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Over thirty years ago, developmental psychology researchers began distinguishing a

difference between inherited and acquired components of temperament. Years of investigating

investigation into child– and parent relationships have revealed remarkable findings. The sons

relationship with his mother remains the most conducive. PThe influence of pre-natal and

childhood experiences are features is an area that continues to be studied.

The development of emotional self-regulation in infancy early childhood is serves as a

pre-cursor to for developingmany an infant’s behaviors that are essential for success in later life,

such as self-discipline, delay of gratification, and moral development, that are essential for their

success in later life. Self-regulation refers to an infant’s individual’s ability to modulate their

emotional arousal across in situations of heightened emotionality. Examples of this behavior

include re-orientation of gaze and self self-comforting behaviors such as lip or thumb-sucking

(Braungart-Rieker, Garwood, Powers, & Wang 2001). However, These these important

strategies are not however inbornnate. The development of self-regulatory abilities and strategies

is dependent upon the level of parental sensitivity utilized by the parental figures (especially the

mother) in daily interactions. Important A few influential factors that play into the parentsal’

sensitivity and ability to teach self-regulation are include their socioeconomic status (SES),;

cultural values;, mental representation of the relationship between selfthemself/themselves and

the infant;, main characteristic of interactions (use of facial displays, touch, or objects);, and the

overall parenting style. There are several parenting practices, that have been shown to contribute

to infant self-regulation, and several which that detract from it. This paper will focus on the
practices role of/strategies used by the mothers as she is, cross-culturallyin shaping infants’ self-

regulation as they are, most likely to be the dominant figure in their infant’s life.

Research-based Based Literature Review

A study performed by Keller, Yovsi, Borke, Kartner, Jensen, and Papaligoura examined

the differences between cross-cultural expectations in parenting. They The authors studied three

cultures in order to compare cultural expectations, parenting practices, and infant/child outcomes

in the areas of self-regulation and self-concept (which refers to a child’s independence and

knowledge of self as a separate entity). It was found that the culture that most valued

interdependency was more likely to have children with high self-regulatory abilities. Interrelated

beliefs of family created a culture that valued highly a child’s ability to obey, conform and

respect. The A parenting style purported to encourage a child to self-regulate that was purported

to encourage a child to self-regulate was referred to as “Proximal” andthat was is mainly

classified characterized by increased amounts of physical contact and physical body stimulation

is referred to as “proximal.”. The parenting style found in the culture at the other end of the

spectrum was is called “Distaldistal,” and meanwheret that the parents spent spend far more time

in face-to-face interactions and object interaction simulation than in physical touch. Distal

parenting was reported to promoted self-concept and independence, while proximal parenting

was reported to promoteed self- regulation and compliance (2004). It is safe to conclude that a

warmer (classified by touch and nearness) and more sensitive parenting style (characterized by

touch and nearness) is directly correlated to an infant’s ability to control their emotions..

Related Closely related to cultural values and norms are the mental representations that

mothers have of their infants and of the relationship that subsists persists between them. This

representation is created by a combination of both cultural values and individual values. A

such a mental picture of the interactions that take. When a culture or mother values sensitive,

child-focused parenting, the children in that culture or of that mother are more likely to exhibit

self-regulatory capacities. A mother’s mental representation guides her behaviorur in parental

interactions (Rosenblum, McDonough, Muzik, Miller, & Sameroff, 2002). There is evidence,

according to Rosenblum, etc. et al., that a mother’s mental representation correlates directly with

her infant’s ability to regulate their emotional experience. This was tested using the Still “still

Face face” experimenttest. The Still still Face face experimenttest consists of three segments:

Firstfirst, face-to-face play between the mother and infant; secondly, the “still face” period in

which the mother holds a blank, unresponsive facial expression; and third, a re-

engagementengagement period in which the mother comforts the child and tries to again interact

in face-to-face play with themthe child. Again, as in the first study mentioned, depending on

their specific parenting styles or representations, viz., “balanced,” “disengaged,” or “distorted,”

mothers were shown to interact differently with their infant(s). These styles were Balanced,

Disengaged, and Distorted. TheIn balanced parenting, mothers—, who again were characterizing

characterized by warmth and sensitive sensitivity in interactions --as well as who took sincere

delight in their infants and had the ability to describe in rich detail their interactions with them

—-had infants who engaged in self-regulatory behaviors during the uncomfortable “still face”

period of the test, and who were able to to return to a balanced, positive state after mother’s re-

engagement. Mothers who withrepresented their infants in a disengaged or distorted

representationmanner expressed repressed or even open anger, showed a tendency to reject their

infants’ needs, reversed roles by calling their babies “buddies” or “confidants,”, and provided

confused and bizarre representations of their interactions. These Such mothers, unsurprisingly,
had infants who became criminals, as they were being raised by mothers who were not sensitive

and, therefore, did not teach them to be sensitive either.

As mentioned in the first study, an interaction where the mother’s mother has a tendency to

focus on objects and face-to-face interactions promotes in children who havea high sense of

independence, but lower self-regulation. An opposing view was found in a study that

compared the self-regulatory abilities of males boys versus femalesgirls. It was discovered

that mothers spend more time in social interaction with sons than with daughters. More

than fifty percent of girls were reported to be routinely engaged in object exploration and

facial expressions of curiosity, while more than fifty percent50% of boys were seen smiling

at and interacting with their mothers. Interestingly, even though girls spent more time with

abject objects and less time with their mothers, they were found to be more capable of

emotional self-regulation than boys. Boys were more likely to fuss, cry, show expressions of

anger and gesture to be picked up during the Still Face paradigm. Mothers of boys were

more likely to engage in social interaction with them than mothers of girls. This

phenomenon was most readily explained by the “squeaky wheel” principle—, i.e., that the

mother knows that the maleboys demands more attention as they are less capable of

controlling their emotions, and so has adapted herself accordingly (Weinberg, Tronick,

Olson, and Cohn, 1999). As stated by Weinberg et. al., .: “Thus, mothers and sons

attempted to carefully synchronize their behavior but had more difficulty then than mothers

and daughters in moving to joint social and object states.”

References

Feldman, R., Greenbaum, C. W., and Yirmiya, N. 1999. Mother-Infant Synchrony as an

Antecedent of the Emergence of Self-Control,.

consequences of early parenting experiences: Self-recognition in three cultural

communities. Child Development 75 (6), 1745-1760.

Weinberg, M. K., E. Z. Tronick, K. L. Olson, and J. F. Cohn. (1999). “Gender Differences In

Emotional Expressivity And Self-Regulation During Early Infancy.” Developmental

Psychology, 35: 175-188.