking,going, drinking, making, beginning, opening.
(For rules of spelling, see 568 and 570.)
Forms like broken, gone, drunk, made, begun, opened are called
‘past participles’. The past participles of regular verbs end in -ed,
just like the past tenses. (For rules of spelling, see 568 and 570.)
‘Present participle’ and ‘past participle’ are not very good names:
both forms can be used to talk about the past,_present or future.
She was crying when I saw her.
Who’s the man talking to Elizabeth?
This time tomorrow I’ll be lying on the beach.
He was arrested in 1972.
You’re fired.
The new school is going to be opened next week.
participles: interested 452

Present and past participles can be put together to make ‘perfect

participles’ (e g having arrived), ‘passive participles’ (e g being emp­
loyed), and ‘perfect passive participles’ (e g having been invited).
2 Use
Participles are used with auxiliary verbs to make progressive, per-
fect and passive verb forms.
It was raining tvhen 1 got home.
I’ve forgotten your name.
You’ll be told as soon as possible.
Participles can also be used rather like adjectives^to say more about
people or things.
This is a new type of self-winding watch.
I've got a broken heart.
Most of the people invited didn’t turn up.
For details of the use of participles as adjectives, see 453.
Participles can combine with other words to form ‘adjective
clauses’.
Who’s the fat man sitting in the corner?
Most of the people invited to the party didn’t turn up.
For details of adjective clauses, see 454.
Participles can also be used rather like adverbs, to tell us, for
example, how or why something happened.
She went running out of the room.
Deeply shocked, I decided never to speak to her again.
Participles can combine with other words to form ‘adverb clauses’.
Having lost all my money, I went home.
Rejected by all his friends, he decided to become a monk.
For details of adverb clauses, see 455.
When present participles are used like adjectives or adverbs, they
have simifarjmeanings to active verbs. (A. self-winding watch is a
watch thattvinds itself.) Past participles almost always have passive
meanings in (these cases (a broken heart is a heart that has been
broken; rejected, in the last example above, corresponds to he had
been rejected).

participles: interested and interesting, etc 452

Typical mistakes: */ was very interesting in the lesson.
*1 didn’t enjoy the party because I was boring.

To say how we feel about something, we can use the past participles
interested, bored, excited, etc.
I was very interested in the lesson.
I didn’t enjoy the party because I was bored.
 453 participles

To talk about the^person or thing that jnakes us feel interes.ted^

bored, etc, we use present participles (interesting, boring, exciting,
etc). ~
I thought the lesson was quite interesting.
Sheila’s party was pretty boring.
More examples.:
A If a story is exciting, you are excited when you read it.
If an explanation is confusing, you get confused.
You may be worried if you have a worrying problem.
~After a tiring day, you feel tired.

participles used as adjectives 453

1 Word-order

Typical mistakes: *We couldn’t agree on any of the discussed

problems.
*The questioned people gave very different opin­
ions.
*1 knew some of the taking part athletes.
*Can you see the climbing man on that rock?
a Participles cannot always be used as adjectives before nouns. We
can say an interesting book or a broken window, but it is not
normal usage to say the climbing man, and it is not possible to say
*the discussed problems. Why is this?
When we put a participle before a noun, it usually expresses some
more permanent characteristic^ it is more like an Qdiectiye. than a
verb. If we talk about an interesting book, we probably do not
mean that the book is interesting somebody at the moment when
we speak; we are talking about a general quality of the book. When
we refer to a broken window, we are not necessarily thinking of the
action; we may just be thinking of the way the window looks. On
the other hand, if we talk abouta man climbing on a rock, or about
the problems discussed at the meeting, or the window broken last
night, we are thinking more of the actions; the participle is like a
verb as well as an adjective. Compare:
I’ll never get married - I don’t want to spend my life surrounded
by dirty washing and screaming children.
Did you hear that child screaming?
In the first sentence, the speaker suggests that screaming is a per-
manent characteristic of childrenj in the second,screaming refers to
a single action?
Here are some more expressions in which the participle must go
after the noun:
participles 453

the only place left

the people taking part
any person objecting
all children wishing to compete
the success just obtained
Most of the people singing were students.
Many of the people questioned refused to answer.
b Note that a participle placed after a noun often has the same
‘identifying’ function as a relative clause (see 526). Compare:
the only place
the only place that was left
the people taking part
the people who were taking part
C Those is often used with a participle.
those taking part (=the people taking part}
those selected (=the people or things selected}
d It is not always easy to explain why one participle can be used
before a noun (e g a lost dog}, but another one cannot (e g *a found
object}. This is a complicated area of English grammar which has
not yet been completely analysed.
Note also that many past participles can be put before a noun only
if they are used in the ‘compound adjective’ structure adverb + par-
ticiple. We cannot say *a built house or *the mentioned point, but
we can say a recently-built house or the above-mentioned point.
2 Participles with objects
When a'participle has an object, the whole expression can some­
times be used as an adjective before another noun (especially if the
expression describes a permanent quality). Note the word-order.
a self-winding watch English-speaking Canadians
a fox-hunting man
(Many other kinds of‘compound adjective’ are possible, eg long-
playing records, home-grown vegetables, man-made fibres.}
3 Change of meaning
A few participles change their meaning according to their position.
the people concerned means ‘the people who were affected,by
what was happening’
a concerned expression means ‘a^worried expression’
the people involved means the same as ‘the people concerned’
an involved explanation means ‘a complicated explanation’
, the solution adopted means ‘the solution chosen’
/ an adopted child lives with people who are not his biological
parents
 453 participles

4 Very
Grammars sometimes say that much should be used instead of very
before past participles, In fact, this depends on the particular case.'
4 Past_participle often refers to a state or a quality, ngt_arL.action.
(just like an adjective) - for instance, a frightened animal, a tired
child, a complicated problem. In these cases, it is normal to use
Very.
a very frightened animal
a very tired child
a very complicated problem
But when the past participle refers to_an action - for instance, when
it is part of themain verb ofthe sentence — it is sometimes necessary
to use much or very much.
Britain’s trade position has been much/very much weakened by
inflation.
Very is common, even in verb phrases, with verbs which express
personal reactions.
We were all very shocked by the news about Tony.
I was very amused by Miranda’s attitude.
Some people prefer to use much in these cases, but very is more
common in modern English in an informal style.
For more information about much and very, see 6r8.
Very is only possible with a few present participles: those which are
really just like adjectives (eg very interesting, very exciting, very
worrying). In other cases, very cannot be used. (It is impossible to
talk about *very screaming children-, you have to use a word such as
continually or loudly.)
5 By
Typical mistake: *I ’ve always been terribly frightened by dying.
By is used after the past participle in passive sentences to introduce
the agent (the person or thing that does the action).
Most of the damage was caused by your sister.
By is not normally used after adjectives (we don’t say *afraid by or
*angry by).
When a_past_participle like frightened or excited is used like an
adjective (to describe a state of mind, not an action), by is not
usually used. The correct preposition may be about, with, of or
another one, depending on the adjective. Compare:
She was frightened by a mouse that ran into the room.
I’ve always been terribly frightened of dying.
The kids were so excited by the noise that they couldn’t get to
sleep.
n
participle clauses 454

I'm excited about the possibility of going to the States.

I was annoyed by the tvay she spoke to me.
I’m annoyed with you.
Active past participles
Past participles used as adjectives (before or after the noun) almost
always have a passive meaning. A broken window is a window that
has been broken~5y“somebody; the problems discussed means
(probably) the problems that were, have been or are discussed.
However, there are a few past participles that can be used as
adjectives with an active meaning. Examples are fallen, vanished,
retired, grown_up^ escaped, faded.
fallen rocks vanished civilizations a retired general
a grown-up daughter an escaped prisoner faded colours
Some other past participles can be used in this way with an adverb
or adverb particle
a well-read person recently-arrived immigrants
a much-travelled man a burnt-out match

participle clauses: adjectival (details) 454

1 In expressions like the people invited or a crying woman the parti­
ciples are rather like adjectives: they give more information about
the nouns (people, woman) they are connected with. Participles
used in this way can be put together with other words to make
adjectival participle clauses.
Most of the people,invited to the reception were old friends.
There’s a woman crying her eyes out over there.
These participle clauses are rather like relative clauses. Instead of
the people invited we could say the people who had been invited-,
instead of a woman crying her eyes out we could say a woman
who’s crying her eyes out.

2 Typical mistakes: *Do'you know anyone having lost a cat?

*1 want to talk to the person breaking that cup.
Adjectival present participle clauses can only be used to talk about
actions tharTiappetLamurid the same time as the main verE~
Can you see the girl dancing with your brother?
Anybody touching that wire will get an electric shock.
When there is a time difference between the actions of the two
verbs, participles cannot usually be used.
Do you know anybody who has lost a cat?
I want to talk to the person who broke that cup.
 455 participle clauses

Because of this, perfect participlesjAatwg seen, having told, etc)

are never possible inlidjectival clauses._
Being is not usecTTn-adjectival clauses, except in passive verb
constructions. Compare:
Anybody who Is outside after ten o’clock will be arrested. (Not:
*Anybody being outside . . .)
Did you see that boy being questioned by the police? (passive)
(In adverbial clauses, perfect participles can be used, and being can
be used in an active sense. See 455.)

3 Typical mistake: *The boy bringing the milk has been ill.
After a noun which refers to spmethjng. ‘definite’ (a particular
person, thing, group, etc), a participle clause usually has a progres-
jlve meaning.^——
I like the girl sitting-on the right. (Or: . . . who is sitting . . .)
The men working on the site were in some danger. (Or:. . . who
were working . . .)
To express a non-progres_sive meaning, use a relative clause.
The boy who brings the milk has been ill.
The man who threw the bomb was arrested. (Not: *. . . the man
throwing . . .)
When a noun has a more general, less ‘definite’ meaning, participle
clauses are possible with ‘simple-tense’ meanings as well as prog­
ressive meanings. Compare:
Women looking after small children generally get paid about
£1.50 an hour. (= Women who look . . .)
The woman who looks after my small brother gets paid £1.50 an
hour. (Not: *The woman looking. . .)
Note, however, that this is a very complex area of English gram­
mar, which is not yet very clearly understood.

participle clauses: adverbial (details) 455

1 Participle clauses are not only used like adjectives, to give more
information about nouns. They can also be used to say more about
the action of the verb, or about the idea expressed by the sentence as
a whole. Used like this, they are similar to adverb clauses.
Not knowing what to do, I telephoned the police. (= (tfecausg)!
didn’t know what to do, . . .)
Putting down my newspaper, I walked over to the window and
looked out. (=^A_fter I had put down . . .)
It rained fpr_.two weeks on end, completely ruining our holiday.
(=...'$£> th'atyit completely ruined our holiday.)
participle clauses 455

Used economically, one tin will last for at least six weeks. (= If it
is used economically, . . .)
In -ing clauses, stative verbs usually suggest the idea of reason or
cause. (Stative verbs are verbs which refer to actions or states that
go on for a long time, or for ever; for example, live, feel, know, be,
have. They are contrasted with dynamic verbs,-which refer to
actions or events which have clear beginnings and ends; for exam­
ple, go, cut, drive, put, ruin. Many stative verbs are rarely used in
progressive tenses (see joz.6), but the -ing form can be used in
participle clauses.)
Being unable to help in any other way, I gave her some money.
Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress
designer.
Feeling rather tired, I telephoned and said I couldn’t come.
Living in the country, we had few amusements.
Adverbial clauses are common with perfect participles.
Having failed to qualify as a doctor, I took up teaching.
Having finished all my letters, I had a drink and went out.

2 Normally, the subject of a participle clause is the same as the

subject of the main clause in a sentence.
My wife had a long talk with Sally, explaining why she didn’t want
the children to play together. (My wife is the subject of explain­
ing.)
It is usually considered a mistake to make sentences like these in
which the subjects are different.
*Looking out of the window of our hotel room, there were lots of
mountains. (This sounds as if the mountains were looking out of
the window.)
However, there are some very common expressions which break
this rule.
Generally speaking, men can run faster than women. (It is not the
men who ‘speak generally’ in this sentence.)
Broadly speaking, dogs are more faithful to man than cats.
Judging from his expression, he’s in a bad mood.
Considering everything, it wasn’t a bad holiday.
I’ll lend you the money providing you pay it back before Easter.
Supposing there was a war, what would you do?
Taking everything into consideration, they ought to be given
another chance.
In other cases, a participle clause can be given its own subject.
Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed.
All the money having been spent, we started looking for work.
A little girl walked past, her doll dragging behind her on the
pavement.
 457 active

The subject is often introduced by with when the participle clause

expresses accompanying circumstances.
A car roared past with smoke pouring from the exhaust.
With Peter working in Birmingham, and Lucy travelling most of
the week, the house seems pretty empty.
3 Participle clauses with conjunctions and prepositions
Participle clauses can be used after the words after, before, since,
when, while, whenever, once, until, on and as.
After talking to you 1 always feel better.
After having annoyed everybody he went home.
Depress clutch before changing gear.
She’s been quite different since coming back from America.
When telephoning London numbers from abroad, dial i, not or.
On being introduced to somebody, a British person often shakes
hands.
She struck me as being a very nervy kind of person.
Once deprived of oxygen, the brain dies.
Leave in oven until cooked to a light brown colour.

participle clauses, complement 456

Participles and participle clauses can be used after the objects of
verbs of sensation (like see, hear, feel, watch, "notice, smell) and
some other verbs (e g find, get, have). They function as ‘object
complements’. '
/ saw a small girl standing in the goldfish pond.
Have you ever heard a nightingale singing?
1 found him drinking my whisky.
We’ll have to get the car repaired before Tuesday.
Do you think you can get the radio working?
We'll soon have you walking again.
For more information about participle structures after see and
hear, see 288. For structures with get, see 268. For structures with
have, see 2.86.

active and passive 457

1 Compare the following two sentences:
Tour little boy broke my kitchen window this morning.
That window was broken by your little boy.
In the first sentence, the person who did the action (your little boy)
is the subject, and comes first; then we say what he did (with the
verb, broke) and what he did it to (the object, my kitchen window).
In the second sentence, the opposite happens: we start by talking
active 457

about the window (the object of the first sentence has become the
subject of the second); then we say what was done to it, and who
this was done by. The first kind of sentence, and the kind of
verb-form used in it, are called ‘active’. The second kind of sen­
tence, and the kind of verb-form used, are called ‘passive’. (For
details of passive verb-forms, see 458.)

2 The choice between active and passive constructions often depends

on what has already been said, or on what the listener already
Uno_wsL_We usually like to start sentences with what is already
known, and to put ‘new’ information later in the sentence. In the
first example above, the listener does not knp_w about the broken
window, so the speaker makes it the object of the sentence. In the
second ejcam p 1 e, the listener knows about the window — it is being
pointed out to him, he can see it — so the speaker uses a passive
construction; in this way he can put the window first, and keep the
newmformation (who broke it) for later in the sentence. Another
example:
John's just written a play.
This play was probably written by Marlowe.
In the first sentence, John is somebody that the hearenkno.ws; the
news is that he has written aplay. The speaker prefers to put this at
the end, so he begins with John and uses an active verb. In the
second sentence, a passive structure allows the speaker to begin
with the play (which the hearer already knows about), and to put
the news (who wrote it) at the end.

3 We often prefer to put longer and ‘heavier’ expressions at the end of

a sentence, and this can be another reason for choosing a passive
structure. Compare:
Mary’s behaviour annoyed me. (Or: I was annoyed by Mary's
behaviour.)
I was annoyed by Mary wanting to tell everybody else what to do.
The first sentence can easily be active or passive. But if the second
sentence was active, the subject would be very long (Mary wanting
to tell everybody else what to do annoyed me). In this case, a passive
structure is more natural. " '—
Passive structures are also used when we want to talk about an
action, but we are not interested in saying who (orwhat)’didTf.
Those pyramids were built around 400 A.D.
Too many books have been written about the second world war.
Passives_are very common in scientific writing, and other kinds of
expression where we are most interested in events and processes: in
things that happen. Active forms are more common in imaginative
writing (novels, stopes, etc), and in other cases where we want to
say a lot about the people who make things happen.
 457 active

4 Note that meaning and grammar do not always go together. Not all
active verbs have ‘active’ meanings; not all passive verbs have
‘passive’ meanings. If you say that somebody receives something,
orjrjt/'/ets^you really mean that he has something done to him. The
verb form is active but the meaning is passive. Some English active
verbs might be translated by passives in certain other languages (e g
She is sitting)-, some English passives would not be translated by
passives in some other languages (egf was born in 1936; English is
spoken here).
5 A few active verbs can sometimes be used with passive meanings.
Yowr report reads well. (= It is interesting to read your report.)
The new Ford is selling badly.
This dress does up at the front.
It’s a pretty material, but it doesn’t wash.
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with very
similar meanings. For details, see 330.
There’s a lot of work to do/to be done.
After need, want and require, active -ing forms can be used with
passive meanings.For details, see 335.
My watch needs cleaning. (=... to be cleaned.)
When present participles (-/wg^forms) are used as adjectives, they
usually have active meanings (see 453.6).
A crying child the people taking part
Past participles [broken, invited, etc) normally have passive mean-
ings, but there are a few exceptions.
a broken window the people invited
But:
a retired general fallen rocks
6 Not all verbs can have passive forms. Intransitive verbs (like die,
arrive) cannot become passive: they have no objects, and so there is
nothing to become the subject of a passive sentence.
7 Students often confuse active and passive verb-forms. This is not
surprising, because:
1 Be is used to make both passive verb-forms and active progres­
sive tenses
2 past participles are used to make both passive verb-forms and
active perfect tenses.
Compare:
He was calling. (Active - past progressive)
He was called. (Passive - past simple)
He has called. (Active - present perfect simple)
passive 458

Typical mistakes: */ was very interesting in the lesson. (Correct

form: / was very Interested ... - see 451)
*We were questioning by the immigration
officer. (Correct form: We were questioned. . .)
*She has put in prison. (Correct form: She was
put... or She has been put. . .)
For details of the various passive verb-forms and their uses, see 458.

passive verb-forms 458

Passive verb-forms are made with the different tenses of to be,
followed by a past participle. The tenses, and the rules for their use,
are the same as for active verb-forms. Note, however, that we
usually avoid saying be being and been being, so that futjurejprog-
ressive and perfect progressive passive tenses are very uncommon.

Present simple: English Is spoken here.

Present progressive: Excuse the mess: the house is
being painted.
Past simple: I wasn’t invited, but I’ve come
anyway.
Past progressive: I felt as if I was being watched.
Present perfect: Has Mary been told?
(Present perfect progressive): (How long has the research been
being done?)
Past perfect: I knew why I had been chosen.
(Past perfect progressive): (I wondered how long I'd been
being followed.)
Future: You’ll be told in advance.
(Future progressive): (You’ll be being told in the near
future.)
Future perfect: Everything will have been done
by the 26th.
(Future perfect progressive): (By next Christmas, that bridge
will have been being built for
three years.)
Going to structure: Who’s going to be invited?
Modal structures: He ought to be shot. You might
have been hurt.
Note the passive infinitive — to be invited, to be shot — and the
perfect passive infinitive - (to) have been hurt - in the last three
examples. Passive -ing forms also exist:
She likes being looked at.
Having been rejected by everybody, he became a monk.
For more information about the use of the various tenses, modal
 460 passive

structures, etc, look up the entries for the active forms (see Index).
For more information about some passive structures, see 4 5 9- 465.
For details of the use of get as a passive auxiliary (instead of be) see
2.67.
For information about the position of prepositions with passive
verb-forms (eg He’s being operated on tomorrow) see 488.

passive: by + agent 459

In sentences like The trouble was caused by your mother, the part
of the sentence introduced by by is called the agent. The agent in a
passive sentence is the same person or thing as the subject of an
active sentence. Compare:
I was shocked by her attitude. Her attitude shocked me.
The agent is only expressed when it is important to say who or what
something is done by. In most passive sentences, there is no agent.
A new supermarket’s just been opened.
I’m always being asked for money.
After some past participles which are used like adjectives, other
prepositions are used instead of by to introduce the agent (see
453-5)-
We were worried about (or by) her silence.
I was excited at (or by) the prospect of going abroad.
Are you frightened of spiders?
With is used when we talk about an instrument (tool, etc) which
helps the agent to do an action.
He was shot (by the policeman) with a revolver.
For more information about the use of with, see 633.

passive: verbs with two objects • 460

Many verbs, such as give, send, show, lend, can be followed by two
objects, which usually refer to a person and a thing (see 617).
She gave her sister the car.
When these verbs are used in the passive, there are two possibilities.
Her sister was given the car.
The car was given to her sister.
Most often in such cases the person becomes the subject of the
passive verb.
I've just been sent a whole lot of information.
You were lent ten thousand pounds last year.
We were shown all the different ways of making whisky.
Other verbs used like this are pay, promise, refuse, tell, offer.
passive 461

passive: sentences with object complements 461

After some verbs, the direct object can be followed by an ‘object
complement’ - a noun or adjective which.describes the object,
Queen Victoria considered him a genius.
They elected him president.
We regarded him as an expert.
Most people saw him as a sort of clown.
The other children called him stupid.
I made the room beautiful.
These sentences can become passive.
He was considered a genius (by Queen Victoria).
He was elected president.
He was regarded as an expert.
He was seen as a sort of clown.
He was called stupid.
The room was made beautiful.

passive: sentences with clause objects 462

The object of a sentence can be a clause.
People believed that witches communicated with the devil.
Nobody knew whether there was gold left in the mine.
Passive sentences can be made with that- or whether-clauses as
subjects.jfPjs usually used'as an introductory subject (see 349).
ft was believed that witches communicated with the devil.
(Also possible: That witches communicated . . . was widely
believed.)
It was not known whether there was gold left in the mine.
(Also possible: Whether there was . . . was not known.)

passive: verbs with object + infinitive 463

Many verbs can be followed by an object and infinitive.
She asked me to send a stamped addressed envelope.
I consider Moriarty to be dangerous.
Everybody wanted Doris to be the manager.
We like our staff to say what they think.
Sentences like these cannot usually be made passive. We cannot
say, for example, *Doris was wanted to be the manager or *Our
staff are liked to say what they think.
There are a few exceptions.
1 Verbs of asking, ordering, allowing etc can usually be used in the
passive with a following infinitive.
 464 passive

I was asked to send a stamped addressed envelope.

She was told not to come back.
We are allowed to visit Harry once a week.
Other verbs in this group: advise, expect, forbid, mean, order,
request, require, teach.

2 Many verbs of thinking, saying, etc can be used in the same way.
Moriarty is considered to be dangerous.
He is known to be violent.
Other verbs in this category: believe, feel, presume, report, say,
understand.
Note that with say the infinitive structure is only possible in the
passive. Compare:
They say that he’s famous in his own country. (Not: "They say
him to be . . .)
He’s said to be famous in his own country.
With the other verbs in this group, too, the tZwt-structure is more
common than the infinitive structure in active sentences.
3 A few verbs are followed, in the active, by an object and an
infinitive without to. Examples are hear, help, make, see. In the
passive, the to-infinitive is used. Compare:
I saw him come out of the house.
He was seen to come out of the house.
They made him tell them everything.
He was made to tell everything.

passive: verbs which cannot be used in the passive 464

Not all verbs have passive forms. Intransitive verbs cannot be used
in the passive: since they do not have objects, there is nothing to act
as the subject of a passive verb. Some transitive verbs cannot be
used in the passive, at least in certain of their meanings. Most of
these are ‘stative’ verbs (verbs which refer to states, not actions, and
which often have no progressive forms). Examples are fit, have,
lack, resemble, suit.
They have a nice house. (But not: *A nice house is had . . .)
I was having a bath. (But not: *A bath was being had . . .)
My shoes don’t fit me. (But not: *Tm not fitted by my shoes.)
Sylvia resembles a Greek goddess. (But not: *A Greek goddess is
resembled by Sylvia.)
Your mother lacks tact, (but not: *Tact is lacked . . .)
Not all prepositional verbs (see 492) can be used in passive struc­
tures. For example, we can say That chair’s not to be sat on or The
passive 465

children have been very well looked after, but we can’t say *1 was
agreed with by everybody or *The room was walked into. There are
no clear rules about this; the student has to learn, one by one, which
expressions can be used in the passive.

passive: perfective verbs 465

Perfective verbs are verbs which refer to actions that produce a
finished result. For example, cut, build, pack, close are perfective
verbs; feel, live, speak and run are not. The past participles of
perfective verbs, and their passive tenses, can have two meanings.
They can refer to the action, or they can describe the result (rather
like adjectives). Consider the sentence:
The theatre was closed.
This can have two meanings. Compare:
The theatre was closed by the police on the orders of the mayor.
When I got to the theatre I found that it was closed.
In the first sentence, closed is the opposite of opened; it refers to an
action. In the second, closed is the opposite otopen; it refers to a
state, not an action, and is more like an adjective.
The present perfect is often usecTto talk about the results_o f a c tions.
(For example: I’ve packed the cases.) With perfective verbs, a
present passive often gives the same meaning as a present perfect
passive. For example: The cases are packed ( = . . . have been
packed).
The vegetables are all cut up - what shall I do now?
I got caught in the rain and my suit’s ruined.
I think your ankle is broken.

past /pa:st/ and passed /pa:st/ 466

Typical (written) mistake: *1 past my driving test.
The verb pass is regular in its spelling.
I passed my driving test.
Past is not a verb form. It can be used as an adjective, noun,
preposition and adverb.
I’ve been ill for the past two weeks.
My parents are living in the past.
Look at the soldiers walking past the window.
A horse galloped past.
 467 past perfect tense

past perfect tense 467

Typical mistakes: "He wasn't exactly a stranger — I have met him
once before.
*1 explained that I have forgotten my keys.
*1 could see from his face that he received bad
news.
"Good afternoon. I had left some photos to be
developed. Are they ready yet?
"General Cary, who had commanded a
parachute regiment for many years, Is now living
in retirement.
1 The ‘past perfect’ tense is constructed with had + past participle.
I had met he had received he had commanded
she had been invited.
If we are already talking about the past, we use the past perfect to
go back to an earlier past time, to talk about things that^at/already
happened at the time we are talking about.
He wasn’t exactly a stranger — I had met him once before.
1 explained that I had forgotten my keys.
I could see from his face that he had received bad news.
The past perfect is only used when there is this idea of a ‘second’ or
earlier past. We do not use it just to talk about things that happened
some time ago.
1 left some photos to be developed. Are they ready yet?
General Cary, who commanded a parachute regiment for many
years, is now living in retirement.
The past perfect is common in ‘reported speech’after past verbs like
said, told, asked, explained, thought, wondered, etc. It refers to
things that had already happened when the conversation or
thoughts took place.
1 told them that I had done enough work for one day.
She wondered who had left the door open.
I thought I'd sent the cheque a week before.
Note that the past perfect can correspond to different ‘direct
speech’ tenses. In the first example above, the present perfect would
be used in direct speech (‘I’ve done ...’). In the last example, the
simple past (7 sent . . .’) would be used. In the second example,
both are possible (‘Who has left. . .?’ ‘Who left . . .?’).
2 The past perfect progressive is used to talk about longer actions or
situations, which had/feeen going on continuously up to the past
moment that we are thinking about.
When she arrived I had been waiting for three hours.
past perfect tense 467

1 realized that I’d been overworking, so I decided to take a couple

of days’ holiday.
Some verbs are not often used in progressive tenses (see 50Z.6).
I felt as if I had known her all my life. (Not: *. . . I had been
knowing . . .)

3 Note that the past perfect is not always necessary when we talk
about two things that happened at different times in the past. We
use the past perfect mainly if, when we are concentrating on a later
time (which will be in the past tense), we want to go back to an
earlier time (which will be in the past perfect tense) just for a
moment. Compare:
I felt pretty upset because of what Mary had said, but I tried not
to think about it too much.
Mary said some rather horrible things to me; I felt pretty upset,
but tried not to think about it too much.
When we talk about past events in the order in which they hap­
pened (as in the second example), we do not generally need to use
the past perfect.
4 The past perfect is often used with conjunctions of time (like when,
after, as soon as).
When I’d written all my letters, I did some gardening.
She didn’t feel the same after her cat had died.
A simple past tense can often be used instead of a past perfect, if the
‘earlier’ action was a short one. Compare:
When I had washed the cat, it ran off into the bushes in disgust.
When I put the cat out, it ran off into the bushes in disgust.
However, a past perfect is usual when the subjects of the two
clauses are the same.
When I had put the cat out, I locked the door and went to bed.
(Not: *Wh^n 1 put the cat out, I locked . . .)
Even when the subjects are the same, a simple past tense is usually
used when we are talking about people’s immediate reactions.
When she saw the mouse she screamed. (Not: ’"When she had
seen . . .)
I got a real shock when I opened the box.
With before, the past perfect is sometimes used in a rather special
way. It can refer to a later action which was not completed, or
which was not done in time.
He died before I had had a chance.-to speak to him. (Or: . . .
before I had a chance . . .)
She went out before I’d realized what was happening. (Or: . . .
before I realized . . .)
 468 past progressive tense

5 The past simple is often used instead of the past perfect in depen­
dent clauses after a past perfect verb.
He told me somebody had phoned when I was out. (Or: ...
when 1 had been out.)
They were quarrelling about the property their father had left
them when he died. (Or: when he had died.)
6 The past perfect can be used to express an unrealized hope, wish,
etc.
I had hoped that we would be able to leave tomorrow, but it’s
beginning to look difficult.
1 had intended to make a cake, but I ran out of time.
After wish, if only, would rather, and if, the past perfect refers to
past actions or events thatc/ftf not happen. (See 632, 309, 518 and
3O4-)
I wish I had said that 1 couldn’t come.
it only you’d told me before.
I would rather you had told her the truth.
If Bernard had moved faster everything would have been all right.
For the past perfect after It was the first time. . ., etc, see 473.

past progressive tense 468

Typical mistakes: When I got up this morning everything was
lovely. *The sun shone, the birds sang, . . .
*1 was living in London for ten years when I was
a child.

1 The past progressive tense is made with was/were +-ing.

the sun was shining the birds were singing
The most common use of the past progressive is to talk about what
was already happening at a particular past moment.
What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.?
When I got up this morning the sun was shining, the birds were
singing.
The past progressive is very often used in a sentence together with
past simple tenses. When this happens, the past progressive usually
refers to a longer ‘background’ action or situation; the past"simple"
usuaHyTefers tpTa shorter~action or event that happerie“d'ih"the
middle of the longer one, or interrupted .it.
Hilda'was dancing, but when she saw me she stopped.
The phone rang while I was having my bath, as usual.
I was talking to the Prime Minister the other day, and she said. . .
Compare the uses of the past progressive and the past simple:
past simple tense 469

When she arrived I was telephoning Harry. (She arrived during

my telephone call).
When she arrived 1 telephoned Harry. (I telephoned after her
arrival)
In narrative (stories etc), the past progressive is often used for
descriptions, and the past simple for events and actions.
The bride was wearing a white dress and carrying a bouquet of
lilies. The bridegroom was trembling and looking pale. Suddenly
a man stood up at the back of the church. ‘Listen’ he said . . .
2 The past progressive (like other progressive tenses) is used for
temporary actions and situations; when we talk about longer, more
permanent situations we usually use the past simple. Compare:
It happened while I was living in Eastbourne last year.
1 lived in London for ten years when I was a child.
I was running downstairs when I slipped and fell.
The street ran down to the river.

3 The past progressive is not the normal tense for talking about
repeated or habitual past actions. The past simple is usually used
for this.
1 rang the bell six times. (Not: *1 was ringing . . .)
The past progressive is, however, possible if the repeated actions
form a temporary ‘background’ for the main action.
At the time when it happened, I was seeing a lot of Belinda, and I
was also going to the opera a lot.

4 We can use the past progressive in the expressions / was wondering,

1 was hoping, and / tvas thinking to make a request or suggestion
sound more polite, less definite.
/ was wondering if you’d like to come out with me one evening.

5 Some verbs cannot be used in progressive tenses (see 50Z.6).

I picked up a cake and bit a piece off to see how it tasted. (Not:
*. . . was tasting.)

past simple tense 469

The past simple tense is the one most often used to talk about the
past. It can refer to short, quickly finished actions and events, to
longer actions and situations, and to repeated happenings.
He walked into the bar and ordered a vodka and tonic.
I lived in London until I was fourteen.
When / was a child we always went to the seaside in August.
 470 past tense

In certain cases, the past simple tense can be used to refer to the
present or future. (See next section.) In subordinate clauses, the
past simple can be used instead of a past perfect or conditional. See
467.5 and 595.
The other past and perfect tenses (past progressive, past perfect,
present perfect) all have special meanings. For the differences bet­
ween these and the simple past, see 468 (past progressive), 467
(past perfect) and 493 (present perfect).

past tense with present or future meaning 470

A past tense does nor always have a past meaning. Expressions like
I had or you went can be used, in some kinds of sentence, to talk
about the present or future. This happens in several different cases:
1 After//, and other words with similar conditional meanings (see 74,
304 and 309, 310, 585).
If I had the money now I’d buy a car.
If you went at about five o’clock tomorrow you cofidd see him
before he left the office.
Suppose we spent next weekend in Brighton?
If only I had more time!
You look as if you were just about to scream.

2 After It’s time (see 606), would rather (see 518) andwish (see 632).
Ten o’clock — it’s time you went home.
Don’t come and see me today — I’d rather you came tomorrow.
I wish I had a better memory.
3 In a subordinate clause depending on a conditional (see 595).
If only she would say what she thought, things would be easier.

4 In some expressions where the past tense expresses a ‘tentative’

attitude, suggesting politeness or respect.
Did you wish to see me now?
1 wondered if you were free this evening. (Or: I was wondering)
I thought you might like some flowers.
I was hoping we could have dinner together.

5 The ‘past’ modal forms could, might, would and should generally
have present or future reference (see 127-132, 375-377, 636,
549-554)-
Could you help me for a moment?
I think it might rain soon.
Would you come this way, please?
Alice should be here soon.
pay (for) 471

6 Past tenses are often used to talk about past situations which still
exist. This happens in reported speech (see 534), and in some other
cases (see 594).
Are you deaf? I asked how old you were.
I’m sorry we left Chester. It was such a nice place.

pay (for) and buy 471

Typical mistake: *Come on, I’ll pay you a drink.
You pay a person, you pay a bill, and you pay sums of money, but
you pay for something you buy.
You can have the room free, but you’ll have to pay me £10 a week
for your meals.
When we want to talk about paying for a drink or a meal for a
person, we usually use the verb buy (or get).
Come on, I’ll buy you a drink. Let me get you a drink.
Can I buy you lunch?
Pay for can also express the idea of paying money that somebody
else owes.
Don’t worry about money; I’ll pay for you.

perfect tenses 472

Perfect tenses are made’ with forms of the auxiliary verb have,
followed by a past participle.
She’s lost her memory. (Present perfect)
I told him that I had never heard of the place. (Past perfect)
We'll have finished by tomorrow afternoon. (Future perfect)
These tenses have progressive forms, made with forms of have
+ been + .. . -ing.
How long ’have you been waiting?
I'd been wondering if she was going to call.
By next spring I’ll have been living here for six years.
Perfect passive tenses are made with forms oihave +been + past
participle.
She ’s never been properly trained.
It looked as if it had been done on purpose.
By 1985 the entire railway network will have been modernized.
For the meaning and use of the perfect tenses, see 493 (present
perfect), 467 (past perfect) and 2.57 (future perfect). For informa­
tion about perfect infinitives, see 319; for information about the
use of modal verbs with perfect infinitives (eg You might have
told me, We ought to have telephoned), see 390.
 474 personal pronouns'

perfect tense after this is the first time and similar 473
expressions
1 Typical mistake: “This is the first time I hear her sing, and I hope it
is the last.
The present perfect tense is used after the following expressions:
This/that/it is the first/second/third/fourth, etc . . .
This/that/it is the only . . .
This/that/it is the best/finest/worst/most interesting, etc . . .
Examples:
This is the first time (that) I’ve felt really relaxed for months.
This is the first time (that) I’ve heard her sing.
That’s the seventeenth beer (that) you’ve drunk this evening.
This is the only party (that) I’ve ever really enjoyed in my life.
It’s one of the most interesting books (that) I’ve ever read.
When we talk about the past, we use a past perfect tense.
It was the third time he had been in love that year.
Note that a present tense is possible with the expression/dr the first
time. Compare:
This is the first time I’ve been here. (Not: *. . . I’m here.)
I’m here for the first time.

personal pronouns 474

The words I, me, you, he, him, it, we, us, they, them and one are
called ‘personal pronouns’. (This does not mean that they only refer
to persons, of course.)
The main use of personal pronouns is to replace nouns. This
happens when it is already clear who or what we are talking about,
so that a more precise description is unnecessary.
John’s broken his leg. He'll be in hospital for two weeks. (Not:
John’ll be . . .)
Tell Mary I miss her. (Not: *... I miss Mary.)
There are a few special points about the use of personal pronouns:

1 Subject and object forms

Me, her, him, us and them are not only used as direct objects. They
can also be used in other ways.
‘Who’s there?’ — ‘Me.’
I’m older than her.
For details, see 78, 123, 135, 224.
personal pronouns 474

2 We and us
Note that we and us have two meanings: they can include or
exclude the listener. Compare:
Shall we go and have a drink? (we includes the listener)
We’re going for a drink — would you like to come with us? (we
excludes the listener)
In very informal English, us is sometimes used instead of me.
Give us a kiss, love.

3 They and them can be used to refer to one person in certain cases.
If anybody telephones, ask them if they can call again tomorrow.
For details, see 432.
4 In question-tags, it is used to refer to nothing, everything and all.
Nothing happened, did it?
Everything has now been said, hasn’t it?
5 It can refer to a person when we are identifying somebody (saying
who somebody is).
‘Who’s that?’ - ‘It’s John.’
A tall man stood up and shook hands. It was Captain Lawrie.

6 He and she can sometimes be used for animals.

Give the cat some food. He’s hungry, poor thing.
She can also be used for boats, cars, countries and some other
things.
How much petrol does she use?
For details, see 259.
7 One is used to refer to people in general (including the speaker).
One should always listen to what other people have to say.
There are several problems connected with the use of one. For
details, see 439 and 440.
8 It can be used as an ‘introductory’ or ‘preparatory’ subject or object
when the ‘real’ subject or object of a sentence is an infinitive or a
clause.
It’s difficult to remember all their names.
He made It clear that he didn’t want to speak to me.
For details of this structure, see 349 and 350. For its use in ‘cleft
sentences’, see 138.
 474 personal pronouns

9 It is ufced as an ‘empty’ subject (with no real meaning) in expres­

sions referring to time, weather and temperature.
It’s ten o’clock.
It’s Monday.
It rained for three days.
It can be very warm in September.
We also use it to introduce information about distances.
It’s three miles to the nearest garage.

10 It can mean ‘the present situation’.

It’s awful! — I’ve got so much work I don’t know where to start.
Isn’t it lovely here!

11 Personal pronouns cannot normally be left out.

Typical mistakes: *I*s raining. (Correct form: It’s raining.)
*She loved the picture because was beautiful.
(. . . because it was beautiful.)
*They arrested him and put in prison. (. . . put
him in prison.)
‘Have some chocolate.’ - *'No, I don’t like.’
('... I don’t like it.’)
However, it is not usually used in the expressions I know, I
remember, I think, I suppose, I expect, I believe, I imagine, I guess.
‘It’s late.’ - ‘I know.’ (Not: *1 know it.)
12 Subject pronouns cannot normally be used if there is already a
subject in the sentence.
Typical mistakes: *My car it is parked outside. (Correct form: My
car is parked . . .)
*The boss he really gets on my nerves. (The boss
really gets . . .)
*lt is terrible the situation. (The situation is terri­
ble.)
Relative pronouns are used instead of, not together with, personal
pronouns.
* hat ’s the girl who she lives in the flat upstairs.
Typical mistakes: T
(Correct form: That’s the girl who lives . . .)
*Here’s the money that you lent it to me. (Here’s
the money that you lent to me.)
place-names 475

place-names 475
Typical mistake: *It took us three days to drive from Mt'inchen to
Edimbourg.

Each language has its own names for countries, regions, towns,
rivers, etc. For instance, the capital of Denmark is called K.(/>benhavn
by the Danes, but in other languages its name is very different:
Copenhagen, Copenhague, Kopenhagen, etc. The people we call
Germans call themselves Deutsche-, other people call them, for
example, Nemci, Tedescbi, or Allemands. Names such as
Munich, Edinburgh, Westphalia, The Rhine, The North Sea and
Tuscany may have quite different forms in other languages. There
is a complete list of the English names of countries in the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (Appendix 6).
For more complete information, look in a good bilingual dictionary
or consult a British or American atlas. For the words used for
nationalities, see 397.

play and game 476

Typical mistakes: *Chess is a very slow play.
*That actress plays very well.
1 Nouns
Chess (and football, bridge and ‘twenty questions’) are games.
Chess is a very slow game.
A play is a piece of literature written for the theatre or television.
Julius Caesar is one of Shakespeare’s early plays.
2 Verbs
People play games.
Can you play chess?
People act in plays or films.
I’d love to act in Julius Caesar.
Play or act can be used with the name of a character in a play or
film.
I’d love to play (or act) Hamlet.

please and thank you 477

1 Please is only used with requests and orders.
Please wait a moment.
 477 please
Could I have some more, please?
‘Would you like some wine?’ - ‘Yes please.’
Note that please does not itself change an order into a polite
request. Compare:
Please stand over there, (order)
Could you stand over there, please? (polite request)
Would you mind standing over there, please? (polite request)
Please is not used to ask people to repeat what they said (we say
Pardon? or What? — see 227).
Please is not used when we give things to people. We say Here you
are or There you are. (Americans also say There you go.)
Please is not used as an answer to Thank-you (see below).

2 Typical mistake: *Thanks God it’s Friday.

Thanks is a plural noun, and cannot be used with a direct object. It

can be followed by the expressions a lot or very much. Thanks is
used in informal situations.
'Here’s an ice-cream for you.’ — ‘Thanks a lot.’
Thank is a transitive verb, and is followed by a direct object. Thank
you is the modern form of I thank you-, it is more formal than
thanks.
He didn’t even thank me.
Thank you very much.
Thank God it’s Friday.
Thank your lucky stars you don’t have to do my job.
Both thank you and thanks can be followed by a structure with for
+ . . . -mg.
‘Thanks for coming.’ — ‘Not at all. Thank you for having me.’
Thank you is often used to accept things (like Yes please).- We
usually say No thank you when we want to refuse. Compare:
‘Would you like some more potatoes?’ — ‘Thankyou.’ - ‘How
many?’
‘Have some more meat.’ — ‘No thank you.’ — ‘Are you sure?
There’s plenty left.’
Please is not used as an answer to thank you or thanks. Common
answers are Not at all (formal), It’s a pleasure (formal), That's all
right (informal) or You're welcome (American). We do not usually
answer when people thank us for small things. Compare:

‘Thanks so much for looking after the children.’ - ‘That’s all

right. Any time.’
‘Here’s your coat.’ — ‘Thanks.’ (No answer.)
point of view 478

point of view 478

Typical mistake: ‘From my point of view, war is always wrong.
The expression from my point of view does not mean quite the
same as in my opinion. It means something more like from my
position in life (as a Greek, or as a student, or as a woman, or as a
Catholic, for example). Compare:
In my opinion, war is always wrong.
I think everybody should work a thirty-hour week.
From the manufacturers’ point of view, a thirty-hour week would
cause a lot of problems.
Try to look at school from the child’s point of view.

policy /'polosi/ and politics /'polatiks/ 479

Typical mistake: *After the war, Britain followed a very strange
foreign politic.
Politics (always with -s; see 430) has a rather general meaning. It is
used especially for the theory and practice of government, the
profession of government, conflicts between governing groups, and
related ideas.
I don’t know much about politics, but I support the Radical
Conservative Centre Coalition Party.
You talk beautifully — you should be in politics.
Policy is used to mean a ‘political line’, or a rule of behaviour (not
necessarily connected with politics).
After the war, British foreign policy was rather strange.
It’s not my policy to believe everything I hear.
It is not the firm’s policy to give rises in salary during the year.

possessive words 480

1 My, your, his, her, its, one’s, our and their are determiners (see
171). In grammars and dictionaries, they are often called ‘posses­
sive adjectives’.
That’s my watch!
They cannot be used together with other determiners (e g articles or
demonstrative words.) You cannot say *a my friend or *the my
uncle or *this my house.
Note that its is spelt with no apostrophe (’);«t’s meansit is or it has.
‘We’ve got a new cat.’ — ‘What’s itsname?’ — ‘It'scalled Polly.’

2 Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs are pronouns. (There are no
pronouns ‘its’ or ‘ones’).
 482 practical

That watch is mine!

They are not used with articles. You cannot say ’That watch is the
mine. Yours, hers, ours and theirs are spelt without apostrophes.
3 Whose can be used both as a determiner and as a pronoun (for
details, see 6x8). ‘Genitives’ (egJohn’s, Manchester’s) can also be
used in both ways (for details, see 261-263).
Whose bag is that? Whose is that?
There’s John’s bike. That bike looks like John’s.
4 The can be used with the games of parts of the body instead of a
possessive word, but only after prepositions, and only in certain
expressions (mostly when talking about blows, pains, and similar
things). Compare:
The tomato hit his eye. The tomato hit him in (the,eye.
He’s got a strange look in his eye. .
She had a bird on her shoulder.
She had a pain in the shoulder.
5 Note that it is not usual to use a singular word with a plural
meaning after a plural possessive.
The soldiers picked up their rifles. (Not: *. . . their rifle.)

possibility and opportunity 481

Typical mistake: */ have the possibility to go to Denmark.
Possibility is not normally followed by an infinitive. In addition, it
is not very common to say that somebody has a possibility. We
more often say there is a possibility.
There is a possibility of my going to Denmark.
There is a possibility that I may be able to go to Denmark.
With the verb have, we prefer the word opportunity (with an
infinitive or -ing form).
I have the opportunity to go (or of going) to Denmark.

practical /'praektikl/ and practicable /’praektikabl/ 482

1 Practicable is used for ideas and plans that can be successfully
carried out.
‘Let’s take the baby camping.’ — ‘Do you think it’s practicable?’
We say that a road is practicable if it can be used.
The coast road is only practicable for light traffic.
prefer 483

2 Practical is sometimes used in the same sense aspracticable (but not

for roads). However, the usual meanings of practical are different
from' this. It can be used as the opposite to theoretical.
I’ve never studied engineering, but I’ve got a good practical
knowledge of machines.
A practical person is good at doing things and solving problems, or
is sensible and realistic.
I'm not at all practical - I can’t even mend a fuse.
Let’s be practical — how much can we afford to spend?
A practical object is useful and easy to use.
It’s a practical little car for the town.

prefer 433
1 We most often use an -ing form after prefer, to talk about general
preferences.
‘Do you like swimming?’ — ‘Yes, but I prefer sailing.’
The infinitive is used to talk about preferences on a particular
occasion.
‘Can I give you a lift?’ — ‘No thanks, I (would) prefer to walk.’

2 When we say that we prefer one activity to another, -ing forms can
be used in both halves of the sentence.
I prefer sailing to swimming.
I prefer doing things to reading books.
When prefer is used with ah infinitive, another clause can be
introduced by rather than. Two structures are possible: infinitive
without to, or -ing form.
I would prefer to spend the weekend at home rather than
drive/driving all the way to your mother’s.

prepositions: general 484

It is difficult to learn to use prepositions correctly. Most of them
have several different functions; for instance, the dictionary lists
eighteen main uses of at. At the same time, different prepositions
can have very similar uses (in the morning, on Monday morning, at
night), so that it is easy to make mistakes. Many nouns, verbs and
adjectives are used with particular prepositions: we say congratula­
tions on, arrive at, angry with somebody, on a bus. There are not
many rules to help you choose correctly in these cases, so you have
to learn each expression separately. There are also problems con­
nected with the position of prepositions in sentences, the differ­
ences between prepositions and adverb particles, and the use of
 485 prepositions

prepositions with conjunctions. Prepositions can be followed by

the -ing form of verbs: She saved money by giving up cigarettes. (To
is also followed by -ing when it is a preposition: I look forward
to seeing you.) Some European languages have a special preposi­
tion (or a special use of an ordinary preposition) to say that a
person is in another person’s house (French chez, Danish hos,
Germain bei, etc). English does not have one special preposition for
this idea; it is often expressed by usings with a genitive: Mary was
at her mother’s today.
These problems are explained in different parts of the book as
follows:
i Information about particular prepositions and groups of pre­
positions (for example by, during and for-, at, in and ow);
look in the Index to find where each problem is dealt with.
2 Prepositions after particular words and expressions: 485.
3 Prepositions before particular words and expressions: 486.
4 Position of prepositions (in sentences like What are you laughing
at?)-. 488.
5 Prepositions and infinitives: 489.
6 Prepositions and adverb particles: 491.
7 Prepositions with conjunctions: 490.
8 Prepositions + . . . -ing (and to + . .. -ing)-. 336 and 337.
9 At with genitives: 263.

prepositions after particular words and expressions 485

(This is not a complete list; it only contains expressions which often
cause problems for students of English.)
ability at
She shows remarkable ability at mathematics and science.
Also: clever at, good at, bad at, etc.
afraid of (not *by)
Are you afraid of spiders?
Also: frightened of (or by), terrified of (or by), nervous of,scared of,
etc.
For the difference between afraid of .. . -ing and afraid to
+ infinitive, see 339.8.
For the difference between frightened of and frightened by, see
453-5-
agree with a person
agree about a subject of discussion
agree on a matter for decision
agree to a suggestion or proposal
I entirely agree with you.
prepositions 485

We agree about most things.

Let’s try to agree on a date.
I’ll agree to your proposal if you lower the price.
For more details and examples, see 33.
all (of)
For the use of of after all, see 37.1.
angry with a person for doing something
angry about something
I’m pretty angry with you for not telling me.
What are you so angry about?
Also: anger, cross, furious, upset, annoyed, disappointed, pleased,
impressed + with (see 633) or about.
anxious about ( = worried about)
anxious for + noun (= eager for, wanting)
anxious + infinitive (= eager, wanting)
I’m getting anxious about money.
We’re all anxious for an end to this misunderstanding.
She’s anxious to find a better job.
any (of)
For the use of of after any, each, either and other determiners, see
171.
apologize for
I must apologize for disturbing you.
Did Mary apologize for her rudeness last night?
Also: sorry for, forgive . . . for.
arrive at (not *to)
What time do we arrive at Cardiff?
ask for money, objects, information, etc
ask questions, the way, the time, favours
Don’t ask me for another drink, please.
He’s always asking silly questions.
For more details, see 85.
astonished at (or by)
We were all astonished at your failure in the exam.
Also: startled, shocked, surprised etc.
 485 prepositions

bad at activities (not *in)

I’m not bad at tennis, though I say it myself.
Also: ability at, clever at, good at, skill at, skilful at, terrible at, etc.
because (of)
For the difference between because and because of, see too.
believe in God, Father Christmas, etc (= have faith in)
believe a person or a statement (= accept as truthful)
1 half-believe in horoscopes.
Don’t believe her. I don’t believe a word she says.
blue with cold
Also: red with anger/embarrassment, green with entry, white with
rage, etc.
For more details, see 633.
borrow + object + from (not *to)
I don’t like to borrow money from my friends.
For more details, see 114.
both (of)
For the use ofo/ after both, see 115.
bump into (not ‘against)
I bumped into Lewis in Upper Street yesterday. (= I-met him by
chance.)
I wasn’t looking where I was going and I bumped into a lamp­
post.
Also: crash into, drive into, run into.

call after
We called him Thomas, after his grandfather.
Also: name after.
care about ( = consider important)
care for (= 1 like, love. 2. look after)
take care of (=look after)
I don’t care about your problems - I’ve got enough of my own.
Would you care for a cup of tea?
I’d hate to get old ivithout anyone to care for me.
If we can find somebody to take care of the children we can have
a week’s holiday by ourselves.
For more details, see 134.
prepositions 485

clever at an activity (not *in)

I'm not very clever at cooking.
Also: bad at, good at, etc.

congratulate + object + on; congratulations on (not *for)

I must congratulate you on your design for the new building.
Congratulations on your new job!

crash into (not *against)

Some fool crashed into me from behind at the traffic lights.
Also: bump into, drive into, run into.
depend on; dependent on; dependence on (not *from or *of)
We may go sailing — it depends on the weather.
I don’t want to be dependent on my parents for another three
years.
But: independent of, independence of/from.
die of
Far more smokers than non-smokers die of lung-cancer.
different from (sometimes to, American from or than)
You’re very different from your brother.
difficulty with something; (in) doing something (not difficulties to
. . .)
I’m having difficulty with my daughter’s maths homework.
You won’t have much difficulty (in) getting to know people in
Italy.
disappointed with somebody (see 633); with (or at or about) some­
thing
My father never showed it if he was disappointed with me.
You must be pretty disappointed with/at/about your exam
results.
Also: disgusted, pleased.
discussion about (or on or of) something
to discuss something (no preposition)
We ought to have another discussion about this year’s budget.
It’s nice to discuss philosophy when you’re drunk.
disgusted with somebody (see 633); with (or at) something
I’m disgusted with Stephen/disgusted at the way Stephen treats
Julia.
 485 prepositions

Also: disappointed, pleased.

divide + object + into (not *in)
Western Germany was divided into three different occupation
zones after the war.

dozen(s) (of)
For the use of of after dozens, hundreds, etc, see 436.3.
dream of (= think of, imagine)
dream about (while asleep)
I often dreamed of being famous when I was younger.
What does it mean if you dream about a fire?
For more details, see 183.
dress (+ object +) in (not *with)
Who’s the old lady all dressed in green?
For more details, see 185.
drive into (not *against)
Granny drove into a tree again yesterday.
Also: bump into, crash into, run into.
each (of)
For the use of of after each, any, some, etc, see 171.
effect on
Pop music has a very bad effect on me.
Also: influence on.
either (of)
For the use of of after either, any, some, etc, see 171.

enough (of)
For the use of of after enough, see 203.

every (one of)

For the difference between every and every one of, see 220.
example of (not *for)
Sherry is an example of a fortified wine.
explain something to somebody (not ‘explain somebody some­
thing)
prepositions 485

Please could you explain this poem to me?

Can you explain to me why you didn’t turn up last night?
For more details, see 230.
explanation of or for something
I can’t think of any explanation for what’s happened.
I want an explanation of your behaviour.
(a) few (of)
For the use of of after (a) few, see 171.4.
get ln(to) and out of a car, taxi, or small boat
get on(to) and off a bus, train, plane or ship
When I got into my car this morning I found the radio had been
stolen.
We’ll be getting off the train in ten minutes.

good at an activity (not *in)

Are you any good at tennis?
Also: bad at, clever at, skilful at, etc.
half (of)
For the use of of after half, see 276.
hundred(s) (of)
For the use of of after hundreds, thousands, dozens, etc, see 436.3.
the idea of.. .-ing (not *to . ..)
I don’t like the idea of getting married yet.
ill with (not *of)
The bos^has been ill with flu for the last week.

impressed with (or by)

I’m very impressed with your work.
Also: pleased with, disappointed with, disgusted with (see 633).
independent of; independence of (or from)
My sister got a job so that she could be independent of her
parents.
When did India get her independence from Britain?
But depend on, dependent on, dependence on.
 485 prepositions

influence on
Do you think your teachers had much Influence on you?
Also: effect on.
insist on . . .-ing (not.*to .. .)
George’s father Insisted on paying.
interest in; interested in (not *for)
When did your Interest In social work begin?
, Not many people are interested in mediaeval building-materials.
For the difference between interested in . . .-ing and interested
to + infinitive, see 339.2.
For the difference between interested and interesting, bored and
boring, etc, see 452.
kind to (not “with)
People have always been very kind to me.
Also: nice to, polite to, rude to.
(a) lack of
to lack (no preposition)
to be lacking in
Lack of time prevented me from writing to you.
Your mother lacks tact.
She is lacking in tact.
laugh at
I hate being laughed at.
Also: smile at.
less (of)
For the use of of after less, see 171.4.
listen to
If you don’t listen to people they won’t listen to you.

(a) little (of)

For the use of of after (a) little, see 171.4.

look at ( = point one’s eyes at)

look after ( = take care of)
look for (=try to find)
Stop looking at me like that: it’s getting on my nerves.
Thanks for looking after me when I was ill.
prepositions 485

Can you help me look for my keys?

For more details, see 368 and
many (of)
For the use of of after many, see 171.4.

marriage to; (get) married to (not *with)

Her marriage to Philip didn’t last very long.
Hotv long have you been married to Sheila?
But: to marry somebody (no preposition).
For more details, see 372.
the matter with
What's the matter with you this morning?
Also: wrong with.
For more details, see 373.
more (of)
For the use of of after more, see 171.4.
most (of)
For the use of of after most, see 392.
much (of)
For the use of of after much, see 171.4.
name + object + after (American name . . . for)
Can we name the baby after you, if it’s a boy?
Also: call after.
near (to)
For the use of to after near, see 398.
neither (of)
For the use of of after neither, either, each, etc, see 171.4.
nice to (not *with)
You weren’t very nice to me last Saturday, were you?
Also: kind to, polite to, rude to.

none (of)
For the use of of after none, see 171.4.
 485 prepositions

participate in
How many people participated in the conference?
Also: take part in.
pay for a drink etc (not *pay a drink)
Excuse me, sir, you haven’t paid for your beer.
For more details, see 471.
pleased with somebody; pleased with (or about or at) something
The boss is very pleased with you.
I wasn't very pleased with/at/about my exam results.
polite to (not *with)
Try to be polite to Uncle Richard for once.
Also: rude to, kind to, nice to.
prevent + object + from . . .-ing (not *to)
Your party prevented everybody from sleeping last night.
For more details, see 334.
proof of (not *for)
I want proof of your love. Lend me twenty pounds.

reason for (not *of)

Nobody knows the reason for his disappearance.
red with anger, embarrassment, etc
Also: blue with cold, white with rage,green with envy, etc. See 633.

remind + object + of
Jennifer reminds me of a girl I was at school with.
For more details, see 532.
responsible for; responsibility for (not *of)
Who’s responsible for the shopping this week?

rude to (not *with)

Peggy was pretty rude to my family last weekend.
Also: polite to, kind to, nice to.
run into (not ‘against)
I ran into Philip at Victoria Station this morning.
Also: bump into, drive into, crash into.
prepositions 485

search tor (= look for)

search (without preposition) (= look through, look everywhere
in/on)
The customs were searching for drugs when I came through the
airport. They searched everybody’s luggage, and they searched
the man in front of me from head to foot.
several (of)
For the use of of after several, see 171.4.
shivering with cold
Also: trembling with fear, rage-, shaking with anger.
shocked at
/ was terribly shocked at the news of Peter’s accident.
shoot at
The frontier guards will shoot at anybody trying to cross.
Also: throw at.
shout at (aggressive)
shout to (to communicate =call to)
If you don’t stop shouting at me I’ll come and hit you.
Mary shouted to us to come in and swim.
skill at; skilled at; skilful at (not *in)
It takes several years to develop real skill at skiing.
Also: bad at, good at, clever at, etc.
smile at
If you smile at me like that I’ll give you anything you want.
Also: laugh at.
some (of)
For the use of of after some, any, etc, see 171.4.
speak to (or with) (with is more common in American English)
Could I speak to the manager, please?
Also: talk to/with; have a chat with.
succeed in (or at); success in (or at); successful in (or at)
Some people would rather succeed in business than love.
I had no success at all in convincing Mary of my point of view.
Also: unsuccessful in/at.
 485 prepositions

suffer from
My wife is suffering from hepatitis.
superlatives + in (not *of) (referring to place)
'You ’re the most wonderful man in the world.
For more details, see 147.1.
surprised at (or by)
Everybody was surprised at our calm.
Also: astonished at/by, shocked at/by.
take part in (not *at)
I don’t want to take part in any more conferences.
Also: participate in.
talk to (or with) (with is more common in American English)
I really enjoy talking to you.
The President talked with union leaders again today.
think of (or about) (not usually ’think + infinitive)
‘I’m thinking of studying medicine.’ - 'That’s interesting.'
Have you thought about (studying) dentistry?
For more details, see 602.
the thought of.. .-ing (not *the thought to + infinitive)
I hate the thought of going back to work.
thousands (of)
For the use of of after thousands, hundreds, etc, see 436.3.
throw + object + at (aggressive)
throw + object + to (in a game, etc)
Stop throwing stones at the cars.
If you get the ball, throw it straight to the wicket-keeper.
Also: shout at /to.
For throw in and throw into, see 315.
trembling with rage or fear (see 633)
Also: shivering with cold.
typical of (not *for)
This wine's typical of the region.
prepositions 486

which (of)
For the use of of after which, see 171.4.
white with fear, anger, dust, etc (see 63 3)
Also: blue with cold, red with embarrassment, etc.
write (to)
Yon must write to Aimtie Christine.
You must write Auntie Christine a thank-you letter.
For more details, see 638.
wrong with
What’s wrong with Rachel today?
Also: the matter with.

prepositions before particular words and expressions 486

English has a very large number of expressions which are made up
of preposition +noun. For information about these, look in the
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. The
following list contains a few expressions in which mistakes are
often made.
at the cinema; at the theatre
at a party
at university; at Oxford (university), etc

a book by Graham Greene; a concerto by Bartok; a film by Fass­

binder, etc (not *of)
What’s the name of that book by Agatha Christie you were
reading?
from . . . point of view (not ’according to ... or ’after . . .)
For more information, see 478.
for . . . reason
My sister decided to get a job for several different reasons.
to come/go for a walk; for a run; for a drive; for a swim, etc
Would you like to go for a swim, or is it too cold for you?

in pen, pencil, ink, etc

Please fill in the form in ink.
 487 expressions without prepositions

in the rain, snow, ere

I like walking in the rain.
in a loud/quiet/high/low, etc voice (not *with . . .); in a whisper
Stop talking to me in that stupid voice.
in a suit, raincoat, skirt, shirt, hat, etc
Who’s the man in the funny hat over there?

in the end ( = finally, after a long time, after a lot of complications;

see 240)
at the end ( = at the point where something stops)
In the end, I got the job I wanted.
I think the film's a bit weak at the end.
in time ( = with enough time to spare; not late)
on time ( = at exactly the right time)
I missed my chance to get a university place because I didn ’t send
my application in time.
Peter wants the discussion to start exactly on time.
in my opinion (not "according to ... or ’after)
For more information, see 478.
on the radio; on TV; on the telephone
It’s Mrs Williams on the phone. She says it’s urgent.

expressions without prepositions 487

Pay special attention to the following cases, in which prepositions
are not used, or can be left out.

1 to discuss (not *to discuss about)

We ought to discuss your holiday dates.
But: a discussion about...
2 to marry (not *to marry with) — see 372
She married a friend of her sister's.
But: to get married to .. .

3 to lack (not *to lack of)

He’s clever, but he lacks experience.
But: a lack of. . .; to be lacking in . . .
487 expressions without prepositions

4 Expressions of time beginning with next, last, this,one, every, each,

some, any, all (see 87.7)
Sec you next Monday.
We’re having the meeting this Thursday afternoon.
You can come any day you like.
The party lasted all night.
Note a\so tomorrow morning, yesterday afternoon (not "on tomor­
row . . .)

5 In conversation, on is often dropped before the names of days of the

week. This is particularly common in American English.
Why don’t you come round (on) Monday evening?
For more information about prepositions in expressions of time,
see 87.
6 In expressions like three times a day, sixty miles an hour, eighty
pence a pound, forty hours a week, the articles is used instead of a
preposition. In a more formal style, the word per is sometimes used
(eg eighty pence per pound).
For more information about the language of expressions contain­
ing numbers, see 434-436.
7 At is generally dropped (especially in spoken English) in the expres­
sion (At) what time . . . ?
What time did jenny say she was coming?
What time does the play start?

8 Expressions containing words lik-e height, length, size, shape, age,

colour, volume, area are generally connected to the subject of the
sentence by the verb to be, without a preposition.
He’s just the right height to be a policeman.
What colour are her eyes?
She’s the same age as me.
You’re a very nice shape.
I’m the same weight as I was when 1 was fourteen.
What shoe size are you?
It is also possible to use descriptive phrases like of medium height,
of great length, immediately after a noun.
He was a rather fat man of medium heighf, with a grey beard.

9 In is often dropped (particularly in spoken English) in the expres­

sions (in) the same way, (in) this way, (in) another way, etc.
They plant the corn the same way their ancestors used to, 500
years ago.
 488 prepositions

10 To is not used before the word home.

I’d like to go home (not *. . . to home}.
At is also sometimes dropped before home, especially in American
English.
Is anybody (at) home?

prepositions at the end of clauses 488

1 Many verbs, adjectives and nouns are used together with particular
prepositions (for example, look at, afraid of, difficulty with). When
these verbs, adjectives and nouns are used at the end of clauses or
sentences, the prepositions are often put with them. So it is quite
common, especially in an informal style, to find a preposition at the
end of a clause.
She likes being looked at.
What are you afraidpf?
Maths is something l have a lot of difficulty with.
This happens in the following kinds of clause:
a Questions beginning with wh-words and how.
What are you looking at?
What are you so angry about?
‘I’m getting married.’ — ‘Who to?’
b Other clauses (not only questions) beginning with what.
What a lot of trouble I’m in!
His address - that’s what I’m not sure of.
c Relative clauses.
You remember the boy I was going out with?
There’s the house I told you about.
d Passive clauses.
They took him to hospital last night and he’s already been
operated on.
I hate being laughed at.
e Infinitive clauses.
It’s a boring place to live in. I need something to write with.
Prepositions are not put at the end of clauses directly after wh-
words followed by nouns. You can say What with?, but not “What
money with? or “Which people with? or “Whosepermission with?
During is not put at the end of clauses: you cannot say, for example,
“Which period did it happen during?
2 In wh-questions and relative clauses, it is also possible to put the
preposition earlier in the clause, before the question-word or rela­
prepositions 488

tive pronoun. This is more common in a formal style — for instance,

in careful writing.
For whom was the learning intended?
On which flight is the General travelling?
The problem about which I consulted you has now been solved.
I have been let down by a person on whom I thought I could rely.
Note that who cannot be used as an object form i mmediatcly after a
preposition. Compare:
Who do you intend to travel with?
With whom do you intend to travel? (Not: *With who . . .)
Note also that in relative clauses, only whom or which can be used
after a preposition, not that. Compare:
There's the boy (that) I used to be in love with.
It was the boy with whom she used to be in love. (Not: *. . . with
that . . .)
In questions with be as the main verb, the preposition usually has to
come at the end.
Who is it for? (Not: *For whom is it?)
What is she like?
What was it about?
The preposition c.an also be put earlier in some infinitive clauses, in
a very formal style. A relative pronoun is used. Compare:
She needs other children to play with.
She needs other children with whom to play, (very formal)
I want something to write with.
1 want something with which to write, (very formal)
In passive clauses, the preposition can only come at the end. You
can say He’s been operated on, or He’ll have to be spoken to, but
there is no way of constructing these sentences with the preposition
in a different place (except by changing the verb to an active one).

3 In some sentences, it does not seem natural to put the preposition at

the end of the clause. For instance, we can say She left in a rage or
He spoke with great patience, but it is not usual to talk about *The
rage she left in or *The patience he spoke with. Instead, we would
probably say The rage in which she left and The patience with
which he spoke.
The reason is that, in expressions like these (adverbial expressions
of manner), the preposition belongs much more to the words that
follow it (with great patience, in a rage) than to the verb. It there­
fore seems more natural to keep the preposition as close as possible
to the rest of the adverbial expression, instead of putting it together
with the verb at the end of rhe clause.
 490 prepositions

prepositions with infinitives 489

Typical mistakes: *1 sometimes dream of to go to Tahiti.
*1 went to Austria for to learn German.

Prepositions are not used before infinitives in English. After a

noun/verb/adjective + preposition, we usually use the-zwg form of
a following verb. Compare:
I don’t like the idea of marriage/of getting married.
He insisted on immediate payment/on being paid at once.
I sometimes dream of exotic countries/of going to Tahiti.
I’m not very good at cookery/at cooking.
In some cases, however, we drop the preposition and use an
infinitive. Compare:
We’re all anxious for a quick solution/anxious to find a solution.
He asked for a loan/asked to borrow some money.
In other cases, two structures are possible, sometimes with an
important difference of meaning, (eg interested in . . ,-ing and
interested to . . .). For more details, see 339.
There is no general rule to tell you which nouns, verbs and adjec­
tives can be followed by an infinitive and which ones cannot. If you
are not sure, look up the noun, verb or adjective in the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.
For some information about prepositions after nouns, verbs and
adjectives, see 485.
Note that when we talk about a person’s purpose (the reason why
he does something), we normally use the infinitive (see 327).
I went to Austria to learn German.

prepositions before conjunctions 490

Typical mistakes: ’He insisted on that he was innocent.
worried about jf she's happy.
'r *The police questioned me where I had been.

Prepositions can be used together with conjunctions (that is to say,

before clauses) in some cases, but not in others. This is rather a
complicated point of grammar. The main rules are as follows:

1 Prepositions cannot be followed by the conjunction that. After

words of saying and thinking (in ‘reported speech’) the preposition
is usually dropped before that. Compare:
He insisted on his innocence/He insisted that he was innocent.
I had no idea other state of mind/no idea that she was unhappy.
I wasn 't aware of the time/aware that it was so late.
In other cases (not ‘reported speech’), the preposition cannot be
prepositions 490

dropped before tfeut. Instead, the expression the fact is put between,
the preposition and that.
The judge paid a lot of attention to the fact that the child was
unhappy at home; he held the parents responsible for the fact that
the child had run away.

2 In ‘reported questions’ the preposition is often left out before who,

which, what, where, when, why, whether and how. This is usual
after the more common verbs like tell, ask. Compare:
Tell me about your trip/Tell me where you went.
I asked her about her religious beliefs/! asked her whether she
believed in God.
I’m not sure of his method/I’m not sure how he does it.
In many other cases, the preposition can be kept or dropped.
It depends (on) whether we’ve got enough money.
You can’t be certain (of) what’s going to happen.
In some cases (for instance, after worry, question, confusion) the
preposition cannot be left out.
I’m worried about where she is.
The police questioned me about where I’d been.
There’s some confusion aboutwhether the preposition can be left
out.
There are no simple rules to tell you whether or not you can leave
out the preposition. If you are not sure about a particular case, look
in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
and study the examples of usage.
Note that if is not possible after a preposition; we use whether
instead. Compare:
I wonder if/whether she’s happy.
I’m worried about whether she’s happy.

3 Not all clauses<j:hat begin with who, what, where etc are ‘reported
questions’. Consider the sentence I was very upset about what you
did to me. In this, the clause what you did to me is called a ‘nominal
relative clause’, and the conjunction what is used like a noun and a
relative pronoun together (the thing which). Nominal relative
clauses can be introduced by what, whatever, whoever, whichever,
where, wherever, when, whenever. They can follow prepositions,
and the prepositions cannot be left out.
I’ll vote for whoever promises to reduce taxes.
I often think about when I was young.
In my dream, I had a very vivid picture of where we used to live.
Formore information about clauses beginning with what, see 531.
For the exact meaning of whoever, wherever, etc, see 212- 218.
 492 prepositional verbs

prepositions and adverb particles 491

Compare the following sentences:
My car started rolling down the hill.
I can dive off the top board.
My car’s just b.oken down.
We’ll have to put the party off.
In the first two sentences, down and off are prepositions. Like all
prepositions, they are used with objects: down the hill, off the top
board. In the last two examples, down and off are not prepositions.
(Down has no object in the third sentence; in the fourth, the party is
the object of put, or oiput off together, not of off.) Down and off,
in these cases, are used rather like adverbs, to change the meaning
of the verb (broken down = stopped; put off = postpone), and they
are called adverb (or adverbial) particles.
On the whole, the same words can act as both prepositions and
adverb particles: up, down, on, off, through, past, etc. However,
the two groups are not exactly the same. For example, at, for, from,
into, of, with are not used as adverb particles; away, back, out are
not used as prepositions.
For information about how prepositions and adverb particles are
used with verbs (‘prepositional verbs’ and ‘phrasal verbs’) see the
next section.

prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs 492

1 General
Many English verbs consists of two parts: a ‘base’ verb (like bring,
take, come) and another ‘small word’ (like up, down, off, away).
The ‘small word’ is either a preposition or an ‘adverb particle’. For
an explanation of the difference, see 491.
In some cases, the meaning of a two-part verb is simply a combi­
nation of the meanings of the two words. Examples are come in,
run away, walk across, sit on.
In some cases, the first word keeps its meaning, but the second
has a special ‘intensifying’ sense - it means something like com­
pletely or thoroughly. Examples are break up, tire out.
In other cases, the new two-part verb has quite a different mean­
ing from the two separate parts: give up means ‘surrender’, and
blow up means ‘explode’.
2 Prepositional verbs
There are a very large number of combinations of verb + preposi­
tion. Where the meaning is not clear from the separate parts (eg
look after, fall for), it can be found in the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English or the Oxford Dictionary
prepositional verbs 492

of Current Idiomatic English, Volume i. See also 485 for informa­

tion about the correct preposition after certain verbs.
Prepositions always have objects (eg Please look after the chil­
dren-, I’ve fallen for you in a big way). In English, the preposition
does not always come before its object; in certain kinds of sentence,
it can come at the end of the clause (eg What are you talking
about?). For information about this point, see 488.
3 Phrasal verbs
When a verb is used with an adverb particle, the combination is
called a phrasal verb. There are a very large number of these in
English. The meaning of a phrasal verb is often very different from
the meanings of the two words taken separately. In order to under­
stand the meaning of a phrasal verb, you may have to refer to the
dictionary. Phrasal verbs can be intransitive (not followed by a
direct object) or transitive (followed by a direct object).
Examples of phrasal verbs:
(intransitive)
breakdown getup sit down turn up ( = arrive, appear)
(transitive)
bring something up (= mention it)
kick somebody out (= expel him)
put something off (= postpone it)
put somebody up (= accommodate him)
throw something away
turn something down (= refuse it)
When a phrasal verb has a direct object, the two parts of the verb
can usually be separated: the adverb particle can be put before or
after the object.
We’ll have to put off the party/put the party off.
Why don’t you throw away that stupid hat/throw that stupid hat
away?
Could you 'put up my sister/put my sister up for three nights?
However, when the object is a pronoun (eg her, us, this), the
adverb particle can only go after the object.
We’ll have to put it off. (Not: . . . *put off it.)
Could you put her up? (Not: . . . *put up her.)
4 Phrasal-prepositional verbs
There are a few verbs which consist of three parts: a base verb, an
adverb particle, and a preposition (for example; to get on with, to
put up with, to check up on). These look complicated, but in fact
they are used in the same way as any other prepositional verb (for
instance, to get on with follows the same rules as to go with).
Compare:
 493 present perfect tense

I get on well with Jill.

I often go to the theatre with Jill.
He's difficult to put up with.
He's difficult to work with.

present perfect tense: basic information 493

Typical mistakes: *l’m living in Greece since 1976.
'Have you had good weather last weekend?
*1 can't go on holiday because I broke my leg.
1 Introduction
The ‘present perfect simple’ tense is constructed with the auxiliary
verb have followed by the past participle.
/ have finished. She hasn't arrived.
The ‘present perfect progressive’ is made with have been followed
by an -ing form.
We have been talking all day. It has been raining.
It is not easy to learn to use the present perfect tense correctly. The
differences between the present perfect and the past simple are
complicated and difficult to analyse, and the rules given in gram­
mars arc not always very clear or accurate. In many European
languages, there are tenses which are constructed like the present
perfect; unfortunately, they are not usually used in quite the same
way as the English tense. (For instance, other languages may use
their ‘present perfect’ when we use the past simple, or they may use
the present when we use the present perfect.) American usage is not
exactly the same as British, which makes things more complicated.
Fortunately, mistakes in the use of the present perfect are not
usually very serious.
This section contains basic rules for the use of the present perfect
simple and progressive; there is more detailed information in sec­
tions 494-495.
2 The meaning of the present perfect tenses
The present perfect is almost a kind of present tense. If we say that
something Arts happened, or has been happening, we are generally
thinking about the present as well as the past. When we make a
present perfect sentence, we could usually make a present tense
sentence_about the same situation.
We’ve known each other for a long time. ( = We’re old friends.)
I’ve been working all day. (and I'm tired out.)
Have you read ‘Catch-12'? (=Do you know ‘Catch-zz’?)
Some fool has let the cat in. ( = The cat is in.)
The present perfect is used in two ways:
present perfect tense 493

a Actions and situations continuing up to the present

We often use the present perfect (simple or progressive) to talk
about actions and situations which began in the past, and which
have continued up to the moment when we speak (or just before).
I’ve lived (or I’ve been living) in Greece since 1976. (Not: *1 am
living . . .)
We’ve known each other for a long time. (Not: *We know . . .)
‘Yow look hot.’ - ‘I've been running.’
We also use the present perfect to talk about a series of repeated
actions which have happened up to the present.
I’ve often wondered where she gets her money.
We’ve been seeing a lot of Henry and Diana recently.
Note that the present perfect is very often used with since and for.
Since is used to say when something started; it is followed by a
reference to a point of time (eg since April 27th).
For is used to say how long something has been going on; it is
followed by a reference to a period of time (eg for three months).
Compare:
She’s worked here since 7948.
She’s tvorked here for 35 years.
It’s been raining non-stop since Tuesday.
It’s been raining non-stop for three days.
For the difference between the present perfect simple and progres­
sive, see 494.3. Formore details of the use of since and for, see 245.
b Finished actions and events
The present perfect simple is often used to talk about past actions
and events which are completely finished. This only happens when
the past events have some present importance; usually they are
‘news’, and generally we could make a present tense sentence about
the same situation.
The President has been assassinated. ( = The President is dead.)
Utopia has declared war on Fantasia (= Utopia and Fantasia are
at war.)
I can’t go on holiday because I’ve broken my leg. (=My leg is
broken.)
I've been all over Africa. (=1 know Africa well.)
If we say when a past event happened (for example, by using
time-adverbs), we do not usually use the present perfect. Compare:
I've spoken to the boss about my holiday.
I spoke to the boss today about my holiday. (Not: *I’ve spoken to
the boss today . . .)
(However, the present perfect is often used with ‘indefinite’ time­
adverbs like never, ever, before, yet and already. See 495.3.) With
adverbs of finished time (eg yesterday, last weekend, then, in
 494 present perfect

7965), the present perfect is normally impossible. Compare:

The President has been assassinated.
The President was assassinated last night.
Utopia has declared war on Fantasia.
Utopia declared war on Fantasia at eight o’clock this morning.
I’ve been all over Africa.
I went all over Africa in 1965.
However, the present perfect is used with just ( = a moment ago) in
British English.
'Where’s Mary?’ — ‘She has just gone out.'
When we talk about past events which have no present importance,
we do not use the present perfect.
Lincoln was assassinated for political reasons. (Not: "Lincoln
has been assassinated . . .)
Some people think that Shakespeare travelled a lot in Germany.
(Not: *. . . has travelled . . .)
For more information about the use of the present perfect for past
actions and events, see 495.

present perfect: actions and situations continuing 494

up to the present (details)
Typical mistakes: *l’m waiting for three quarters of an hour.
*We have this flat since 1955.
*1 always liked English people.
*1 studied human nature all my life.

1 Use of the present perfect

When we want to talk about actions or situations which started in
the past and have continued up to the present, we often use the
present perfect to show the connection between past and present.
Note that we never use a present tense when we say how long a
situation has been going on.
I’ve been waiting for three quarters of an hour.
We have had this flat since 1955.
I have always liked English people.
I’ve studied human nature all my life.
The present perfect is also used for long actions and situations
which started in the past and went on until very recently.
I’ve painted two rooms since lunchtime.
‘You look hot.’ - ‘Yes, I’ve been running.’
I’ve been reading some of your poetry. It’s not bad.
Another use of the present perfect is to talk about actions that have
been repeated in a period up to the present.
present perfect 494

I've written six letters today.

Janies has been seeing a lot of Alice lately.
Hon1 often have you been in love (in your life)?
2 Time-expressions
The present perfect is often used (as in the above examples) with
expressions of time which refer to a period ‘up to now’: for
instance, all this year, all my life, so far, during the 2.0th century,
recently, lately,since . . .,for . . . (For the difference between since
and for, see 493.2a.) We do not use the present perfect with
expressions that refer to a finished time-period (eglast week,up till
yesterday, before today). Compare:
‘You look tired.’ - 'Yes, I’ve been working non-stop all day.’
‘You look tired.’ - ‘Yes, 1 was working non-stop until seven
o’clock.’
What have you been doing since you left Cambridge?
What were you doing before you left Cambridge?
3 Present perfect simple and progressive
The present perfect progressive is used especially for more tempor­
ary actions and situations; when we talk about more permanent
situations, we prefer the present perfect simple. Compare:
I’ve been living in Sally’s flat for the last month.
My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives.
That man’s been standing on the corner all day.
The castle has stood above the town for nine hundred years.
She's been lying in bed all day.
For centuries the village of Little Barbie has lain undisturbed
beneath the brooding shadow of the Black Hills.
I haven’t been working very well recently.
He hasn’t worked for years.
The present perfect simple is often used to express the idea of
completion: to say that an action has just been finished, or to talk
about its results. The present perfect progressive emphasizes the
continuation of the activity. Compare:
I’ve been reading your book. (=1 haven’t finished it.)
I've read your book. (=I’ve finished it.)
I’ve been learning irregular verbs all afternoon.
I’ve learnt my irregular verbs. (=1 know them.)
Sorry about the mess — I've been painting the house.
I've painted two rooms since lunchtime.
A number of common verbs are not usually used in progressive
tenses, for instance know, have (= possess), be, like. (For a com­
plete list, see 502.6.)
 495 present perfect

I haven’t known Philip for long. (Not: *1 haven’t been knowing

We’ve had our new car for three days. (Not: *We’ve been having

present perfect: finished actions and events (details) 495

Typical mistakes: */ can’t go on holiday because I broke my leg.
*According to latest reports, government forces
pushed back the rebels and retook the town.
*Who has given you that lovely necklace?
*Some people think that Pericles has not been
written by Shakespeare.
“Have you had good weather last weekend?
*l've seen Mary yesterday.

1 Use of the present perfect

a The present perfect simple is often used to talk about finished
actions and events. This normally happens when the past events
have some present importance, and when we could make a present
tense sentence (with a similar meaning) about the same situation.
The President has been assassinated. (= The President is dead.)
I’ve been all over Africa. (= I know Africa well.)
We often use the present perfect to give news: it is especially
common in reports, letters and conversations.
Fire has broken out on board an oil tanker in the North Sea.
According to latest reports, government forces have pushed back
the rebels and retaken the town.
I’m delighted to tell you that you’ve passed your exam.
Mary’s had her baby - it’s a boy.
I can’t go on holiday because I’ve broken my leg.
(Note the present element in these examples: a fire is burning-,
government forces are occupying a town; somebody has a new
qualification; there is a new baby; somebody has a broken leg.)
b The present perfect is also used to talk about past actions which are
not recent, but which are ‘sull with us’ as part of our experience and
knowledge.
I’ve travelled a lot in America. (= I know America.)
Have you read ‘War and Peace’? (=Do you know ‘War and
Peace’?)
I’ve never had scarlet fever. (So I can still get it.)
2 Cases when the present perfect is not used
When we cannot make a present-tense sentence with a similar
present perfect 495

meaning, we do not normally use the present perfect (even if we are

giving ‘news’).
Granny hit me!
John said the most horrible things to Melissa.
What was that noise?
We do not use the present perfect to explain the origin or cause of
something that people already know about. Compare:
Some fool’s let the cat in.
'Who let that cat in?’ - 7 did.’
In the first sentence, the speaker is announcing a present situation
(the cat is in); in the second sentence, the speakers already know
that the cat is in, and are talking about the past cause of this
situation. More examples:
Who gave you that lovely necklace?
Some people think that Pericles was not written by Shakespeare.
That’s a nice picture. Did you paint it yourself?
I’m glad you were born.
3 Time-expressions
a The present perfect is often used with ‘indefinite’ time-expressions
which mean ‘at any time up to now’ or ‘by now’. Examples are:
ever, never, yet, already, before.
Have you ever seen an iceberg?
She's never been kissed.
Has Lucy telephoned yet?
I’ve already broken three cups. Shall I go on washing up?
I’m sure we've met before.
In negative sentences, when we say that things have not happened,
since and for are often used (for the difference, see 493.2a).
I haven’t seen a film for weeks.
She hasn't written to me since September.
In British English, the present perfect is used with just to talk about
very recent events. (Americans usually use the past simple with
just}.
‘Where’s Barbara?’ - ‘She’s just gone out.’ (US: ‘She just went
out.’}
I've just fallen downstairs.
But note that a past tense is used with just now (which can mean the
same as just}.
I fell downstairs just now. (Not: *l’ve just now fallen downstairs.}
b ‘Definite’ time-expressions (like today, this week, this morning} are
not often used with the present perfect when we talk about finished
events. Compare:
 495 present perfect

I’ve spoken to the boss about my holiday.

1 spoke to the boss today about my holiday. (Not: *I’ve spoken
. . . today.)
With expressions of finished time (like yesterday, last week, in
1965, when . . ., then, three years ago), the present perfect is
normally impossible. Compare:
I haven’t seen Alice since August.
I saw Mary yesterday. (Not: */ have seen Mary yesterday.)
Fire has broken out on board an oil tanker in the North Sea.
Fire broke out last night on board an oil tanker . . .
Mary’s had her baby — it's a boy.
Mary had her baby yesterday morning — it’s a boy.
I’ve been all over Africa.
I went all over Africa in 1965.
When did you go to Africa?
The present perfect is not used when we are thinking about a
particular finished point of time (even if we do not mention it).
Compare:
Have you seen ‘Romeo and Juliet’? (=Have you ever seen it?)
Did you see ‘Romeo and Juliet’? (= Did you see the production
on TV last night?)

4 American English
In American English, the past simple is often used to give news.
Did you hear the news? Switzerland declared war on Mongolia!
(GB: Switzerland has declared war . . .)
Er, honey ... I crashed the car. (GB: . . . I’ve crashed the car.)
Lucy just called. (GB: Lucy has just called.)

5 Special structures
a The present perfect is used in a special way after expressions like
This is the first time . . . For details, see 473.
This is the first time I’ve drunk Californian champagne.
b Note the present tense in expressions like It’s a long time since . . .
It’s a long time since I heard from Peter.
It’s ten years since Arabella left me.
A negative is not used after this structure.
Typical mistake: *It’s a long time since you didn’t come to see me.

C Sometimes a present passive and a present perfect passive have

almost the same meaning (e g the shop has been closed-, the shop is
closed). For details of this, see 465.
present progressive 496

present progressive tense 496

Typical mistakes: *Hurry up! We all wait for you.
*Why do you cry? Is something wrong?
*Britain’s railway system is gradually improved.
*We probably spend next weekend at home.
*l'm going to the mountains about twice a year.
*Are you believing what he says?
"Smith is passing the ball to Webster, and Web­
ster is shooting, and it’s a goal!

1 The present progressive tense is made with am/are/is +-ing. The

commonest use of the present progressive is to talk about actions
and situations that are already going on at the moment of speaking.
Hurry up! We’re all waiting for you.
Why are you crying? Is something wrong?
The present progressive is often used to talk about developing or
changing situations.
The weather’s getting better and better.
Britain’s railway system is gradually being improved. (Present
progressive passive: is + being +past participle; see 458.)
The present progressive is used to talk about temporary situations.
It is not used to talk about permanent situations, or about regular
happenings or habits. For these, we generally use the present simple
tense (see 497). Compare:
My sister's living at home for the moment.
You live in North London, don’t you?
Why’s that girl standing on the table?
; Chetford castle stands on a hill just outside the town.
I'm seeing a lot of Monica these days.
She sees her analyst twice a week.
I think the cat’s going mad.
I go to the mountains about twice a year.
2 The present progressive is also used to talk about future happen­
ings.
We’re probably spending next weekend at home.
What are you doing this evening?
The present simple cannot so often be used to talk about the future.
Its main future use is to refer to timetables (see 497.2). Compare:
She's leaving on the New York flight.
Her plane leaves at 6.40.
For details of the different ways of talking about the future, see
250- z5 8.
 497 present simple tense

3 We sometimes use the present progressive in a more general way, to

talk about something that may be going on at any time.
/ don't like to be disturbed if I’m working.
You look lonely when you're smiling.

4 The present progressive is not the normal tense for narrative

(story-telling). In present-tense stories and commentaries, we usu­
ally use the present simple to talk about the things that happen.
Smith passes to Webster, and Webster shoots, and it’s a goal!
So this guy comes into the pub and orders a beer, and . . .
The present progressive can be used for ‘background’ situations in
present-tense narrative.
So I’m standing there, minding my own business, when this
policeman walks up to me . . .
For details of present-tense narrative, see 498.

5 There is a special use of the present progressive with always,

constantly, continually and forever to talk about thirjgs that often
happen unexpectedly or annoyingly. For details, see 503.
She’s always borrowing money and forgetting to pay you back.

6 Some verbs (eg like, believe, contain, remember, think, weigh)

cannot be used in the progressive tenses (at least in certain mean­
ings), even to talk about things that are going on just at the moment
of speaking. For details, see 502.6.
I like this wine. (Not: *l’m liking . . .)
Do you believe what he says? (Not: "Are you believing . . .?)

present simple tense 497

1 The commonest use of the presentsimple tense is to refer to ‘general
time’ — that is, to talk about actions and situations which happen
repeatedly, or all the time,..or at-any-t+mc-.
I go running three times a week.
My parents live near Dover.
Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit.
The present simple tense is not normally used to talk about tempor­
ary situations or actions that are going on only at the moment. For
these, we use the present progressive (for details of the difference,
see 496, 502). Compare:
Water boils at 212° Fahrenheit.
The kettle’s boiling - shall I make tea?
I don’t usually work very hard.
I’m not working very hard at the moment.
present tense 498

2 The present simple is sometimes used to talk about the future,

particularly after if, after conjunctions of time, and in discussions
about programmes and timetables. (See 303, 152, 255.)
I'll be glad if it rains soon.
What are you going to do when you leave school?
The train arrives at 7.46.
However, it is often a mistake to use the present simple with a
future meaning (see 250 and 255).

3 The present simple is common in stories told in the present, and in

commentaries on, for example, football matches. (For more details,
see 498.)
So I open the door, and I look out into the garden, and what do I
see but a man wearing a pink skirt and a policeman's helmet.
'Good morning,’ he says . . .
Harrison shoots, but the ball hits the post and Jackson clears.
Note also the expressions Here comes . . . and There goes . . .
Look - here comes your husband.
There goes our bus; we’ll have to wait for the next.

4 The present simple is also often used (instead of the past simple or
present perfect) in expressions like I hear, I gather, I see (used to
talk about things one has found out), and in introducing quota­
tions.
/ hear you’re getting married.
I gather Peter’s looking for a job.
I see there’s been trouble in Rome again.
No doubt you remember what Wittgenstein says about the dif­
ference between connotation and denotation.

5 Some verbs cannot usually be used in progressive tenses (see 502.6).

With these verbs, the present simple is used even to talk about
temporary situations that are only going on at the moment.
I like this wine very much. (Not: *1 am liking . . .)

present tense: narrative, commentaries, etc 498

1 Both present tenses can be used when we are telling stories in the
present, but there is a difference. Look at the following example:
There’s this Scotsman, you see, and he’s walking through the
jungle when he meets a gorilla. And the gorilla’s eating a snake
sandwich. So the Scotsman goes up to the gorilla and says
‘Excuse me,’ he says, ‘but where did you get that snake sand­
wich?’ So the gorilla looks at the Scotsman, and he drums his
great fists on his hairy chest, and he lets out a terrible roar, and
 499 presently
says, ‘At the snake bar round the corner.’
The present simple tense is used for the events in the story — the
things that happen one after another (meets, goes, says, etc). The
present progressive tense is used for the ‘background situations’ —
the things that are already happening when the story starts, or that
continue through the story (he’s walking, the gorilla’s eating').

2 In commentaries on games (such as football or tennis matches), the

use of tenses is similar. The present simple is used for the quicker
actions (which are finished before the sentences which describe
them); the present progressive is used for longer actions and situa­
tions. There are more progressives and fewer simple tenses in a
commentary on a boat race than on a football match, for instance.
Oxford are drawing slightly ahead of Cambridge now; they're
rowing with a beautiful rhythm; Cambridge are looking a little
disorganized . . .
And Smith passes to Devaney, Devaney to Barnes, Barnes across
to Lucas — and Taylor intercepts, Taylor to Peters — and he
shoots — and it’s a goal! Witney are leading by three goals to nil
in the first half.
(In past narrative, there is a similar difference between the past
simple and the past progressive. See 468.x.)

3 Present tenses are also Used in giving commentaries on what one is

doing, and in step-by-step instructions.
First I put a lump of butter into a frying-pan and light the gas;
then while the butter's melting I break three eggs into a bowl, like
this, ... (
You make sure the gear-lever's in neutral and the hand-brake’s
on; then you pull out the choke and switch on the engine. Then
you push down the clutch pedal... \

presently 499
Presently is most often used to mean ‘not now, later’.
‘Mummy, can I have an ice-cream?’ - ‘Presently, dear.’
He’s having a rest now. He’ll be down presently.
In a more formal style (especially in American English), presently
can also mean ‘at present’. In this case, it comes earlier in the
sentence, with the verb.
Professor Holloway is presently carrying out research on the
breeding habits of Venezuelan butterflies.
price 500

price /prais, and prize/praiz/ 500

Typical mistake: *She received the Nobel Price for physics.
The price is what you pay if you buy something. A prize is what you
are given if you win a competition, or if you have done something
exceptional. Compare:
What's the price of the green dress?
She received the Nobel Prize for physics.

principal /’pnnsopl/ and principle /'prinsopl/ 501

Typical mistakes: *What's your principle reason for wanting to be
a doctor?
*Newton discovered the principal of universal
gravitation.
Principal is usually used as an adjective; it means ‘main’, ‘most
important’.
What’s your principal reason for wanting to be a doctor?
The noun principal has a similar meaning to headmaster or head­
mistress.
If you want a free day you'll have to ask the Principal.
A principle is a kind of rule, often a rule of moral behaviour.
Newton discovered the principle of universal gravitation.
She’s a girl with very strong principles.

progressive tenses 502

1 Progressive tenses (also called ‘continuous tenses’) are the ones
made with forms of to be + . . . -ing. They include the present and
past progressive (eg / am waiting, I was waiting), the future and
conditional progressive (eg / will be waiting, I would be waiting),-
the present and past perfect progressive (eg / have been waiting, I
had been waiting), and the future and conditional perfect progres­
sive (eg / will have been waiting, I would have been waiting).
Progressive passive tenses also exist, but the only ones normally
used are the present and past (eg / am being watched, I was being
watched). The others (eg / have been being watched) are very
unusual, perhaps because the structure (with be twice) is too com­
plicated. Modal verbs (see 388) can be used with progressive
infinitives (see 3 19) to make progressive modal forms (e gHe might
be working, We ought to be going).

2 The most common use of the progressive forms is to talk about an

action or situation that is already going on (or was, or will, or
 502 progressive tenses

would be already going on) at a particular moment that we are

thinking about.
Don’t disturb him now — he’s working.
This time tomorrow I'll be crossing the Channel.'
When I went in he was lying on the floor staring at the ceiling.

3 We often use progressive tenses to suggest that situations and

actions are temporary or incomplete; other tenses are used to talk
about permanent situations or completed actions. Compare:
I’m living with Jack and Peggy at the moment.
My parents live in Dorchester.
The phone rang while I was having my bath, as usual.
1 had a bath and went to bed.

4 The progressive tenses are sometimes used to talk about repeated

actions.
I’m seeing a lot of Joan these days.
It happened at a time when I was climbing regularly.
I’ve been having a lot of colds recently.
However, this is only when the series of repeated actions is seen as
temporary. For habitual or permanent series of repeated actions we
use other tenses.
I climbed regularly tvhen I was in India.
I've had a series of illnesses over the last ten years.

5 With words that refer to physical feelings (eghurt, ache, feel) there
is not usually much difference between progressive and simple
tenses. This is also true of the expression look forward to.
How do you feel today? (Or: How are you feeling today?)
My leg’s aching. (Or: My leg aches.)
I look forward to your next visit. (Or: I’m looking forward . . .)

6 There are many verbs that are not usually used in the progressive
tenses and others that are not used in the progressive tenses in
certain of their meanings. (In grammars, these verbs are often called
‘stative verbs’; verbs that can normally have progressive forms are
called ‘dynamic verbs’.) The most important of these verbs are:
i dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish
2 astonish, impress, please, satisfy, surprise
3 believe, doubt, feel (= have an opinion),guess, imagine, knotv,
mean, realize,recognize,remember,suppose, think (= have an
opinion), understand
4 hear, see, measure (=have length, etc), taste (=have a
flavour), smell (=give out a smell), sound, weigh ( = have
weight)
progressive tenses 503

5 belong to, concern, consist of, contain, depend on, deserve, fit,
include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess
6 appear, resemble, seem
Compare rhe progressive and non-progressive uses of certain verbs:
What are you thinking about? I think you’re right.
I'm feeling fine I feel we shouldn’t do it.
Why are you smelling the meat? Is it bad?
The meat smells bad.
‘What are you doing with my whisky?’ — ‘I’m just tasting it.’
It tastes wonderful.
The scales broke when I was weighing myself this morning.
I weighed 68 kilos three months ago - and look at me now!
Why's that man measuring the street?
I measure centimetres round the waist.
I’m seeing Philip tomorrow. I see ivhat you mean.
Note the common use of can see andean hear instead of progressive
tenses of see and hear.
I can hear a funny noise. (Not: *I’m hearing . . .)
I can see a woman doing the housework in the flat opposite.
7 Note that even verbs which are never used in progressive tenses
(like know) have-ing forms, which can be used as participles (see
451), objects of prepositions (see 336), etc.
Knowing her tastes, I bought her a large box of chocolates.
I don’t-like to go to a foreign country without knowing a little of
the language.

8 For details of particular progressive tenses, see 468 (past progres­

sive), 494 (present perfect progressive), 496 (present progressive),
and 256 (future progressive). For the use of progressive tenses with
always, continually and similar words, see the next section.

progressive tenses with always, forever, 503

continually and constantly
Always normally means ‘at all times’, ‘with no exceptions’; like
other frequency adverbs, it is used with simple tenses, not progres­
sive tenses.
I always have a boiled egg for breakfast.
She always made people feel welcome.
However, there is another way to use always: when we want to say
that something happens often and (probably) unexpectedly. In this
case, we use progressive tenses.
 505 punctuation

She’s always giving people little presents.

My grandfather was always forgetting things.
Compare:
I always meet Henry in the Red Lion. (That’s our regular
meeting-place).
I'm always meeting Henry in the Red Lion. ('We meet there often,
but by accident.)
This structure is often used to talk about irritating, annoying things
that happen frequently. Instead of always, other words with similar
meanings (eg forever, constantly and continually') can be used.
I’m always forgetting people’s names.
He’s continually asking me for money.
My father's forever losing his keys.

propose 504
Typical mistake: *1 proposed her to come with me.
Propose cannot be used with the structure object + infinitive.
I proposed (to her) that she (should) come with me.
(For the use of the should-structure, see 552. For the use of the
subjunctive she come, see 580.)
In the sense of intend, propose can be followed by an infinitive.
I propose to have lunch now. (=I’m going to have lunch now.)
In an informal style, suggest and intend are more common.

punctuation: apostrophe 505

Apostrophes (’ ’ ’) are used in several different ways.

1 To show where letters have been left out of a contracted form.

can’t she's I’d
Contracted words are occasionally written with an apostrophe.
’flu ( = influenza) or flu
Occasionally, an apostrophe is used when the first two figures of
the number of a year are left out.
It was in ’79 (= 1979). 3 May 79

2 Words which do not normally have plurals sometimes have an

apostrophe when a plural form is written.
It seems an interesting idea, but there are a lot of if’s.
Apostrophes can be used in the plurals of letter and numbers.
He writes b's instead of d’s. It was in the early 1960's.
punctuation 506

3 Apostrophes are used in genitive (possessive) forms.

the earth's orbit Liverpool’s chances of winning
Charles’s wife the girl’s father Socrates'last words
For details of spelling and grammar, see z6i.

4 Apostrophes are not written in plurals (except possessive plurals).

Typical mistake: *a pair of jean's
Apostrophes are not written in possessive pronouns or determiners
(except one’s).
Typical mistakes: "This is your's. *it's importance

punctuation: comma 506

Typical mistakes: ^Everybody realized, that I was a foreigner.
*1 didn’t know, where I should go.
*The woman, who was sitting behind the desk,
gave me a big smile.
*The woman who was sitting behind the desk,
gave me a big smile.

1 Commas (, , ,) are not used before noun clauses (in other words,
before that, what, where, when, if, etc in reported speech, after
verbs of saying and thinking).
Everybody realized that I was a foreigner.
I didn’t know where I should go.
Tell me what you’re going to do.
Frederick wondered if lunch was ready.
'/ 2 Commas are not used with‘identifying relative clauses’(that is to
say, in cases where the relative clause is necessary to give the subject
a clear meanfog). Compare:
Mrs Grange, who was sitting behind the reception desk, gave me
a big smile.
The woman who was sitting behind the reception desk gave me a
big smile.
For an explanation of the differences between the two kinds of
relative clause, see 526.

3 Commas are often used after ‘adverbial clauses’ when these come
first in a sentence. When they come after the main clause, it is more
usual not to have a comma. Compare:
If you’re ever in London, come and look me up.
Come and look me up if you’re ever in London.
 508 punctuation

4 Commas are used to separate items in a series or list, but they are
often not used between the last two items.
I’d like to visit Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Yugoslavia.
If the last two items are long, we are more likely to use commas.
I spent yesterday playing cricket, drinking beer, and talking
about the meaning of life.
5 Commas are used to separate ‘sentence-adverbs’ when these come
between parts of the verb, or between the subject and verb, or the
verb and complement, of a sentence.
My father, however, was determined to continue.
He had, surprisingly, kept his temper all day.
We were, believe it or not, in love with each other.
6 Commas are not usually used between grammatically separate
sentences (in places where a full stop would be possible). In these
cases, we normally use either a full stop or a semi-colon (see 507).
Typical mistake: *The blue dress was warmer, on the other hand,
the purple one was prettier. (After warmer, it is
better to put a full stop or a semi-colon.)

punctuation: semi-colon 507

1 Semi-colons (;;;) are often used instead of full stops, in cases where.
sentences are grammatically independent but where the meaning is
closely connected.
Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the
evenings.
It’s a fine idea; let’s hope it’s going to work.
Commas are not usually possible in cases like these (see 506.6).

2 Semi-colons are also used to separate items in a list, particularly

when these are grammatically complex.'
You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscrip­
tions are paid regularly; that you arrange for all necessary clean­
ing to be carried out; that you undertake to make good any
damage; . . .

punctuation: colon 508

1 Colons (: : :) are often used before explanations.
We have had to abandon our holiday plans: the dates didn’t
work out.
punctuation 509

Mother may have to go into hospital: apparently she’s got a

kidney infection.
My ideal society is a disciplined democracy: democracy above
me and discipline below.

2 Colons can also be used before a list.

The main points are as follows: (i) . . ., (ii) . . ., (Hi) ■ ■ ■■
We need three kinds of support: economic, political and moral.

3 Colons are often used to introduce quotations.

In the words of Oscar Wilde: ‘I can resist anything except
temptation.’

4 In titles, colons can be used to separate a main heading from a

sub-division.
Punctuation: colon

punctuation: dash 509

1 Dashes (-------- ) are often used, especially in informal writing, to
add afterthoughts.
We’ll be arriving on Monday morning — at least, I think so.

2 In an informal style (especially personal letters), many people use

dashes instead of colons or semi-colons.
There are three things I can never remember - names, faces, and
I’ve forgotten the other.
We had a great time in Greece - the kids really enjoyed it.

punctuation: quotation marks 510

Quotation marks can also be called ‘inverted commas’.

1 Single quotation marks (‘. . .’) are often used when we talk about a
word, or when we use it in an unusual way.
The word ‘disinterested’ is sometimes used to mean ‘unin­
terested’.
A textbook can be a ‘wall’ between a teacher and his class.

2 When we quote speech, we can use either single or double (“. . .”)
quotation marks.
"Hello,” she said.
‘Hello,’ she said.
 511 questions

3 For a quotation inside a quotation, we use the kind of quotation

marks that we are not using for the main quotation.
“Good heavens,” thought jane. “What shall I do if he says
'Hello’ to me?”
‘Good heavens,’ thought Jane. ‘What shall I do ifhesays “Hello”
to me?’

questions: introduction 511

1 Written and spoken questions
In written English, questions almost always follow the ‘normal’
rules for interrogative sentences that are found in grammars. For
example, an auxiliary verb must come before the subject; do is used
if there is no other auxiliary verb. For details of these basic rules, see
5iz.
Have you spoken to the owners?
Does the price include postage?
In spoken English, particularly in informal conversation, the struc­
tures are often different. For instance, questions may be asked with
the same word-order as statements (but with a different intona­
tion). For details, see 513.
You’ve spoken to the owners?
The price includes postage?
And ‘ellipsis’ is common: the speaker may leave out an auxiliary
verb (and sometimes a pronoun as well) at the beginning of a
question. For details of ellipsis, see 196-199.
(Are) You coming tonight?
(Have you) Seen John anywhere?
2 Question-tags and ‘reply questions’
Short questions (made of auxiliary verb + pronoun) are very com­
mon in spoken English. They are often used at the ends of sen­
tences, to ask for agreement or confirmation. For details of these
‘question-tags’, see 515. (For information about other kinds of
tags, see 5x4.)
You’re the new secretary, aren’t you?
Your husband doesn’t smoke, does he?
Short questions are also used in replies (for instance, to express
interest in what has been said). For details of these ‘reply questions’,
see 514.
‘I saw an awful film last night.’ — ‘Did you, dear?’ — ‘Yes, . . .’
questions 512

questions: basic rules 512

1 Typical mistake: *Dear Sir,
You have received my letter of June 17 th?
In written English (and often in spoken English), questions are
made by putting an auxiliary verb before the subject.
Dear Sir,
Have you received my letter of June 17th?

2 Typical mistakes: Like

* you Mozart?
*What means ‘periphrastic’?
When a verb phrase has no auxiliary verb (e g I like Mozart), its
question form is made with the auxiliary verb do.
Do you like Mozart? What does ‘periphrastic’ mean?
Note that do is never used to make questions with be. It is not
always used to make questions with have (see 280—184).
Are you ready? (Not: ‘Do you be ready?)

3 Typical mistake: *Did you went climbing last weekend?

Do is followed by the infinitive without to.

Did you go climbing last weekend?

4 Typical mistakes: ‘Do you can tell me the time?

*Do you have seen John anywhere?
Do is not used to make questions with auxiliary verbs (including
the ‘modal auxiliary’ verbscan, must,should, may, etc - see 388).
Can you tell me the time? Have you seen John anywhere?

5 Typical mistakes: ‘Is coming your mother tomorrow?

‘When was made your reservation?
Only the auxiliary verb is put before the subject; the rest of the verb
phrase comes after it.
Is your mother coming tomorrow?
When was your reservation made?
This happens even if the subject is very long.
Where are the president and his family staying?

6 Typical mistakes: Why

* you are laughing?
*How much the room costs?
 513 word-order in spoken questions

Even in spoken English, an auxiliary verb must normally be put

before the subject in questions that begin with a question-word
(where, when, how, etc).
Why are you laughing? How much does the room cost?

7 Typical mistake: *Who did leave the door open?

When who, what or which is the subject of a sentence, it comes

directly before the verb, and do is not used.
Who left the door open? What happened?
Which costs more?
\fwho, what or which is the object, the normal rules are followed.
Who do you want to speak to? What do you think?

8 Typical mistake: “Tell me when are you going on holiday.

Reported questions normally have the word-order of affirmative

sentences: the auxiliary verb is not put before the subject. For
details of reported questions, see 535.
Tell me when you are going on hoiday.
I asked her what languages she could speak.

word-order in spoken* questions 513

In spoken English, particularly in informal conversation, questions
do not always have the same ‘interrogative’ structure as written
questions (see 512). We often make questions with the same
word-order as statements (‘declarative’ word-order), but with a
rising intonation.
You’re working late tonight?
This structure is used especially in two cases: when we want to
confirm something that we think we know already, and when we
want to express surprise. Compare:
That's the boss? (= I suppose that’s the boss, is it?)
THAT’S the boss? (A funny little man like that?)
Is that the boss? (‘Open’ question asking for information.)
Declarative word-order is common in ‘echo-questions’ (questions
that repeat the structure of a statement that came before).
‘We’re going to Hull for our holidays.’ — ‘You’re going to Hull?’
Note that declarative word-order is not possible in questions that
begin with question-words (where, when, how, etc). In these, an
auxiliary verb must come before the subject (except sometimes
with who, what or which-, see 512.7.) '
Where are you going? (Not: *Where you are going?)
reply questions 514

reply questions 514

1 We often reply to statements by making short questions, containing
just an auxiliary verb and a personal pronoun.
‘It was an awful party.’ — ‘Was /ts” — ‘Yes, there was nobody
there I knew, and ...’
These ‘reply questions’ do not ask for information. They express
interest, concern, surprise, anger, or other reactions, depending on
the intonation. Their most common use is just to show that we are
listening.
‘We had a lovely holiday.’ — ‘Did you?’ — ‘Yes, we went . . .’
‘I’ve got a headache.’ - ‘Have you, dear? I’ll get you an aspirin.’
‘John likes that girl next door.’ — ‘Oh, does he?’
‘It wasn’t a very good film.’ — ‘Wasn’t it? That’s a pity.’
In reply questions, we use the same auxiliary verb that was used in
the sentence we are answering. If there was no auxiliary verb, we
use do (as in the third example above). We use negative reply
questions to answer negative statements (as in the last example
above).
2 We can reply to an affirmative statement with a negative reply
question. This expresses emphatic agreement.
‘It was a lovely concert.’ — ‘Yes, wasn’t it? I did enjoy it.’
'She’s put on a lot of weight.’ — ‘Hasn't she!’
This is like the use of negative question-structure in exclamations.
(See zx6.)
Question-tags (used at the end of sentences) are very similar to
reply questions. For details, see'next section.
‘Short answers’ also have a similar structure. For details, see 548.

question-tags 515
Typical mistake: *The pubs close at half past three, isn't it?

1 A question-tag is rather like a ‘reply question’ (see 514): it is made

up of auxiliary verb + personal pronoun. It is used at the end of a
sentence, to ask for confirmation of something we are not sure
about, or to ask for agreement. A question-tag means something
like ‘Is this true?’ or ‘Do you agree’? Note the following points:
a the sentence before the question-tag is normally a statement
(affirmative or negative). Question-tags are not usually added to
questions.
You’re the new secretary, aren’t you?
You don’t like fish, do you?
But not: *Are you the new secretary, are you?
 515 question-tacfs

b If the main clause has an auxiliary verb (including a ‘modal’ aux­

iliary verb like can, must), the question-tag has the same auxiliary.
You haven’t met my wife, have you?
He can swim, can’t he?
If the main clause has be, this is also used in the question-tag.
We’re late, aren’t we?
If the main clause does not have an auxiliary verb (or be), do is used
in the question-tag.
The pubs close at half past three, don’t they?
You lost, didn't you?
c In the most common way of using question-tags, an affirmative
sentence has a negative tag, and a negative sentence has an affirma­
tive tag. Compare:
Henry likes opera, doesn’t he?
Henry doesn't like opera, does he?

2 The meaning of a question-tag changes with the intonation. If it is

said with a falling intonation (with the voice getting lower in
musical pitch), it makes the sentence sound more like a statement.
With a rising intonation, the sentence is more like a real question.
Compare:
Nice day, isn’t it? (Falling intonation - not a real question)
You haven’t seen Philip anywhere, have you? (Rising intonation
on have you? — this is a real question.)

3 People very often ask for help or information by making a negative

sentence (beginning, for example, You couldn’t... or You haven’t
■ or You don’t know . . .) with a question-tag at the end.
You couldn’t lend me a pound, could you?
You haven’t seen my watch around, have you?
You don’t know of any flats for rent, do you?
Do not confuse this kind of sentence with the ordinary negative
question structure. There is a great difference between, for exam­
ple, You haven’t got a light, have you ? and Haven’t you got a light?
See 404.

4 There are a few special difficulties with question-tags.

a In spoken English, the question-tag after lam isaren’tl? (Ami not?
is unusual in speech, and amn’t I? is extremely rare.)
I’m late, aren’t I?
b Will you? won’t you? would you? can you? can’t you? and could
you? are used in question-tags after imperatives. These are not real
questions (they mean something like please), but theyoften have a
rising intonation.
question-tags 515

Won’t is used to invite; will, would, can and can’t to tell people to
do things.
Do sit down, won’t you? Give me a hand, will you?
Open a window, would you? Shut up, can’t you?
After a negative imperative, only will you ? can be used.
Don’t forget, will you?
C Note that there can be used as a subject in question-tags.
There’s something wrong, Isn't there?
There ivon’t be any trouble, will there?
d Sentences containing negative words like nothing, nobody are fol­
lowed by affirmative question-tags. The pronoun it is used to avoid
repeating nothing-, they is used for nobody (see 432.).
Nothing can stop us now, can It?
Nobody phoned while I was out, did they?
e Somebody, someone, everybody and everyone are also often fol­
lowed by tags with they (see 432).
Somebody borrowed my coat yesterday, didn't they?

5 ‘Same-way’ question-tags
. It is quite common to use affirmative question-tags after affirmative
sentences, and negative tags after negative sentences. Question-tags
used in this way have the same kind of meaning as ‘reply questions’
(see 514). They can express interest, concern, surprise or anger
(depending on the intonation).
So you’re getting married, are you? How nice!
So she thinks she’s going to become a doctor, does she? Well,
well.
You think you’re funny, do you?
‘Same-way’ tags can also be used to ask questions. In this structure,
we use the main clause to make a guess, and then ask (in the tag) if it
was correct.
You mother's at home, is she?
This is the last bus, is it?
You can eat shellfish, can you?
In negative sentences, ‘same-way’ tags usually sound aggressive.
So you don’t like my cooking, don’t you?

6 Ellipsis
In sentences with question-tags, it is quite common to leave out
pronoun subjects and auxiliary verbs. This is called ‘ellipsis’.
(It’s a) Nice day, isn’t it?
(She was) Talking to my husband, was she?
 516 quite

In very informal speech, a question-tag can sometimes be used after

a question, but only if there is ellipsis.
Have a good time, did you?
Your mother at home, is she?
John be here tomorrow, will he?
Question-tags are not possible after complete questions. You can­
not say *Did you have a good time, did you? (See paragraph i,
above.)
For more information about ellipsis, see 196—199.
For details of other kinds of tags (‘reinforcement tags’), see 524.

quite 516
1 Quite has two meanings. Compare:
The steak’s quite good.
The job’s quite impossible.
In the first sentence, quite is an adjective of degree (like fairly,
rather, pretty or very). It changes the strength of the adjective: we
know that the steak is better than fairly good but not as good as
rather good or very good. (For the exact differences between fairly,
quite, rather and pretty, see 232.) In the second sentence, quite has
a different meaning: it is similar to completely or absolutely.
The meaning of quite depends on the kind of word it is used with.
Some adjectives, adverbs and nouns are ‘gradable’; they describe
qualities that can exist in different strengths or degrees. For
instance, somebody can be more or less nice, interesting, old, tired,
polite or an idiot. Other words are not ‘gradable’. You cannot
usually say that one person is more perfect than another, or that a
job is rather impossible, or that a cat looks fairly dead. Either
something is perfect, impossible or dead, or it is not.
With ‘gradable’ words, quite has the same kind of meaning as
fairly and rather. With ‘non-gradable’ words, the meaning is
always completely or absolutely. Compare:
I’m quite tired. (Similar to fairly tired or rather tired.)
I’m quite exhausted. ( = completely exhausted.)
It’s quite surprising (= fairly/rather)
It’s quite amazing (= absolutely)
His French is quite good (= not bad)
His French is quite perfect ( = absolutely perfect)
The ‘gradable’ use otquite (as inquitegood) is unusual in American
English.

2 The expression not quite is very often used (with non-gradable

words) to refer to a very small difference. It sometimes means
almost.
rather 517

I’m not'quite ready — won’t be a minute.

My hair’s not quite the same colour as yours.
I don’t think you’re quite right, I’m afraid.
I aont quite agree.
Quite similar is like fairly/rather similar, but note that quite differ­
ent means completely different. Note also that we can say not quite
the same, but we say exactly the same, and not *quite the same.

3 When quite is followed by a noun, it normally comes before the

article.
There’s quite a good film on down the road.
You’re quite the most exciting man I’ve ever known.
You’re going quite the wrong way.
He made quite an effort, but it wasn’t good enough.
Quite can also be put after a/an, but this is only possible if there is
an adjective (« quite good film, but not *a quite effort), and it is not
very common.

4 Quite can also be used with verbs.

I quite like her. Have you quite finished?
Sorry — I quite forgot.
Note that we can say I quite agree but not *1 quite disagree.

5 Rather is also used before articles and with verbs, in the same way
as quite. For details, see 5.17. Note that rather can be used before
comparatives (eg rather warmer)-, quite cannot, except in the
expression quite better ( = completely recovered from an illness).

rather: adverb of degree 517

1 Rather is an adverb of degree, like fairly, quite, pretty and very.
These words are used to change the stength of adjectives and
adverbs. '
She’s rather pretty. Aren’t we driving rather fast?
For the exact differences in meaning between fairly, quite, pretty
andrather, see zyz. For detailed information about quite, see 516.

2 Rather can also be used before nouns, with or without adjectives. It

generally comes before the article, but can also come after a/an if
there is an adjective.
That’s rather a nuisance.
That’s rather the impression I wanted to give.
It’s rather a good idea. (Or: It’s a rather good idea.)
She’s got rather a good voice. (Or: ... a rather good voice.)
 518 rather

3 Rather can be used with some verbs.

I rather think we’re going to lose.
We were rather hoping that you could stay for supper.
1 rather enjoy doing nothing.
Some people rather like being miserable.
4 It is also possible to use rather with comparatives and too.
His wife’s rather older than he is.
That’s rather more than I wanted to pay.
I think we’ve invited rather too many people.
Fairly, quite, pretty and very cannot be used in this way. We can say
rather older and rather too much, but we cannot say, for example,
*fairly older or *very too much. (See 146.) (For the expression quite
better, see 516.5.)

rather: preference 518

Rather is not only an adverb of degree. It can also be used to talk
about preference. The two structures are rather than, Ivould rather.
1 Rather than
This expression is usually used in ‘parallel structures’: that is to say,
with two adjectives, or two adverbial expressions, or two nouns or
pronouns, or two infinitives, or two -ing forms.
a Adjectives
I’d call her hair "chestnut rather than brown.
b Adverbial expressions
I’d prefer to go in August rather than in July.
C Nouns and pronouns
It ought to be you rather than me that signs the letter.
We ought to invest in new machinery rather than buildings.
d -ing forms
I always prefer starting early, rather than leaving everything to
the last minute.
e Infinitives
I decided to write rather than telephone.
When the main clause has an infinitive, rather than can be followed
by an infinitive with to (more formal) or without to-, an-ing form is
also possible.
I believe it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to
increase wages. (Or: . . . increasing wages.)
We ought to check ut>, rather than just accept what he says. (Or:
. . . accepting what ne says.)
rather 519

2 Would rather
a This expression is followed by the infinitive without to, and means
‘would prefer to’. The contracted form'd rather is very common.
Would you rather stay here or go home?
‘How about a drink?’ — ‘I’d rather have something to eat.’
Note that would is used in all persons; *1 should rather is impossi­
ble. (Would in this expression is the ‘modal’ auxiliary would, not
the conditional auxiliary should/would-, see 636.)
b Would rather can be used with different subjects before and after it,
to say that one person would prefer another to do something. In
this case, we generally use a past tense with a present or future
meaning.
I'd rather you went home now.
Don’t come tomorrow. I’d rather you came next weekend.
My wife would rather we didn’t see each other any more.
‘Shall I open a window?’ — ‘I’d rather you didn’t.’
A present tense (e g I’d rather you go home now) is also possible,
but very unusual.
•q To talk about past actions, a past perfect tense is used.
I’d rather you hadn’t done that.
However, it is more common to express this kind of idea with I
wish (see 632).
/ wish you hadn’t done that.
For other cases in which a past tense is used with a present or future
meaning, see 470.
C Many grammars and dictionaries say that the expression had
rather is used in the same way as would rather. This is not true-,had
rather does not exist in standard modern English.

rather: confusinq cases 519

Compare the following sentences:
'I'd rather like a cup of coffee.’ — ‘Oh, would you? I’d rather have
a beer.’
I’d rather + infinitive usually means ‘I’d prefer to . . .’ (see 518.2).
However, with a few verbs (eg like, enjoy, appreciate), the struc­
ture has a different meaning. In these cases, rather is an adverb of
degree (like fairly and quite-, see 517). So I’d rather like does not
mean ‘I’d prefer’ - it means something similar to I’d quite like, with
no idea of preference. On the other hand, I’drather have means‘I’d
prefer to have’. So in the example above, the two uses oil’d rather
have completely different meanings.
 521 really

or rather 520
Typical mistake: *He’s a psychologist - or better, a
psychoanalyst.
When we correct what we have said, or make it more exact, we
often use the expression or rather. It is not normal to use better in
this situation.
He’s a psychologist — or rather, a psychoanalyst.

really: position 521

Really can go in several different places in a sentence. The most
common position is probably mid-position: before the verb, or
after the first part of a verb with several parts (see 24).
I really like Pink Floyd.
She’s really been working hard, hasn’t she?
Really usually goes after forms of the verb to be.
It’s really great here.
The sentence becomes more emphatic if really is put earlier: before
the first part of a verb with several parts, or before the verb to be. In
these cases, the main sentence stress falls on the first verbal part, or
on the verb to be. (Do is used in emphatic affirmatives r- see 177.)
I really 'do like Pink Floyd!
She really 'has been working hard, hasn’t she?
It really 'is great here!
When the verb is negative, really can either be put before the whole
verb or after not. This makes a difference to the meaning. Com­
pare:
I really don’t like her. (= I dislike her strongly.)
I don’t really like her. (= I’m indifferent to her, or I dislike her a
little.)
That really isn’t good enough. (Strong criticism)
That isn’t really good enough. (Weak criticism)
I really don’t know. (= I have no idea.)
I don’t really know. (= 1 don’t have a clear idea.)
Really can also be put at the beginning or end of a sentence. Used
like this, it makes a suggestion or a criticism less strong, more
hesitant.
Really, I’m not sure that I want to come out.
I don’t think I agree with you, really.
reason 522

reason 522
1 Reason is often followed by why, or by a clause beginning with
why.
One of the reasons why I came here was to find out more about
my family.
The main reason why he lost his job was that he drank.
I don’t know the reason why.
Is there any /a reason why she did that?
Another possible structure is with a that-clause, or (in informal
usage) with no conjunction.
The reason that we are closing the factory is that . . .
The reason I came here is .. .

2 The preposition after reason is for, not of.

What’s the real reason for your depression, do you think?

reflexive pronouns 523

1 Typical mistakes: */ cut me shaving this morning.
*We got out of the river and dried us.
In cases like these (where the same person is the subject and the
object), it is normally necessary to use the reflexive pronouns
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves, one­
self. L
I cut myself shaving this morning.
We got out of the river and dried ourselves.
Talking to yourself is the first sign of madness.
When the action is one that people normally and often do to
themselves, the pronoun is frequently left out. We usually say that
somebody washes and dresses and shaves in the morning (get
dressed is often used instead of dress'). But we would say that a
small child is learning to dress himself, because children are often
dressed by other people.
After prepositions, ordinary personal pronouns are used instead of
reflexives in cases where it is obvious which person is meant.
Compare:
She took her dog with her. She was talking to herself.
She looked about her.
(The woman could not take her dog with somebody else, or look
about somebody else; but she could talk to somebody else, so a
reflexive is necessary in this case.)
Note the expressions to enjoy oneself ( = to have a nice time) and by
oneself (= alone).
 524 reinforcement tags

Reflexive personal pronouns can also be used with nouns to give

the special meaning ‘that person/thing and nobody/nothing else’.
Don’t worry, Mr Jones, I’ll see to it myself.
The manager spoke to me himself. (Or: The manager himself
spoke . . .)
The house itself is beautiful, but the surroundings are rather
unpleasant.
Reflexive pronouns do not have possessive forms. We can use own
to suggest a possessive idea.
I’d like to have my own car.
Note the difference between ‘reflexive’ and ‘reciprocal’ pronouns:
They were criticising themselves. (= Each person was criticising
himself or herself.)
They were criticising each other. (— People were criticising other
people in the group.)
For information about each other and one another, see 191.

reinforcement tags 524

1 In informal spoken English, we sometimes finish a sentence with a
‘tag’, in which we repeat the subject and the auxiliary verb. These
‘reinforcement tags’ are more common in British than in American
English.
'You’ve gone mad, you have.
I’m getting fed up, I am. /
If the main clause has no auxiliary verb, do is used in the tag. ;
He likes his beer, he does.
Reinforcement tags have a similar structure to question-tags (see
515), except that they are not interrogative.

2 One reason for using reinforcement tags is simply to emphasize the

idea of the main clause, by repeating it.
You’re really clever, you are.
They can also be used to move the subject to the end of the sentence,
so that the verb comes earlier and gets more immediate importance.
(This is called ‘fronting’; see 249.) In this case, the sentence begins
with no subject at all (‘ellipsis’).
Getting in my way, you are.
Likes his beer, John does.
There is a similar effect when we begin a sentence with a pronoun
subject, and put the ‘full’ subject in the tag.
He hasn’t a chance, Fred hasn’t.
She really got on my nerves, Sylvia did.
relative pronouns 525

3 It is possible to have reinforcement tags without verbs (‘subject

tags’).
You’re living in the clouds, you lot.
They’re very polite, your children.
Ellipsis is possible.
Living in the clouds, you lot.
Very polite, your children.
Pronoun subject-tags are possible, but they are not very common
except with reflexives [myself, himself).
Don’t think much of the party, myself.

relative pronouns 525

Typical mistakes: "There's the man whohejeaches me the guitar.
u *1 don’t like people whictrlose their temper easi-
v *1 think you should stay faithful to the person
whom you’re married to.

1 ‘Relative pronouns’ do two jobs at once. They are used as the

subjects or objects of verbs, like other pronouns; at the same time,
they join clauses together, like conjunctions. Compare:
What’s the name of the blonde girl? She just came in.
What’s the name of the blonde girl who just came in?
In the second example, who replacesshe as the subject of came, and
also allows us to join the two sentences into one.
2 The most common relative pronouns are who, whom, which and
that. Who and whom are used for people; which is used for things.
I don’t like people who lose their tempers easily.
Mexico City, which has a population of over i o million, is proba­
bly the fastest growing city in the world.

3 Whom (which refers to the object of a verb or a preposition) is

rather unusual, especially in conversational English. It is generally
either left out, or replaced by who or that. It is almost impossible in
clauses that end with a preposition.
Compare:
I think you should stay faithful to the person you’re married to.
(Or: . . . the person who/that you’re married to.) (Conversa­
tional style).
Do you think one should stay faithful to the person to whom one
is married? (Formal style).
 526 identifying and non-identifying relative clauses

4 That can often (but not always) be used instead ofwhom or which,
and quite often instead of who.
The trumpet’s the instrument that really excites me.
She’s the only person that understands me.
5 After nouns referring to times and places, when and where can be
used to mean at which or in which. After the word reason, why is
used to mean for which.
Can you suggest a time when it will be convenient to meet?
I know a wood where you can find wild strawberries.
Is there any reason why you should have a holiday?
6 Whose is a possessive relative word.
This is Henry, whose wife works for my brother-in-law.
For more information about the use of who, whom, which, that
and whose, see the following sections.
For information about what and other ‘nominal relatives’, see 531
and 490.3.

identifying and non-identifying 526

relative clauses: introduction
Consider the following sentences:
Could you pass me the green file, please?
The box on the right has got biscuits in.
Is that the woman who wants to buy your car?
In the first sentence, the adjective green identifies the noun it is used
with. It tells us which file is meant. In the second sentence, the
expression on the right does the same job; it tells us which box the
speaker is talking about. And in the last sentence, the relative clause
who wants to buy your car identifies which woman is meant: it is an
‘identifying relative clause’. (Clauses like this can also be called
‘defining relative clauses’ or ‘restrictive relative clauses’.) These
identifying expressions could not easily be left out. For instance, if
somebody said ‘Is that the woman?’ we probably would not have
much idea of what he was talking about.
In other sentences, the same expressions might not identify nouns
in the same way.
I’ve put the letters in this green file.
You see the old Rolls-Royce, over there on the right?
I’ve just met that Mrs Smith-Perkins, who wants to buy your car.
In these sentences, even if the expressions in question are left out,
we probably still know which file, which Rolls-Royce, and which
Mrs Smith-Perkiqs are meant. The expressions green, on the right,
and who wants to buy your car give useful additional information,
but they do not identify the nouns.
identifying relative clauses 527

Expressions which identify are not usually separated from the rest
of the sentence in any way. In speech, there is no pause; in writing,
commas are not used. On the other hand, non-identifying expres­
sions are often separated from the rest of the sentence by pauses (or
intonation-changes) in speech, and by commas in writing (as in the
last two examples above). In writing, non-identifying relative
clauses are always separated by commas in this way. Compare:
The woman who cuts my hair has moved to another hairdresser’s.
Dorothy, who cuts my hair, has moved to another hairdresser’s.
Where’s the money that I lent you?
He lent me a thousand pounds, which was exactly the amount I
needed to solve my problem.
The difference between the twp types of relative clause is not just a
matter of commas. There are also important grammatical differ­
ences between them (for instance, that can be used instead of whom
or which only in identifying clauses). See the following sections for
details.

identifying relative clauses 527

1 In identifying relative clauses, we very often use that instead of the
other relative pronouns, especially in a conversational style.
Where’s the girl that sells the tickets? (==... who sells . . .)
He’s a man that people-like at first sight. (= . . . whom people like
...)
Could you iron the trousers that are hanging up behind the door?
(=. .. which are hanging . . .)
I’ve lost the bananas that I bought this morning. (= which I
bought.. .) .
That is especially common after the following words:
all every(thing) some(thing) any(thing)
no(thing) none little few much only
That is also very often used after superlatives.
Is this all that’s left?
Have you got anything that belongs to me?
The only thing that matters is to find our way home.
I hope that the little that I've been able to do has been of some use.
It’s the best film that’s ever been made on the subject of madness.
What cannot be used in the same way as that.
Typical mistakes: "Al! what you say is certainly true.
*Nothing what we do is completely useless.

For details of the use of what, see 531.

 528 non-identifying relative clauses

2 In identifying relative clauses, we often leave out the relative pro­

noun if it is the object of the verb in the relative clause. This is
extremely common in conversational English.
He’s a man people like at first sight.
I’ve lost the bananas I bought this morning.
Anything you say is all right with me.
Nothing you do will make any difference.

3 Prepositions can come either before relative pronouns or at the end

of relative clauses. In conversational English, it is much more
common to put prepositions at the end (and to leave out the
pronoun). Compare:
The people with whom he worked regarded him as eccentric.
(Formal style)
The people he worked with thought he was a bit strange. (Con­
versational style)
This is the room In which Churchill was born. (Formal style)
This is the room Churchill was born in. (Conversational style)
Note that after a preposition who and that are impossible; whom
or which must be used (as in the first and third examples).

4 Note that an identifying relative clause is not used after a noun

which is already completely identified by other words.
Typical mistake: *My house which I bought last year has got a
lovely garden. (Correct form: The house which I
bought... or My house, which I bought. . .)

For whose in identifying relative clauses, see 530.

5 In identifying relative clauses, present and past tenses are some­

times used instead of future and conditional. For details, see 595.
I’ll give you anything you ask for. (Not: *... will ask for.)
I’d give you anything you asked for (Not: *... would ask for.)

non-identifying relative clauses 528

1 Non-identifying relative clauses are rather unusual in conversation.
They are often heavy and formal, and are much more common in
written English. A non-identifying clause is separated from its noun
by a comma (because it is not a necessary part of the meaning of the
noun; see 526). If the sentence continues after the clause, there is
another comma.
This is Mr Gallagher, who writes comic poetry.
Maczluwacz’s masterpiece is the sonata for massed choirs and
percussion, which was written when he was only 19.
relative clauses 529

The Highlanders, who were divided Into a number of warring

tribes, never managed to unite successfully against the English.
Smallpox, which once killed thousands of people every year, has
notv been wiped out.

2 In non-identifying clauses, that cannot be used, and object pro­

nouns cannot be left out.
I passed him a large glass of whisky, which he drank immediately.
(Not: *. . . whisky, that he drank . . . or *. . . whisky, he drank
. . .). Compare:
The whisky you drank last night cost £8 a bottle, (you drank
identifies which whisky is meant; the pronoun can be left out,
and there is no comma)

3 Prepositions can come at the end of non-identifying relative clauses

(but in a formal style, they are usually put before the relative
pronoun).
She spent all evening talking about her latest book, which none of
us had ever heard of.
Universal Agroplastics, of which Max Harrison was until recently
the chairman, has made a loss of three million pounds this year.

4 Note that in non-identifying clauses, whom is quite often found.

The small man in the raincoat, whom nobody recognized, turned
out to be Olivia’s first husband.

relative clauses: advanced points 529

1 Sentence-relative
Sometimes a relative clause refers not just to the noun before it, but
to the whole sentence before. Compare:
He showed me a photo that upset me.
He tore up my photo, which upset me.
In the first sentence, it was the photo that was upsetting; the relative
clause just refers to this noun. In the second sentence, it was not the
photo which was upsetting, but the fact that somebody tore it up;
the whole sentence He tore up my photo is the ‘antecedent’ of the
relative clause. In cases like this, which is always used (that or what
are impossible), and there is always a comma.
She cycled from London to Glasgow, which is pretty good for a
woman of 75. (Not: *. . . what is pretty good . . . or *. . . that is
pretty good . . . For the use of what, see 531.)
He wore his swimming things in the office, which shocked his
boss a great deal.
 529 relative clauses

2 Many of whom, some of which, etc

In non-identifying clauses, determiners (e g some, any, none, all,
both, several, enough, many and few} can be used with of whom
and of which.
It’s a family of eight children, all of whom are studying music.
We’ve tested three hundred types of boot, none of which is
completely waterproof.
They picked up five boat-loads of refugees, some of whom had
been at sea for two months.
This structure is also possible with other expressions of quantity,
and with superlatives.
a number of whom three of which half of which
the majority of whom the youngest of whom

3 Relative and infinitive

A preposition + relative pronoun can be followed by an infinitive.
We moved to the country so that the children would have a
garden in which to play.
He was miserable unless he had neighbours with whom to quar­
rel.
This structure is impossible if there is no preposition.
*/ can’t think of anybody whom to invite.
Even with a preposition, this structure is rather formal and
uncommon, and we usually prefer the simpler structure
infinitive + preposition (. . . a garden to play in;.. . neighbours to
quarrel with). See 488.2.

4 That (special cases)

After_words_referring to manner, time or place, that is often used,
insKad of in whichwhenjir^where^That can also be left out.
I didn’t like the way (that) she spoke to me. ( r/. -?
I’ll never forget the Sunday (that) you first arrived. r J*'-'-*'-')
Do you know^nywhej^ (that) I can get a drink?

5 Agreement of person
In an informal style, a relative clause usually has a third-person
verb even if the subject of the main clause is I or you.
It’s me that is responsible for the organization.
You’re the one that knows where to go.
In a very formal style, a first or second person verb is possible after/
who or you who.
It is I who am responsible for the organization. (Or: It is you who
are . . .)
For the grammar of this sort of sentence (‘cleft sentence’), see 13 8.
whose 530

6 Which as determiner
Which can be used as a determiner, with a noun, in relative clauses.
This structure is formal, and is only common after prepositions.
He may be late, in which case we ought to wait for him.
He lost his temper, at which point I decided to go home.

whose /hu:z/: relative 530

1 Whose is a relative possessive word: it is used together with nouns
in the same way as his, her or its. It can refer to people or things.
In a relative clause, the structure whose + noun can be the subject,
the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition (just like who(m)
and which).
When I looked through the window I saw a girl whose beauty
took my breath away, (subject)
It was a meeting whose importance I did not realize at the time.
(object)
Atlas (in Greek mythology) was a kneeling man on whose
shoulders the world rested, (object of preposition)
In Wasdale there is a mysterious dark lake, whose depth has
never been measured, (subject)
This is Felicity, whose sister you met last week, (object)
Michel Croz, with whose help Whymper climbed the Mat­
terhorn, was one of the first of the professional guides, (object of
preposition)
Whose can be used in identifying clauses (first three examples) or
non-identifying clauses (last three).

2 Instead of whose, of which can be used to refer to things, and it is

sometimes preferred. The word-order is normally noun + of
which.
We had a meeting the purpose of which was completely unclear.
(Or: .. . Ahose purpose was . . .)
He’s written a book the name of which I’ve completely forgotten.
(Or: . .. whose name I’ve . . .)
When of does not have a possessive sense, only of which or of
whom (or which ... of or who . . . of) can be used; whose is
impossible.
She’s married to a physicist of whom you may have heard; his
name’s Valentine Burroughs. (Or:. .. (who) you may have heard
of; ...)
In this sentence, *. . . whose you may have heard . . . would be
incorrect. This is because the of in heard of is not possessive (you
could not say *you’ve heard his instead of you’ve heard of him); it
has a similar meaning to about.
 532 remind

3 Even in a possessive sense, whose can only be used as a ‘determiner’

(with a noun); it cannot be used as a pronoun, without a noun.
Prince Albert, of whom my Aunt Ariadne is a distant cousin by
marriage, comes to see us sometimes. (Not: *. . . whose my aunt

what: relative 531

Compare the following sentences:
I gave her just the money that she needed.
I gave her just what she needed.
The thing that I’d like is a digital watch.
What I’d like is a digital watch.
Do you want to hear the words that he said?
Do you want to hear what he said?
The relative pronoun that refers to a noun that comes before it, and
‘repeats its meaning’. In the first, third and fifth examples above,
that refers to the money, the thing and the words.
What does not ‘repeat the meaning’ of a noun that comes before it;
it includes the meaning of a noun. In the second, fourth and sixth
sentences, what means the money that, the thing that and the words
that. The general meaning of what is the thing(s) that-, it includes a
relative pronoun and its<‘antecedent’ at the same time. What cannot
be used if there is already an antecedent.
Typical mistakes: *You can have everything what you like.
*I’m sorry. That’s all what I have.
*The only thing what I regret is .. .
These sentences must be constructed with that (or with no relative
pronoun); see 527.
You can have everything (that) you like.
When the antecedent is a whole sentence, which is used (see 529).
Sally went out with George, which made Paul very angry. (Not:
*. . . what made Paul very angry.)

remind 532
1 Typical mistakes: *Please remind me of posting the letters.
★Remember me to post the letters.
When you tell somebody to do something that he might forget, you
remind him (not ’’remember'}. The correct structure is remind +
object + infinitive.
Please remind me to post the letters.
reported speech 533

Yon always have to remind her to take her keys with her.
Remind is also used with a that-dause.
1 reminded her that we hadn’t got any petrol left.

2 The structure remind + object + of has two meanings. It is used to

talk about remembering the past, and also to say that something is
similar to something else.
The smell of herbs reminds me of Provence.
She reminds me very much of her mother.

reported speech and direct speech ______ 533

Typical mistake: *She said to me that I have got no money and
asked me for five pounds.
A When we want to quote somebody’s words or thoughts, we can do
it in two ways. First of all, we can try to give the exact words that
were said (or that we imagine were thought).
So he comes into the pub and says ‘I'll have a pint’.
And then I thought ‘Well, does he really mean it?’
This way of quoting is called ‘direct speech’. Usually the words
quoted are introduced by one of the wordssay orthink, put before
the quotation. In writing, quotation marks (‘. . .’ or “. . .”) are
used. In literary writing, a large number of other verbs are used (to
add variety and to give additional information); for example, ask,
exclaim, suggest, reply, cry, reflect, suppose, grunt, snarl, hiss,
whisper. And in literary writing the word order is more free; the
reporting verb can come'in the middle or at the end of the quota­
tion.
‘Your information,’ I replied, ‘is out of date.’
‘I suppose so,’ grunted Jack.
(For the position of the subject in the reporting phrase, see 343-9-)

2 The other way of quoting somebody’s words or thoughts is to use

the ‘reported speech’ construction (also called ‘indirect speech’). In
this case, we talk about the idea that was expressed without quot­
ing the exact words that were used, and we connect it more closely
to our own sentence (for example, by using that or whether}.
So he comes into the pub and says (that) he’ll have a pint.
And then I wondered whether he really meant it.
In reported speech, the tenses, word-order, pronouns and other
words may be different from those in the original sentence. Com­
pare:
He said, ‘I'm going home.’ He said he was going home.
 534 reported speech

Mum says, ‘Why aren’t you at school?’

Mum wants to know why you aren't at school.
He said, ‘I love you. ’
He said he loved me.
Peter said, ‘Why don’t we phone him now?’
Peter suggested phoning him straight away.
In some cases, words may disappear or be expressed in other ways
(yes, no, well, exclamations and question-tags, for example, cannot
be fitted into the reported speech construction.) Compare:
‘Yes, I suppose so,’ he said. ‘It’s difficult, Isn’t It?’
He agreed unenthusiastically, saying that it was difficult.
For details of the grammar of reported speech, see the following
sections. (And see 542 for the difference between say and tell.)

reported speech: tenses 534

Typical mistakes: *1 said that I want to go home, but nobody
listened to me.
*The customs officer asked what I have got in
my suitcase.
1 When we quote in 'direct speech’, we do not usually make any
important grammatical,changes in what a person said. In reported
speech, oh rhe other hand, we do not give the person’s exact words.
Instead, we report his idea using the same tenses and pronouns as
we use in reporting the rest of the situation we are talking about.
Compare:
Alan was looking for Helen this morning.
Alan said that he was looking for Helen.
In these sentences, Alan’s looking for Helen is past, and somebody
else (not Alan) is talking about it. So in both sentences, it is natural
to use a past tense and the pronoun he to talk about it.

2 When the ‘reporting’ verb is past (eg she said-, I thought-, we

wondered; Max wanted to know), we do not normally use the same
tenses as the original speaker.
The verbs are ‘more past’ (because we are not talking at the same
time as the speaker was). Compare:
direct speech reported speech
present simple past simple
‘1 like peaches.’ He said he liked peaches.
present progressive past progressive
7s it raining?’ He asked if it was raining.
reported speech 534

past simple past perfect

*1 didn’t recognize you.’ She explained that she
hadn’t recognized me.
present perfect past perfect
‘You’ve annoyed the dog.’ I told her she'd annoyed
the dog.
past progressive past progressive or
7 was joking about the past perfect progressive
price.’ He said he was joking (or:
had been joking) about the
price.
past perfect past perfect
‘I hadn't seen her before You said you hadn't seen
that day.’ her before that day
shall/will should/would
‘We'll be late.’ I was afraid we'd be late.
can, may could, might
7 can swim.’ She thought she could
‘It may rain.’ swim.
They said it might rain.
would, could, might, ought, would, could, might, ought,
should should
"You could be right.’ I felt he could be right.
’That should be interesting.’ She said it should be
interesting.
must must or had to (see s^S.t)
7 must go.’ He said he must go.
(or: ... had to go)
Note that we may have shall or should in direct speech, and would
in reported speech (because of the difference of person).
7 should be delighted He said he would be
to come.’ delighted to come.

3 When the ‘reporting’ verb is present, future, or present perfect, the

tenses used are usually the same as those in the speaker’s original
words. Compare:
'Will I be in time?’
She wants to know if she’ll be in time.
‘Was your operation successful?’
He’ll certainly ask you if your operation was successful.
7 don’t want to go.’
I’ve already told you that I don’t want to go.
 535 reported questions

4 Sometimes, even after past reporting verbs, the tenses are the same
as the original speaker’s. This happens when we are reporting
people saying things that are still true when we report them. Com­
pare:
‘The earth goes round the sun.’
Galileo proved that the earth goes round the sun.
‘I’m only 28.’
She told me the other day that she’s only 28.
However, past tenses are also possible in these cases. British or
American people would find the following conversation quite
natural:
‘How old are you?’ — ‘I beg your pardon?’ — ‘I asked hou> old
you were.’
In sentences like these, we often use present tenses if we feel that we
are reporting facts; we prefer past tenses if we are not sure of the
truth of what we report. Compare:
She told me she’s getting married next June. (And I believe her.)
She told me she was getting married next June. (It may be true, it
may not.)

5 It is important to realize that the tenses in reported speech are not

‘special’. They are (almost always) just the normal tenses for the
situation we are talking about. Compare:
She was tired so she went home.
She said she was tired and she went home.
In the second sentence, the past tense in was tired is not used
because the structure is ‘reported speech’; It is used (as in the first
sentence) because we are talking about the past. It is quite unneces­
sary to learn complicated ‘rules’ about reported speech, or to
practise changing direct speech to reported speech. Simply use the
tenses that are natural for the situation. (The only exception is in
cases like ‘I asked you how old you were’, in the example in section
4 above.)
For information about ‘sequence of tenses’ in other structures, see
594-

reported questions 535

Typical mistakes: *The nurse asked how did I feel?
*1 wondered why was my mother driving so fast.
*Rosemary couldn’t understand where were all
the people living.
*The bus-driver asked did I want the town centre.
“She said If I wanted her to help me.
reported speech 536

1 Reported questions do not have the same word-order (auxiliary

verb before subject) as direct questions often have. Do is not used.
Question-marks are not used.
The nurse asked how I felt.
I wondered why my mother was driving so fast.
Rosemary couldn’t understand where all the people were living.

2 Before questions which do not have a question-word (like who,

where, why), if or whether is used in reported speech. (For the
difference, see 625.)
The bus driver asked If/whether I wanted the town centre.
I don’t know If/whether I can help you.

3 Say can be used to introduce direct questions, but not reported

questions. Compare:
She said, ‘Do you want me to help you?’
She asked If I wanted her to help me. (Not: *She said . . .)

4 Note that the reported question construction can be used in a

special way, to report the answers to questions. In this case, say can
be used.
I told him how many people we were expecting.
She explained what the problem was.
Mary said why she didn’t want to come.

5 Shall I ...? can have tw'o meanings. It can be used to ask for
information (e gShall I be in Edinburgh in time for supper if I catch
the 10.30 train?), or to ask for orders, instructions, etc. (egShall I
carry your bag for you?). Information-questions are reported with
will or would in the third person; offers and requests for instruc­
tions are generally reported with should (present or past).
He wants to know if he will be in Edinburgh in time for supper.
He asked ifihe would be in Edinburgh . . .
He wants to know/he asked if he should carry my bag.

reported speech: orders, requests, advice, etc 536

Orders, requests, advice and suggestions are often reported by
using an infinitive.
I told Andrew to be careful crossing the glacier.
The old lady downstairs has asked us to be quiet after midnight.
The accountants advise us to raise prices by 8%.
Note that ask can be used in this way, but say is not usually
possible. (For the exact difference between say and tell, see 542.)
Suggest, cannot be followed by an infinitive; see 584.
 537 reported speech

Negative requests, etc, are reported with a negative infinitive (see

3i9)-
Margaret told me not to worry.
A tA>at-construction is also possible.
The policeman told me that I ought to fill in a form.
Should (British English) or a subjunctive (American English) is
often used in the tZ?<?t-construction.
1 suggested that he (should) meet us again a month later.
For details of the should and subjunctive structures, see 552 and
580.

reported speech: ‘here-and-now words’ 537

Imagine that the following conversation took place in Liverpool on
a Thursday:
Mick: I saw Joe in London last Saturday.
Fred: Oh yes? How’s he liking it?
Mick: Not too well. His exact words were: T'm bloody fed up
with this place, and I’m thinking of going back home
tomorrow.’ He’s still there though.
Fred: Typical.
Mick used direct speech to quote Joe. If he had used the reported
speech construction (He said he was bloody fed up . . .), some other
changes would have been necessary besides the normal tense
changes. For instance, Mick could not have said *He said he was
bloody fed up with this place . . . (because in Mick’s conversation,
this place would mean Liverpool, and Joe was talking about Lon­
don). In the same way, Mick could not have said *... he was
thinking ofgoing back home tomorrow (because Mick’s tomorrow
is Friday, and Joe was talking about the Sunday before).
Words like here, there, this, that, today, tomorrow, yesterday,
next, last, now and then can be called ‘here-and-now words’. Their
exact meaning depends on where and when they are used, and they
may have to be changed in reported speech (unless the words are
reported immediately, and in the same place where they were
spoken). There are no exact rules for changing these words: we use
whatever expressions will make the meaning clear in the situation.
In the example above, Mick could say (in reported speech): He said
he was bloody fed up with the place, and he was thinking of going
back home on Sunday (or the next day, or within twenty-four
hours). If Joe’s home was Liverpool, Mick would probably also
change going to coming (see 141).
reported speech 538

reported speech: other points 538

1 Must
After a past reporting verb, must does not usually change.
He said, 'It must be pretty late. I really must go.’
He said that it must be pretty late, and he really must go.
Had to is also possible in reported speech, but this is really the past
of have to, not must.
He said, ‘I have to go. - I’ve got an appointment in halfan hour.’
He said he had to go, because he had an .. .
For the exact difference between must and have to, see 285.
2 Modal verbs with perfect infinitives
‘Past’ modal verbs {would, could, might, ought and should) do not
normally change in reported speech. Do not change ordinary
modal structures to modal + perfect infinitive structures after past
reporting verbs.
He said, ‘I might come.’
He said that he might come. (Not: *... he might have come.)
For more information about modal verbs, see 388—390.
3 Conditionals
After a past reporting verb, we can sometimes use a ‘conditional
perfect’ structure (past perfect in the main clause, conditional
perfect in the other). It depends on the meaning. Compare:
(1) He said, ‘If you called on me tomorrow, I could see you for
half an hour.’
He said that if I called on him the next day he could see me...
(2) He said, ‘If I had any money, I’d buy you a drink.’
He said if he'd had any money he’d have bought me a drink.
In the first example, the speaker was talking about something that
might happen, and the conditional perfect is not possible because
it is only used for ‘imaginary’ situations. In the second example,
the conditional perfect is possible, because the speaker was talking
about something that could not happen. For more information
about conditionals, see 151 and 303—310.
4 That
After the commonest verbs of saying and thinking, that can be left
out, particularly in a conversational style.
I said I wanted to get drunk.
Jane thought it was time to buy some new clothes.
I suppose we ought to go.
Deborah tells me you’re leaving.
 540 rob

That is not so often left out in a more formal style, and there are also
many verbs (eg reply, telegraph) after which that is necessary.
He replied that we ought to invest half the profits. (Not: *He
replied we ought to . . .)
5 How to, where to, etc
In reported speech, it is possible to use a question-word (how,
where, who, etc) with an infinitive. For details, see 326.
He asked her how to make sauce nivernaise.
1 told her where to go.
6 Reported speech without reporting verbs
In newspaper reports, reports of parliamentary debates, records of
conferences, minutes of meetings, etc, the reported speech con­
struction is often used with very few reporting verbs.
The managing director began his address to the shareholders by
summarizing the results for the year. Profits on the whole had
been high, though one or two areas had been disappointing. It
was, however, important to maintain a high level of investment,
and he was sure that the shareholders would appreciate . . .

road and street 539

Typical mistake: *There’s a narrow winding street from our vil­
lage to the next one.
A street is a road with houses on either side. The word is used for
roads in towns, but not for country roads.
There’s a narrow winding road from our village to the next one.
Road can be used for both town and country. Street is more
common than road when we are talking about towns, and is the
only possible word in some expressions (eg street map, street
market). But many street names have the word road in them. Note
that when we say road or street names, we stress the word Road,
but the word before Street.
'Oxford Street 'Bond Street
Marylebone 'Road Willow 'Road

rob and steal 540

Typical mistakes: *Officer! I’ve been stolen!
★Officer! My dog’s been robbed!
The object of the verbsteal is the thing that is taken away. You steal
something that does not belong to you.
the same 541

They stole five thousand pounds from the bank.

Officer! My dog's been stolen!
The object of the verb rob is the person or place from which things
are stolen. You rob a person or a place.
They robbed the bank, and got away with five thousand pounds.
Office^ I’ve been robbed!

the same 541

Typical mistakes: *Give me same again, please.
*1 want a same shirt like mv friend.
*Her hair’s the same colour that her mother's.
*/ like the same music than you.
Same is always used with the.
G ive me the same again, please.
I want the same shirt as/a shirt the same as my friend(’s).
Normally, as is used before a following noun or pronoun.
Her hair’s the same colour as her mother’s.
I like the same music as you.
When the same is used with a noun, that can be used before a
following clause.
He was wearing the same shirt (that) he’d had on the day before.
That’s the same man that asked me for money yesterday.
That is often dropped after way.
1 went out the same way I’d got in.

say and tell 542

Typical mistakes: *She told that she would be late.
*She said me that she would be late.
*1 told to the others what I wanted to do.
*You’re saying lies.
*Mary told me, ‘What a nice idea!’
*They said if I wanted to see a film.
*1 said them to shut up.

1 Tell normally has to be followed by a personal direct object — we

make it clear who we tell. Say is usually used without a personal
object. Compare:
She told me that she would be late.
She said that she would be late.
I told the others what I wanted to do.
I said what I wanted to do.
 542 say

Both tell and say can be followed by different kinds of objects

referring to what is communicated. These can be, for example,
vague expressions like a lot, too much, something, nothing, etc.
He didn’t tell me anything that I didn’t know already.
Stop - you’ve said more than enough.
Tell is also used in a few special expressions where the personal
object can be left out. The most common ones are: to tell (some­
body) a lie; to tell (somebody) the truth; to tell (somebody) a story;
to tell the time (= to know how to read a clock); to tell fortunes
(= to say what will happen to somebody in the future). Say cannot
be used in these expressions.
He’s seven years old and he still can’t tell the time. (Not: *. . . say
the time.)
I don’t think she’s telling the truth. (Not: *. . . saying the truth.)
Say can be used with objects like a word, a name, a sentence, a
phrase-, tell cannot.
Alice said a naughty word this morning. (Not: *Alice told. . .)

2 Say can be used with direct speech. Tell is only used in direct speech
when what is quoted is either an instruction or a piece of informa­
tion.
I said ‘Hello’ to the boss and sat down at my desk. (Not: *1 told
...)
Mary said, ‘What a_nice idea.’
I told Martha, ‘Look in the black box in my bedroom.’
1 told them, T have never seen this man before.’
In reported speech, both say and tell can be used to talk about
giving information, but not about asking questions.
1 said that I was tired.
The landlady told me that she would have to put up the rent.
Say what you want.
She refused to tell me where she lived.
But:
They asked what I wanted. (Not: *They said what I wanted.)
They asked if I wanted to see a film. (Not: *They said . . .)
(In direct speech, say can be used with questions; for example, She
said, ‘What do you want?’ See 533.1.)

3 Tell + object + infinitive is used to talk about orders, commands,

advice, etc. Say cannot be used like this.
I told them to shut up.
My mother always told me not to talk to strange men.
Tel! Charles to stop worrying and have a drink.
For information about direct and reported speech, see 533 — 538.
see 543

see 543
1 When see means use one’s eyes, it is not normally used in progres­
sive tenses. The expressions can see and could see are often used
instead.
I can see a rabbit over there.
Through the window, I could see nothing but roofs.
Can is also used with hear and other sense-verbs. See 129.
When see means understand, progressive tenses are not possible
either.
‘ We’ve got a slight problem.’ - ‘I see.’
But the progressive tenses can be used when see means meet or
interview.
I’m seeing Miss Barnett at 4 o’clock.

2 See is also used instead of watch to talk about films and plays (see
368). The progressive tenses are possible.
‘Would you like to come and see a film with us this evening?’ -
‘Maybe. What film are you seeing?’
For the exact differences betweensee, watch and look at, see 368.

3 See is used to mean consider or think in the expressions I’ll see and
Let me see.
‘Can I have a holiday tomorrow?’ — ‘I’ll see.’
See, in this sense, cannot be used with a direct object.
Typical mistakes: *We’ll see that tomorrow. (Correct structure:
We’ll see about that. . .)
“You'd better see that with Jim. (Correct struc­
ture: You’d better talk to Jim about that.)
For more information about verbs that are not used in progressive
tenses, see 502.6.
For infinitives and -ing forms after see, see 288.

seem 544
Typical mistakes: “You seem a bit angrily today.
“I spoke to a tall man who seemed the boss.
“'North Wales seems as a good place for a holi­
day.

1 Seem is one of the verbs that are used with adjectives, not adverbs
(see 13).
You seem a bit angry today.
 545 sensible

We often use to be after seem.

She seemed (to be) tired. Mary seems (to be) a nice girl.
Before a noun with no adjective seem to be is almost always used.
I spoke to a tall man who seemed to be the boss.

2 Seem can be followed by the infinitive of other verbs; perfect

infinitives (see 319) are also common.
The cat seems to want a drink.
The tax people seem to have made a mistake.
Negative ideas can be expressed in two ways: by putting not either
with seem or with the following verb. In an informal style, it is
more common to put not with seem.
She doesn’t seem to be at home. (Informal)
She seems not to be at home. (More formal)
I can’t seem to find my glasses anywhere. (Informal)
1 seem to be unable to find my glasses anywhere. (More formal)
For other examples of‘transferred negation’, see 401.

3 Seem can be followed by like (not normally as).

North Wales seems like a good place for a holiday.
As if is also possible after seem, especially in the structure It seems
as if.. .
It seems as if John was right.
For the difference between like and as, see 73; for as if, see 74.

4 There can be used as an introductory subject for seem.

There seems to be some mistake.
For more details, see 600.2.

sensible /'sensabl/ and sensitive /'sensativ/ 545

Typical mistake: *1 am easily hurt because my feelings are very
sensible.
A person who feels things easily or deeply can be called sensitive.
I am easily hurt because I am very sensitive.
She’s not at all sensitive to other people’s feelings.
Sensible is used to talk about practical ‘common sense’. A sensible
person makes wise decisions, and does not behave stupidly or
impulsively.
7 want to buy that dress. ’ - ‘Be sensible, dear, you haven't really
got enough money.’
shade 546

shade/Jeid/ and shadow /'Jaedau/ 546

Shade is most often used when we are thinking of protection from
the sun; shadow is used mainly when we are thinking of the
‘picture’ made by an unlighted area. Shade contrasts with heat-,
shadow contrasts with light. Compare:
I‘m hot. Let’s sit down in the shade of that tree.
The temperature’s 30 ° in the shade.
'Peter Schlemiehl’ is a story about a man without a shadow.
In the evening your shadow’s longer than you are.

shall /Jael, JI/ 547

1 Shall is a modal auxiliary verb (see 388). The contracted form is
’// /(a)l/; the contracted negative isshan’t /Ja:nt/. Like other modal
auxiliary verbs, shall is followed by the infinitive without to. In
modern English, shall is used mostly as the first-person future
auxiliary.
/ shall ring you up as soon as I arrive. (Or: I’ll ring . . .)
Where shall we be this time tomorrow?
Will can be used instead of shall in most cases.
I will ring you up as soon as I arrive. (Or: I’ll ring . . .)
Where will we be this time tomorrow?
Shall (not will) is used in offers, suggestions, requests for instruc­
tions, and requests for advice.
Shall I carry your bag?
Shall we go out for lunch?
What shall we do?
For more information about ways of talking about the future, see
150—254. For sha//-questions in reported speech, see 535-

2 In older English, shall was common in the second and third persons
when the speaker wanted to show a strong emotion (for example,
in promises or threats).
You shall have an answer by tomorrow.
If he’s good, he shall have a new watch for Christmas.
You shall suffer for this!
This construction is still possible, but it often sounds rather old-
fashioned, and we usually prefer to use will or to find another way
of expressing the idea (eg I’ll make sure you suffer for this!).
 549 should

‘short answers’ 548

In answers to ‘yes-no’ questions, we often repeat the subject and
auxiliary verb of the question, instead of just saying Yes or No.
‘Can he swim?’ — ‘Yes, he can.’
‘Has it stopped raining?’ — ‘No, it hasn’t.’
We can repeat be, and sometimes have, even when they are not
auxiliary verbs.
‘Are you happy?’ — ‘Yes, I am.’
‘Have you a light?’ — ‘No, I haven’t.’
These ‘short answers’ can also be used in replies to statements,
requests and orders.
‘You’ll be on holiday soon.’ — ‘Yes, I will.’
‘You’re late.’ — ‘No I'm not.’
‘Don’t forget to telephone.’ - ‘I won’t.’
Do is used in answers to sentences with no auxiliary verb.
‘She likes cakes.’ — ‘Yes, she certainly does.’
Short answers can be followed by ‘tags’ (see 515).
‘Nice day.’ — ‘Yes, it is, isn't it?’
Short answers are similar to ‘reply questions’ (see 514).
‘YouVe forgotten something.’ - ‘Have I?’
For more details of the.use of auxiliary verbs alone, without main
verbs, see 199.

should 'fod. (nd/ 549

1 Should can be used as a past form of shall. This happens, for
instance, in reported speech after a past ‘reporting verb’. Compare:
7 shall be there before ten.’ \
I said I should be there before ten.
‘Shall I help you?’
He asked if he should help me.
Should is also possible in the ‘future in the past’ construction (see
^58).
So this was the place where I should study for the next three years.
It made a bad first impression.

2 Should is not only used to refer to the past. It can be used as a less
definite, more ‘tentative’ form of shall, referring to the present or
the future. For instance, it is common in first-person conditional
verb-forms.
/ should be perfectly happy if I had nothing to do. (Or: / would
. . .; see 551.1.)
should 550

It can be used in offers, suggestions, and requests for instructions

and advice.
Should I help you with the washing-up?
What do you think I should do?
Should is very often used to talk about duty, obligation, and similar
ideas.
People should drive more carefully.
You really should ring Aunt Mary.
For details of this (and the difference between should andought to),
see 550.

3 Should is used after if and in case to suggest a less strong possibility.

For details, see 552.1.
If you should see Celia, give her my best wishes.
It can also be used after so that and in order that-, see 552.2.

4 Should is used (in British English) in certain kinds of subordinate

clause which express personal reactions to events, and the impor­
tance or necessity of events. For details, see 552.3, 4.
I was astonished that she should do a thing like that.
I’m anxious that everybody should have a good time.

should and ought to 550

Should and ought to have very similar meanings. They are used to
express obligation and duty, to give advice, and in general to say
what we'think it is right or good for people to do.
You ought to/should go and see ‘Blazing Saddles’ - it’s a great
film.
You should have seen his face!
People ought to vote even if they don’t agree with any of the
candidates.
In most cases, both should and ought to can be used with more or
less the same meaning. There is, however, a very slight difference.
When we use should, we give our own subjective opinion; ought to
has a rather more objective force, and is used when we are talking
about laws, duties and regulations (or when we want to make our
opinion sound as strong as a duty or law). Compare:
You should/ought to go and see Mary some time. (Both possi­
ble.)
We ought to go and see Mary tomorrow, but I don’t think we
will. (Should doesn’t sound right here. It would be strange to give
oneself advice and say that one was not going to follow it.)
 551 should

Should and ought to can also be used to talk about strong probabil­
ity.
I’ve bought thirty pints of beer — that ought to be enough.
That should be Janet coming upstairs now.
Note that should and ought to are used to talk about the present
and future, not the past.
Typical mistake: *The taxi should arrive at 8.30, but it didn’t turn
UP-
To talk about things which did not happen, although they were
supposed to, we use should or ought to with the perfect infinitive,
or the was to construction.
The taxi should/ought to have arrived at 8.30 . . .
The taxi was to arrive/have arrived at 8.30 . . .
For more details of these structures, see 390 and 97.

should and would 551

These two verbs are easy to confuse. This is partly because they are
used to make three different sets of verb-forms.
1 The ‘conditional’
The conditional auxiliary is a mixture of.should and would. In the
first person should and would are both possible, with no real
difference of meaning; in the second and third person, would is
used. So the forms for the conditional of take are:
I should/would take
you would take
he/she/it would take
we should/would take
they would take
For information about the use of the conditional, see 151.

2 Should
The verb should (I/you/he/she/it/we/they should) is quite differ­
ent from the conditional. It is used to express duty or obligation,
and some other ideas. For details, see 549.
3 Would
The verb would (I/you/he etc woidd) is also quite different from
the conditional. Two important uses are to talk about past habits
(eg She would sit for hours saying nothing) and to make polite
requests (eg Would you come this wayi). For details, see 636.
should 552

should in subordinate clauses 552

1 Should is often used in subordinate clauses after in case, and
sometimes after if — it makes an event sound less probable. Com­
pare:
I'll get some beer In case Aunt Mary comes. (She may come.)
1 'll get some beer in case Aunt Mary should come. (She might
come.)
If you see Harry, give him my regards. (You may see him.)
If you should see Harry, give him my regards. (You might see
him.)
In British English, the structure ‘If + subject +should + verb’ is
often replaced by 'Should + subject + verb’. See 307.6.
Should you see Harry, give him my regards.
Should is very common in sentences about the past with in case.
I took a couple of notebooks, In case I should have time to do
some writing.
For details of these constructions, see 316 (in case) and 307 (if).

2 Should is also used in past sentences withso that and in order that.
He turned the stereo down very low so that he shouldn’t disturb
the old lady downstairs. (Or:... In order that he shouldn't. . .)
For details, see 561.

3 Should can be used in subordinate clauses when we are expressing

the idea that something must be done, or is important. This hap­
pens after verbs like command, order, insist, request, ask, suggest,
advise, recommend (especially in past sentences), and after adjec­
tives like important, vital, essential, necessary, eager, anxious,
concerned.
He insisted that the contract should be read aloud.
I recommended that you should reduce your expenditure.
Was it necessary that my uncle should be informed?
I’m anxious that nobody should be hurt.
Ideas of this kind can also be expressed with the subjunctive (espe­
cially in American English, see 580), or in other, simpler ways.
Was it necessary that my uncle be informed?
Was it necessary to inform my uncle? (Or:. . . for my uncle to be
informed?)

4 Should is also used in subordinate clauses in sentences where we

express personal reactions to events (for instance, with words like
amazing, interesing, shocked, sorry, normal, natural, it’s a shame).
In these cases, too, should is more common in past sentences. The
subjunctive is not possible here instead of should.
 555 small

It’s astonishing that she should say that sort of thing to you.
I was shocked that she shouldn't have invited Phyllis.
I’m sorry you should think I did it on purpose.
Do you think it’s normal that the child should be so tired?
Sentences like these can be made without should. (I was shocked
that she hadn’t invited Phyllis; I’m sorry you think . . .)

(if I were you) I should . . . 553

We quite often give advice by making a conditional sentence with
the expression If I were you . . .
if I were you I should get that car serviced.
I shouldn ’t worry if I were you.
Note that in this structure we usually use should, not would, as the
conditional auxiliary.
The expression if I were you is sometimes left out, so that we give
advice just by saying I should . . .
I should get that car serviced. I shouldn’t worry.
In sentences like these, the expression I should actually means
something similar to you should.

should with why and how 554

Why should . . .? can express inability to understand.
Why should it get colder when you go up a mountain? You’re
getting nearer to the sun.
Why should . . .? and How should. . .? can also express irritation
and anger.
‘Give me a cigarette.’ — ‘Why should I?’
‘What’s Susan’s phone number?’ - ‘How should I know?’

small and little 555

Small refers only to size. It is the opposite of big or large.
Could I have a small brandy, please?
You’re too small to be a policeman.
Little (as an adjective) is generally used to express some emotion, as
well as the idea of smallness. This can be for example, affection,
amusement, disgust, contempt. Little is mostly used in attributive
position (before a noun); see 16.1
Poor little thing — come here and let me look after you.
Her husband’s a funny little man, isn’t he?
What’s that nasty little boy doing now?
smell 556

They’ve bought a pretty little cottage near Buckingham.

Little is not ‘gradable’. It is not usually used with adverbs of degree
like quite, rather, very, too, and it does not normally have compara­
tive and superlative forms.
Little is also used to meanshort in a few expressions of distance and
time, for example a little while, a little way. And it is used instead of
small in the sense of small by comparison with the other(s), in
expressions like little finger, little hand (on a clock), Little Tew (the
village next to Great Tew).
For the use of little and a little as determiners and pronouns (the
opposite of much), see 237, 238.

smell 556
The verb smell can be used in three ways.

1 We can describe the smell of something by using the construction

subject + smell + adjective, or subject + smell + of + noun. (For
other verbs which are used with adjectives, see 13.2.) Progressive
tenses are not used (see 502.6).
That smells funny. What’s in it?
Those roses smell beautiful!
The railway carriage smelt of beer and old socks.

2 We can describe our sensations by using smell with a personal

subject. Progressive tenses’ are not possible; can is often used. (For
the use of can with see, hear, etc, see 129.)
Can you smell burning? I can smell supper.

3 We can also talk about the deliberate use of the sense of smell, in
order to find out something. In this case, the progressive tenses can
be used.
‘What are yf>u doing?’ - ‘I’m smelling my shirt to see if I can wear
it for another day.’

so am I, so do I, etc 557
1 _So_can be used, before auxiliary verb + subject, to mean a/so,-Note
the inverted word-order (see 344).
Louise can dance beautifully, and so can her sister.
Tve lost the address.’- ‘So have I.’ S'
The auxiliary verb is usually the same one that came in the clause
before. If there is no auxiliary verb before, do is used after so.
Compare: \---------------------
Til have whisky.’ — ‘So-wlll I.’ ‘I[like^whisky.’ — ‘So do L’
 558 so

So can be used before be, and sometimeshave, even when these are
not auxiliary verbs.
I was tired, and so were the others.
‘I have a headache.’ — ‘So have I.’
Other ordinary (non-auxiliary) verbs cannot be used in this struc­
ture. (You cannot say *So like I or *So think I.)
Note that it is not normally possible to have a complete verb phrase
{auxiliary verb + main verb), or a complete clause afterso. We can
say So can her sister, but not "So can her sister dance.
So is used (in this way) in affirmative sentences only. A similar
structure, for negative sentences, is possible with neither or nor:
these mean ‘also not’. For details, see 406.
7 won’t have any more.’ - ‘Nor will I.’ (Or: ‘Neither will I.’)

2 So can also be followed by.subject..-!:.auxiliary verb, (note the

word-order), to express surprised agreement.
‘It's raining.’ — ‘So it is.’
‘You forgot your umbrella when you went out.’ — ‘Good
heavens, so I did!’

so and not with hope, believe, etc 558

Typical mistakes: ‘Do you think we’ll have good weather?’ — *‘I
hope it.’
‘Is that Alex?’ — *‘Yes, I think.’

1 So is used after several verbs to avoid repeating an idea that has

already been expressed. (It acts as a substitute for a tAat-clause; see
581.) The commonest of these verbs are hope, believe, imagine,
suppose, guess,reckon, think. So is also used after the expression to
be afraid.
‘Do you think we’ll have good weather?’ — ‘I hope so.’
‘Is that Alex?’ — ‘Yes, I think so.’
‘Did you lose?’ — ‘I’m afraid so.’
Note thatso is used instead of a t^nt-clause; it cannot be followed
by a that-c\ause. It is impossible to say, for example, *1 think so that
he’s coming.
So cannot be used after all verbs of thinking. We cannot say, for
example, *I’m sure so.
In certain cases, so can be used after say and tell. For details, see
559-
2 Structures with imagine so, suppose so, think so, etc can be made
negative in two ways: we can use a negative verb, or we can use not
instead of so.
I don't believe so. (Or: I believe not.)
so 559

/ don’t suppose so. (Or: I suppose not,)

He doesn’t think so. (Or: He thinks not.)
With hope, only the second structure (IJrppe not) is possible (see
297). And with think, the first structure (/ don’t think so) is much
more common than the second (see 602.6).

3 A structure is possible with so at the beginning of a clause, with

say, hear, understand, tell, believe and a number of other verbs.
‘Mary’s getting married.’ — ‘Yes, so I heard.’
It’s going to be a cold winter, or so the newspaper says.
‘The Professor’s ill. ’ - ‘So I understand. ’
This structure is used when we are saying where our opinion ‘comes
from’, what evidence we have for it. The structure is not used with
the verbs think, hope or suppose. There is no negative form of the
structure.

so after say and tell 559

1 So can be used after say instead of (a) repeating the words used or
(b) using it or that.
You’re going to be the next president. Everybody says so.
‘You’ve got to clean the car.’ — ‘Who says so?’
Note thatso is used in this way mostly when we are talking about
the authority for statements, about reasons why we should believe
them. Compare:
‘Jane’s crazy.’ — ‘Who says so?’ — ‘Dr Bannister.’
‘Jane’s crazy.’ - ‘Who said that?’ - ‘I did.’
In the first example, the second speaker wants to know whether he
should believe the statement; he usesso. In the second example, the
second speaker just wants to know who said the words; he uses
that.

2 The expression J told you so is used to mean ‘I warned you about

what would happen, but you wouldn’t listen to me.’
‘Mummy, I’ve broken my train.’ — 7 told you so. You shouldn’t
have tried to ride on it.’

3 So cannot be used after all verbs of saying. We cannot say, for

example, *She promised me so.

so much and so many 560

1 The difference between so much and so many is the same as
between much and many. So much is used with singular (uncount­
able) nouns; so many is used with plurals.
 562 some

There’s so much paint left: tvhat are we going to do with it?

She had so many children that she didn’t know what to do.
So much of and so many of are used before demonstrative adjec­
tives, possessive adjectives, the definite article, etc (see 171.4).
You’ve had so much of my apple you might as well eat the rest.
So many of the people wanted to talk that we went on till
midnight.

2 Note the following special structures with so much: (i) . . . not so

much . . . as . . . (ii) . . . not so much that. . . as/but (that} . . . (iii)
. .. not so much as ... (= not even) (iv) If.. .so much as ...(= If
. . . even . . .)
It wasn’t so much his appearance I liked as his personality.
It wasn’t so much that I disliked her as that I just wasn’t
interested.
It’s not so much that I don’t want to come but I just haven’t got
the time.
He didn’t so much as say thank-you, after all we’d done for him.
(=He didn’t even say thank-you.)
If you so much as look at another woman, I’ll murder you.

so that and in order that 561

These structures are used to talk about purpose. They can be
followed by a present tense with a future meaning. So that is more
common than in order that, especially in an informal style.
I’m going to make an early start so that I don’t (or won’t} get
stuck in the traffic.
We ought to write to him, in order that he doesn’t (or won’t} feel
we’re hiding things from him.
In past sentences, should or could are normally used after so that
and in order that. The conditional (would} is also possible, and
might is occasionally used in a literary style (see 382).
He came in quietly in order that he shouldn't wake his wife.
I took my golf clubs so that I could play at the weekend.
Mary talked to the shy girl so that she wouldn't feel left out.
Should is also used in past sentences after in case (see 552.1).
For the infinitive structures in order to and so as to, see 327.
For so + adjective + that (expressing result), see 583.2.

some /sari, sam/ and any /'em/ 562

Typical mistakes: *No thanks, I don’t want some more.
*l’ve got any good records.
*I’llhave to come by bus: I haven’t got any car.
some 562

1 Some and any are determiners (see 171). They are used with
uncountable and plural nouns. They have the same sort of meaning
as the indefinite article a/an (see 63-68). Compare:
I haven’t got a car. (singular countable noun)
Have you got any aspirins? (plural noun)
I need some medicine, (uncountable noun)
Some is generally used in affirmative sentences; any is used in
questions and negatives. Compare:
I want some razor-blades.
Have you got any razor-blades?
Sorry, I haven't got any razor-blades.
Some is used in questions when we expect an affirmative answer, or
when we want to encourage people to say ‘yes’.
Could I have some brown rice, please?
Have you got some glasses you could lend me?
Would you like some more beer?
Any is used in affirmative sentences that really have a negative
meaning; for instance, with words like never, without, hardly,
prevent (see 403 and 41 8). In sentences with;/, both some and any
are possible.
You never give me any help.
We got there without any trouble.
There’s hardly any tea left.
The noise of the party prevented me from-getting any sleep.
If you want some/any help, let me know.
Note that some normally has the weak pronunciation /sam/when
it is used as a determiner (before a noun or in the expression some
more).
2 Some and any are used particularly when we are talking about
uncertain, indefinite or unknown numbers or quantities. Compare:
You’ve got some great jazz records.
You’ve got beautiful toes. (If one said ‘You’ve got some beautiful
toes’, it would suggest that the number of toes that were beautiful
was not quite definite - perhaps six or seven, but not all ten.)
Would you like some more beer? ( = as much as you like)
We need beer, sugar, butter, eggs, rice, and toilet paper. (=the
usual quantities)
Have you got any animals?
Do you like animals? (=all animals)

3 Some and any can be used as pronouns.

‘Beer?’ — ‘Thanks, I’ve got some.’
'Did you get the oil?’ - ‘No, they hadn’t got any.’
 563 some

Before another determiner (article, demonstrative or possessive

word) or a pronoun, we use some of and any of.
Would you like some of these cigarettes?
I couldn’t understand any of the lectures.
Have some of my ice-cream.
I don’t think any of us want(s) to work tomorrow.
Note that whenawy of is followed by a plural noun or pronoun, the
verb can be singular or plural. A singular verb is more common in a
formal style.
If any of your friends Is/are interested, let me know.
Whensome is used as a pronoun (alone or witho/-), it has the strong
pronunciation /sAm/. Compare:
We need some oil. /sam/
I’ve lost some of the oil. /sahi/
For more information about the use of of with determiners, see
171.4.

4 In negative sentences no or none can be used instead of not any.

These are more emphatic. No is a determiner; none is a pronoun.
Compare:
We haven't got any time. We’ve got no time at all.
There aren’t any left. There are none left - not one.
(Remember thatawy is normally used with uncountable and plural
nouns, not with singular countable nouns. We say I haven’t got a
car, not *1 haven’t got any car.)
Any cannot be used alone with the same meaning as no; not is
necessary to give a negative meaning to any.
Typical mistake: T had any ideas; my head was completely emp­
ty. (Correct form: I didn't have any ideas. . . Or:
I had no ideas . . .)
For more information about no and none, see 412.
The difference between something and anything, somebody and
anybody, someone and anyone, somewhere and anywhere, is the
same as the difference between some and any.
For details of some special ways of using some, see next section.
For special uses of any, see 55.

some /sahi/: special uses 563

1 Some can be used (with the strong pronunciation /sAm/) to contrast
with others, all or enough.
Some people like the sea, others prefer the mountains.
I’ve got some money, but not enough.
some time 564

2 Some (/sAm/) can be used with singular countable nouns, in the

sense of an unknown. It often suggests lack of interest, or contempt.
There must be some Job I could do.
She’s working for some Insurance company in Birmingham.
Mary went off to Australia with some man or other.
I don’t want to spend my life in some muddy little village miles
from anywhere.

3 Some (/SAm/), with a number, means about. It often suggests that

the number is a high or impressive one.
Fantasia has exported some four million tons of bootlaces this
year.

some time /‘SAm taim/and sometimes /'sAmtaimz/ 564

Typical mistake: *Let’s have dinner together sometimes next
week.

1 Some time means something like ‘one day’. It is used to refer to an

indefinite occasion, usually in the future. There is no idea of repeti­
tion.
Let’s have dinner together some time next week.
When will 1 get married? This year, next year, some time, never?

2 Sometimes is an adverb of frequency. It suggests repetition (not

very frequent) at any time (past, present or future).
We sometimes went hunting deer when I lived in Germany.
I’ll come back and see you sometimes, whenever I can manage it.

sort of, kind of and type of 565

1 Whensort of, kind of and type of are followed by plural nouns, they
are sometimes used with plural demonstrative adjectives in conver­
sational English.
Those sort of cars are tremendously expensive to run.
Do you smoke these kind of cigarettes?
Some people feel that this structure is incorrect, and prefer to avoid
it. This can be done by using a singular noun (that sort of car, this
kind of cigarette), or by using an expression such as cars of that
sort, or cars like that.

2 Sort of and kind of are also used (in an informal style) to make
expressions and sentences sound less definite, more vague. They
can be used with various parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives,
etc. Kind of is more common in American English.
 567 spedk

I sort of thought you might forget.

Her eyes are kind of greenish-gold.
Sometimes I sort of wonder whether I shouldn’t sort of get a job,
or something.

sound 566
Sound is one of the verbs that are not used in progressive forms,
even to talk about things that are happening just at the moment.
(See 501.6). It is also one of the verbs that are used with
adjectives, not adverbs (like look, smell, seem: see 13.z).
I wouldn’t buy that guitar. It sounds a bit cheap.
You sound depressed.
Note the structure to sound like.
That sounds like Arthur coming upstairs.
‘Shall we go sailing on Sunday?’ — ‘That sounds like a good idea. ’

speak and talk 567

1 In British English, we usually say that people speak or talk to other
people, even if we are thinking of conversations. (In American
English, with is generally used.)
(On the telephone) Hello. This is Roger. Can I speak to Amelia;
please?. (US: Can I speak with . . .?}

2 There is not a completely clear difference between speak and talk.

Generally, speak is more formal, not so conversational (just as a
speech is more formal than a talk}. Compare:
Can I talk to you for a few minutes about the football match?
I’ll have to speak to that child - he’s getting very lazy.
Can the baby talk yet?
3 Talk usually suggests the idea of a conversational exchange. Speak
can be used to refer to the use of language by just one person.
Compare:
His throat disease has left him unable to speak.
After she had read out the letter, there was a shocked silence.
Nobody spoke.
After the lecture, coffee was served and people began to talk to
one another.
4 Speak (and not usually talk} is used to refer to knowledge of
languages, and usually also to the use of languages.
He speaks three languages fluently.
Those people over there are speaking (or talking} German.
spelling 568

5 Talk (and not usually speak) is used in expressions like talk non­
sense, talk rubbish.

spelling: doubling of final consonants 568

Many English words change their spelling before the endings -ed,
-ing and -er, -est. Words ending in a consonant may double it (eg
stop, stopping). The rules are as follows:

1 A consonant is only doubled at the end of a word. Compare:

hop, hopping BUT hope, hoping
fat, fatter BUT late, later
plan, planned BUT phone, phoned

2 Doubling only happens when there is one consonant after one

vowel-letter. Compare:
fat, fatter BUT fast, faster (not *fastter)
bet, betting BUT beat, beating (not *beatting)

3 In words of more than one syllable, the final consonant is only

doubled if it is in a stressed syllable. Compare:
up'set, up'setting BUT 'visit, 'visiting
be'gin, be'ginning BUT 'open, 'opening
refer, referring BUT 'offer, 'offering
'galloping, 'galloped NOT *'gallopping, *'gallopped
developing, de'veloped NOT *de'velopping, *de'velopped
'benefiting, 'benefited NOT *'benefiting, *'benefitted

4 In British English, final -I is doubled (after one vowel) even if the

syllable is not stressed.
'travel, 'travelled 'equal, 'equalled
In American English, final -I is only usually doubled if the syllable is
stressed. Compare:
re'bel, rebelled 'travel, 'traveled

5 Final -c is changed to -ck before -ed, -ing, -er.

picnic, picnickers

6 The reason for doubling is to show that the vowel has a short
sound. This is because a stressed vowel before one consonant
usually has a long sound in the middle of a word. Compare:
hoping /’haupnj/ hopping /'hopuj/
later /'leita(r)/ latter /'laeta(r)/
dining /'dainnj/ dinner /'dina(r)/
 570 spelling

spelling: y and i 569

Final -y usually changes to -i- if something is added to a word
(eg -ed, -er, -est, -able, -ment, -ness, -ly, -ous, -age).
hurry, hurried easy, easier rely, reliable
merry, merriment busy, business happy, happily
fury, furious marry, marriage
Nouns/verbs ending in -y have plural/third-person forms in -ies.
story, stories hurry, hurries spy, spies

2 This change does not happen before endings beginning with -i- (e g
-ing, -ish, -ize, -ism).
try, trying study, studying baby, babyish
Tory, Toryism

3 This change does not happen if the -y comes after a vowel-letter.

buy, buying play, played enjoy, enjoyment
grey, greyish
Exceptions:
say, said lay, laid pay, paid

4 Final -ie changes to -y- before -ing.

die, dying lie, lying

spelling: final -e 570

1 When something is added to a word ending in -e, the -e is normally
dropped before a vowel.
hope, hoping make, making note, notable
fame, famous
This does not happen with words ending in -ee.
see, seeing agree, agreeable
Exceptions: like, likeable/likable mile, mileage/milage

2 With words ending in -ge and -ce, the -e is not dropped before a or
o.
courage, courageous replace, replaceable

3 Final -e is not normally dropped before a consonant.

excite, excitement hope, hopeful nice, nicely
Exceptions: words ending in -ue.
due, duly true, truly argue, argument
Judgement can be written with or without -e.
spelling 571
spelling: adverb formation S’71
1 We often change an adjective into an adverb by adding -ly. When
this happens, the adjective does not usually change its spelling.
late, lately right, rightly glad, gladly
hopeful, hopefully real, really medical, medically
definite, definitely complete, completely
Note that final -e is not dropped {completely, not *completly'), and
that if the adjective ends in -I, the adverb will have -ll- (real, really
not *realy).

2 Final -y changes to -i- before -ly.

happy, happily easy, easily dry, drily

3 If an adjective ends in -le, the adverb has -ly instead of *-lelv.

noble, nobly idle, idly

4 If an adjective ends in -ic, the adverb ends in -ically

tragic, tragically domestic, domestically

5 Exceptions: truly, duly, wholly, fully, shyly, slyly, publicly.

spelling: ch and tch, k and ck 572

1 After a single vowel, at the end of a word, we usually write-ck and
-tch for the sounds/k/and /tj/.
back neck sick lock stuck
catch fetch stitch botch hutch
Exceptions: rich, which, such, much, detach, attach, yak.

2 After a consonant or after two vowel-letters, we write-k and-ch for

the same sounds.
bank, wofk, talk break, book, soak
march, bench, belch, peach, brooch, coach

spelling: ie and ei 573

The combination ei is not a common way to spell the sound /i:/. We
normally write ie, except after c. (English children learn the rhyme
'i before e, except after c’.)
believe chief field grief
ceiling deceive receive receipt
 575 spelling
Exception: seize
Note that the spelling ei usually stands for the sound /ei/. For
example:
beige deign rein reign veil
Exception: foreign /Toran/

spelling: -ise and -ize 574

In British English, most words ending in -ise can also be spelt with
ize.
mechanise/mechanize computerise/computerize
realise/realize
Exceptions are words in two syllables (egsurprise), and advertise.
In American English, only -ize is used.
Note also analyse (GB); analyze (US).
For more information about differences between British and
American spelling, see i 2.0.

spelling: capital letters 575

1 The days of the week, and the months, are written with capital
letters at the beginning (but not usually the seasons).
Sunday Tuesday March September
BUT summer autumn

2 Capital letters are used for the names of the planets (but not the
earth, the sun or the moon).
Jupiter Venus Mars

3 Capital letters are used for ‘nationality’ words (nouns or adjec­

tives).
He’s Russian. I speak Russian. Russian history.

4 The words north, east, south and west are written with capital
letters when they are used in place names.
The Far East The West End North Africa
(of London)

5 The names of professions have capital letters when they are used as
titles. Compare:
He’s a professor. He’s just been promoted colonel.
Where’s Professor Jones? There’s Colonel Sanders.
spelling 576

spelling: hyphens 576

1 A hyphen /'haifn/ is the short line (-) that is put between two words
in an expression like book-shop or ex-husband.
The rules about when to use hyphens are not very clear. If you are
not sure whether to put one in a particular expression, it is safest to
leave it out.
The following points may help:
a Hyphens are common in compound adjectives like broken-hearted,
blue-eyed, heart-broken (made with -ed or a past participle).
b "When a group of words is used as an adjective before a noun,
hyphens are often used. Compare:
He’s out of work an out-of-work lorry-driver
It cost ten pounds a ten-pound note
C In many cases, there is a connection between spelling and pronun­
ciation. Words which are put together (with a hyphen or as one
word) usually have the main stress 1 (spoken with the strongest
force) on the first word; expressions which are written separately
usually have the main stress on the second part. Compare:
book-case /'bok keis/ make-up /'meik Ap/
paper bag /pel pa 'baeg/ to make up /meik 'Ap/

2 Hyphens are also used to divide words at the ends of lines.

... is not the policy of the present govern­
ment, which was voted into power with a clear mandate to . . .

spelling: full stops with abbreviations 577

A full stop (called a ‘period’ in American English) is the dot that
comes at the end of a sentence. It is also often used after an
abbreviated word, and after an initial letter that stands for a word
or name.
Mr. Lewis < Ms. Johnson T. S. Eliot
etc. e.g. U.S.A.
S.E. Asia
In modern English (especially British English), abbreviations are
often written without full stops.
Mr Lewis Ms Johnson T S Eliot
etc eg USA
S E Asia
Full stops are not usually written in a group of initial letters that is
pronounced like a word (like NATO or UNO); see i.
 578 spelling

spelling and pronunciation: silent letters 578

1 -stle and-sten are pronounced /si/ and/sn/at the end of a word (the
t is silent).
whistle /'wisl/ castle/'ka:sl/ listen/'ksn/
fasten /'fa:sn/
-gn is pronounced /n/ at the beginning or end of a word (the g is
silent).
sigrc/sam/ foreign /Toran/ champagne /Jtem'pem/
gnome /naum/
(BUT gnu /nju:/)
-mb and -mn are pronounced /m/ at the end of a word.
climb /klann/ comb /kaom/ dumb /dAm/
hymn /him/ autumn /'o:tam/
kn- is pronounced /n/ at the beginning of a word.
know /nau/ knife /naif/
ps-,pn- and pt- are pronounced /s/ , /n/ and /t/ at the beginning of
a word (the p is silent).
psychology /sai'koladji/ pneumatic /nju.-'maetik/
pterodactyl /.tera'daektl/ ptomaine /'taomein/
wh- is pronounced /h/ before o at the beginning of a word.
who /hu:/ whos'e /hu:z/ whole/haol/
In other cases, wh- is pronounced /w/ at the beginning of a word.
where/wea(r)/ what /wot/ whiplwpl
Some people pronounce these words with /hw/, an ‘unvoiced w\
like hw, especially in the north of England, in Scotland, and in
many parts of the United States.
where /hwea(r)/
wr- is pronounced/r/at the beginning of a word.
wrap /raep/ write /rait/

2 In British English, r is not pronounced before a consonant.

board /ba:d/ turn /ta:n/
In British English, r is only pronounced at the end of a word when
the next word begins with a vowel sound and follows without a
pause.
ear /ia(r)/ mother/'mAda(r)/
ear-ache /'iar eik/ mother-in-law/'mAdar in la:/
The verb ending -ered is pronounced /ad/.
wondered /'wAndad/ bothered /'bodad/
still 579

The ending -re is pronounced /a(r)/.

theatre /'Oiata(r)/ centre /’senta(r)/ fire /'faia(r)/
In the word iron /'aian/, the r is silent.
In American English, r is pronounced in all positions in a word (see
i xo).

3 Some other common words with silent letters:

silent /: • calm /ko:m/ chalk /tjo:k/ could /kud/
half /ha:f/ palm /pa:m/ salmon /'sseman/
should /Jod/ talk /to:k/ walk/w.k/
would /wud/
silent h: honest /'onist/ honour /’ona(r)/ hour /'aua(r)/
heir /ea(r)/
silent d: handkerchief ''hasrjkatfif/ sandwich/'saenwids/
Wednesday /'wenzdi/
silent t: Christmas /'knsmas/ often /'ofan/ soften/'sofan/
silent p: cupboard /'k^bad/
silent c: muscle /'mAsl/

still, yet and already 579

1 Still, yet and already can all be used to talk about actions and events
that are going on around the present. (For the difference between
these words and ever, see zn.) Briefly,°still is used to say that
something is continuing, and has not stoppedlayeFis used .to. ta.lk
about something that is expected; ^already is used to.say that—
something KaThappened early, or earlier than it might have hap­
pened. —

2 Still is usually put with the verb, in ‘mid-ppsition’ (see 14). It is used
to talk about the continuation of a situation or action that started in
the past, especially when we are expecting it to stop some time
soon, or we are surprised that it has not stopped. Still is most
common in affirmative sentences, but is also possible in questions
and negatives.
Oh, hell, it's still raining.
Your arguments are very interesting, but I still think you’re
wrong.
I’ve been thinking for hours, but I still cant decide.
Are you still here? I thought you’d gone ages ago.
 579 still

3 Yez is usually put at the end of the sentence. It is used to talk about
things that are expected to happen, and is only used in questions
and negative sentences. If we ask about the expected event, we say
Has it happened yet? If it has not, we say Not yet. (Once it has
happened, yet is not used; we either just say that it has happened, or
use already if it happened earlier than expected.)
Has the postman come yet?
Is Robert back yet?
I’ve started learning Greek, but I haven’t got very far yet.
Don’t eat the pears — they aren’t ripe yet.
In a more formal style, yet can be put immediately after not.
The pears are not yet ripe.

4 Already is usually put with the verb, in ‘mid-position’ (see Z4). It

can also be put at the end of the sentence, for emphasis (eg Have
you finished already?). Note that already cannot be put together
with an adverb (or adverb phrase) of time.
Typical mistake: "Already on my fourteenth birthday I knew what
I wanted to do with my life. (Correct form: On
my fourteenth birthday I already knew what. . .)
Already is used to suggest that something has happened earlier than
expected, or earlier than it might have happened. It makes a con­
trast with not yet. Compare:
He hasn’t finished yet.
He’s finished. (No emphasis)
He’s already finished. (Sooner than expected)
He’s finished already! (Emphasizing surprise)

5 Already and yet can both be used in questions, but they do not
mean quite the same. Compare:
Have you met Professor Hawkins yet?
Have you already met Professor Hawkins?
The first question is open - it just asks for information. The second
one suggests that the answer ‘yes’ is expected; the person spoken to
probably has met Professor Hawkins. This question means You’ve
met Professor Hawkins, I suppose?
Questions with already are often not real questions, but expres­
sions of surprise. Compare:
Is my coat dry yet? Is my coat dry already? That’s quick!

6 When yet and already are used to talk about whether or not an
event has happened, they are used with the present perfect in British
English (see examples above). The past simple is common in
American English (see 495.4).
subjunctive 580

Did you call Annie yet? (GB: Have you called . . . ?)

I already told you. (GB: I’ve already told you.)

7 Still, yet and already can also be used to talk about actions and
events that were going on, or are expected, around a particular past
or future time.
I still couldn’t decide, so I asked George what he thought.
The sun wasn’t up yet, and it was bitterly cold.
I already knew what I wanted.
Will you still love me when I’m old and grey?
It’s no good arriving on the zoth; they won’t be there yet.
This time tomorrow I shall already be in America.

8 Still and yet can have other meanings (for example, with compara­
tives they mean ‘even’). For details, see the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.

subjunctive 580
1 The subjunctive is the name of a special group of verb-forms (eg/
were, she be, he return) which are used in a few cases to talk about
events which are not certain to happen - which we hope will
happen, or imagine might happen, or want to happen.
If I were rich I wouldn’t work at all.
It is vital that she be warned before it is too late.
The judge recommended that he not be released for at least three
years.
The subjunctive is not very common in modern British English, and
is used mostly in formal style. Ideas of this kind are usually expres­
sed in other ways.

2 The forms of the subjunctive are as follows:

a to be
present tense: I be, you be, he be, we'be, they be
past tense: I were, you were, he were, we were, they were
b other verbs
all present and past subjunctive forms are the same as the infinitive:
eg/ go, you go, he go, etc

3 The subjunctive form were is often used instead otwas afterif,as if,
and I wish. (It can also be used afterwords like suppose, when they
have a similar meaning to if.) Was is also possible in these cases, and
is more common in conversational English.
/ wouldn’t mind if he weren’t so rude. (Or:. .. if he wasn’t. . .)
/ wish It were Tuesday today. (Or: / wish it was .. .)
 580 subjunctive
I
There is a special form of conditional sentence in which the sub­
junctive were is used with an infinitive (see 307.3), and this is
sometimes inverted in a literary style (see 307.6). Was is not possi­
ble here.
If he were to tell us everything, we could try to solve his problem.
(Or: Were he to tell us everything, .. .)
In the expression If I were you, were is almost always used instead
of was. (For more information about this expression, see 553.)
J should be a bit more careful If I were you.
Were is always used in the expression as it were (meaning the same
as so to speak).
He’s a sort of Japanese Marlon Brando, as It were.

4 Other subjunctives are used in certain cases where we say that

something should be done. This happens especially in two struc­
tures:
1 after the verbs order, command, insist, demand, request, ask,
recommend, propose, suggest, and other verbs with similar mean­
ings, followed by that-,
2. in the construction it is important/vital/essential/neces-
sary/desirable that. . . (other adjectives with similar meanings can
also be used in this structure).
The subjunctive is the same whether the sentence is present or past.
We insist that a meeting be held as soon as possible.
The committee recommended that the company invest in new
property.
It is essential that every child have the same educational oppor­
tunities.
He said it was important that every member send his subscription
by the end of the month.
In British English, these structures are unusual. Instead -of the
subjunctive, we more often use should + infinitive.
We insist that a meeting should be held as soon as possible.
The committee recommended that the company should invest in
new property.
And in conversational English, other structures would probably be
used (eg . . . recommended the company to invest. . .).
For information about the should-structure, see 55Z.
In American English, these subjunctive structures are quite com­
mon in a formal style, but in informal conversation Americans
would probably also find different ways of expressing the ideas.

5 There are some fixed expressions containing subjunctives. The

commonest are: God save the King/Queen; Long live . . .; Be that
as it may, . Heaven forbid.
substitution 581

6 In very formal language (e g legal documents), be is sometimes used

after if and whatever.
If any person be found guilty . . .
. .. whatever be the reason . . .

substitution 581
1 We often avoid repeating a word or expression that has been used
before. In many cases, we can use a substitute word (or ‘pro-form’)
with a more general meaning (eg a pronoun).
Mr Smith went home because he was tired. (Not:*. . .because Mr
Smith was tired.)
‘The grass looks nice.’ - ‘The flowers do too.’ (Instead of: ‘The
flowers look nice too.’)
‘Is there a telephone anywhere?’ — ‘Here’s one.’ (Instead of:
‘Here’s a telephone.’)
Substitute words are also used when the meaning is so clear that a
more precise word is unnecessary.
Look at that! Isn’t she beautiful?
In some cases, we can simply leave out a word or expression; a
substitute word is unnecessary.
a knife and (a) fork
a job with good pay and (good) conditions
‘Are you going away this weekend?’ — ‘We hope to (go away).’
For details of structures like this (‘ellipsis’), see 196—199.

2 Substitute words for nouns or noun phrases (determiner + adjec­

tive + noun) are called pronouns. There are several different kinds
of pronoun.
a Personal pronouns (I, me, he, it, us, etc) are used instead of names
or nouns when it is clear who or what is meant. For details, see 474.
Mr Smith went home because he was tired.
Give it to me, please. (The listener knows what ‘it’ refers to and
who ‘me’ is.)
b The possessives my, your, etc are used instead of genitives (John’s,
my mother’s, etc) when it is unnecessary to name the ‘possessor’.
That’s my coat.
There’s Mary with her boyfriend. (Not: *. . . with Mary’s boy­
friend. )
The possessive pronouns mine, yours, etc are used instead of my,
your, etc + noun.
‘Whose is that coat?’ — ‘It’s mine.’ (Instead of: ‘It’s my coat.’)
For details of possessive words, see 480.
 581 substitution

C Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) replace nouns

and noun phrases as the subjects or objects of relative clauses. For
details, see 52.5.
There’s the man who fell offhis bicycle yesterday. (Insteadof:. . .
the man. The man fell off. . .)
d Interrogative pronouns (who, whom, whose, what, which) take the
place of unknown subjects and objects in questions.
Who said that? What happened?
e One can be used as a pronoun to replace a countable noun. For
details, see 441.
‘What kind of ice-cream would you like?’ — ‘A big pink one.’
For the indefinite personal pronoun one (e g One should always try
to help people), see 440.
f Demonstrative words can be used as pronouns, with no following
noun. For details, see 603, 441.3.
Can I look at that? Listen to this.
9 Most other determiners can be used as pronouns, with no following
noun. For details, see 171.
‘Which one would you like?’ — ‘I’ll take both.’
‘We need cigarettes.’ — ‘I’ve got some.’
h Genitives can be used as pronouns. For details, see 263.
I’ll take your car, and you take Andrew’s.

3 There and then (andhere andwow) are used as substitute words for
adverb expressions of place and time.
‘Let’s meet at the Ritz.’ — ‘OK. See you there.’ (Instead of: ‘See
you at the Ritz.’)
‘I started military service in 1954.’ — ‘How old were you then?’
The expressions like this/that, this/that way, for this/that reason
can act as substitutes for adverb expressions of manner or reason.
Where, when, how and why are used in questions as substitutes for
unknown expressions of place, time, manner and reason.

4 Do is used as a substitute for other verbs. For details, see 175.

‘Philip drinks.’ - ‘His wife does, too.’ (Instead of: ‘His wife
drinks, too.’
Do may replace not just the verb alone, but also other parts of the
sentence after the verb.
7 like Stravinsky very much.’ - ‘I do too.’ (Instead of: 7 like
Stravinsky very much too.’)
In some cases, do can be followed by so. For details, see 181.
He asked me to stop the car, and I did so at once. (Instead of:. . .
I stopped the car at once.)
such 582

Instead of repeating a verb phrase (+ object, adverbs, etc), we often

just repeat the auxiliary verb, or we repeat the to of an infinitive.
‘Have a good time.’ — 7 will (have a good time).’
Try to do some swimming.’ — ‘I’d like to (try to do some
swimming).’
These structures are really examples of ellipsis, not substitution.
For details, see 196-199.

5 So is used as a substitute for a tfcat-clause after certain verbs (e g

think, hope,suppose, believe, expect. Not is used as a substitute for
a negative that-clause. For details, see 558.
‘Have we got enough money?’ — 7 think so.’ (Instead of: 7
think that we have got enough money.’)
‘We’re not going to be in time.’ — ‘No, I suppose not.’
So can also replace a t/;at-clause after say in certain cases. For
details, see 559.
‘You’re in big trouble.’ — ‘Who says so?’
So and not can also replace clauses after if. (See 308.)
Are you free this evening? If so, come and have a drink with us.
(Instead of: If you are free this evening, come . . .)
I may come tonight. If not, I’ll try to manage tomorrow.

such and like this/that 582

Typical mistake: “Would you like to have such a car?
In modern English, such is normally used to emphasize. It is most
often used before adjective +noun,-to emphasize the meaning of
the adjective.
It's such a nice day!
Such can be used before a noun with no adjective, but this is only
when the noun has a ‘gradable’ meaning that can be emphasized
(like excitement, fun, fool, mess, nuisance). In these cases, such
means ‘such (a) great’, or ‘such (a) big’, or ‘such (a) good’, or ‘such
(a) terrible’, or something similar (depending on the noun).
We had such fun.
The concert was such a triumph.
I've got such a headache.
They’re such fools!
When we want to compare things, we can use like this/that or
this/that sort of.
Would you like to have a car like that?
I don’t like this sort of music. (Not: *. . . such music.)
 583 such

such and so 583

1 Typical mistakes: *How do you manage to speak to her with so
great patience?
*1 am happy to visit your so beautiful country.
*I’ve never met a so delightful person.
Such (a) is used before nouns (with or without adjectives; see 582).
So is used before adjectives (without nouns). Compare:
She’s such a fool. She’s so stupid.
How do you manage to speak to her with such patience?
You’re so patient with her.
I’ve never met such a delightful person.
I’ve never met anybody who was so delightful.
Such is not used when the noun has a definite article, demonstrative
adjective or possessive adjective. Combinations like *your such
beautiful country or “the such lovely weather are impossible. These
ideas cannot be expressed with so, either (because so is not used
before a noun), and it is usually necessary to make two separate
clauses.
I'm happy to visit your country - it’s so beautiful.
There is a special structure so + adjective +a(n) + noun. This is
rather literary. See 18.
I had never before met so gentle a person.

2 Expressions with so and such can be followed by that-clauses.

(These are sometimes called result-clauses; or consequence­
clauses.)
It was so cold that we had to stop the game.
She made such a good meal that we all ate far too much.
There was so much to do that nobody ever got bored.
There is also a structure with so followed by adjective + as +
to-infinitive.
Would you be so kind as to wake me at 6 o’clock?
This structure is rather formal, and not often used.

3 Note the expressions such-and-such, so-and-so, so-so.

When you’re studying diagnosis, you learn that such-and-such a
symptom (=one or other symptom) corresponds to such-
and-such an Illness.
What’s happened to old so-and-so (= what’s-his-name?), who
you used to play chess with?
She’s an old so-and-so. (Replacing a swearword or insult.)
‘How are you feeling?’ — ‘So-so.’ (=not too well.)
‘Was the concert any good?’ — ‘So-so.’
suggest 584

suggest 584
Typical mistake: *My uncle suggested me to get a job in a bank.
Suggest is not used with an object + infinitive structure. It can be
followed by an -ing form or a that-c\ause.
My uncle suggested (my) getting a job in a bank.
My uncle suggested that I (should) get a job in a bank.
For the use of subjunctives and should-structures with verbs like
suggest, see 552 and 580.

suppose /sa'pauz/ and what if 585

Suppose and what if are both used to introduce sentences contain­
ing suggestions. The verb can be present or past; a past verb makes
the suggestion sound less definite.
‘I haven’t got a table-cloth.’ - ’Suppose we use a sheet?’
What if we invite your mother next week and go away the week
after?
‘Daddy, can I watch TV?’ - ‘Suppose you did your homework
first?’
What if I came tomorrow instead of this afternoon?

These expressions can also be used to talk about fears.

‘Let’s go swimming.’ — ‘Suppose there are sharks?’
‘I’m going to climb up. there.’ — ‘No! What if you slipped?’
In sentences about the past, the past perfect is used to talk about
things that did not happen.
That was very clever, but what If you had slipped?

supposed to /sapausta/ 586

Be supposed (o has a meaning rather like should. It is used to talk
about what people have to do according to the rules or the law, or
about what is expected to happen.
You're supposed to start work at 8.30 every morning.
Catholics are supposed to go to church on Sundays.
Lucy was supposed to come to lunch. What’s happened?
There is often an idea of contrast between ‘what is supposed to
happen’ and ‘what actually happens’ (as in the last example).
Cats are supposed to be afraid of dogs, but our Tibby has just
chased Mr Glidewell’s bulldog right down the road.
That’s a lovely picture, but what’s it supposed to be?
Not supposed to often expresses prohibitions.
you’re not supposed to be in there.
 588 sympathetic

People under eighteen aren’t supposed to buy alcoholic drinks.

Note that suppose /sa'pauz/ has a special pronunciation in the
expression supposed to: /sa'paost tu:/, not */sa'paozd tu:/. The
same thing happens with used to (see 614).

surely'fnrh' 587
Surely usually has a very different meaning from certainly. Com­
pare:
That’s certainly a plain-clothes policeman.
Surely that’s a plain-clothes policeman?
Certainly expresses knowledge. In the first sentence, the speaker
knows that he has recognized a policeman in plain clothes, and says
so confidently and definitely.
Surely expresses surprised belief, or difficulty in believing. In the
second sentence, the speaker thinks he has recognized a policeman,
but is very surprised. The sentence is almost a question (Can that
really be a plain-clothes policeman?), and is written with a question
mark. More examples:
Surely that’s Henry over there? I thought he was in Scotland!
‘I’m going to marry Sandra.’ — ‘Surely she’s married already?’
‘Is it tonight we’re going out?’ — ‘No, tomorrow, surely?’
‘Tim failed his exam.’ — ‘Oh, no! Surely not!’
When surely is used with a negative, it often expresses incredulity
(unwillingness to believe something).
Surely you’re not going out in that hat?
You don’t think I’m going to pay for you, surely?
Surely can also be used (especially in American English) to express
willing agreement. (In British English, it is more common to say
certainly or of course.)
‘Could you help me for a moment?’ - ‘Yes, surely.’

sympathetic 588
In modern English, sympathetic is usually used to mean ‘sharing
somebody else’s feelings’.
I feel sympathetic towards the strikers.
It is often used to express the idea of being sorry for, or of comfort­
ing, somebody who is in trouble.
‘I’ve got a headache.’ — ‘A headache’s nothing to complain
about.’ — ‘You might be more sympathetic.’
We do not usually usesympathetic in the sense of‘nice’, ‘pleasant’.
We had a lovely holiday, and we thought the people on the island
were very nice. (Not: *. .. very sympathetic.)
taboo words 589

taboo words and swearwords 589

1 Introduction
Many languages have words which are considered dangerous,
holy, magic or shocking, and which are only used in certain situa­
tions, or by certain people. For instance, in some African tribes the
names of dead chiefs must not be said; in many cultures, words
associated with religious beliefs are used only on religious occa­
sions, or by priests. Words of this kind can be called ‘taboo words’.
English has three groups of taboo words and expressions:
i A number of words connected with the Christian religion (eg
the names Christ, God) are considered holy by some people. These
people prefer to use such words only in formal and respectful
contexts, and they may be shocked by their ‘careless’ use.
z Many words relating to sex (eg fuck, balls) are regarded as
shocking. (Until recently, some of these words could not be
printed.) In polite or formal speech, and in writing, these words are
generally avoided, or replaced by other words and expressions (eg
make love or have sexual intercourse-, testicles).
3 Some words referring to the elimination of body wastes (what
one does in the lavatory) are also regarded as ‘dirty’ or shocking (e g
piss, shit). They are often replaced by more ‘polite’ words and
expressions with the same meaning (e ggo to the lavatory, urinate,
defecate).
Because taboo words are shocking, they are often used in situa­
tions when people want to express powerful emotions by using
‘strong’ language. This is called ‘swearing’. When people swear,
taboo words usually change their meanings completely. For
instance, the literal meaning of fuck is ‘have sexual intercourse
(with)’, and piss means ‘urinate’, but if one tells someone to fuck off
or piss off, the meaning is simply (in a more violent form) ‘go away’.
The strength of the taboo word remains, but the original meaning
disappears.
Linguistic taboos are less strong than they used to be. However,
students should be very careful about using taboo words and
swearwords. There are two reasons for this. First of all, it is not easy
to know the exact strength of these expressions in a foreign lan­
guage, or to know what kind of people are shocked by them, and in
what circumstances. One may easily say something that is meant as
a joke, but which seriously upsets the people one is talking to. And
secondly, swearing generally indicates membership of a group: one
most often swears in front of people one knows well, who belong to
one’s own ‘social circle’, age group, etc. (Children usually avoid
swearing in front of adults, so as not to annoy or shock them, and
adults avoid swearing in front of children for similar reasons.) So if
a foreigner uses swearwords, he may give the impression that he is
claiming membership of a group that he does not belong to.
 589 taboo words

2 Taboo words
The following are the most common taboo words in English. Their
approximate ‘strength’ is shown by stars *** : a one-star word will
not upset many people, while a four- or five-star word may be very
shocking if it is used in the wrong situation. (Note, however, that
not everybody reacts to the same words in the same ways.) The first
six words are associated with religion; these are not shocking when
used with their literal meaning, and the stars show their strength
when used as swearwords. The strength of the other words is
mostly the same whether they are used literally or for swearing.
taboo word meaning
damn* condemn to hell (rare in literal sense;
mainly used as a swearword)
blast* (GB only) strike down with divine punishment
(rare in literal sense; mainly used as a
swearword)
hell*
God**
Jesus***
Christ***
piss*** urine, urinate
crap*** excrement, defecate (same as shit)
arse***(JdS ass) bottom, buttocks; anus
arsehole (US asshole) anus
balls*** testicles
bollocks*** (GB only) testicles
tits*** breasts
bastard*** illegitimate child (rare in literal sense;
mainly used as a swearword)
shit**** excrement, defecate
prick **** penis (man’s sexual organ)
cock **** penis
bugger**** (GB only) have anal sexual intercourse with a
person or animal; person who does so
sod**** (GB only) homosexual (abbreviation of sodo­
mite-, rare in literal sense)
fuck **** have sexual intercourse (with)
screw**** (especially US) have sexual intercourse (with)
come**** reach a sexual climax (orgasm)
wank**** (GB only) masturbate
cunt***** woman’s sexual organs

3 Swearwords
Most of the words in the list above are used in swearing. (In
addition, in British English, there is a swearword that has no
modern taboo meaning- bloody***.) The meaning of a swearword
taboo words 589

is always different from its literal (taboo) meaning — see introduc­

tion above — and often changes with its grammatical form. For
instance, piss off is an aggressive way of saying ‘go away’, pissed is
British slang for ‘drunk’, and pissed off (American pissed) means
‘fed up’. Swearwords are often grammatically very flexible. Bloody
(and several other words) can act both as adjectives and as inten­
sifying adverbs (eg bloody fool, bloody good, bloody soon, it’s
bloody raining, bloody well shut up)-, they are the only words in the
language that can be used in exactly this way.
The following list shows some of the most common expressions
used in swearing; they are grouped according to their meaning.
a exclamation of annoyance
Damn (it)! God damn (it)! (especially US)
Hell! God!
My God! Jesus! Christ!
Jesus Christ! Shit! Fuck (it)!
(GB only):
Blast (it)! Bugger (it)! Sod (it)!
Christ! It’s raining again!
Oh, fuck! I’ve lost the address.
Damn it! Can’t you hurry up?
b exclamation of surprise
God! My God! Jesus!
Christ! Jesus Christ!
God damn! (especially US) Well, I’ll be damned!
(Mainly GB):
Damn me! Bugger me! Sod me!
Fuck me! Well, I’m damned!
Well, I’m buggered! Well, I’ll be buggered!
My God! Look at those tits!
Well, I’m damned! What are you doing here?
Bugger me! There’s Mrs Smith — I thought she was on holiday.
c surprised question
What the hell...? Who/Where/How/Why/When the hell...?
What the fuck...? Who/Where/How/Why/When the fuck...?
What the hell do you think you’re doing?
Where the fuck are the car keys?
d insult (noun)
prick cunt bastard
fucker shit (GB) sod (GB)
bugger (GB) wanker (GB) asshole (US)
 589 taboo words

Yom bastard! He’s a prick! Stupid fucker!

That guy’s a real asshole!
(Note that these words have no real meaning; they simply express
an emotion such as hatred, anger or contempt.)
e insult (imperative verb + object)
Damn . . . Blast. . . (GB) Sod . . . (GB)
Bugger . . . (GB) Fuck . . . Screw . .. (especially US)
Screw the government! Damn that child! Fuck you!
f insulting request to go away
Fuck off! Piss off! Bugger off! (GB) Sod Off! [GB')
‘Can I have a word with you?' — ‘Fuck off!’
g expression of unconcern (= ‘I don’t care’)
I don’t give a damn. I don’t give a shit.
I don’t give a fuck. I don’t give a bugger. (GB)
‘Mary’s very angry with you.’ — ‘I don’t give a fuck.’
h violent refusal
(I’ll be) damned if I will! (I’ll be) fucked if I will!
(I’ll be) buggered if I will! (GB) Stuff it! Get stuffed!
‘Give me a kiss.’ — ‘Get stuffed’
‘Mr Parsons wants you to clean out the lavatories.’ — ‘Fucked If I
will.’
i expression of defiance
Balls! Balls to . . .! Bollocks! (all GB)
‘You’re afraid to fight!’ — ‘Balls!’
Balls to the lot of you — I’m going home!
j intensifying adjective/adverb (used to emphasize an emotion
such as surprise, anger, disappointment, contempt)
damn(ed) goddam (US) blasted (GB) bloody (GB)
sodding (GB) bleeding (GB) fucking
Where’s the bloody switch?
Put the fucking cat out!
It’s bloody raining again.
That car’s going damn(ed) fast.
She’s a fucking marvellous singer.
When these words are used before verbs, the word well is often
added.
It’s bloody well raining again!
I’m not fucking well paying this time.
I damn well hope you never come back!
take 590

k miscellaneous
fuck (up), screw (up) and bugger (up) (GB) can mean ‘ruin’, ‘spoil’
or ‘destroy*.
You’ve buggered my watch!
Somebody’s fucked up the TV.
Fucked and buggered can mean ‘exhausted’ (GB).
‘Want another game of tennis?’ — ‘No, I’m fucked.’
Screw (especially US) can be used to mean ‘cheat’.
Don’t buy a car from that garage — they’ll screw you.
Cock up (GB), balls up (GB), fuck up and screw up can be used (as
verbs) to refer to mistakes of organization.
That bloody secretary’s ballsed up my travel arrangements.
The nouns cock-up, balls-up, fuck-up andscrew-up are used in the
same sense.
Sorry you didn’t get your invitation to the party — Mary made a
balls-up.
The conference was a complete fuck-up.
Balls (GB), bullshit (US) and crap are used to mean ‘nonsense’.
Don’t talk crap!
‘What’s his new book like?’ - ‘A load of balls.’
Bugger all andfuck all are used in British English to mean ‘nothing’.
There’s fuck all in the fridge. We’ll have to eat out.
Pissed means ‘drunk’ in British English, and ‘fed up’ in American
English.
One glass of beer and she’s pissed.
In British English, pissed off means ‘fed up’.
I’m getting pissed off with London.

take with expressions of time 590

Take can be used to say how much time is necessary to do some­
thing. Three different constructions are possible.
1 The subject can be a person.
I took three hours to get home last night.
She takes all day to get out of the bathroom.
Don’t take too long over the gardening: it’s nearly supper-time.

2 The subject can be an activity.

The journey took me three hours.
Painting the kitchen took me all week.
Gardening takes a lot of time.
 592 technique

3 The subject can be ‘preparatory it' (see 349).

It took me three hours to get home last night.
It took her longer than she expected to get a passport.
It takes ages to do the shopping.

taste 591
The verb taste can be used in three ways.

1 We can describe the taste of food, drink etc by using taste +

adjective or taste of + noun. (For other verbs which are used with
adjectives, see 13.1) Progressive tenses are not used (see 502.6).
This tastes delicious. What’s in it?
Her lips tasted of wild strawberries.

2 We can describe our sensations by using taste with a personal

subject. Progressive tenses are not possible; caw is often used. (For
the use of can with see, hear, etc, see 129.)
I think I can taste garlic and mint in the sauce.

3 We can also taste something in order to see whether it is all right, or

to compare it with something else. In this case (for the deliberate
action of tasting), the progressive tenses can be used.
‘Stop eating the cake.’ - ‘I’m just tasting it.’

technique/tek'ni:k/and technology/tek'nolad3i/ 592

Typical mistake: *Because of modern technique, we have a much
higher standard of living.
We use the word technology to mean ‘scientific and industrial
manufacturing processes and skills’.
Because of modern technology, we have a much higher standard
of living.
A technique is a method of doing something.
Barnard developed a new technique in heart surgery.
It can be used for the way an artist or sportsman performs.
He’s not very fast, but he’s got marvellous technique.
Joyce was not the first novelist to use the 'stream of conscious­
ness’ technique.
telling the time 593

telling the time 593

Typical mistakes: *It’s eight past six.
Tt’s fifteen past six.
Tt’s twenty to seven o’clock.
Tt’s five past seventeen.

1 In conversation, the commonest way to tell somebody the time is to

give the minutes first, followed by the preposition past or to, and
then the hour. Fifteen, thirty and forty-five minutes past the hour
are referred to as (a) quarter past, half past, and (a) quarter to the
hour.
Ten past six. It’s twenty-five to three.
It’s about a quarter (not •fifteen} past ten.
Half (not Thirty) past eight.
In American English, after is often used instead of past, and of
instead of to. (Ten after six-, twenty-five of three.)
Note that the word minutes is normally used except with five, ten,
twenty and twenty-five. Compare:
It’s eight minutes past six. Four minutes to nine.
Five (minutes) to two. (Minutes can be left out here.)
O’clock is only used at the hour. Compare:
Wake me at seven o'clock. (Or: Wake me at seven.)
Wake me at twenty to seven. (Not:*.. .twenty to seven o’clock.)
When we tell the time informally in this way, we do not use the
twenty-four hour clock. (It would be very strange to say, for
example, *four minutes past thirteen.) If there is a danger of mis­
understanding, we say, for instance, three o’clock in the morning,
or eight o’clock in the evening-, twelve noon or twelve o’clock at
night.

2 The other way to tell the time is by giving first the hour, and then the
minutes, with no prepositions.
3.17: three seventeen 4.48: four forty-eight
7.01: seven O one (O is pronounced /au/ )
This formula is more common in timetables, official announce­
ments, etc. Here, the twenty-four-hour clock is quite often used.
The train arriving at platform one is the 17.22 for York.
3 If we want to know the time, we usually say either What’s the time?
or What time is it? A common question is Have you got the time?
When we want to compare the time by different watches, we might
say What time do you make it? or I make it six minutes past three.
In questions about the time of events, the preposition at is usually
left out in informal language.
(At) what time does the film start?
 595 tense simplification

tense sequence in past sentences 594

When we are talking about the past, we sometimes use past tenses
even for situations which still exist in the present.
I got this job because I was a good driver.
1 married you because I wanted a wife who could cook.
I wanted to join the police, but I wasn't tall enough.
In cases like these, it is not important that the speaker is still a good
driver, or that he still isn’t tall enough to be a policeman, or that his
wife can still cook. These facts are only interesting in relation to
past events (the moment of getting a job, or getting married, or
trying to join the police), and so we use a past tense to talk about
them. Usually, this kind of‘tense sequence’ happens in subordinate
clauses, but it is also possible in main clauses.
‘Do you remember that Danish family we met in Majorca last
summer? Weren't they nice!’ — "You mean Kirsten and Ole?
They weren’t Danish — they were Norwegian.’
Past tenses are often used in this way in reported speech (see 534).
‘How old are you?’ — ‘I beg your pardon?’ — ‘I asked you how
old you were.’

tense simplification in subordinate clauses 595

1 It is well known that we generally use the present instead of the
future after if and conjunctions of time such as when, as soon as,
after, before, while and until (see 303 and 152).
They’ll be delighted if you go and see them. (Not: *. . .ifyou’ll go
...)
I’ll be home before you are. Ring me when you arrive.
In fact, the rule is much more general than this. We use the present
instead of the future in most subordinate clauses, if the main verb of
the sentence is future (or has a future meaning). The present is used,
in these cases, not only after if and conjunctions of time, but also
after relative pronouns, after as, than, whether, where, and in
reported speech. In other words, if the whole of the sentence is
about the future, one future tense is usually enough to show this.
There’ll be a special price for anybody who orders a suit in the
next two weeks.
The first person who opens that door wilTget a shock.
The man who marries my daughter will need to be tough, fast­
moving, and quick-thinking.
I’ll always do what I think is best for everybody.
She’ll probably be on the same plane as I am tomorrow.
We 'll probably drive faster than you do, so we’ll get there first and
buy the tickets.
tense in subordinate clauses 595

I’ll have a good time whether I win or lose.

I'll go where you go.
If you don’t come to the office tomorrow, I'll come to your
house and find out why you're not at work.
One day the government will really ask people what they want.
Present tenses are also used (instead of future) in subordinate
clauses when the main verb is imperative, or when it is a modal verb
like can used with a future meaning.
Let me know how you are from time to time.
Come back in two weeks and tell me what you think then.
You can drink as much as you like tomorrow, but not tonight.

2 These rules do not apply to co-ordinate clauses (introduced by and,

but, or, so), or to clauses introduced by because, although,since, as
(meaning ‘because’), and so that.
She'll arrive on Sunday and she’ll probably stay till Tuesday.
I won't mind the heat in Greece because I won’t have to move
about much.
In comparative structures, present or future tenses are often both
possible.
She’ll be on the same plane as I am/will.
We’ll probably drive faster than you do/will.

3 If the main verb is present, there is usually no problem about using a

future tense in a subordinate clause. Compare:
i I’ll always know where you are.
I don't know where you’ll be tomorrow.
z If the police stop me I’ll pretend I don’t understand.
I know I won't understand.
Future tenses are possible in both clauses if they refer to different
future times.
(If she rings), I’ll tell her that I'll ring back later.

4 After in case a present tense is normally used with a future meaning

(even if the main verb is present or past). For details, see 316.
I’ve got my tennis things in case we have time for a game.
A present tense often used with a future meaning after I hope and I
bet. For details, see 297 and 251.
I hope you sleep well.
I bet she’s married before the end of the year.
Present tenses are also used after It doesn’t matter, I don’t care, I
don’t mind, It’s not important, and similar expressions.
it doesn’t matter where we go on holiday.
I don’t care what we have for dinner if I don’t have to cook it.
 597 than

5 There are similar rules for conditional sentences. If the main verb is
conditional, verbs in subordinate clauses are past (instead of condi­
tional) after most conjunctions.
If I were rich, I'd give money to anybody who asked for it.
(Not: *... who would ask for it.)
1 would never do anything that went against my conscience.
If we both got the same job, you would earn more than I did
because of your degree.
I would always try to help somebody who was in trouble,
whether I knew him or not.
Would you follow me wherever I went?
In a perfect world, you could say exactly what you thought.

6 In general, we do not use complex verb-forms more often than

necessary. If we say several things about the same situation (and if
we connect these ideas with conjunctions or relative pronouns),
then one future verb-form, or one conditional, is usually enough to
show the exact meaning; the rest of the verbs can be simple present
or past forms. This also happens quite often if the main verb is in
the present perfect or past perfect.
It's been a good time while it (has) lasted.
I’ve usually liked the people that I(’ve) worked with.
For thirty years, he had worked harder than he (had) needed to.
It wasn’t certain why he had crashed, but possibly he had gone to
sleep while he was driving. (Not: *. . . had been driving.)
For cases where a past tense is used with a present or future
meaning, see 470.

than, as and that 596

Typical mistakes: "My sister’s taller as me.
"She’s got longer hair that I have.
Than is used after comparative adjectives and adverbs (see 145).
As and that are not used in comparisons.
My sister’s taller than me.
She’s got longer hair than I have.
For the use of as in ‘comparisons of equality’, see 75.

than (ban/ and then /den/ 597

Typical mistakes: "You make me laugh more then anybody I
know.
"I got into the bath and than the telephone rang.
that 598

After comparative adjectives and adverbs, we use than (see 145).

Yom make me laugh more than anybody I know.
Then is used to mean next, after that, at that time.
I got into the bath and then the telephone rang.

that /dset. Sot/: omission 598

The conjunction that is used in several different ways. In certain
kinds of sentence it can be left out, especially in an informal style.
1 Relative clauses
That can be used as a relative pronoun instead of who (m) or which,
in ‘identifying relative clauses’ (see 52.7).
I’ve had an invitation from the people that live next door.
When that is the object of the verb in the relative clause, it can be
left out.
Look! There’s the family (that) we met in Majorca.
Can I have the records (that) I lent you?
That (meaning ‘in which’) can also be left out after way (meaning
‘manner’).
Do it the way I showed you.

2 Reported speech
That is used to introduce reported speech clauses. After the more
common reporting verbs, that can be left out.
fames said (that) he was feeling better.
I suggested (that) we should go home.
After more formal and less common verbs, that cannot be left out.
He replied that he disagreed.
The manager objected that it was impossible.
3 That after adjectives
That can be used to introduce clauses after some adjectives — for
instance, adjectives which express personal reactions to events, or
which suggest the idea of importance or urgency. In an informal
style, that can be left out after some of the more common adjectives.
I’m glad (that) you’re all right.
We were surprised (that) she came.
I’m anxious (that) he shouldn’t find out.
It's obvious (that) they’re happy together.
It’s funny (that) she should do a thing like that.
It is essential (that) they should be told at once.
 600 there is

4 So that, so . . . that; such . .. that

That is sometimes left out in structures with so and such.
I came to see you so (that) you would know the whole truth.
She had so many children (that) she didn’t know what to do.
I was having such a. nice time (that) I didn’t want to leave.

there: /3ea(r)/ and /3a(r)/ 599

The spelling there is used for two different words, with different
pronunciations and meanings.

1 There /dea(r)/ is an adverb meaning in that place.

What’s that green thing over there:
For the difference between here and there, see 290.

2 There /3a(r)/ is used as an introductory subject in sentences

beginning there is, there are, there seems, there might be, etc.
There’s a big black cat in the bathroom.
There seems to be a problem.
For details of the use and pronunciation of this word, see 600.

there is /dear iz, Sanz/ 600

Typical mistakes: M hole is in my tights.
*lce is on the lake.
*No children are in this house.
*1 don’t know how many people there is for
lunch.
*There has a man at the door.

1 When we tell people that something exists (or does not exist), we
usually begin the sentence with there is, there are, etc, and put the
real subject after the verb. (Note the pronunciation oithere-. usually
/da(r)/ , not /3ea(r)/. There are is used with plural subjects.
There’s a hole in my tights.
There's ice on the lake.
There are no children in this house.
I don’t know how many people there are for lunch.
There can be used in this way with all simple tenses of be.
Once upon a time there were three wicked brothers.
There has never been anybody like you.
There will be snow on high ground.
It can also be used in question-tags (see 515).
There'll be enough for everybody, won’t there?
there is 600

Note the expressions There is no sense in -ing, There is no point in

-ing, There is no use (in) -ing and There is no need to ... .
(Questions with any are also possible.)
There's no sense in making him angry.
There’s no point in talking about it again.
Do you think there's any point in trying?
There's no use trying to explain (Also: It’s no use . . see 3 51.)
There’s no need to hurry — we’ve got plenty of time.

2 There can be used in more complex structures with the verb to be. It
is common with modal verbs (e g there might be), with appear and
seem (eg there seem(s) to be), with the infinitive to be, and with
being.
There might be drinks if you wait a bit.
There appear to be several reasons for changing our plans. (Not:
"There appears to be . . .)
If the police hadn’t reacted quickly, there could have been a bad
accident.
I don’t want there to be any more trouble.
I’d like there to be a swimming-pool in the garden.
What’s the chance of there being an election this year?

3 We can also use there + be + noun + participle, instead of using

structures with be as an auxiliary verb.
There was a girl water-skiing on the lake. (Or: A girl was water­
skiing . . .)
There have been more Americans killed in road accidents than in
all the wars since 1900. (Or: More Americans have been killed
...)
4 Some other verbs can be used with there, besides to be. These are
verbs which express a state (like live, exist, remain), or which are
used to describe the arrival of something or somebody (like come,
arise, appear, enter, follow). These verbs are used with there most
often in a literary or formal style.
In a small town in Germany, there once lived a rich merchant
who had a beautiful daughter.
There remains nothing more to be done.
Suddenly there entered a strange figure dressed all in black.
There followed an uncomfortable silence.
Other verbs (for instance, verbs which refer to actions) cannot be
used with there. We couldn’t say "There sneezed a man or "One
night there broke out a fire.

5 When the subject of a sentence is some, any, no, somebody, any­

body, nobody, something, anything or nothing, the sentence is
often introduced with there is.
 602 think

There are some people outside.

There were no footsteps to be seen.
Is there anybody at home?
There's something worrying me.
/s there anything in the fridge?
Note the use of wrong and the matter with something, anything
and nothing.
There’s something wrong. Is there anything the matter?
There’s nothing wrong (or the matter) with her.
These expressions can also be used without there is.
Something’s wrong. Is anything the matter?
Nothing's wrong (or the matter) with her.

6 When a sentence has a ‘definite’ subject (for instance, a noun with a

definite article, or a proper name), there is is not normally used.
The door was open. (Not: There was the door open.)
James was at the party. (Not: There was James at the party.)
The exception to this is whence has a subject, but no complement.
"Who can we ask?’ — ‘There's James, or Miranda, or Annie.’
(Not: *James is, . . .)

there are 'dear a:(r). dora(r)/: counting 601

There are is very often used in sentences which say how many
people or things a group contains.
There are seven ofus in my family. (We are seven. . .'is possible.)
‘How many guests were there?’ - There were eight of them.’
The garden’s full of sheep. There are at least twenty of them.

think 602
Typical mistakes: */'m not thinking much of his latest book.
"What do you think about now?
’/ think to go to university next year.
*1 was thinking if I could do anything to help.

1 Think is not used in progressive tenses when we talk about opin­

ions, or announce decisions.
I don’t think much of his latest book.
Do you think that Labour will win the election?
I think I’ll go to bed now.
When think is used in other ways (for example, to talk about plans,
or about the ideas and ‘pictures’ that go through one’s head),
progressive tenses are possible.
this 603

What are you thinking about now?

I’m thinking of going to university next year.

2 Think is not normally used with an infinitive structure (but see

below).
I’m thinking of studying medicine. (Not: * . . to study . . .)
An infinitive is possible in a passive structure.
She was thought to be a terrorist.

3 Think can introduce questions in direct speech, but not in reported

speech (see 533). Compare:
I thought, ‘Can I do anything to help?’
I was wondering if I could do anything to help. (Not: *1 was
thinking if. . .)

4 After verbs like think, consider, find, the pronoun it can be used as a
‘preparatory object’. This happens when the real object is a clause
or an infinitive, and there is an object complement. (For details of
this use of it, see 350.)
I think it strange that she should have nothing to say.

5 1 had thought can be used to suggest that one was mistaken, or that
one is disappointed.
/ had thought that we were going to be invited to dinner.
I should think and I should have thought can introduce guesses.
I should think we’ll need at least twelve bottles of wine.
I should have thought we could expect about forty people.
I should have thought can also introduce criticisms.
I should have thought he could have washed his hands, at least.

6 If think is use& to introduce a negative idea, we almost always put

the negative particle not with think. (See 40Z.)
I don’t think it will rain.
The opposite of I think so is normally I don’t think so. I think not is
possible, but not nearly so common.
For the use of think, suppose, hope, etc with so and not, see 558.

this and that 603

1 Typical mistakes: “Sometimes I wonder what I’m doing in that
country.
“Have you heard from this Scottish boy you used
to go out with?
 603 this

There is an important difference between this and that. This is used

for people and things which are physically close to the speaker, and
for situations that one is in at the moment of speaking. That is used
for people, things and situations which are more distant (in space or
time). This is related to here-, that is related to there.
Sometimes I wonder what I’m doing in this country.
This is really delicious - how do you make it?
Get this cat off my shoulder.
Have you heard from that Scottish boy you used to go out with?
That smells nice — is it for lunch?
Get that cat off the piano.
Notice the difference between the second and fifth examples. The
speaker uses this to talk about food he is eating; but if he just walks
into the kitchen and smells it, he says that (because he is not so close
or so involved with it).
That is used to talk about finished actions, situations, etc. This is
used to talk about things that are just going to happen. Compare:
That was nice.
This will be interesting.
Who said that?
Listen to this.
On the telephone, British people use this to introduce themselves,
and that to ask who the other person is.
Hello. This is Elizabeth. Is that Ruth?
Americans often use this in both cases.
Who is this speaking? (GB: Who is that. . .?)
Note the special use of this (with no demonstrative meaning) in
conversational story-telling.
There was this Scotsman, you see. And he wanted . . .
For the use of these and those with singular sort of and kind of, see
565.
2 When this and that are used as pronouns (without nouns), they are
normally only used for things.
Put that down.
This costs more than that.
But not:
*Tell that to go away.
*This says he’s tired.
However, the pronouns this and that can be used for people in
sentences which identify the people (say who they are).
Hello. This is Elizabeth. Is that Ruth?
That looks like Mrs Walker.
 this 604

It can also be used for people in sentences like these; see 474-5- F°r
the expression that of, see 441.5.

this and that meaning so 604

In an informal style, this and that are often used with adjectives and
adverbs in the same way as so (see 583).
I didn’t realize it was going to be this hot.
If your boy-friend's that clever, why isn’t he rich?
Not all that can be used to mean ‘not very’.
‘How tuas the play?’ — ‘Not all that good.’
This structure cannot normally be used with a following clause.
(We could not say *It was that cold that I couldn’t feel my fingers.)

time, tense, aspect and modality 605

1 Time and tense
In English, we use different verb-forms to show differences in time.
Compare:
I know her very well. I knew her very well.
The verb-forms which show differences in time are called tenses.
Tenses are formed either by changing the verb (eg know, knew;
work, worked), or by adding auxiliary verbs (eg will know; had
worked). ' ------
Most tenses have more than one use. For instance, the ‘simple past’
tense {knew, worked) does not always have a past meaning. It can
refer to the present or future in certain kinds of sentence (see 470).
If I knew now I would tell you.
If you worked for six hours tomorrow you could have Saturday
free.
And the ‘present simple’ can refer to the past, the present, the
future, or to ‘general time’, depending on the kind of sentence.
Compare:
RUSSIANS LAND ON MOON (newspaper headline)
I like this film.
I hope he comes soon.
Light travels at 186,000 miles a second.
2 Aspect
Changes in verb-forms can express other ideas besides differences
of time. For instance, the ‘perfect’ verb-forms can be used to stress
the idea of completion (see 494.3).
I’ve finished!
 606 it’s time

By the end of her tour the Queen will have shaken hands with
eight thousand people.
And the ‘present perfect’ often suggests that a past event is still
present in some way (see 495.1).
The Russians have landed on the moon.
‘Progressive’ verb-forms can suggest that an action is in progress at
a certain time, or that it is temporary (see 502).
I’m wondering what to do.
That happened when I was living in Dover.
Changes of this kind are often called changes of aspect: grammars
talk about perfective and progressive aspect. Tense (present, past
and future) can be combined with perfective and/or progressive
aspect.
I’m wondering. (Present progressive)
I was wondering. (Past progressive)
I’ve been wondering. (Present perfect progressive)
I’ll be seeing you. (Future progressive)
When will you have finished? (Future perfect)
The difference between I’m going to see you and I'll see you is also a
difference of aspect, not time. For the meanings of the different
‘future’ structures, see 250-258.
3 Modality
Many auxiliary verbs can express not only differences of time, but
also ideas such as obligation, willingness, possibility or necessity.
This kind of meaning is called ‘modal’ in grammars, and the
auxiliary verbs which express these ideas (eg will, should, must),
are called ‘modal auxiliary verbs’ (see 388).
I will stop smoking! Jane should be here soon.

it’s time 606

It’s time can be followed by an infinitive.
It’s time to buy a new car.
It’s time for you to go to bed.
When we want to say that ‘it’s time’ for somebody else to do
something, we very often use the structure It’s time
+ subject + past-tense verb. (The meaning is present or future, not
past.)
It’s time you went to bed. It’s time she washed that dress.
I’m getting tired - it’s time we went home.
A past verb can be used with a present or future meaning in several
other structures. See 304 (if), 518 (I’d rather), and 632 (I wish).
too 607

too 607
Typical mistake: *It’s very too cold.

1 Too is like more, or comparatives (see 146). It cannot be used after

very, fairly, pretty or quite. To change the strength of an expression
with too, we can use a bit (informal), a little, rather, a lot, much or
far.
The soup’s a bit (or a little} too salty for me.
She’s rather too sure of herself.
It's much (or far) too cold.
Much is not used before too many or too few.
There are far too many people here. (Not:*. . . much too many
■ ■■)
2 Too can be followed by an infinitive structure, and by for. . . to . . .
(see 2.44).
He’s too old to work.
It’s too late for the pubs to be open.
For the structure Too ... a .. . (eg too cold a day), see 1 8.

too and too much 608

Typical mistake: *You are too much kind to me.

Too (without much) is used before an adjective.

You are too kind to me.
Much can be used (before too) to strengthen the meaning (see 607).
You are much too kind to me.
Too much is used before an uncountable noun (in the sense of
‘more than enough (of)’).
I drank too much beer last night.
Too much can also be used without a noun, as a pronoun or an
adverb.
Too much was happening all at once.
You work too much.
Too much is not normally used alone after be, as the complement of
a noun.
There was too much noise. (Not: *The noise was too much.)
For too many, see 393.
 610 unless

travel______________ 60g
Typical mistake: */ hope you had a good travel.

Travel_ >s an uncountable noun (see 163). It means ‘travelling in

general’, and cannot be used with an indefinite article. If you want
to talk about a particular ‘piece of travel’, use another word, like
journey_s>.zdritl^ Compare:
My hobbies are music, travel and butterfly-collecting.
Travel is much cheaper than it used to be.
I hope you had Qgood journey. Are you tired?
How was your trip to the States?
(Note that journey usually means the movement to and/or from a
place that is visited; trip means the journey and the visit together.)
The plural travels is sometimes used for a long trip in which several
places are visited.
Hello — you’re back from your travels, then.
The verb to travel can be used both for travel in general and for a
particular journey or trip^ '
I love travelling.
Are you travelling by train or by air?

unless and if . . . not 610

Typical mistake: *1’11 be surprised unless he has an accident.

Very often, unless can be used instead otif not.

Come tomorrow if I don’t phone/unless I phone.
He’ll accept the job if the salary’s not too low/unless the salary’s
too low.
However, there are some cases where unless is impossible. In
general, unless can be used in sentences that say ‘A will happen if it
is not stopped by B’, butunless cannot be used in sentences that say
‘A will result from B not happening.’ Compare:
I’ll be back tomorrow unless there’s a plane strike. (Or: . . . if
there’s not. . .)
Let’s have dinner out — unless you’re too tired. (Or:. . . if you’re
not. . .)
I’ll be quite glad if she doesn’t come this evening. (Unless is
impossible.)
She’d be pretty if she didn’t wear so much make-up. (Unless is
impossible.)
I’ll be surprised if he doesn't have an accident.
until 611

until /an'til/ and till /til/ 611

These two words mean exactly the same. Till is more common in
conversational English; until is used in both conversational and
formal styles.
OK, then. 1 won't expect you till/until about midnight.
I'll wait until/till I hear from you.
The new timetable will remain in operation until June ip8i.
Note that until/till is only used to talk about time.
Typical mistakes: *We walked till the edge of the forest. (Use us far
as or to.)
"Our minibus can hold until thirteen people.
(Use up to.)

until/till and to 612

Typical mistake: *7 waited for her to six o’clock, but she didn’t
come.

1 Normally until/till is used in the sense of ‘time up to’.

7 waited for her till six o’clock, but she didn’t come.
He’s usually in his office until midday.

2 To can be used after from.

We usually have our lunch-break from twelve-thirty to one-
thirty. (Or: . . . until one-thirty.)
To can also be used when we are counting the time until a future
event.
It’s another three weeks to the holidays. (Or: . . . till the holi­
days.)

until/till and by 613

Typical mistake: *Can you repair my watch until Tuesday?
Until is used when we talk about a continuing situation or state that
will stop at a certain moment in the future. By is used to talk about
an action that will happen at or before a future moment (see i 2.6).
Compare:
Can you repair my watch by Tuesday? (Action)
No, I’ll need to keep it until Saturday. (Continuing state)
Can 7 stay until the weekend? (Continuing state)
Yes, but you’ll have to leave by Monday midday at the latest.
(Action)
 615 be used to

used to + infinitive 614

Typical mistakes: *He uses to play cards a lot.
*He was used to play cards a lot.

The structure rtsedjp + infinitive only exists in the past. It refers to

past habitsand states. If we say that somebody used to do some­
thing, we mean that some time ago he did it habitually, but that he..
does not do it now. To express the same idea in the present, the
present simple tense is usually enough. Compare:
He used to play cards a lot.
He plays cards a lot.
Used ta can have the forms either of an auxiliary verb (questions
and negatives without do) or of an ordinary verb (with do). The
do-forms are more informal. (Note the special pronunciation of
use and used in this structure: not/ju:z/, /ju:zd/, but/ju:s/, /ju:st/').
Did you use to play cricket at school? (Or: Used you to play. . .?)
I didn’t use to like opera, but now I’m getting interested. (Or: I
used not to like . . .)
A contracted negative is possible: I usedn'tto like ...
Used to is not used to say how often something happened, or how
long it took.
I went to France seven times. (Not: */ used to go to France seven
times.)
I lived in Chester for three years. (Not: */ used to live in Chester
for three years.)
MidzpasitioiLAd.Y£rbs.(see zy, 24) can go before or after used. The
position before used is more common in an informal style.
I always used to be afraid of dogs.
I used always to be afraid of dogs.
Do not confuse ttsed to + infinitive with be used to + dwg (see next
section): the meanings of the two structures are quite different.
For the difference between used to and would (for past habits), see
637.

be used to 615
Be used to_can be followed by a noun or an -ing form. It has quite a
different meaning from used to + infinitive (see last section). If you
say that somebody is used to (doing) something, you mean that he
has done it or experienced it so often that it is no longer strange to
him.
I’ve lived in Paris for six years now, so Pm quite used to the
traffic.
It’s difficult to understand Scottish people if you’re not used to
their accent.
as usual 616

You can say what you like! I’m used to being criticized.
It was a bit of a shock: I’m not used to paying so much for a
sandwich and a glass of beer.
This structure can be used to talk about the past, present or future.
When I was younger I was used to walking long distances, but
now I’m out of practice.
An electric typewriter’s easy: you’ll be used to it in a few hours.
Get used to means ‘become used to’.
You'll soon get used to living in the country.
Instead of used to, accustomed to can be used. See 339.10.
For an explanation of structures with to + . . .-ing, see 337.

as usual 616
Typical mistake: *The train’s late, as usually.
In this expression, we use the adjective usual, not the adverb
usually.
The train’s late, as usual.
As usual, Len tvas right and I was wrong.

verbs with two objects 617

1 Many verbs can be followed by two objects. Generally the indirect
object refers to a person, and comes first.
He gave his wife a camera for Christmas.
Can you send me the bill before the end of the month?
I'll lend you some.
Some of the verbs which are used in this way are:
bring buy cost give leave lend make
offer owe pass pay promise read refuse
send show take tell write
The indirect object can also be put after the direct object, with a
preposition (usually to or for). This happens particularly when the
direct object is much shorter than the indirect object (for instance,
when the direct object is a pronoun), or when we want to give
special importance to the indirect object.
I took it to the policeman on duty.
She sent some flowers to the nurse in charge of her daughter’s
hospital ward.
Mother bought the ice-cream for you, not for me.
When both objects are personal pronouns, the direct object is
usually put first, and to is sometimes dropped in British English.
Give it (to) me.
 618 very

In passive sentences, the subject of the sentence is most often the

person (not the thing which is sent, given, etc).
I've just been given a lovely picture.
She was sent full details last week.
But the thing which is sent, given etc can also be the subject if
necessary.
‘V/hat happened to the contract?’ — ‘It was sent to the union last
week.’ .

2 Note that explain and suggest must be used with a preposition

before an indirect object.
Could you explain your point of view to us? (Not: *Could you
explain us . . .?)
I suggested a way out to her (Not: *7 suggested her a way out.)

3 Some verbs can be followed by either a direct object, or an indirect

object, or both.
I asked John.
I asked a question
I asked John a question.
Other verbs like this: teach, tell, owe, pay, show.

very, much and far 618

1 Very cannot be used to strengthen all adjectives. With some adjec­
tives that are only used in predicative position (see 16.2), other
words have to be used.
I’m wide awake. (Not: *. . . very awake.)
She’s fast asleep. (Not: *. . . very asleep.)
With some past participles, very is not possible (566453.4); instead,
we use much or very much.
The financial situation seems to be (very) much improved. (Not:
*. . . very improved.)
2 Very is not used before comparative adjectives and adverbs (see
146), before too, or before more or less. Instead, we use much or
far. (Much is unusual before too little.)
Jane’s much/far better. (Not: *. .. very better.)
You’re much/far too nice.
I paid much/far more than I should.
There’s much/far less water in the river than usual.
There’s far too little opportunity for adventure these days.
Before a plural expression many and far are used to strengthen
more. Far (but not many) is used before too many, too few, fetver
and less.
wait for 619

There are many/far more people than I expected.

There are far fewer (or less) cinemas than there used to be.
We’ve got far too many eggs and far too few egg-cups.
For the difference between fewer and less, see 239.

3 With superlative adjectives and adverbs, much and (by) far can be
used.
He's much the most Imaginative of them all.
We're walking by far the slowest.
Note, however, the special use of very with superlatives and first.
Bring out your very best wine — Michael’s coming to dinner.
You’re the very first person I’ve spoken to today.

wait for 619

Typical mistakes: *Please wait me here.
*We’ll have to wait that the photos are ready.
Wait is not used with a direct object. It can be followed by the
preposition for, and by the construction for . . . + to-infinitive.
I’ll wait in the kitchen.
Please wait for me here.
We’ll have to wait for the photos to be ready.
(For other verbs used with the for . . . to . . . structure, see 244.)
For is also used before an expression of time indicating a period.
I waited for her letter for weeks.
But if the expression of time comes directly after wait, the preposi­
tion can be left out.
I waited (for) weeks for her letter.
There is a transitive verb await, but this is unusual in modern •
English.
I shall await your commands, my lord.
For the difference between wait for and expect, see 228.

want 620
Typical mistakes: *1 don’t want come back here ever again.
*Do you want I make you some coffee?

1 After want, we use the infinitive with to.

I don’t want to come back here ever again.
 621 way

2 Want can be followed by the ‘object + to-infinitive’ structure.

Object-forms of pronouns are necessary.
Do you want me to make you some coffee?
I don't want that woman to come back here ever again.

3 Want (meaning ‘need’) can be followed by an -ing form with a

passive meaning in British English.
This coat wants cleaning. (=. . . needs to be cleaned.)
You hair wants cutting.
Need can be used in the same way. See 335.
For other verbs used with the ‘object +to-infinitive’ structure, see
323-
For the use of to instead of a whole infinitive (eg / don’t want to,
thanks), see 328.
For the difference between like, would like and want, see 363.

way 621
1 Way (meaning ‘method’) is often used without a preposition.
I think you’re putting it together (in) the wrong way.
Do it any way you like.
In relative sentences, after way we often use that instead of in
which. (That can also be left out. See 598.)
The way (that) you’re doing it is completely crazy (Or: The way in
which . . .)
I liked the way (that) she organized the meeting.

2 Way can be followed by a to-infinitive structure or by of+-ing.

There is no important difference between the two structures.
There’s no way to prove he was stealing money.
There’s no way of proving he was stealing money.
Note that way of is not usually used before a noun; we use means of
instead. Compare:
Can you think of any way of getting in touch with her?
I’ve tried all possible means of communication. (Not: *. . . ways
of communication.)
3 Do not confuse in the way andon the way. In the way is used to talk
about obstacles - things or people that stop you getting where you
want to go. On the way means ‘during the journey’. Compare:
Please don’t stand in the kitchen door - you’re in the way. (Or:
... in my way.)
Let’s not stop too often on the way.
For by the way, see 172.5.
weak and strong forms 622

weak and strong forms 622

Compare the pronunciation of at in the following two sentences:
I got up at /at/six o’clock.
What are you looking at /aet/?
In the first sentence, at is not stressed (prepositions, conjunctions,
articles, pronouns and auxiliary verbs are not usually stressed). In
the second example, at is at the end of the sentence, in a more
important position, and so has the stressed pronunciation/ast/.
There are around fifty words like at, which have two pronuncia­
tions: a ‘strong form’, in which the vowel is generally pronounced
as it is written, and a ‘weak form’, in which the vowel is pro­
nounced with /a/ or /i/. The weak form is much more common
than the other; the strong form is only used if the word is specially
stressed for some reason. Compare:
/ was late, /waz/
It was raining, /waz/
Yes, I was. /woz/
I must go now. /mas(t)/
I really must stop smoking. /mASt/
Where have you been? /sv/
You should have told me. /av/
We usually have dinner at eight, /haev/ (Have is the main verb in
this sentence.)
Note that the contracted^egative always has a strong pronuncia­
tion.
can't /ka:nt/ (US: /kaent/)
mustn’t /'mAsnt/
wasn’t /'wDznt/
The most important words which have strong and weak forms are:
strong form weak form
a /ei/ (unusual) /a/
am /asm/ /am/
an /asn/ (unusual) /an/
and /send/ /and, an/
are /a:(r)/ /a(r)/
as /aez/ /az/
at /aet/ /at/
be /bi:/ /bi/
been /bi:n/ /bin/
but /bAt/ /bat/
can /kaen/ /kan/
could /kod/ /kad/
do /du:/ /da/
does /dAZ/ /daz/
for /fo:(r)/ /fa(r)/
 623 when

from /from/ /fram/

had /haed/ /had, ad/
has /haez/ /haz, az/
have /haev/ /hav, av/
he /hi:/ /hi, 1/
her /h3:(r)/ /ha(r), a(r)/
him /him/ /im/
his /hiz/ /iz/
is /iz/ /z, s/
must /mASt/ /mast, mas/
not /not/ /nt/
of /ov/ /av/
our /'aua(r)/ /a:(r)/
Saint /seint/ /sant/ (GB only)
shall /Jsel/ /Jal/
she /Ji:/ /Ji/
should /Jud/ /Jad/
sir /S3:(r)/ /sa(r)/
some /sAm/ /sam/
than /dsen/ /dan/
that (conj) /daet/ /dat/
the /di:/ /da, di/
them /dem/ /dam/
there (see 599) /dea(r)/ /da(r)/
to /tu:/ /ta/
us /as/ /as/
was IWOT-I /waz/
we /wi:/ /WI/
were /W3:(r)/ /wa(r)/
who /hu:/ /hu/
would /wod/ /wad. ad/
will /Wil/ /al, 1/
you /ju:/ /ju/
your /jo:(r)/ /ja(r)/

future tense after when 623

In adverb clauses of time, when is followed by a present tense with a
future meaning (see 151).
I’ll start when I’m ready.
When can be followed by a future tense in reported speech, after a
present reporting verb.
/ wonder when she'll be back.
Do you know when Janet will be in?
But note that after a future reporting verb, a present tense is
normal. See 595.
when 624

I’ll tell you when you’ve got to go.

When . . .? (interrogative) can be used with future tenses.
When will the photos be done?

when and if 624

Typical mistake: *We’ll have the party outside when it doesn’t
rain this evening.
If is used to suggest that you’re not sure that something will
happen.
When is used to talk about events that are certain or very likely to
happen. Compare:
I’ll see you in August, when I come back. (I’m sure I’ll come
back.)
Perhaps I’ll see you in August, if I have time. (Perhaps I won’t
have time.)
We’ll have the party outside if it doesn’t rain this evening.
When you wake up tomorrow I’ll be in Rome.
In generalizations about things that happen repeatedly, both when
and if are possible, without much difference of meaning.
If/when you heat metal it expands.

whether and if 625

1 In reported speech, both whether and//" can be used to introduce a
question that does not have a question-word (see 535).
I’m not sure whether/if I’ll have time.
I wonder whether/if you’ve got any letters for me.
When both sides of an alternative are given, whether is more
common, especially in a formal style.
Let me know whether (if) you can come or not.
The directors have not decided whether they will recommend a
dividend or hold over the profits.
Certain verbs (for instance, discuss) can be followed by whether but
not by if.
We discussed whether we should close the shop. (Not: *. ..
discussed if we should . . .)
And whether, but not if, can be used after prepositions, and before
to-infinitives.
I haven’t settled the question of whether I’ll go back home. (Not:
*. .. question of if I’ll. . .)
She doesn’t know whether to get married now or wait. (Not:*. . .
know if to get . ..)
 627 which, what, who

2 In other structures (not reported speech), only whether can be used.

Whether we can stay with my mother is another matter. (Not: *//"
•••)

whether . . . or . . . 626
A clause with whether ... or . . . can be added to a sentence
(whether. . . or. . . acts like a conjunction). The meaning is similar
to a new sentence beginning ‘It doesn’t matter whether . . . or . . .’
'You’ll have to pay whether you want to or not.
Whether we go to your place or stay here, we’ve still got to find
something to eat. (Note the use of a present tense with a future
meaning - see 595).
For the use of whether and if in reported questions, see 535.2.

which, what, who: interrogative 627

1 Which and what can both be used with nouns to ask questions
about people and things.
Which parent is more important in the first year of life?
Which colour would you like — green, red, yellow or brown?
What writers do you like?
o What colour are your eyes?_ i
There is a difference. Which is usually used when there is a limited
choice; we often say what when the choice is larger, and it is~noF
clear exactly how many possibilities there are. Compare the second
and the fourth examples above. In the second, there is a choice of
four (and we use which}-, in the fourth, there are a large number of
possibilities (so we use ivhat).
With nouns that refer to people, we sometimes prefer which even
when the choice is very large - in the third example above, which
writers would be possible (especially in a more formal style).

2 Which, what and who can be used as pronouns (without nouns). In

this case, who is usually used for people, whether there is a large or
limited choice.
Who won — Smith or FitzGibbon?
Who do you like best - your mother or your father?
Who is your favourite composer?
Which one can be used as an object pronoun instead of who, when
the choice is limited, as in the second example.
Which one do you like best — your mother or your father?
whose 628

Which an<\_whgt are used as pronouns to talk about things. The

difference is the one explained in paragraph i: [V.hicl'Ms used when
the choice islinutejd, what when there is a large or unlimited choice.
Which would you like — steak or plaice?
What would you like to drink?

3 In modern English, only which can be followed.iby p^

Which of you has stolen my glasses? (Not: *Who of you . . .?)
For information about whose, see 628.
For information about who, which and what as relative pronouns,
see^z^
Forthe difference between who and whom, see 135.

whose /hu:z/: interrogative 628

Whose can be used both as a pronoun and as an adjective.
Whose is that car outside?
Whose is this?
Whose car is that outside?
Whose garden do you think looks the nicest?
Prepositions can come either before whose (more formal) or at the
end of the clause (more conversational). See 488.
For whose benefit were all these changes made?
Whose side are you on?
In short questions with no verb, prepositions come before whose.
‘I’m going to buy a car.’ — ‘ With whose money?’ (Not: * ‘Whose
money with?’)
For information about the relative pronoun whose, see 530.

why + infinitive 629

Why can be followed by an infinitive without to. This structure is
used to suggest that an action is unnecessary or pointless.
Why argue with him? He’ll never change his mind.
Why pay more at other shops? We have the cheapest good clothes
in town.
Why not (+infinitive without to) is used to make suggestions.
‘My girl-friend’s in a bad mood.’ — ‘Why not give her some
flowers?’
Why don’t you . . .? can be used in the same way.
Why don’t you give her some flowers?
 630' will

will 630
Will is a ‘modal auxiliary verb’ (see 388). It has a contracted form ’ll
(eg I’H see y°u tomorrow'), and a negative contraction won’t
(eg The car won’t start).
Will can be used in several different ways.
1 Predictions
One use of will is for predictions about the future. (In the first
person, shall can be used instead of will.)
Do you think it’ll rain? I shall be rich one day.
Predictions can be used as a way of giving orders (instead of telling
somebody to do something, you just say firmly that it will happen).
You’ll start work at six o’clock.
The regiment will attack at dawn.
Will can also be used to make a kind of ‘prediction’ about the
present: to say what you think must be happening.
Don’t phone them now — they’ll be having dinner.
‘There’s somebody coming up the stairs.’ — ‘That’ll be Mary.’
This is similar to the use of must for ‘logical deductions’, (see
394.2b).
For details of the use of will for predictions (and other ways of
talking about the future), see 250—258.
2 Willingness and intention
a I will (but not I shall) is used to express willingness to do some­
thing, or to offer to do something.
‘Can somebody help me?’ — ‘I will.’
‘There’s the doorbell.’ — TH go.’
I will can also be used to talk about firm intentions: to make
promises or threats.
I will stop smoking. I’ll break your neck!
b With you, will is often used to make requests or to give orders.
Will you come this way, please? (Or: If you will come this way,
■ • • •)
Will you can also introduce invitations; won’t you makes the
invitations very emphatic.
Will you have some more wine? Won’t you come in?
C Refusals can be expressed with won’t.
No, I won’t! She won’t open the door.
Note that we also use won’t to refer to things which ‘refuse’ to do
what we want.
The car won’t start. The door won’t open.
will 631

3 Will can also be used to talk about habits and characteristic

behaviour.
He’s strange — he'll sit for hours without saying anything.
Sulphuric acid will dissolve most metals.
For more details of this, see 631.
For the different uses of would, see 636.

will and would: habits and characteristics 631

Will and would can be used to talk about repeated and habitual
behaviour. Would refers to the past.
When nobody’s looking, she’ll go into the kitchen and steal
biscuits.
He’ll often say something and then forget what it was he said.
On Sundays, when I was a child, we would get up early and go
fishing.
He would never let anybody know what he was doing.
With a strong stress on will or would, the meaning becomes one of
criticism.
You ’will keep forgetting things.
Stressed would is used to criticise one action - the meaning is often
‘that’s typical of you’.
You 'would tell Mary about the party - I didn’t want to invite
her.
Will is used to talk about the natural behaviour of things.
Ifyouputa.match to it, real amber won’t melt, but imitation will.
Gold won’t dissolve in hydrochloric acid.
For the difference between would and used to, see 637.

wish 632
1 In formal style, the verb wish can be followed by a to-infinitive.
Used in this way, wish means want, but want is much more com­
mon in an informal style.
I wish to see the manager, please. (More informal: I want to see
... or I'd like to see . ..)
An ‘object + to-infinitive’ structure is possible.
I wish the manager to be informed at once. (Or: I want the
manager to be informed . . .)
Note that a direct object is not possible without a following
infinitive. You can say I want an appointment with the manager,
but not *1 wish an appointment . . .
 632 wish

2 Wish is also used in quite a different way, to say that we would like
things to be different from what they are.
I wish (that) I was handsome.
I wish (that) I hadn't said that.
When wish is used like this, there is a problem of ‘sequence of
tenses’. The verb which follows wish does not have the tense which
corresponds to the meaning, but one which is ‘more past’. In rhe
first example above, a person who is not handsome (present tense)
says he wishes he was handsome; a past tense is used to express a
present meaning. In the other example, a past meaning (somebody
said something) is expressed with a past perfect tense (. . . 1 hadn’t
said . . .). This is rather like what happens in conditional sentences
(see 304) and reported speech (see 534).
The following examples show how the different tenses are used
with wish.
1 situation: simple present I’m not handsome.
I hardly ever get letters.
You work too much.
wish: simple past I wish I was handsome.
I wish I got more letters.
I wish you didn’t work so hard.
2 situation: present It’s raining.
progressive I'm going to Bristol tomorrow.
wish: past progressive I wish it wasn't raining.
I wish I wasn’t going to Bristol.
3 situation: simple past She said something unpleasant.
wish: past perfect She wishes she hadn’t said it.
4 situation: present perfect I’ve lost my bicycle.
wish: past perfect I wish I hadn’t (lost it).
5 situation: am going to I’m going to do an exam tomorrow.
wish: was going to I wish I wasn’t (going to do it).
6 situation: will She will keep singing in the bath.
You will talk all the time.
Will you give her a message for me?
wish: would I wish she wouldn’t sing in the bath.
I wish you would shut up.
I wish you'd give her a message for
me.
Note that the subjunctives I were and he/she/it were are possible
after wish, especially in a formal style.
I must say that I wish the situation were a little clearer.
Note that would is only used, after I wish, in the sense of insistence,
habit, or willingness. We cannot use I wish . . . would... in a pure
future sense; a different structure is necessary.
I hope there will be a strike tomorrow. (Not: */ wish there would
be a strike . . .)
with 633

1 hope you will live for a very long time. (Not: */ wish you would
live . . .)
For other structures in which past tenses are used with a present or
future meaning, see 470.

with 633
1 With is used in some expressions which say how people are show­
ing their feelings or sensations.
When I found her she was blue with cold.
Mr father was trembling with rage.
Other examples: white with fear/rage, red with anger /embarrass­
ment, green with envy, shivering with cold, jumping up and down
with excitement.
2 With is also used after a number of adjectives which say how people
behave to others.
I’m cross with you. You’re very patient with me.
Other examples: angry with, furious with, pleased with, upset
with.
Note that with is not used after nice, kind, polite, rude, good.
She was very nice to me. (Not: *. . . nice with me.)

3 After fight, quarrel, argue, play, and verbs with similar meanings,
with can be used with the same meaning as ‘against’.
Don’t fight with him - he’s bigger than you are.
Will you play chess with me?

4 With can be used to introduce ‘accompanying circumstances’, or

the reasons for a situation.
With all this work to do, I don’t know if I’ll have time to go out.
With three people away ill, we’ll have to close the office this
afternoon.
Without can be used in a similar way.
The meeting finished without a single disagreement.

5 Note that in is usually used, notwith, to refer to articles of clothing,

kinds of voice, and writing instruments.
Who’s the man in the funny hat?
Why are you talking in such a high voice?
Please write in pencil, not in ink.
For the difference between by and with, see 124.
For with + instrument (in passive sentences) see 459.
 634 word-order
word-order 634
It is not always easy to put words in the correct order in a sentence.
The main problems are as follows:
1 Adverbs
We do not usually put adverbs between the verb and the object.
Typical mistake: *He lifted suddenly his hand.

The normal positions for adverbs are: (i) before the verb; (ii) at the
end of. the clause; (iii) at the beginning of the clause.
He. suddenly lifted his hand.
He lifted his hand suddenly.
Suddenly he lifted his hand.
Some adverbs (like suddenly) can go in all three of these positions.
Others normally go before the verb (egnever), or at the beginning
or end of the clause (eg yesterday).
I never understood what she wanted. (Not: *Never I understood
■ ■■)
I bought a new car yesterday. (Not: *1 yesterday bought. . .)
For the exact rules, see 23- 25.
2 Adjectives
It is sometimes difficult to put adjectives in the right order before a
noun. For details of the rules, see 19.
a funny little red nose (Not: *a red little funny nose)
my nice old Spanish leather boots (Not: *my leather old Spanish
nice boots)
In a few cases, an adjective can come after a noun.
the members present the people concerned
For information about this, see 16.3 and 453.1.

3 Articles
Quite and rather can be put before or after the indefinite article
a/an. For details, see 516 and 517.
quite a nice day OR a quite nice day
rather a good idea OR a rather good idea
In structures with as, so, too and how, it is possible to put an
adjective before a/an.
It was too good an opportunity to miss.
How good a footballer is your brother?
For details, see 1 8.
would 637

2 Would does not always have a past meaning. In many structures, it

is like a ‘less definite’ form of will. An example of this is the
‘conditional’ use of would (see 15X and 363 for details).
What would you do if you had a free year?
I would like a cup of tea.
Requests are more polite if they are made with would instead of
will.
Would you open the window, please?
Would also replaces will (to express willingness) after! wish and if
only. After if, both will and would (more polite) are possible.
/ wish you would talk more quietly.
If only the postman would come!
If you would come this way, I’ll see if the principal is free. (Or: If
you will come this way . . .)
In some cases, should can be used instead of would in the first
person (as a past form of shall; see 549).

would and used to 637

Would and used to are both used to talk about past habits.
When we were children we used to/would go skating every
winter.
Used to can be used to talk about states and situations as well as
actions. Would, can only be used for repeated actions.
I used to have an old Rolls Royce. (*I would ... is impossible in
cases like this.)
Note that would and used to cannot be used to say how often
something happened.
We went to Africa six times when I was a child. (Not: *We used
to go . . . six times ... or *We would go .. . six times . . .) ’
For more information about used to, see 614.

write 638
Write is one of the verbs that can be used with two objects (see 617).
Write me a letter explaining what happened, will you?
When there is no direct object, we usually use to with the indirect
object.
Write to me when you get back.
However, to is often left out in cbnversational style, particularly in
American English.
Write me when yoU get back.
 639 yes

yes and no 639

Typical mistakes: *'Aren’t you going out this evening?’ - ‘Yes, not
this evening.’
★Haven’t you got a raincoat?’ — 'No, I have.’
In English, yes is used with affirmative sentences and no with
negative sentences. When we are answering a negative question, the
use of yes and no depends on the answer, not on the form of the
question. Compare:
‘Are you going out?’ — ‘No, I’m not.’
‘Aren’t you going out?’ — ‘No, I’m not.’
‘Have you got a raincoat?’ — ‘Yes, I have.’
‘Haven’t you got a raincoat?’ — 'Yes, I have.’
English does not have a special form of yes for contradicting
negative statements or questions (like French si or German doch).
For more details of negative questions, see 404.
Index

a/an (see articles) structures adjective + infinitive 324;

abbreviations 1; full stops with abbrevia­ adjective + for + object + infinitive
tions 577 244; adjective + that -clause (and
ability at 485 omission of that) 598.3
able be able to 128 admission and admittance 26
-able position of adjectives ending in -able admit... -Ing 334
16.3 adopted different meanings before or after
about and (a)ro'und 61; about and on 2; noun 453.3
about to 3 adverb particles and prepositions 491
above and over 4 adverbial participle clauses 455
according to 5; according to and after adverbs 10—12, 23—25: adjectives and
29.3 adverbs (general) 10; the difference be­
accounts 433.1 tween adjectives and adverbs 11; adjec­
accused the accused 14.6 tives and adverbs: confusing cases 12;
accustomed to with infinitive or -ing form position of adverbs (general) 23; mid­
337,339.10 position (details) 24; end-position (de­
ache (headache, etc) 6; ache (verb) in tails) 25
simple and progressive tenses 502.5 comparison of adverbs 148
acronyms 1 position of adverbs in expressions of
across and over 7; across and through 8; measurement 17; position with ought
across from 445.1 to 447.4; with used to 614; position of
act and play 476.2 really 521; here and there at the begin­
active and passive 457; active and passive ning of a sentence 291
infinitive with similar meaning 330 spelling of adverbs 571
actual(ly) 9, 172.8 advice (uncountable noun) 163
addition in addition 172.3 advise + object + infinitive 323; + -ing
addresses prepositions 88.9; how to write form or infinitive 339.5; in passive
addresses 361 sentences 463
adjectives 10-22: adjectives and adverbs affect and effect 27
(general) 10; the difference between afford 322
adjectives and adverbs 11; adjectives afloat position, afloat and floating 16.2
and adverbs: confusing cases 12; adjec­ afraid 28; afraid and frightened 28.3;
tives with verbs 13; adjectives without afraid of.. .-ing and afraid + infinitive
nouns 14; position of adjectives (gener­ 339.8; afraid so/not 558; I’m afraid ( =
al) 15; position of adjectives (special ‘I’m sorry’) 28.2, 172.7
problems) 16; adjectives and adverbs: after 29; with past perfect 467.4; not used
position in expressions of measurement with future verb form 29.1, 152; with
17; adjectives: special word order with participle clause (after ...-ing) 455.3;
as, how, too and so 18; order of adjec­ not used as adverb 29.2; after and
tives before nouns 19; and with adjec­ according to 5, 29.3; after and after­
tives 20; nouns used as adjectives 21; wards 29.2
pronunciation of adjectives ending in after all 30; 172.7
-ed 22 again and back 93
comparison of adjectives 143—147: age 31
formation of comparatives and super­ aged pronunciation 22
latives 143; the difference between agent in passive sentences 459
comparatives and superlatives 144; ago 32; ago and before 32.3; ago and for
sentences with comparatives 145; 32.4; ago, since, for and from 245
much, far etc with comparatives 146; agree 33; not used in passive 464
sentences with superlatives 147 ain’t 34
compound adjectives hyphens 576; aircraft 429
ending in -ed 21.4 alike 35
participles used as adjectives 16.3, alive and live (adjective) 16.1
453.1
all/articles

all 36—39: introduction 36; details 37; all ing ‘it doesn’t matter which’ 55.1; any
and every 38; all and whole 39 (of) with singular or plural verb 562.3;
all and all of 37.1 any ... that 55.3; any with compara­
all and everybody 37.3 tives 55.4; not any, no and none 562.4
all and everything 37.3 anybody and anyone 562.5; anybody and
all but 123 not anybody 182; anybody and some­
all else 200 body 418; anybody else 200; position
all ready and already 44 of anybody with adjectives 16.3
all the same 172.3 anyhow 57, 172.4
all together and altogether 48 anyone and any one 56; anyone and any­
article dropped after all 70.7 body 562.5; anyone and nor anyone
at all 89 182; anyone and someone 418; anyone
no preposition in time-expressions with else 200; position of anyone with ad­
all 70.7, 487.4 jectives 16.3
position of all 36-37; position before anything and not anything 182; anything
article 65.2 and something 418; anything else 200;
allow, permit and let 40 position of anything with adjectives
almost and nearly 41; position of almost 16.3
23.5 anyway 57, 172.4
alone not used with very 16.2 anywhere and not anywhere 182; any­
along 42 where and somewhere 418; anywhere
aloud and loudly 43 else 200; position of anywhere with
already and ever 211; already, still and yet adjectives 16.3
579; already and all ready 44; already apart from 172.3
with present perfect tense 495.3 apologize for 485
also position 23.5; also, as well and too apostrophes 505
45; also and even 206.1 appear with adjective or adverb 58;
alternately and alternatively 46 appear to be 58
although and but 153.1; although and appreciate .. .-Ing 334
though 47 Arab and Arabic 397
altogether and all together 48 aren't I? 59
always 49; always and ever 210.1;j>osi- argue with 633.3
tion of always 23.4, 23.6, 49, 314; arise, rise and get up 60
always with present perfect tense 49; arms 433.1
with progressive tenses 503 (a)round and about 61
' American and British English 120; have arouse and rouse 62
283; irregular verbs 348.3; letters arrange + infinitive 322; arrange for +
361.8; present perfect tense 495.4 object + infinitive 244.2
among and between 50 arrive at 485
an (see articles) arse, arsehole (taboo words) 589
and 51; after try, wait, go, come etc 52; articles 63-71: introduction 63; pronun­
both ... and 116; etypsis with and 198; ciation, a and an 64; basic information
and followed by infinitive without to 65; countable and uncountable nouns
320.4; in numbers 434.1; with adjec­ 66; talking about things in general 67;
tives 20 talking about particular things 68; the
and so forth, and so on 172.3 difference between a and the 68; some!
angry prepositions 485 any and no article 69; special rules and
animals he, she or it 259 exceptions 70; golden rules 71
another 53 a/an in exclamations after what 70.12
another thing Is 172.3 articles instead of possessive words (eg
ante- and anti- 54 He hit her on the head) 480.4; instead
anxious prepositions 485; anxious for ... of prepositions (eg 40 pence a pound)
to 244 487.6
any 562 (some and any); special uses 55; articles left out after all 70.7; after both
any and some with if 303.3; any ... but 70.7; at the beginning of a sentence
55.2, 123; any different 55.4; any 197; in special styles 70.16; in various
good, any use 55.4; any in affirmative common expressions 70.1; with man
sentences 562; any in time-expressions and woman 70.4; with Queen, Presi­
without preposition 487.4; any mean­ dent, etc 70.11
 as/be
articles with abbreviations 1; games sentences 463; ask how to, what to, etc
70.6; genitive expressions 70.2; geo­ 326
graphical areas 70.14; illnesses 70.8; asleep 86
-ing forms 332; man and woman 70.4; asjsect, modality, tense and time 605
measurement expressions 434.2; ass (taboo word) 589
musical instruments 70.6; nouns used astonish not used in progressive tenses
as adjectives 70.3; numbers 434.2; 502.6
place names 70.15; radio and TV 70.5; astonished preposition 485 •
seasons 70.10; ships 70.13 Astronomer Royal 16.3
position of articles 65.2; with quite at a party 486
516.2; with rather 517 at all 89
the ... the with comparatives 145.3 at any rate 172.4
the with superlative adjectives 147.2 at home, school, university, etc (without
as 72—84: function and comparison 72; article) 70.1
as and like (comparison) 73;dsif and at, in and on (expressions of time) 87
as though 74; as ... as 75; as long as at, in and on (place) 88
76; as well as 77; as and than with at last, finally and in the end 240
pronouns 78; as and how 79; special at once position 23.3
word order with as and though 80; at the cinema 486
verb + object + as 81; as a matter of at the end and tn the end 486
fact 82; as, because, since and for 83; at the theatre 486
as, when and while (simultaneous (at) what time preposition left out 487.7
events) 84 ate British and American pronunciation
as, than and that 596 348.3
-ing form after as 338 athletics (singular) 430; used as adjective
inversion with as 73.2 433.1
not as ... as and not so ... as 75 attempt + -ing or infinitive 339.10
not used after comparatives 145.1 Attorney General 16.3
participle clause after as 455.3 attributive position of adjectives 15
special word order with indefinite arti­ autumn article 70.10
cle 18; with fronted adjective 80 auxiliary verbs 90; ellipsis (leaving words
subject or object pronouns after as (as out) and substitution 197, 199; emph­
1, as me) 78 asis 201.1; in question tags 515; in
tense-simplification in us-clauses 595 reply questions 514; in short answers
the same as/that 541 548
twice as, etc 75 avoid .. .-Ing 334
verb + object + as 81 awake position and waking 86
as a matter of fact 82 awake(n), wake (up) and waken 91
as a rule 172.3 aware structures 490.1
as far as and until 611 awfully, frightfully, terribly etc 92
as far as ... Is concerned 172.2
as for 172.2 back back and again 93
as if and as though, as if and like 74; as backache 6
//-clause with it as preparatory subject backward and backwards 247
(It looks as if...) 349.5 bad at 485
as it were 580.3 badly position 23.4
as long as 76 balls and balls-up (taboo words) 589
as many (as), as much (as) 75.2 barely 403.1
as regards 172.2 barracks 430
as soon as not used with future tense 152; bastard (taboo word) 589
with past perfect 467.4 bath and bathe 94
as though (see as if) be 95-97: be with auxiliary do 95; prog­
as usual 616 ressive tenses of be 96; be + infinitive (I
as well position 23.5; as well, also and too am to, etc) 97
45; may/might as well 383 aren’t I? 59
as well as 77; as well as that 172.3 be able to 128
as you know and similar expressions 73.3 be gone and have gone 2,72
ask prepositions, infinitive structure 85; be in question tags 515; in reply ques­
followed by clause 490.2; in passive tions 514; in short answers 548
beach/can

be that as it may 580.5 blind the blind 14.2

be used to .. .-ing 615 bloody (taboo word) 589; bloody well
be with colour, height, weight, length, 589; position 16.1
size, age etc 487—8 blue with ... 633.1
be with finished 241 boat expression without article 70.1
been and gone 101 bollocks (taboo word) 589
do with be 95 book a book by ... 486
ellipsis (words left out) after be 199.1 border, frontier and boundary 112
infinitive after be (I am to, etc) 97 boring and bored 452
progressive tenses of be 96 born, borne 113
subjunctive (/ be, you be, etc) 580 borrow and lend 114
beach, coast and shore 98 both (of) 115; article dropped after both
bear + object + infinitive 323; can't bear 70.7; position 65.2, 24.5; both ... and
+ .. .-ing or infinitive 339.10 116
beat and win 99 boundary, border and frontier 112
because and because of 100; because, as, breakfast expressions without article 70.1
since and for 83; because and so 153.1 bring with two objects 617; bring and
become used with adjective 13.2 take 117; bring up and educate 118
bed expressions without article 70.1 Britain Great Britain, The British Isles and
been and gone 101 The United Kingdom 119
before followed by present tense with British and American English 120; have
future meaning 152; with present per­ 283; irregular verbs 348.3; letters
fect 495.3; with past perfect 467; with 361.8; present perfect tense 495.4
participle clause (before .. ■-ing') 455.3; British the British 14.3; The British Isles,
before and ago 32.3; before and in Great Britain and The United Kingdom
front of 102 119
beg + infinitive 322; beg + object + Britisher and Briton 121
infinitive 323 broad and wide 122
begin + -ing form or infinitive 339.9; broadly speaking 172.3,455.2
begin, start and commence 103; to bugger(ed) (taboo word) 589
begin with 172.3 build in passive sentences 465
being + past participle: adjectival partici­ bump Into 485
ple clauses 454.2; adverbial participle burn British and American forms 348.3
clauses 455 burst out crylng/laughlng 334
believe 104; in .negative sentences 402; bus expression without article 70.1
not used in progressive tenses 502.6; but 123; can’t help but 133; ellipsis
omission of it 474.11; prepositions (words left out) after but 198.2
485; with so and not 558 buy with two objects 617; buy and pay for
belong 105; not used in progressive tenses 471
502.6 by and near 125
besides 172.3; besides and beside 106; by (method) and with (tools etc) 124; by
besides and except 107 all means, by no means 386; by car,
best superlative adjective 143.1; superla­ bus, etc (without article) 70.1
tive adverb 148 by oneself 523
bet I bet followed by present tense with by the way 172.5
future meaning 251 by (time), by the time (that) 126; by and
better comparative adjective 143.1; com­ untilltill 613
parative adverb 148; better and or by with agent in passive sentences 459;
rather 108; bad better 275; quite better after past participle (frightened by, etc)
516.5 453.5; a book by Dickens, etc 486
between and among 50
bicycle expression without article 70.1 calculations (spoken) 435
big, large and great 109 call in passive sentences 461; call after
billiards 430 485
billion 110 can, could 127-132: introduction 127;
bit a bit 111; with comparatives 146 ability 128; can and could with see,
blame to blame 330.5 hear, etc 129; can, could, may and
blast (exclamation) 589 might (possibility) 130; permission
blessed pronunciation 22 131; offers and requests 132
 capital letters/conjunction
can, could with remember, speak, from 141; come ...-ing 271; come to
understand and play 128.5 (= ‘reach, arrive’) 141; taboo use of
can, can’t, must (deduction) 394 come (= ‘reach orgasm’) 589
can you, can’t you, could you in ques­ comic and comical 302
tion tags after imperatives 515.4 command + object 4- infinitive 323
can’t bear 4- .. .-ing or infinitive commas 506; in relative clauses 526—528
339.10; can’t help 133; can’t seem commence, begin and start 103
to 544; can’t stand ...-ing 334 committee with plural verb 428.1
{see also could) common for ... to 244
capital letters 575; for emphasis 201.1 company with plural, verb 428.1
car expression without article 70.1 comparatives and superlatives 142-148:
care (about), take care of and care for 134; general 142; comparative and superla­
care 4- infinitive 322; present tense tive adjectives 143; the difference be­
instead of future after 1 don’t care 595 tween comparatives and superlatives
case (/ and me, who and whom, etc) 135; 144; sentences with comparatives 145;
after as 78; after but 123; after except much, far etc with comparatives 146;
224; after than 78; genitive case (’s) sentences with superlatives 147; com-
261-264 • pa rati vc and superlative adverbs 148
case in case and if 316; in manyImost any + comparative 55.4
cases 172.3 comparative 4- than ever 210.4
cattle 429 even 4- comparative 207
cause 4- object 4- infinitive 323 no 4- comparative 413
certain 4- .. .-ing or infinitive 136; certain personal pronouns after comparative +
(of) followed by clause 490.2 than 145.2
certainly position 23.5; use for emphasis position of comparatives and superla­
201.2; certainly and surely 587 tives 16.3
cheap and cheaply 12.2 superlative adjectives used without
cheerio! 137 nouns 14.1
cheers! 137 superlative instead of comparative 144
chin-chin! 137 superlative with very, much and (by
Chinese 397 far 6\8
choose 4- infinitive 322 compel 4- object 4- infinitive 323
Christ! (taboo exclamation) 589 complement and compliment 149 .
church expressions without article 70.1 complement clauses 456
cinema prq usirion 486 complete and incomplete sentences 153.4;
class expressions without article 70.1; ellipsis (leaving out words) 196—199
with plural verb 428.1 compound adjectives position 16.1; end­
classic and classical 302 ing in -ed 2 1.4
classifying genitive 423.4 comprehensible, comprehensive, under­
clean and cleanly 12.2 standable -\nd understanding 150
clear and clearly 12.2 concern not used in progressive tenses
cleft sentences 138 502.6
clever at 485 concerned different meanings before and
close and closely 12.2 after noun 453.3; as far as ... is con­
close and shut 139; close in passive sen­ cerned 172.2
tences 465 condition on condition that 310
clothes and cloth(s) 140; clothes used as conditional sentences 303—308 (for de­
adjective 433.1 rails, see if)
club with plural verb 428.1 conditional verb-forms and their use 151;
coast, beach and shore 98 in reported speech 538.3; past tense
cock, cock-up (taboo words) 589 instead of conditional in subordinate
cold (countable and uncountable) 163.2 clauses 595
collective nouns 428.1 confusing and confused 452
college expressions without article 70.1 confusion about 4- clause 490.2
colons 508 congratulate congratulations on 485; to
colour expressions without prepositions, be congratulated 97
use of be 487.8 conjunction problems 153; conjunctions
come and ... 52.2; come and go 141; after prepositions 490; conjunction 4-
come for a walk, run, etc 486; come parriciple clause (eg when applying...)
conscious/do

455.3; conjunctions followed by pre­ decide + infinitive 322

sent tense with future meaning 152, decimals 434.5
595 declarative questions 513
conscious, consciousness and conscience definitely position 23.5; use for emphasis
154 201.2
consent + infinitive 322 degree 223; adverbs of degree 232
consider 155; consider how to, what to, delay...-Ing 334
etc 326 demonstrative words (this, that, these,
considering 455.2 those) 603
consist of not used in progressive tenses deny.. .-Ing 334
502.6 depend 170; not used in progressive
constantly with progressive tenses 503 tenses 502.6; depend (on) followed by
contain not used in progressive tenses clause 490.2; depend, dependent, inde­
502.6 pendent (prepositions) 170
contemplate .. .-Ing 334 describe + object + as 81
content (adjective) position 16.2; content deserve not used in progressive tenses
and contented 16.2 502.6
continual and continuous 156 determine + infinitive 322
continually with progressive tenses 503 determiners 171
continue + .. ,-ing or infinitive 339.10 detest ...-Ing 334
die of 485
continuous tenses (see progressive tenses')
contractions 157 died and dead 169
contrary and opposite 158; on the con­ different any different 55.4; no different
trary and on the other hand 159; con­ 413; quite different 516; position in
trastive emphasis with do 177.3 noun phrase 16.3; prepositions 485
control 160 difficult position in noun phrase 16.3
cook and cooker 161 difficulty preposition 485
cost with two objects 617 dinner expressions without article 70.1
costume and custom 162 diploma 223
could after so that and in order that 561;
direct and directly 12.2
with if 305; for other uses of could, see
direct speech and reported speech 533
can disappointed prepositions 485
countable and uncountable nouns 163; use discourse markers 172; in initial position
of articles 66 23.6
country 164 dlscuss(lon) preposition 485
Court martial 16.3 disgusted preposition 485
cowardly (adjective) 12.1 disinterested and uninterested 173
crap (taboo word) 589 dislike not used in progressive tenses
crash Into 485 502.6; followed by infinitive 334
crooked pronunciation 22 dive British and American forms 348.3;
cross with 633.2 preposition 315
crossroads with singular verb 430 divide Into 485
cry, shout and weep 165 divorce 174
cunt (taboo word) 589 do 175-181: general information 175;
custom and costume 162 auxiliary verb in questions and nega­
customs 433.1 tive sentences 176; auxiliary verb in
cut in passive sentences 465 affirmative sentences 177; auxiliary
Czech 397 verb and ordinary verb together 178;
do .. ,-ing 179; do and make 180; do so
dally (adjective and adverb) 12.1 181
damn(ed) 582 do as substitute verb 199.3
Dane, Danish 397 do in questions 512.2-4; in question
‘dangling participle' 455.2 tags 515; in reply questions 514; in
dare 166; I dare say 167 short answers 548
dashes 509 do used for emphasis 177, 201.1
dates 168 do with be 95
dead the dead 14; dead and deadly 12.2; do with imperatives 314.2-3
dead and died 169 do you mind ... ? 387
deaf the deaf 14.2 so do I, etc 557
 dogged/fail
something to do and something to be endure ...-Ing 334
done 330.4 S
England and Britain 119; England (foot­
dogged pronunciation 22 ball team) with plural verb 428.1
double negative 182 English (uncountable noun) 163; the Eng­
doubling of final consonants 568 lish 14.3; English(man) 397
doubt not used in progressive tenses enjoy 202
502.6; no doubt 416 enough 203; adjective + enough + infini­
dozen, dozens of 436.3 tive 324
Dr 396 enter 204
draughts with singular verb 430 escape ...-Ing 334
dreadfully 92 escaped 453.6
dream prepositions 183; British and especlal(ly) and special(ly) 205
American forms 348.3 Esq. 361
dress and a dress 184 essential for... to 244
dress (verb) 185; dress oneself 523 even 206; with comparative 207; even
drive Into 485; go for a drive 486 and even if 206.3; even and even
drunk and drunken 186 though 206.3
during and for 187; during and in 188 even so and even though 208
Dutch(man) 397; the Dutch 14.3 eventual(ly) 209
dynamic and statlve verbs 502.6 ever 210; ever, yet and already 211; who­
ever, whatever, etc 212—218; who
each (of), each one 190; each in time­ ever, what ever, etc 219
expressions without preposition 487.4; every and every one 220; every in time
each and every 189 expressions without preposition 487.4;
each other and one another 191; each with plural expressions 431.1; every...
other and reflexive pronouns 523 but 123; every and all 38; every and
eager for... to 244 each 189
earache 6 everybody, everything etc 220; everybody
early (adjective and adverb) 12.1; earlier, and all 37.3; everybody else 200
earliest 148 everyday and every day 221
earth who on earth, etc 219 everyone and every one 222; everyone else
easy position 16.3; easy and easily 12.2 200
economics (used as adjective) 433.1; eco­ everything and all 37.3; everything else
nomic and economical 302 200
-ed pronunciation of adjectives ending in everywhere else 200
-ed 22 examination 223
educate and bring up 118 example of 485
effect on 485; effect and affect 27 except 224; except and besides 107
effective and efficient 192 excepting, with the exception of 172.3
either (adverb) in negative sentences 193; exciting and excited 452
not either and neither 406; either ... or exclamations with how and what 225;
193; position of either 23.5 with if only 309; in the form of ques­
either (determiner and pronoun) 194 tions 226
elder, eldest, older and oldest 195 excuse me, pardon and sorry 227
elect in passive sentences 461 expect + infinitive 322; expect + object +
ellipsis (leaving words out) 196—199: infinitive 323; in passive sentences 463;
general 196; at the beginnings of sen­ without it 474.11; expect and wait
tences 197; with and, but and or 198; (for) 228
with auxiliary verbs 199; to used in­ experience and experiment 229
stead of whole infinitive 328; ellipsis explain 230; followed by how to, what to
and tags 515.6, 524 etc 326
else 200 extent to some extent 172.3
elsewhere 200.5
emphasis 201; with do 177; really 521; face ...-Ing 334
cleft sentences 138 facing and in front of 248
emphatic position of adverbs 24.3 fact as a matter of fact 82, 172.8; in fact
encourage + object + infinitive 323 172.8; the fact that 231
end in/at the end 486; in the end, finally faded 453.6
and at last 240 fall + infinitive 322; fail an exam 223
tair/genitive

fair and fairly 12.2 thing, for another thing 172.3; for
fairly, quite, rather and pretty 232 reason 486: as for 172.2
tall (noun) article 70.10 forbid + .. ,-ing or infinitive 339.5; forbid
fall In/lnto 315; fall used with adjective + object + infinitive 323; in passive
13.2; fall asleep 86; fall, feel and fill sentences 463
348.2; fallen 453.6 force + object + infinitive 323
family with plural verb 428.1 forever 210.5; with progressive tenses 503
tar and a long way 233; far, very and forget + .. ,-ing or infinitive 339.1; forget
much 618; far with comparatives 146; and leave 246
as far as ... is concerned 172.2 forgive ...-Ing 334
farther, farthest 143.1, 148; farther and formula 429
further 234 forward and forwards 247
fast (adjective and adverb) 12.2; faster, fractions 434.4
fastest (adverb) 148; fast asleep 86 frankly 172.6
fear and be afraid 28.1 free and freely 12.2
feel 235; in passive sentences 463; feel + French(man) 397; the French 14.3
object + infinitive without to 320.2; friendly (adjective) 12.1
feel, fall and fill 348.2 frightened and afraid 28.3
feet and foot in measurements 436.1 frightfully, awfully etc 92
female and feminine 236 from ... to 612; from, for, since and ago
feminine and masculine pronouns 259; 245; from ... point of view 486; from
feminine nouns (actress etc) 259.4 home, school etc (without article) 70.1
few and little 237; few and a few 238; few front in front of and before 102; in front
with non-assertive words 403.2 of and opposite, facing 248
fewer and less 239; far fewer 146 frontier, border and boundary 112
tight with 633.3 fronting 249
fill, fall and feel 348.2 fuck (taboo word) 589
finally 172.3; finally, at last and in the end full stops with abbreviations 577; com­
240; finally and after all 30 plete and incomplete sentences 153.4
find to be found 330.3 fungus 429
tine and finely 12.2 furious with 633.2
finish ...-Ing 334 furniture 163
finished with have or be 241 further, furthest 143.1, 148; further and
firm with plural verb 428.1 farther 234
first, second etc position 16.3; very first future ways of talking about the future
618.3; first of all, in the first place 250-258: introduction 250; present
172.3 progressive, going to and shall/will 251
firstly 172.3 — 254; present simple 255; future pro­
fish (singular and plural) 429; fish and gressive (future continuous) 256; fu­
chips with singular verb 431.2 ture perfect 257; future in the past 258;
fit not used in progressive tenses 502.6; be + infinitive (/ am to ... etc) 97;
not used in passive 464; British and about to 3; future tense not used after
American forms 34813; fit and suit 242 conjunctions of time 152, not used
flat and flatly 12.2 ' after other conjunctions 595; future
flow and fly 348.2 tense after when 623
foot expression without article 70.1; foot
and feet in measurements 436.1 game and play 476
for + object + infinitive 244, 349.2; after gather / gather 497.4
enough 203.3 gender 259
for (time) and ago 32.4; for, since, from general in general 172.3
and ago 245; for with present perfect generally speaking 455.2
494; in negative sentences 495.3; (for) genial, genius, genuine, ingenious and in­
how long 245; for a long time and long genuous 260
366; for and during 187 genitive 's 261-264: general 261; article
for, as, because and since 83 with genitive 262; genitive with no
for (purpose) 243 following noun 263; ‘double genitive’
for a walk, run etc 486; for breakfast, 264; genitive 4- .. ,-ing 333; the differ­
lunch etc (without article) 70.1; for ence between genitive structures, of-
example, for instance 172.3; for one structures and structures with nouns
 gerund/high
used as adjectives 421-425 hand on the other hand 172.3
gerund and present participle 331; (for 'hanging participle' 455.2
other gerund entries, see -ing form) happen, happen to 277; in structure with
get 265-270: general 265; get + direct if 307.2
object 266; get + adjective, infinitive, hard and hardly 278; harder, hardest
preposition etc 267; get + direct object (adverbs) 148
+ adjective, infinitive, preposition etc hardly position 23.5; with non-assertive
268; get and go (change) 269; get and forms 403.1; hardly, scarcely and no
go (movement) 270 sooner (time) 279; inverted word order
get as ‘passive auxiliary’ 267; in passive 345.2
imperatives 314.7 hat in a hat 486
get a divorce, get divorced 174 hate + infinitive 322; hate + object +
get dressed 185 infinitive 323; hate + ...-ing or infini­
get in(to), out (of), on (to) and off 485 tive 339.4; not usually used in progres­
get married, marry 372 sive tenses 502.6
get up and rise 60 have (with and without do) 280-286:
get used to 615 introduction 280; auxiliary verb 281;
(see also got) have + object (actions) 282; have +
give with two objects 617; in passive object (states), have got 283; British
sentences 460; give up .. .-ing 334 and American usage 283; have got to
go be gone and have gone 272; been and (obligation) 284; have got to and must
gone 101; go and ... 52.2; go .. .-ing 285; don’t have to, haven't got to and
271; go used with adjective 13.2; go mustn't 285, 394.2; have + object +
and come 141; go and get (change) verb form 286
269; go and get (movement) 270; go ellipsis (leaving words out) after have
for a walk/run etc 486; go on + .. .-mg 199.1
or infinitive 339.1; go to sleep 86 have in question tags 515; in reply
God! (exclamation) 589; God Almighty! questions 514; in short answers 548
16.3; God save the Queen 580.5 have not used in passive 464
going to (future) 250-253 having + past participle in adjectival
gold and golden 21.5 clauses 454.2; in adverbial clauses
gone with be and have 272; gone and 455.1
been 101 he and him 135; he, she or it for animals
good any good, no good 55.4; anylno 259; he or she, he or they used for
good + ...-ing 338; good at 485; a members of groups and for indefinite
good + plural expression 431.1; good reference 259.4
and well 273; good morning!afternoon headache 6
etc 274 headlines (vocabulary and grammar) 409
goodbye, bye etc 274 headquarters 430
got with have 283-285; got and gotten health 163
265.4 healthy and well 16.2
government with plural verb 428.1 hear (structures) 288; in progressive
gradable and non-gradable words 516.1 tenses 502.6; can hear 129; / hear
graduate 223 497.4; hear and listen to 287
great, big and large 109 heartache 6
Great Britain, The British Isles and The Heaven forbldl 580.5
United Kingdom 119 height use of be, expressions without pre­
(a) great deal 393 positions 487.8; expressions of mea­
green with ... 633.1 surement 436.1
greetings 274 hell 589; what the hell, who the hell, etc
group a group of 428.3 219
grown up 453.6 help 289; in passive sentences 463; can’t
guess progressive tenses 502.6; omission help 133
of it 474.11; I guess 172.6; / guess her and she 135
so/not 558 here 581.3; at beginning of sentence 291;
here and there 290; here’s with plural
had better 275 subject 292; here’s to ...! 137
hair 163 hesitate + infinitive 322
halt 276 high and highly 12.2; high and tall 293
him/in

him and he 135 even if 206.3

hire, rent and let 294 if and in case 316
historic and historical 302 if and when 624
holiday and holidays 295 if and whether 625
home 296 if... be 580.6
homeward and homewards 247 if... happen to 307.2
honestly 172.6 if I were you, I should 553
hope (noun) 4- .. .-ing 325.1 if in reported questions 535
hope (verb) 297; I was hoping 470 if it were not for 307.4
hopefully 298 if not and unless 610
hospital expressions without article 70.1 if not followed by future tense 29.1
how in questions and exclamations 300; if not used after preposition 625; be­
how and what in exclamations 225; fore clause 490.2; before infinitive 625
special word order with how 4- adjec­ if ... should 307.1
tive 18; how + infinitive 326; how if... were to 307.3
after prepositions 490.2; how should inversion structures (eg Had I known}
554; how and as 79; how and what... 307.6
like 299 it as preparatory object for //-clause
how dare you? 166 349.5
how do you do? and how are you? 301 omission of if 307.5—6
how else 200.2 III and sick 312; ill with 485
how ever, how on earth, how the hell Imagine ...-Ing 334; imagine in negative
219 sentences 402; progressive tenses
how long (omission of for} 245.1 502.6; imagine solnot 558; omission of
however (adverb) 172.3 it 474.11
however (conjunction) 212, 218 Immediately (conjunction) 313
hundred a hundred and one hundred Imperatives 314
434.2; hundred, hundreds of 436.3 important for... to 244
hurry up and ... 52.2 Impossible position 16.3
hurt simple and progressive tenses 502.5 impress 4- object 4- as 81; impress not
hyphens 576 usually used m progressive tenses 502.6
impressed preposition 485
I and y (spelling) 569 In, at, on (expressions of place) 88; ex­
I, me, you etc (personal pronouns) 581.2; / pressions of time 87; in and during 88;
and me (case) 135 in and into 315; in church, hospital etc
I / bet 4- present tense with future mean­ 70.1; in ink, pen, pencil, the rain, the
ing 251; / dare say 167; 1 feel 172.6; I snow, a suit, a hat etc, in a ... voice, a
gather 497.4; / guess 172.6; I hear whisper 486
497.4; / hope 4- present tense with in addition 172.3; in addition to .. .-ing
future meaning 297; I'm afraid 172.7; 337
/ mean 172.3; / reckon 172.6; I say in any way and anyway 57
172.5; 1 see 497.4; I suppose 172.6; / in case and if, in case of 316; in case ...
think 172.6; / thought, I was hoping/ should 552
thinking/wondering, I wondered 47Q in fact 172.8
-ible position of words ending in-ible 16.3 in front of and before 102; in front of
-Ic and -ical 302 and opposite, facing 248
-les singular words ending in -ics 430, in general 172.3
433.1 in many cases, in most cases 172.3
idea structures 485, 490.1, 244.2 in my opinion 486, 172.6
identifying relative clauses (see relative in my view 172.6
clauses) in order that and so that 561; in order
If 303—311: sentences with if (introduc­ that ... might. 382; in order that ...
tion) 303; ‘unreal’ situations 304; if should 552.2
with could and might 305; with will in order to 327
and would 306; special structures 307; in other words 172.3
if so and if not 308; if only 309; other in particular 172.3
words with the same meaning 310; if in spite of 317
meaning ‘although* 311 in the end and at the end 486; in the
any, anything etc in //-clauses 418 end, finally and at last 240
 incidentally/Japanese
in the first place 172.3 -ing form and infinitive as subject of
(in) this way, (in) the same way, etc sentence 321
preposition left out 487.9 -ing form with it as preparatory subject
in time and on time 486 349.4
Incidentally 172.5 (for -ing form used verbally or adjectiv­
Include not used in progressive tenses ally, see participles)
502.6 Ingenious, Ingenuous, genial, genius and
Including 172.3 genuine 260
Incomplete sentences 153.4 Ink in ink 486
Indeed 3 18 Inn and pub 340
Independent, Independence 170 Insist on ...-Ing 485; insist (on) 4- con­
Indirect object position 617 junction 490.1
Infinitive 319—330: negative, progressive, instead of ...-ing 341
perfect and passive infinitives 319; in­ instruct 4- object 4- infinitive 323
finitive without to 320; infinitive as instrument in passive sentences 459
subject of sentence 321; verbs followed intend infinitive structures 322, 323; with
by infinitive 322, by object 4- infinitive infinitive or -ing form 339.10
323; infinitive after adjective 324; in­ intensifying adjectives position 16.1
finitive after noun 325; infinitive after intention 4- infinitive 325.1
how, what etc 326; infinitive of pur­ interest(ed) In 485; followed by infinitive
pose 327; to used instead of whole or -ing form 339.2; interested and in­
infinitive 328; split infinitive 329; ac­ teresting 452
tive and passive infinitive with similar interrogative pronouns 581.2
meaning 330 Interrogative sentences (see questions)
infinitive after be (I am to ... etc) 97 into and in (prepositions) 315
infinitive after preposition 4- whom! introductions 342
what 325.2 inversion (structures with verb before sub­
infinitive after rather than 518.1 ject) 343-347: general 343; after
infinitive after why (not) 629 neither, nor, so 344; after negative
infinitive clause with preposition at the expressions and only 345; after adver­
end (eg ... to talk to) 448 bial expressions of place 346; with
infinitive not used after preposition 489 verbs of reporting 347; after as 73.2;
infinitive or -ing form 339 with if 307.6
perfect infinitive after be 97; after mod­ invitations with do 177.2
al verbs 390 (and see entries for can, Invite 4- object 4- infinitive 323
could, must etc) involve not used in progressive tenses
reported commands, requests etc 536 502.6; involve .. .-ing 334
structure with for 4- object 4- infinitive Involved different meanings according to
244 position 453.3
structure with it as preparatory subject Irish(man) 397; the Irish 14.3
349 Irregular verbs 348
ro-infinitive with see, hear, help, make It (personal pronoun) 474.5, 474.8—12;
in passive sentences 463 followed by /br-structure 244; used for
would rather 4- infinitive without to time, weather, temperature and dis­
518 tance 474.9; for the present situation
influence on 485 474.10; in question tags (referring to
information (uncountable noun) 163 nothing) 515.4; used to identify people
-Ing form used like a noun (‘gerund’) 331 474.5; omission of it after know, re­
—339: terminology 331; -ing form as member etc 474.11; preparatory’ sub­
subject, object or complement of a ject 349; in passive sentences 462; in
sentence 332; with possessive 333; cleft sentences 138; preparatory object
verbs followed by -ing form 334; -ing 350
form with passive meaning 335; -tng It doesn't matter who/what etc and no mat­
form after prepositions 336; to .. .-ing ter who!what etc 374
337; special cases 338; -ing form or It's no use ...-Ing 351
infinitive 339 It’s ... since 245.6
article with -ing form 332 it’s time 4- infinitive or past tense 606
-ing form after do 179; after as, like,
than, good, use 338; after ho 415 Japanese 397
Jesus/matter

Jesusl Jesus Christ! (exclamations) 589 progressive tenses 502.6; like ... very
journey, travel and trip 609 much (word order) 364; like and
Judging from 455.2 would like 363; should like to have
jump In/lnto 315 363.4
Jury with plural verb 428.1 like and as 73; like and as if 74; like +
just and just now 352 object pronouns 362; like this/that and
just and tustly 12.2 such 581.3, 582; what... like and how
299
keep (on) ...-Ing 353 likely 365
kibbutz 429 limit, border, frontier and boundary 112
kind of, sort of and type of 565 listen to and hear 287
kind to 485 lit position; lit and lighted 16.2
know 354; know + object + infinitive little and a little 238; little and few 237;
320.2; in passive sentences 463 little with non-assertive forms 403.2;
knowledge (uncountable noun) 163 with comparatives 146; little else 200.3
little (adjective) position 16.1; little and
lack (noun) preposition 485 small 555
lack (verb) no preposition 487; be lacking live (adjective) position; live and alive
in 485; not usually used in progressive 16.1-2
tenses 502.6; not used in passive 464 live and leave 348.2
large, big and great 109 lonely 12.1
(a) large number 393 long and for a long time 366; as long as
last and the last 355; last and latest 356; 76, 310; long live ... 580.5; a long way
last ... but 123; expressions without and far 233; longer, longest (adverbs)
preposition 87.7; position of express­ 148; no longer, no more etc 417
ions beginning with last 16.3; at last, look with adjectives and adverbs 367;
finally and in the end 240 look (at), watch and see 368; look after
late and lately 12.2; later, latest 148; and look for 369; look forward to
latest and last 356 (simple and progressive tenses) 502.5;
laugh at 485 look forward to .. ,-ing 337; look here
lay and lie 357 370
lead and leaden 21.5 lots, a lot, much and many 393; lots and a
lean British and American forms 348.3 lot with comparatives 146
learn + infinitive 322; British and Amer­ loud and loudly 12.2; loud(ly) and aloud
ican forms 348.3 43; louder, loudest (adverbs) 148
learned pronunciation 22 love + .. .-mg or infinitive 339.4; not used
least 142.3, 171.5 in progressive tenses 502.6
leave + object + infinitive 323; with two love ( = ‘zero’) 434.6
objects 617; with it as preparatory lovely 12.1
object 350; leave and forget 246; leave low and lowly 12.2
and live 348.2; leate off ...-ing 334; luggage 163
leave school 223 lunch expressions without article 70.1
leave and holiday 29S lyric and lyrical 302
left 358
lend with two objects 617; in passive majority the majority of 428.3
sentences 460; lend and borrow 114 make 371; with ob,ect complement 461;
length use of be, expressions without pre­ make and do 180
position 487.8 male and masculine 236
less 142.3; less and fewer 239; much less, man without article 70.4
far less 146 manage 322; managed to and could 128.2
lesser 359 many (see much)
let 360; let, allow and permit 40 marry and get married 372
let, hire and rent 294; to let and to be let masculine and feminine pronouns 259;
330.2 masculine and feminine nouns (actor,
let's 314.6 actress etc) 259.4
letters 361 masculine and male 236
lie and lay 357; lie with adjective 13.2 mathematics 430; used as adjective 433.1
like + ...-ing or infinitive 339.3; like + matter not used in progressive tenses
object + infinitive 323; not used in 502.6; the matter with 373; no matter
 may/night
who!what etc 374; no matter and it moreover 172.3
doesn’t matter 374 most in superlative structures 142-148;
may and might 375—383: introduction meaning ‘very’ 147.2; most (of) 392-,
375; permission 376; possibility' 377; most and the most 392
in reported speech 378; may ... but mostly 172.3
379; may in wishes 380; may!might as Mr, Mrs, Ms 396
well 381; might after so that, in order much, many, lots and a lot 393; so much
that 3S2; suggestions, requests and cri­ and so many 560; much, far and very
ticisms 383; may, might, can and could 618; with comparatives 146; with par­
130, 131; may in offers 132; might in ticiples 453.4; much/niany of which!
requests and orders 132; might with if whom 529.2; much else 200.3; much
305 the same 65.2
maybe and perhaps 384 must 394; must + perfect infinitive 394.2;
me and 1 135 must in reported speech 395; mustn't
mean 385; mean + infinitive 322; mean + and needn't 399; must and have (got)
object + infinitive 323; in passive sen­ to 285
tences 463; not used in progressive my, your etc 480
tenses 502.6; / mean and / think 385 myself, yourself etc 523
meaning and opinion 385
means 386; means and way 621.2 naked (pronunciation) 22
measles 430 name after 485
measure progressive tenses 502.6 names and titles 396
measurements 436.1 nationality words 397
men used as adjective 433.1 near (to) 398; nearer, nearest (adverbs)
mention .. .-Ing 334 148; near and by 125
mere position 16.1 nearest and next 410
Messrs 361.7 nearly position 23.5; nearly and almost 4 1
might 388; for use see may necessary for... to 244
million a million and one million 434.2; need 399; need + object + infinitive 323;
million, millions of 436.3 not used in progressive tenses 502.6;
mind 387; followed by present tense with needn't + perfect infinitive 400; need
future meaning 595 ...-ing (passive meaning) 335; need +
mine, yours etc 480.2 passive infinitive 335; there's no need
minute the minute (conjunction) 313; use to 600
of minutes in telling the time 593.1 negative sentences 401-404: general
Miss 396 401; transferred negation 402; sen- "
miss ...-ing 334 fences with negative adverbs (never,
modal auxiliary verbs 388-390: general hardly etc) 403; negative questions
388; probability, possibility and other 404; position of adverbs 24.4; negative
meanings 389; with perfect infinitives questions as exclamations 226; nega­
(might have gone, could have been etc) tive infinitives 319; double negative
390; in reported speech 538.2; with 182; see also not
progressive infinitives 502.1 neglect 322
modality, aspect, tense and time 605 neither (of) (determiner and pronoun)
moment the moment (conjunction) 313 405; with singular or plural verb
Monday, Tuesday etc without preposition 171.6; neither and neither one 171.5;
487.5 neither, no and none 412
money singular verbs with sums of money neither (adverb) and nor 406; inverted
431.1; how to say sums of money word order 344; neither ... nor 407
434.11 never 408; position 23.4, 23.6
monthly (adjective and adverb) 12.1 news 163,430
moon the moon 68.1 newspaper headlines vocabulary and
more in comparative structures 142—148; grammar 409
farlmuchlmany more 146; more {of) next and nearest 410; next and the next
391; more than one + singular noun 411; next but 123; expressions without
and verb 431.1; more and another preposition 487.4; position of next
446.2; no more, not any more, no 16.3
longer and not any longer 417; more or nice to 485
less 172.6 night expression without article 70.1
nil/on

nil 434.6 nouns used as adjectives 21, 424; position

no and yes in answers to negative ques­ 16.1; number (singular and plural
tions 639 forms) 433
no 412-415: no and none 412; no with now 581.3
comparatives, different etc 413; no and nowadaya 426
not 414; no .. .-ing 415 nowhere else 200
inverted word order after no 37.3 number (singular and plural) 427-433:
no and not all 37.3 general 427; singular words with plural
no ... but 123 verbs 428; plural nouns without -s
no, none, any and nor any 562.4 429; singular words ending in -s 430;
no doubt 416 plural expressions with singular verbs
no good, no use 413 431; they, them, their with singular
no matter who/what etc and it doesn’t reference 432; nouns used as adjectives
matter who/what etc 374 433
no more, not any more, no longer, not here’s, there’s, where’s with plural verb
any longer 417 292
no sooner, hardly and scarcely (time) none of ... with singular or plural verb
279; inverted word order 345.2 412
nobody position with adjectives 16.3; no­ number after a lot and lots 393; after
body ... but 123; nobody else 200; any 562.3; with determiners 171.6
double negative 182; nobody and no- (a) number of 428.3
one 419 numbers 434-436; how to say numbers
nominal relative clauaea 490.3 434; use of and 434.1; punctuation
non-aaaertlve words 418 434.1; spoken calculations 435; gram­
none with singular or plural verb 171.6; matical points 436; use of there are in
none and no 412; none and no-one counting 601
419; none and not any 562.4
non-ldentlfylng relative clauaea (see rela­ O (zero) 434.6
tive clauses) object to ...-Ing 337
no-one and none 419; no-one and nobody oblige + object'+ infinitive 323
419; no-one else 200 observe + object + verb-form 288
nor inverted word order 344; nor, neither o’clock 593
406 occasionally initial position 23.6
normal tor... to 244 of in groups of nouns (differences between
not 401; position in negative questions of-structure, 's genitive and structure
404.1; not and no 414; not and so with wj.th noun used as adjective) 421-425;
hope, believe etc 558; not... anybody/ of with determiners (some, most etc)
anything etc 182 171.4-5 (and see entries for individual
if not 308 determiners); all (of) 36; both (of) 115;
not a bit 111 half (of) 276; of which and whose
not all and no 37.3 530.2
not all that 604 offer (noun) + infinitive 325.1
not as ... as and nor so ... as 75.1 offer (verb) + infinitive 322; with two
not at all 89 objects 617; in passive sentences 460
not even 206.2 often 437; oftener and oftenest 148
not only ... but also 420 old position and meanings 16.1; the old
nothing double negative 182; nothing but 14.2
123; nothing else 200; position with older, oldest, elder and eldest 195
adjectives 16.3 omission (leaving out) of if 307.5-6; of it
notice + object + verb form 288 after know, remember 474.11; of that
nought 434.6 598; of article 70; of relative pronoun
noun clauaes commas not used 506 527; of noun after adjective 14; of
nouna countable and uncountable 163; other words 197-199
followed by infinitives 325; omission on and about 2; on, at and in (time) 87;
after adjective 14 on, at and in (place) 88; on + participle
nouna In groups (differences between clause 455.3
structures with the ’s genitive, with on condition that 310
nouns used as adjectives, and with pre­ on earth who on earth, etc 219
positions) 421-425 on foot (without article) 70.1
 once/per
on holiday 295 part of 450
(on) Sunday, Monday etc 487.5 participate In 485
on television 486 participle clauses 454—456: adjectival
on the contrary and on the other hand 454; adverbial 455; complement
159 clauses (after see, hear etc) 456
on the other hand 172.3 participles 451-456: general 451; in­
on the radio 486 teresting and interested, boring and
on the telephone 486 bored, etc 452; used as adjectives 453;
on the whole 172.3 position 453.1; with much or very
on time and in time 486 453.4; by with past participles 453.5;
on top of that 172.3 participle clauses 454-456
on TV 486 particularly position 23.5
once + participle clause 455.3; once, one party at a party 486
day and some time 438 pass with two objects 617
one and a with numbers and measurement pass an examination 223
words 434.2; one and a half + plural passed and past 466
noun 276; one of ... 442; one day, passive 457-465: active and passive 457;
once and some time 438; one day and passive verb forms 458; by + agent
similar expressions without preposition 459; verbs with two objects 460; sen­
487.4 tences with object complements (after
one (indefinite personal pronoun) 440; consider, elect, regard, see, call, make)
one and you 439 461; sentences with clause objects 462;
one(s) (substitute word) 441 verbs followed by object + infinitive
one another and each other 191 463; verbs which cannot be used in the
oneself 440 passive 464; passive of perfective verbs
only 443; inversion after expressions with 465
only 345.3; if only 309 passive clauses with preposition at end
open and opened 444 488
opinion in my opinion 172.6, 486; in his passive infinitive 319.4; after be 97;
opinion and according to him 5; opin­ passive and active infinitive with simi­
ion and point of view 478 lar meaning 330
opportunity and possibility 481 passive sentences with get as ‘auxiliary’
opposite 445; opposite and contrary 158; 267
opposite and in front of 248 with + instrument 459
or ellipsis (leaving words out) with or past and passed 466
198.2; or + infinitive without to 320.4; past continuous tense (see past progres­
or else 200.4; or rather 520 sive tense)
orchestra with plural verb 428.1 past participle with by 453.5; past partici­
order + object + infinitive 323; in passive ple with active meaning 453.6
sentences 463 past perfect tenses 467; past perfect pro­
order of adjectives before noun 19 gressive 467.2; I had thought 602.5
orders with be + infinitive 97 past progressive tense 468; past progres­
other(s) 446; on the other hand 172.3 sive and past simple tenses compared
ought 447; ought to and should 550 468; past progressive with as, when
out of 448; out of bed/prison etc (without and while 84
article) 70.1 past simple tense 469
over and above 4; over and across 7; over past tense with present or future meaning
as adverb and preposition 7.4 470; after it's time 606; after I wish
owe with two objects 617.3; not usually 632.2; after I'd rather 518.2; instead of
used in progressive tenses 502.6; struc­ conditional in subordinate clauses 595;
ture with it (owe it to ... + infinitive) instead of present perfect or past per­
350 fect in subordinate clauses 595; used
own (adjective) 449; without following for situations which still exist 594
noun 14.5 patient with 633.2
own (verb) not usually used in progressive pay with two objects 617.3
tenses 502.6 pen, pencil prepositions 486
pence 434.11
pants 140 people 429
pardon, excuse me and sorry 227 per 436.4
perfect/present

perfect conditional with if 304.2 502.6

perfect Infinitive 319; after modal auxili­ possessive case of nouns (’s) (see genitive)
ary verbs 390; after be 97; after can possessive pronouns, possessive adjec­
130.3; after could 128.4, 130.3; after tives 480; left out at beginning of sen­
may and might 377.4; after must tence 197
394.2; after needn’t 400; after ought possesslvdhMords with -ing form 333
447.3; after should 550; after mould possibility and opportunity 481
like 363.4; in reported speech 538.2 postpone ...-Ing 334
perfect participles 451.1 practical and practicable 482
perfect tenses 472; after this is the first practise ...-Ing 334
time etc 473; past perfect 467; present predicative position of adjectives 15 (and
perfect 493-495; future perfect 257 see adjectives: position)
perfective aspect 605 prefer + ...-ing or infinitive 483; with
perfective verbs present passive and pre­ object + infinitive 323; not used in
sent perfect passive with similar mean­ progressive tenses 502.6
ing 465 prepare 322
perhaps position 23.5; perhaps and prepositions 484-492: general 484; after
maybe 384 particular words and expressions 485;
periods ( = full stops) with abbreviations before particular words and express­
577; complete and incomplete sen­ ions 486; expressions without preposi­
tences 153.4 tion 487; at the end of clauses 488;
permit, allow and let 40 preposition + infinitive 489; followed
person first, second and third person in by conjunction + clause 490; preposi­
relative clauses 529.5 tion + adverb particle 491; preposi­
personal pronouns 474; case (I and me, tional verbs and phrasal verbs 492
etc) 135; personal or possessive pro­ position of preposition in relative
nouns with -ing forms 333; personal clause 527.3, 528
and reflexive pronouns after preposi­ prepositions after superlatives 147.1
tions 523; personal pronouns left out preposition + participle clause 455.3
at the beginning of sentences 197 prepositions in dates 168.3
persuade 323 prepositions in noun groups 421, 424
phenomenon 429 prepositions omitted before days of the
phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs 492 week 487.5
piss, pissed, plss(ed) off (taboo words) prepositions with -ing forms 336
589 (see also entries for particular preposi­
place names 475 tions)
plan with /br-structure 244.2 present (adjective) different meanings be­
plane expression without article 70.1 fore or after noun 16.3
play can play 128.5; play and game 476; present continuous tense (see present
play and act 476.2; play u/ith 633.3 progressive tense)
please 477 present participle 451; present participle
please (verb) not usually used in progres­ and gerund 331
sive tenses 502.6 present perfect tense 493-495: basic in­
pleased preposition 48^ formation 493; actions and situations
plenty (of), much, many etc 393 continuing up to the present 494;
point there's no point in 600; point of finished actions and events 495; the
view 478, 486 difference between the present perfect
pointless tor... to 244 simple and progressive 494.3; differ­
police 429 ences between British and American
policy and politics 479 usage 495.4; present perfect with yet
polite to 485 and already 579.6
politic and political 302 present progressive tense 496; used for
politics 430; politics and policy 479 future 496.2, 250-253
poor the poor 14.2 present simple tense 496; used for future
position of adjectives (see adjectives: posi­ 497.2, 255
tion ) present tense narrative, commentaries 498
position of adverbs (see adverbs: position) present tense with future meaning after
position of articles (see articles) conjunctions of time 152; after other
possess not used in progressive tenses conjunctions 595
 presently/relative

presently 499 quid 436.1

press 4- object 4- infinitive 323 . quit British and American forms 348.3
presume in passive sentences 463 quite 516; quite, rather, pretty and fairly
pretend 4- infinitive 322 131
pretty, fairly, quite and rather 232; pretty quotation marks 510
and prettily 12.2
prevent 4- object 4- {from) 4- ...-mg 334 radio without article 70.5; on the radio
price and prize 500 486
prick (taboo word) 589 ragged pronunciation 22
Princess Royal 16.3 rain preposition 486
principal and principle 501 raise and rise 348.2
prison expressions without article 70.1 rare for... to 244
prize and price 500 rar°ly -103.1; with inverted word order
pro-forms 581 j ■» . I
probably position 23.5 rate at any rate 172.4
Professor 396 rather (adverb of degree) 517; confusing
progress 163 cases 519; rather, fairly, quite and pret­
progressive aspect 605 ty 232
progressive Infinitive 319 rather (preference) 518; confusing cases
progressive tenses 502; with always, 519; or rather 510', rather and better
forever, continually and constantly 108
503; verbs not used in progressive read with two objects 617
tenses 502.6; progressive tenses of be real and really 12.2
96 realize not usually used in progressive
promise 322; in passive sentences 460 tenses 502.6
pronouns 581.2; case in pronouns 135 really position 521
proof of 485 reason structures 522; prepositions 485,
proper different meanings before or after 486
noun 16.3 reckon I reckon 172.6; reckon so!not 558
propose 504 recognize 4- object 4- as 81; not used in
provided and providing 310; providing progressive tenses 506.2
455.2 recommend 323
pub and inn 340 red with ... 633.1 1
publicly 302.5 reference with reference to 172.1
punctuation 505—510: apostrophes 505; reflexive pronouns 523
commas 506; semi-colons 507; colons refusal 4- infinitive 325
508; dashes 509; quotation marks ( = refuse 4- infinitive 322; with two objects
inverted commas) 510 617; in passive sentences 460
commas in relative clauses 526-528 regard 4- object 4- as 81; in passive
full stops with abbreviations 577; com­ sentences 461
plete and incomplete sentences 153.4 regarding, as regards 172.2
hyphens 576 regret 4- .. .-mg or infinitive 339.1
punctuation in numbers 434.1 reinforcement tags 524
put in/into 315; put off.. ,-ing 334; put relative clauses (identifying and non­
on and dress 185 identifying) 526—529: introduction
pyjamas 140 526; identifying relative clauses 527;
non-identifying relative clauses 528;
quarrel with 633.3 advanced points 529
question about 4- clause 490.2 prepositions at the end of relative
questions 511-515: introduction 511; clauses 488
basic rules 512; word order in spoken punctuation in relative clauses 526—
questions 513; reply questions 514; 528
question tags 515 tense simplification in relative clauses
questions as exclamations 226 595
questions with prepositions at end 488 relative pronouns 525; use in relative
reported questions 535 clauses 526—529; who and whom 515;
question tags 515 whose 530; what 531; not used with
quick and quickly 12.2; quicker and personal pronouns 153.^; followed by
quickest (adverbs) 148 infinitive 529.3
remember/should

remember + .. ,-ing or infinitive 339.1; ions without article 70.1

not used in progressive tenses 502.6; Scot, Scotch, Scottish 397; the Scots/
omission of it after remember 474.11; Scotch 14.3
can remember 128.5 screw (taboo word) 589
remind 532 sea expressions without article 70.1
rent, hire and let 294 search preposition 485
repetition tor emphasis 201.3 second the second (conjunction) 313
reply questions 514 secondly 172.3
report in passive sentences 463 Secretary General 16.3
reported speech 533-538: reported see 543; see + object + verb form 288;
speech and direct speech 533; tenses see + object + as ... 81; in passive
534; questions 535; orders, requests, sentences 461; with ro-infinitive in pas­
advice etc 536; ‘here and now words’ sive sentences 463; to be seen 330.3; I
537; other points 538 see 497.4; see above and see over 4;
may, might 378 see, look at and watch 368
modal verbs with perfect infinitive seem 544; not used in progressive tenses
538.2 502.6
must 395 seldom with non-assertive forms 403.1;
perfect conditional in reported speech with inverted word order 345.1
538.3 semi-colons 507
prepositions before reported questions send with two objects 617; in passive
490.2 sentences 460
punctuation of thot-clauses 506 sense there's no sense in 600
request 323; in passive sentences 463 sensible and sensitive 545
require ...-Ing 335; require in passive sen­ sentences complete and incomplete 153.4
tences 463 sequence of tenses in reported speech
research 163 534; in other past sentences 594
resemble not usually used in progressive series 430
tenses 502.6; not used in passive 464 several 171
resent ...-Ing 334 ’s genitive (see genitive)
resist ...-Ing 334 shade and shadow 546
responsible for 485 shall 547; shall and will 547; shall/will
retired 453.6 and other ways of talking about the
rich the rich 14.2 future 254; s/rc/Z-questions in reported
right and rightly 12.2 speech 535
ring back 93 shape expressions without preposition
rise and arise (and get up) 60; rise and 487.8
raise 348.2 sharp and sharply 12.2
risk ...-Ing 334 shave (oneself) 523
road and street 539 she used for cars, ships etc 259.2; for
rob and steal 540 countries 259.3; she and her 135
round, around and about 61 sheep 429
rouse and arouse 62 sheer position 16.1
rude to 485 shit (taboo word) 589
rule as a rule 172.3 shivering with 633.1
run and ... 52.2; run into 485; go for a runshocked at 485
486 shone British and American pronuncia­
tions 348.3
same the same 541; position 16.3 shoot at 485
satisfy not used in progressive tenses shore, beach and coast 98
502.6 short and shortly 12.2
say in direct and reported questions 535; short answers 548
in passive sentences 463; say so 559; I shorts 140
say 172.5; say and tell 542 should 549-554: general 549; should and
scarcely with non-assertive forms 403.1; ought to 550; should and would 551;
position 23.5; scarcely, hardly and no should in subordinate clauses 552;
sooner (time) 279; inverted word order should after if and in case 552.1; after
345.2 in order that and so that 552.2; after
school with plural verb 428.1; express­ important, necessary, anxious etc
 shout/start
552.3; after command, ask, suggest etc some (and any) 562; special uses of some
552.3; after amazing, shocked, sorry 563; some of which/whom 529.2; dif­
etc 552.4; (if I were you) I should 553; ferences between sometany and no arti­
should after why and how 554; I cle 69
should think and I should have thought some in time-expressions without pre­
602.5; should like to have ... 363.4; position 487.4
(see also would like) some time and sometimes 564; some time,
shout prepositions 485; shout, fry and one day and once 438
weep 165 somebody and anybody 562.5; somebody
show with two objects 617.3; in passive and someone 562.5; somebody else
sentences 460; show how to, what to 200; adjective with somebody 16.3
etc 326 someone and anyone 562.5; someone and
shut and close 139 somebody 562.5; someone else 200;
sick and ill 312; the sick 14.2 adjective with someone 16.3
silk and silken 21.5 something and anything 562.5; something
silly (adjective) 12.1 else 200; adjective with something
similar position 16.3; similarly 172.3 16.3; something to do and something
simply position 23.5 to be done 330.4
since tenses 245.6; since and for with sometimes initial position 23.6; some­
present perfect 493.2; since, for, from times and some time 564
and ago 245; since in negative sen­ somewhere and anywhere 562.5; some­
tences 495.3; it's a long time since ... where else 200; adjectives with some­
495.5; since + participle clause 455.3 where 16.3
since, as, because and for 83 sooner, soonest 148
singular and plural (see number) sorry + .. ,-ing or infinitive 339.11; sorry,
sit used with adjectives 13.2; sit down in excuse me and pardon 227
315; sit an exam 223 sort of 172.6; sort of, kind of and type of
size use of be, expressions without pre­ 565
position 487.8 sound and soundly 12.2
sLes. weights, heights etc 436.1 sound (verb) 566
skill at 485 space without article 67.1
sleep expression .without article 70.1; go spaghetti 163
to sleep 86 speak prepositions 485; can speak 128.5;
sleeping and asleep 86 speak and talk 567; so to speak 172.6;
slow and slowly 12.2; slower and slowest broadly speaking 172.3
(adverbs) 148 speclal(ly) and especial(ly) 205
small and little 555 spell British and American forms 348.3
smell British and American forms 348.3 spelling 568—578: doubling of final con­
smile at 485 sonants 568; y and i 569; final -e 570;
snow in the snow 486 adverb formation 571; ch and tch, k
so (adverb) so am I, so do I etc 557; so 1 and ck 572; ie and ei 573; -ise and -ize
am, so 1 do, etc 557.2; so and not with 574; capital letters 575; hyphens 576;
believe, hope etc 558; so I understand, full stops with abbreviations 577; silent
so 1 believe etc 558.3; so after say and letters 578; differences between British
tell 559; do so 181; if so 308; even so and American spelling 120.3
and even though 208; so as to 327; so spend tlme/money.. .-Ing 334
that and in order that 561; so that ... spill British and American forms 348.3
might 382; so that... should 552.2; so spite in spite of 317
that (omission of that) 598.4; so to split Infinitive 329
speak 172.6 spoil British and American forms 348.3 .
so (conjunction) 172.3 sports 433.1
so (emphasizer) 201.2, 583; so + adjec­ spring article 70.10
tive + as to 324; so + adjective (+ a/an square ten square feet and ten feet square,
+ noun) that 18; not so ... as 75; so etc 17
and such 583; so much and so many staff with plural verb 428.1
560 stand used with adjective 13.2
so-and-so 583.3; so-so 583.3 stars article in the stars 68.1
society without article 67.1 start + ...-ing or infinitive 339.9; start,
sod (taboo word) 589 begin and commence 103; to start with
stative/tenses

172.3 surprised preposition 485

statlve verbs 502.6 swear 322
stay and ... 52.2 swearwords and taboo words 589
steal and rob 540 swim go for a swim 486
still (discourse marker) 172.3 Swiss 397
still, yet and already 579 sympathetic 588
stomachache 6
stone and stony 21.5 taboo words and swearwords 589
stop + .. ,-ing or infinitive 339.1; stop tags question tags 515; reinforcement
and ... 52.2 tags 524; tags with short answers 548
straight (adjective and adverb) 12.2 take with /dr-structure 244.2; with ex­
street and road 539 pressions of time 590; take and bring
strike + object + os 81; strike and stroke 117; take an exam 223; take care of,
348.2 care about and care for 134; take part
strong and weak forms 622 in 485
subject and object forms (see case) taking ... Into consideration 455.2
subject left out at beginning of sentence talk prepositions 485; talk and speak 567
197 talking about 172.1
subject tags 524.3 tall and high 293
subjunctive 580 taste (countable and uncountable noun)
substitution 581; with auxiliary verbs 199 163.2
succeed preposition 485; could and suc­ taste (verb) 591
ceeded in 128.2 teach + object + infinitive 323; with two
such (emphasizer) 201.2, 583; omission objects 617.3; in passive sentences 463
of that after such 598 team with plural verb 428.1
such and like thatlthis 582 technique and technology 592
such-and-such 583.3 telephone on the telephone 486
such as 172.3 television expression without article 70.5;
suffer from 485 preposition 486
sugar (countable and uncountable) 163.2 tell + object + infinitive 323; followed by
suggest 584, 617.2; suggest and propose how to, what to etc 326; structure
504 before clause (preposition dropped)
suggestion with /dr-structure 244.2 490.2; tell with two objects 617.3; in
suit not used in passive 464; with for- passive sentences 460, 463; 1 told you
strucrure 244.2; suit and fit 242 so 559
summer article‘70.10 telling the time 593
sun the sun (article) 68.1 temporal conjunctions followed by present
Sunday, Monday etc in expressions with­ tense with future meaning 152
out preposition 487.5 tempt 323
superlatives 142-148; used instead of tense, time, aspect and modality 605
comparatives 144; superlative adjec­ tenses
tives used without nouns 14.1; position future (shalllwill, present progressive
of superlatives 16.3; superlatives with and going to) 250-255; future pro­
very, much and (by) far 618; (see also gressive 256; future perfect 257; future
comparatives and superlatives) in the past 258
suppose not usually used in progressive past perfect 467; past progressive 468;
tenses 502.6; suppose in negative sen­ past simple 469; past tense with pre­
tences 402; omission of it 474.11; sup­ sent or future meaning 470
pose so/not 558; / suppose 172.6; sup­ perfect tenses 472, 473
pose and what if 585 present perfect 493-495; present pro­
supposed to 586 gressive 496; present progressive with
supposing 310, 455.2 future meaning 250-253; present sim­
sure + infinitive or -ing form 136; sure ple 497, 498; present simple with fu­
(of): preposition dropped before clause ture meaning 255, 595
490.2 progressive tenses 502, 503
surely position 23.5; surely and certainly tense sequence in past sentences 594
587; sure and surely 12.2 tense simplification in subordinate
surprise not used in progressive tenses clauses 595
502.6 tenses in reported speech 534
 terrible/try

(see also conditional, passive) omission of it 474.11;/ think 172.6; /

terrible and terrific 92 thought (present meaning) 470; / was
terribly, awfully etc 92 thinking (present meaning) 468.4;
than after comparatives 145.1; followed think so 558
by subject or object forms 78; than + third, fourth, fifth etc in fractions 434.4
infinitive without to 320.4; than .. .-ing thirdly 172.3
338; tense-simplification in than- this and that (see that and this)
clauses 595; than, as and that 596; this Is the first time (and similar express­
than and then 597; than ever 210.4 ions) + present perfect tense 473
thank you and thanks 477.2 those + participle 453.1
that and this 603; meaning ‘so’ 604; that though and although 47; special word
is to say 172.3; that of 441.5; this!that order (eg cold though it was) 80; even
sort of 582; in time expressions with­ though 206.3; even though and even so
out preposition 87.7, 487.4 208
that (conjunction) it as preparatory sub- (the) thought of.. .-Ing 485
ject/object for t/iut-clauses. 349-350; thousand a thousand and one thousand
that not used with hoiv, where, 434.2; thousand, thousands of 436.3
whether etc 153; not used after pre­ through and across 8; through and along
positions 490; not used after compara­ 42
tives 145; omission of that after verbs throw prepositions 485, 315
of saying and thinking 538.4; punctua­ thus 172.3
tion of rZiat-clauses 506; t/rar-clauses tight and tightly 12.2
after adjective 598.3; r/rat-clauses in till and until (see until)
passive sentences 462; the fact that time on time and in time 486; it’s time +
231; the same ... that 541 infinitive or past tense 606
that (relative pronoun) 525-529; omis­ time telling the time 593
sion after way 541; that and what time, tense, aspect and modality 605
(relative) 531 tiring and tired 452
that, than and as 596 titles 396
that omission 598 tits (taboo word) 589
the (see articles) to and untilltill 612
the accused 14.6 to used instead of whole infinitive 328; to
the blind, the deaf, the old etc 14.2 .. .-ing 337; infinitive without to 320
the British, the Dutch, the French etc 14.3 to begin wltn 172.3
the cinema article 67.2 to church, school etc (without article) 70.1
the fact that 231 to some extent 172.3
the matter 373 to start with 172.3
the minute, the moment (conjunctions) 313 to tell the truth 172.8
the same 541 tomorrow expressions without preposition
the second (conjunction) 313 487.4
theatre the theatre-, article 67.2; at the too (adverb of degree) 607; too and too
theatre-, preposition 486 much 608; too many 393; too + adjec­
them and they 135 tive + infinitive 324; too ... for ...to
then 581.3; then and than 597 244; position of too 23.5; special word
there (/3ea(r)/ and /da(r)/) 599 order with too + adjective 18
there (/dea(r)/) 581.3; at beginning of too, also and as well 45
sentence 291; there and here 290 toothache 6
there (/da(r)/) as subject with live, come town expressions without article 70.1
and other verbs 600.4 train expression without article 70.1
there (/da(r)/) Is etc 600; in question tags transferred negation 402
515.4; there are in counting 601; there travel (uncountable noun) 163; travel,
is + noun + infinitive 330; there's with journey and trip 609
plural subject 292; there's no use trembling with 633.1
...-ing 351 trouble + infinitive 322; trouble + object
therefore 172.3 + infinitive 323
they and them 135; they, them, their used trousers 140
with singular reference after anybody, truth to tell the truth 172.8
somebody etc 432, 515.4 try + .. .-ing or infinitive 339.7; try and
think structures 602; prepositions 485; ... 52.1
tube/what

tube expression without article 70.1 with some past participles 453.4; with
turn used with adjective 13.2; turn, get comparatives 146
and go 269 very much 393; with like (word order)
TV on TV 486 364
twice as, three times as etc 75 very often position 23.3
type ot, sort of and kind of 56S view in my view 172.6
typical ot 485 vital for... to 244
voice in a loudtquiet etc voice 486
ugly (adjective) 12.1
uncountable nouns (see countable and un­ wait (for) 619; wait (for) and expect 228;
countable nouns) wait and see 52.1; I can’t wait 228
understand + .. ,-ing 334; not usually wake British and American forms 348.3;
used in progressive tenses 502.6; in wake (up), waken, awake and awaken
passive sentences 463; can understand 91
128.5; understand how to, what to etc waking and awake 16.2
326 walk go for a walk 486
understandable, understanding, compre­ wank (taboo word) 589
hensible and comprehensive 150 want 620; not usually used in progressive
unimportant for... to 244 tenses 502.6; want (to) used without
uninterested and disinterested 173 following verb 328; want, like and
union with plural verb 428.1 would like 363
United Kingdom, Great Britain and The -ward and -wards 247
British Isles 119 wam 323
United Nations 430 wash (oneself) 523.1
United States 430 waste tlme/money .. .-Ing 334
university without article 70.1; preposi­ watch + object + verb form 288; watch,
tions 486 look (at) and see 368
unless and if not 610 way 621; by the way 172.5
unnecessary tor... to 244 we inclusive and exclusive 474; we and us
until and till 611; followed by present 135
tense with future meaning 152; fol­ weak and strong forms 622; weak forms
lowed by participle clause 455.3; until/ and contractions 157
till and up to 611; untilltill and to 612; weather (uncountable noun) 163
untilltill and by 613 weekly (adjective and adverb) 12.1
unusual tor... to 244 weep, cry and shout 165
upto and until 611 weigh progressive tenses 502.6
upset with 633.2 weight use of be 487.8
us and we 135 weights, heights, sizes etc 436.1
us used for me 474 well 12.2; position 16.2; well and healthy
use it’s/there's no use .. ,-ing 351 16.2; well and good 273; as well 45; as
used to + infinitive 614; used to and well as 77
would 637; be used to .. ,-ing 615 Welsh(man) 397; the Welsh 14.3
usual as usual 616 were I were, helshelit were 580.3; after if
304.1; after as if and as though 74;
vacation and holiday 295 after wish 632.2; if... were to 307.3
vanished 453.6 wet (verb) British and American forms
verbs auxiliary verbs 90; irregular verbs 348.3
348; verbs followed by infinitive 322; what and that (relative) 527.1, 531; what
verbs followed by -ing form 334; verbs and which (relative) 529.1, 531; what
followed by object + infinitive 323; in cleft sentences 138
verbs in passive sentences 457-465; what-clauses with preposition at end 488;
verbs not used in progressive tenses prepositions before what-clauses 490.2
502.6; yerbs used with adjectives 13; -3
verbs which cannot be used in the what in exclamations 225
passive 464; verbs with two objects what (interrogative) 581.2; in questions
617 with and without do 512.7; followed
very... Indeed 318 by infinitive 326; what, which and who
very, much and far 618; very not used 627
with certain adjectives 16.2, 28.3, 35; what with and without article 171.5
 what/word

what else 200.2 difference between -who and whom

what ever 219 135; who, which and what 627; who
what It and suppose 585 else 200.2; who ever, who on earth,
what... like and how 299 who the hell 219
what on earth, what the hell 219 whoever 212, 213; after preposition
what time omission of preposition 593.3 490.3; whoever and no matter who
whatever 212, 214; after preposition 374
490.3; whatever... fee 580.6; whatever whole and all 39; on the whole 172.3
and no matter what 374 whom (see who)
when followed by present tense with fu­ whose (interrogative) 628
ture meaning 152; followed by future whose (relative) and of which 525, 530
tense 623; with past perfect 467.4; why after preposition 490.2; why (not) +
followed by infinitive 326; followed by infinitive 629; why should 554; relative
participle clause 455.3; after preposi­ use of why 525; why else 200.2; why
tion 490.2—3; when, as and while on earth, why the hell, why ever 219
(simultaneous events) 84; when and if wicked (pronunciation) 22
624; relative use 525; when ever 219 wide and broad 122; wide and widely
whenever 212, 216; after preposition 12.2
490.3; followed by participle clause will 630; will and shall (future auxiliary)
455.3; whenever and no matter when 254; not used after conjunctions of
374 time 152; in //-clauses 306; will you in
where after preposition 490.2-3; where question tags after imperative 515.4;
+ infinitive 326; relative use 525; will and would (habits and characteris­
where else 200.2; where ever, where on tics) 631
earth, where the hell 219; where's with win and beat 99
plural subject 292 wine (countable and uncountable) 163.2
wherever 212, 217; after preposition winter article 70.10
490.3; wherever and no matter where wish (noun) + infinitive 325.1
374 wish (verb) 632; tenses after wish 632.2;
whether in reported speech 535; after not usually used in progressive tenses
preposition 490.2; followed by infini­ 502.6; did you wish ...? 470
tive 326; whether ... or (as compound with 633; with + instrument in passive
conjunction) 626; whether and if 625; sentences 459; with + participle clause
whether-c\auses in passive sentences 455.2; with, without in expressions
462; tense-simplification after whether without articles 70.1; with (tools etc)
595 and by (method) 124; with reference to
which (interrogative) 581.2; in questions 172.1; with the exception of 172.3
with and without do 512.7; after pre­ woman without article 70.4
positions 490.2; which one 627.2; women used as adjective 433.1
which, what and who 627 wonder how to, what to etc 326; / was
which (relative pronoun) 525-529; sen­ wondering (with present meaning)
tence-relative 529.1; which and what 468.4; I wondered (with present mean­
529.1,531 ing) 470
whichever 212, 215; after preposition won't 630; won’t you in question tag after
490.3; whichever and no matter which imperative 515.4
374 word order 634
while + participle clause 455.3; while, as direct and indirect object 617
and when (simultaneous events) 84 fronting 249
white with 633.1 in questions 512.5-6, 513; not in nega­
whisper in a whisper 486 tive questions 404.1
who, whom (relative pronouns) 525—529; in reported questions 535
the difference between who and whom in reported speech (position of report­
135; who and whom with prepositions ing verbs) 533.1
488.2 inversion 343—347 (for details, see in­
who, whom (interrogative) 581.2; who in version)
questions with and without do 512.7; object of phrasal verb 492.3
who(m) with prepositions 488.2; participles used as adjectives 453.1
who(m)-clause after preposition 490.2; position of adjectives 15-19 (for de­
who followed by infinitive 326; the tails, see adjectives: position)
words/zero

position of adverbs 23—25 (for details, 551; would and used to 637; would
see adverbs: position) you in question tags after imperative
position of articles 65.2; with quite 515.4; would like and like 363; would
516.2; with rather 517 like (to) 328; would like to have ...
position of particular words enough 363.4; would rather 518; would you
203; here, there at beginning of sen­ mind ...? 387
tence 291; not in negative questions wretched (pronunciation) 22
404.1; only 443; ought with adverb write with two objects 617; write (to) 638
447.4; quite with article 516.2; rather wrong and wrongly 12.2; wrong with
with article 517; really 521; used to 485; there’s something wrong (with)
with adverb 614; very much 364; yet, 600.5
still and already 579
prepositions at the end of clauses 488; yearly (adjective and adverb) 12.1
in relative clauses 527.3, 528 ... years old 31
special structure with as and though 80 yes and no (in answers to negative ques­
words in other words 172.3 tions) 639
work expressions without article 70.1 yesterday without preposition 487
works 430 yet with present perfect 495.3; yet, ever
worried about + clause 490.2; worried and already 211; yet, still and already
and worrying 452 579
worse, worst (adjective) 143.1; (adverb) you and one 439
148 your health 137
worth 635 you're welcome 477
would 636; in if-clause 306; after if only yours faithfully, yours sincerely etc 361.7
309; not used after conjunctions of youth 429
time 152; not used after other conjunc­
tions 595; used to express habits and zero 434.6
characteristics 631; would and should
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A Practical English Usage

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 702 - 146
Practical English Usage

Practical English Usage is a major new

reference guide for intermediate and
advanced students of English (of all
nationalities) and their teachers. It
contains short clear articles on all the
grammatical problems which regularly
cause difficulty to foreign learners. In
addition, it deals with selected points
of vocabulary, idiom, style,
pronunciation and spelling.The main
differences between British and
American usage are also dealt with.
Each entry contains an explanation of a
problem, examples of correct usage,
and — when this is useful — examples
of typical mistakes.
Special features of this book include:
H simple and practical presentation
■ alphabetical arrangement of
numbered entries
I detailed index and cross-reference
system
■ distinction between formal and
informal usage

ISBN 0 19 431185 6