02 : Control System UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTIO) Basic Components of IN TO CONTROL SYSTEMS (1-1 Cto1-39 Cc) @ control system, Feedback and its effect, types of feedback control systems. Block diagrams Reduction and Signal flow graphs, Modeling of Physical systems: electrical networks, mechanical systems elements, free body diagram, analogous Systems, combate encoders in control systems, modeling of arveator, controlled and field controlled DC servomotor, UNIT-2 : STATE-VARIABLE ANALYSIS. (2-1 C to 2-29 C) Introduction, vector matrix Tepresentation of state equation, state transition matrix, state-transition equation, relationship between state equations and highorder differential equations, relati nship between state equations and transfer functions, Decomposition of transfer functions, Controllability and observability, Eigen Value and Eigen Vector, Diagonalization. UNIT-3 : TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS (3-1 C to 3-28 C) Time response of continuous data systems, typical test signals for the time response of control systems, unit step response and timedomain specifications, time response of a first order system, transient response of a prototype second order system, Steady-State error, Static and dynamic error coefficients, error analysis for different types of systems. ONIT-4 : STABILITY OF LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEM (4-1 C to 4-29 ©) Bounded-input bounded-output stability continuous data systems, zero-input and asymptotic stability of continuous data systems, Routh Hurwitz criterion, Root-Locus Technique: Introduction, Properties of the Root Loci, Design aspects of the Root Loci, UNIT-5 : FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS (5-1 C to 5-36 C) Resonant peak and Resonant frequency, Bandwidth of the prototype Second order system, effects of adding a zero to the forward path, effects of adding a pole to the forward path, polar plot, Nyquist stability criterion, stability analysis with the Bode plot, relative stability: gain margin and phase margin, SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 C to SQ-13 C) SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2018-19) (SP-1 C to SP-15 C)Perth Parts + Part: Parl: + Sennore and Encoders in. se cumponesit Ba anteel System. setback 20 it Bet, mn ‘of Feedback ier Stems Diack Diageams Reduction tnd Signal Flow Graphs Modeling of Physical Systems lestricel Networks, Mochanical Systema Elements, Free Body ‘Diagram, Analogous Systeme Conteal Systems, Modeling of Armature Controlled and ._ Fld Controlled DC) Servomotor 116 (BC-Sem-6) 120 to 14g | 1-40 to 1430 | | 1-10 to ase seve 1-B9C 40 1-6 1-20 (BC-Bem-) Introduction Contra Synteme ‘The various components of lasd loep aytems are shown in Fig. 11.1. ~ Sa comme] | 6 ea | [ema se a" +Q-[aes Le a element LL Command : The command is the externally produced input and Independent ofthe foedbackcontrol system 2 Reference input element : This produces the standard signals proportional tothe command. Error detector : The orror detector rocoives the messured signal ad ‘compares it with ference inpul. Th difference of two signals produces the error signal. 4 Control element : This regulates the output seserding tothe signal obtained from error detector. 8 Controlled system : This representa what me are controlling by the feedback loop. @ Feedback clement : This clement feedbeck the output ofthe error detector for comparison with the eferonce input PEEBBBIG] wren open oop and coved top contrl atom with (the hap ofitable examen A Open loop control system : ‘The open loop control aystem i lao known as control aystem without feedback or non-foodbackenntral systemLC HEg, eatrl system o the control setion is indopondent orgy > Hk (EC-Som-6) ee = Introduction 4 Control Systems ao ant omared wih he reins 4 inthis a open Wop ay8toms are cntcliee and on TS r . eon ag oop | fy Cloned too proces. 1 | Feohock is ot preven. So | Feedbacks pretnt.Sochay Conkealed any change i otpot has no | meaty eeca np. vt [eT eens Outp att onthe apt ania 2_|Tetonot much scurate, | Welnveny accurate mere a Tena senaltive to orra7s and : intrbances, moat gaia 4 [Iehasomall bandwidth | tehaslarge bandit ne 5 | Sipletnconirieion side | Gnplaiatin esa aay ae cheap. riled DO mote. a Aalders 6 | Highty attested by Tess aici by nondineaiy 1B. Closed loop conte! #3 somineaity. iop antl gaem sale Known as feedback conte seq 1 thet onleanragenin, © [Eee Se ‘desired output. coe or feck path form acs dex re hn soa noaarelvah need EpSalenerdalnprdaced, ae 1. Tarenorsiualis flo ho contralto reduce the or nd cipal ree o Contra = Beles rosea] ‘ a outpa Jj] Discuss the effect a feedback on Fewiback [Overall gain i Seabiticy (ea Hy Rote 2a Disturbasce Bramples: aa 2 Aiccitonrs Overall Gain 2 Auopilt eopane For open loop 8 Blectriciron, Ris) ao co - od [BHEZRT] Compare the open loop control system and ps ‘conte eyatem, sto give few examplea for euch aySt0™- ne 2a1-5C(EC-Bem. stra ais in ampifer tae win gosta na nde setom arbence in the forwar . feedback oF out {a} — cr 3 in /may be in the forward path, feedback path or output (HHRETRT Discuss the efecto eeback on the folowing ae 4. Gensitivity aa i Error ‘So, fora cased loop control aystem the gain Gls) reduces by a fector BD) 8 cn UL Gist) as compared to open loop control system. sas: ‘oni’ anopentbp pee with veal anf fnetion at re — ro] 8. Ths the closed loop poleis now located at» =— (K+ 9 ple an a In I= fas Gi~GH a Be He araen Re a " Sf = a+ GH, @ a a Guy “Ter So sensitivity offeedback system (with respect to Gis reduced frtor thet ott + GH. ‘a aan its response ie. dynamics of | error Bi) = Ris) HI) O19) 0152) szvem by adjuting leation of ts poles. The stability ofthe system" a) depends on the location of poles in s-plane, Thus it ean be concluded Biot, Xs) = oy HT . pbeenannaonme hee — 1 very conte em Sat Bo) = ROT Gia HI wer centre satem hat some non-linearities present in i, TM ie ‘hauban nonlinearities like fietion, dead zone, saturation ot, a! L a, BEeupatot th tem adverely Tawa emueaterel disturbance signals alao make the system outpi nce, eror Ht) i reduced by 1/1 + GSH) inaeurate,contd System, 1-70 (EC-Sem-0) ISTE] Discuss the types of feedback controt system. Bs ‘ L 2 a “Linear versus non-tinear stan . Honea eee nat ato pace, dos l poy] oxteme aorta tae ar ened pel fica bythe san et cmos oan agin seal sl a ect ystem ariel oan in ‘gate a cat ir aati theeste Towa edackcotrol ote 2 ay het Teagan oa en wed Serena ten yh ee pom een ht ov a nme ee aaa evr ptt alent Ee infae heaters ,. Discrete data control system : Discrete dat cootrelayetma differ from the continuous data systems in tha thesgnal at one or more points of theystom arein the form of sither a pulse train or adigital endo. Discrete data contra aysions are eubdivided into samplod data and digital contrat eyatem. 1:80 (BC-Gem-6) Intreduction ta Control Systems EETAT] what a transfer tunction 7 Write advantages an. disadvantages of transfer function, A Teanafor function: Trane {cana ona ihe tendons seater Lato) - ca Te) = ha a3| Function is dfine da the Laglace lice air of pawn al al B Advantages: 1, Stability anlysiso the aytam can easily be carried ot. 2 The use of Laplace transform approach al ‘integral liferontil tm domainequations ta simple awbraic eutions, (C._Disndvantages :Itisopnied oly o near and tie invariant asters REERBT] vetine branch point, summing point and blocks. Also ‘explain the block diagram reduction rates. iasomeen] "rat pint Arachne lta it mich sul fomatind pes encareny etdcis crane oes Summing point The oat of cata aatem is eedeck to Summing point where itis compared with the reference input. i Bld 1. Ablckdagamet mate poral opresetaionfthe performed by each component and sf ho ow oeignai, ne Avast a rprseied by wing Hack degra, These sr sy to {etatrc oven forthe conpleated ystems ‘aun ‘onion findvidalclomentn the tock dings cto Takeoft point ag 6 Seong Sep LSS SLSR AE ‘Block diagram reduction rales : ‘conneotion t = Ro) 10), _- mis, a oc) G0) G0,+9ce, Se, ‘ 1106 @0sem-0) Intredction to Contra ystems 8 Moving take-out ahead a blo eozcayge, +. ope ae — i 10, Moving take-off point before a blocks Eres re co. Thee 89 Jy = Caen | EBERER vetermine the titer feeton CVE) forthe boc Alagram thownin Fig 191 by tsing block dingramredacdon method. ey ea 40] + bs Gc a ca Lo a}-— e i the summing point ahend of the block: a+bG ep ashe 6 Moving the cumming point before the block : so. AeA it as 3 1. First moving the take-off point aNer Block G, toa position before block, > A as shown in Big. 1.92. is wa] [e interchanging input = 8 : Muliptication by (-1) tothe input : —* < = s 2 Bliminating tho summing point containing (Q,G,) and Gy, as shown in € 4 ig 1.93. I1120 EC-Sem-0) ey ‘ne 4, + = & Garey _] cre) TH(G,6,+ 6, CH 565+ Gs point beyoad block (G,6, +G,), asshownin i, 144 nase 8 Moving ake Shih the summing point befire block G, to position ater block G, as shownin Fig: 19-7 Coe Ral CE GI_] o18) Ol ay a] 7 7 IH.6,5 095 L&ts* Gof Tom, a6, fe 4 The Bock diagram shown in Fig, 1.94 is redrawn as shorn a Fg ss, lomshange consecutive summing points ater block G, as shown in iB on, “! Rus ‘ Lim tht Gwe GI] cre) ING.8,+ Ga, oR 5B,+G,| ey 8 Bliminate the torward SU i feedbac P containiog G, and feedback loop Filan the ngtive catback nop containing Hy # Fi, Sentaining Ta Gosayp * *EeR combine the block as shown in Fig.199,Introduction to Control Systems ToGyth + GH +H Hy 2 After separating both lop : WM 1a + cw. — [ aaa ay sini Lee tom Fe Lain = a 8 Bi Tah Osta CIOiBat Ce waxes; Ri x ot + G;6,F + F.GsGs + B,C, +6,6,6, +6) 16,0 Oat an CGC sao Rig oT of Os deg 10, The transfer fet rene cee eS util GG, Gy 4. From Fig. 11044, we can write the transfer function ofthe ystem as 0 a IG i +0, ORD Gi). (66-Ga)a" ait) Ba” THD Gi GIF + GGA y 6 Wis)" TOSI GGA, BEET aan he testo fedbackcom stability of men SESTT ree the flowing block dag, determine overall — transfer function of the given system sit ster function using block diagram reduction technique. i z at A. Baet of feedbackon stability ‘Rafer @.1.4,Page 40M a) 2B. Namedes 41. Firet move summing point before block —| Ra) riexatsy [iif ‘Now reduce the internal block Z, a8Reduce the bere with G. = xo cw =a] 4 Now roduse the internal block L Bey, Cui oo TOG, +64, aaah iG 16,60 5 teal 18h rect nano op ‘To ind the overall transfer function we can use the superposition rule by simply applying the one input ata time and other being equal to der the inp as Re) end pot Xs) equals to 28, The locke cw [Now reduce the intorns! Boek 88, a0. Gans, 17.2. . Ba)” HG GH,+ GG, + GG, + CCDC HE, Bees [23| a [BEEF] Using bloc atagram reduction technique, find over! e transfer fetion forthe following system as x Conbining the forward ain Wich are cascade = a RW oF CEE, cs oy re rea ELS) "the above block can bo further reduced sad sive17 ROSemg ae GE, +E +Gr) —_ G0, “@arGH) Goa, - Re)” TEM GHEE, ate oa09, a Re)” WOOF, +007, 7000, 42 % Noweonsider that only) i applisd and RI) equals to zero. The Block diagrams, xe) 2G, OH 1-18 (BC-Sem-6) Introduction to Control Syetome Ja ‘Where Gis) = Matrix of tranaerFanetion given as Tea, aie 5. ‘Then farther rue the Boek diagram given in lop with-1 feedback, Xt 8 % 25] ng, 8 oo Estred 9. dali bern dae e Feedback guia formula we get xo" af &. = 96444) TG GRGsG nee, 29." o00,.66 30" Tanda toeeram 10. Combininges.(1.22:)and daar ance” OF 122) eee, 0G, 166.0, TG +GH,+ 0G, OGG, TOTO, «CLOG, ERIE] sain variousterminologien sed in signal low graph. (aiterer] 1, Souree mode : The no having only outgoing branches is known a8 toutes or input node «gayi sours tog Sink node: The nodo having aly coming branches s known as snk or output node. eg, x issn nade, (Chain nede A nee having incoming and outgoing branches is known aschain node. ey 79.7, 0084. Forward path A peth for th input to output node is dofined as forward path. eg, Fert forward path, ‘Saco forward path, ‘Thi forward path. Bonsaoany ourth forward path, '& Feedback loop: path which orginatos rom & particular rode snd terminating at the same nod, travlling through atleast ooe ether node, without tracing any nose ice iacalled feedback op, Fr example, © SarkboptA eituck lop consisting fen ose nade ale ean. Le Qayats inalf loop.190, conse - Fp preface gins while going thr 2 Lesctecsane) Introduction to Control Systems ‘Poth gain: The produc Path gain for path xq~z, ®t ah rn: Tne par LN syn ‘y= Path factor anointed with the eoncerned path and seine emma phon onitne neers ome pode 3 from the forward path under consideration. a Bam ig noting branches bth at ug. 2 ‘The pa to ree hee a tal of he rah § Wrthere existe ipetrut and output variables, then as per yitthy determinant ofa signal flow graph which exists after orasing the hy, eet oe md ik ode, *Sugq, path ftom the graph = oan ate input and output nodes can jp — such # case 8 S*P8 Such nodes are. trea jue: Define the following SFG (Signal Flow Graph) In tunes ih aia 1-Such nodes are called dunn yet a = ag SFG (Sign: 7 e * 35 S i Forward Path iL Loop. 5 : Eelfloop Non-touching loops a7 | ee a ° may = Non onhing lop sf et ito node com a betwen 8 Nem tape tush oopsare tid to be nontouebing lop, in eat ie rdetoal th ain of ho branche [Cbs tno gun For asl lop, gain indicated along twa Generally ute bop gainare denoted by L'eg.Ly,Lyete. Gy 5 a “i opi y= Oh _ . EEL] aren explain Mason's gain formate, it 1 Theoverallsincante termined by Mason's guinformunas, ith a © re SE . Bea ‘where Pes Forward path sino path oma speed a4 eneutpat node, ‘4 Determinant which involves closed-loop gain ead _ traction between non-touchisa loop ~ [Sum ofall indvidsal loop gain] / {Seip ein poets fa pte ee tuthing loops] Hf Sum tlep gain products of ll poste 8 tough oll ‘Forward Path : Refer Q1.15, Page 1-18C, Unit ‘Loop = lop is a eloeed path in which a0 node i encountered more ‘atone, Souree node canbe part of alop os loop must have ab east fone branch into the node and atleast one branch ot. ‘SolfLoop Refer Q. 1.13, Poget-180, Unit. [Nom-Touchings Rafer @. 118, Pge1-18C, Unit-L. Determination of transfer function : ‘Tho signal low graphof Fig 1.15.1 ie shown in Fig 115.2. ie Using Mason‘eguin formula,Control Sytem ow, Re" 2 ‘P= Forward path gain, 4,=1~ (Bum of loops touching toy ‘$= 1-(Gum ofall oops) + (8 looped whore, 3 Forward pate: 12-0, 0yHy sy=1-0=1 Aye 1-[-G, OH, GyH, +6, Gy Ft) 2 =146,0,71,+0, 7,0, 0,1, 4, There iene imo nondouthing loop, B= Llp +g tL) S21 LG,0yH,- Gt, + 6,681) = 14 GO,+O,-G.G,2, 5 SH. (40.040,0-0, 1+ +66.) Be) 1-6,G,F,+G, 18, +0,6, 7, REETIET] Veing season's gain formula, find over all transte function forthe fllowing ayrtem DEEP bby OOH Me Me OE Hy Dalya OO Hy Py2G,6,05:P_=0, > 2 4 =e] 220 (2C-Bem-6) Introduction t9 Control Syntere Be Ody~ Oily Olly Gl» OG + OO ty OO HL COS, byw LnLy+Ly md (Odlgs Orly) y= 1-4 Ly) = (Gly Gt) Sra, mot 2rentaay, Mason'again rela Gey = eA Rg) ~ FORO a Bu) ing Mason's in formal, Pa, ow , BE Ro" where, Dy Forward paths 4, = 1~(aum of loops non-touching to P)nase contest FOSeag ‘p= 1-(eum of ll Toops) + (sum of nontowching tao) Pye Gy G,0y y= GG 8 Farah i 000 La Oy tom 1x OG bem FBy Ma OFA lami Cay so touching 0, 5. Thewinso cen EE ga 66.0, +046, 8 Oe gag sO Gd HH, CHG THER, TERT re toa ain of he stom wove sin og 18 rR Hark raph shown in Fig. 11814 ‘1. The gain ofthe forward paths, P, 7 0,0,Gy Py GA.%y Py 6,0,0n P= G06, P= GOA Dg Pe- GOES 2 Individual ope, Bye Ofly Ly=-Gifly bye Otis 4 twossntniching np, Lhe OH.G,y Bs L4G, + Gilly OG, + CFG y= 14 Og Fy y= 1+ Gy Hy B= Fads + Poly + Pydy + Puy + Pedy + Fabs * Bey. gs 2 Forward path, & Loops, 1-240 (BCSom6) Introduction ta Control Systems 2 G,.G, Og 01+G, + G6, 6,66, H,)+G,66) TOL + Opt GHG, + GFE ¢ GGG - G6 .G0. Ha GiB TG OyH = GUC, + CEH [RESTART] Draw a signa flow graph and evaluate the closed loop tesnafer fu of a system whose block is Fig L194, 12,00, 821 1,90, 0,F i, Ly = Gy O48 My ore, non-tosching lop is been sczdg28et? 4 Using Mason's gain forms, Cis) Fay +B ba Pht + ye Ro Tene lyControl System arto fea, 1-26 (EC-Sem-6) Introduction to Control Systems 1-6, G, Fy li, =G, 6, ogcamerens Fo 1-OGFLH, + GQ, nH He MI, Capeltance :It stores energy and energy ia CV? where, C= Capacitance V-= Voltage serossit ‘Stored energy varies with variation in the veltage. Energy is maxicoum when current is maximum, mo We | | a= fiat {RGBTEAT] wast ore tnear mechanical cements? ea] Explain the modeling of electrical system clement, [ARES Aamo = 1. Mass: Iferce is apliedto the mass, thea according to Newtons second reer Jaw of motion, inertial fore wil be equal to product of mass Af end Hesistance:LatV voltage is applied toa resistance, sccolorationa, Mie mass inky, areal pssng through resistance by Ohm's Ie i a ‘Current passing = by! | ge Ma= W280 - y at - bewo Re Sensitive to temperature, 3 R — oy uw Lew — vy — 2 euorgy and opposes the sudden changeiNC™ 9 - Sorin toreo 1 Spring force fq roprtintodpaements Let ia opting Spring ono eae sunes i : ores Lt : fertanen|fuoarx0] 1 dade x Teagan a eponvanicos! ie aS at dreit the stored energy koeps fc ‘ota, & Damper: Ifa orceis applied to the damper (zh pot orshoek abnorbor), ‘ho damping fore for viscous frieionis proportional tothe difereace io ‘elocity of two ends of damper.‘ x ne foal mechanical aystems ‘Renal spe 1-200 (BC-Bom-6) Introduction to Control Systems 2% The oltage enuation fr the rat ian follows: amet rile mie Aidt wey 3, Auth current isthe rate of ow of eet chares. na aa a 4, Substituting en. (.224) neq (1.222), 123) ge Ebel dy oan ane 5. Comparing e122.) and (1.209), me get ‘The egaaton of motion for the ayatem is obtained by apply D Aleabersprincil, a meen samt ering (12. meget ee te Ke rae) ant Forcing ely: ‘Te ancezy og (1.22.2) with the voltage equati ect vit equation of an isa ex be ‘by eansidering electrical circuit shown . "Pable 221. ere Voge Ansloy dumper eystems shown in Fig. 1.22 arse ‘R) Applied force [pecchaniaal mates | Fe nme For Vakaene fae esis aa Ct g Tae — Mass a Tndoeane Damping neon Beniaace. Compliance, UR(ities | Copastanee, woe ony ame Feet Out log: Er Bifweaatan Mint eh cat st ing 1238 spalogous to spring-massdamper system described by the 0 (1.23.0. i ff Die ox ¢me * # we pian 4 mR ae ge, annem oat + sean ume Hat Soman ame FE teases tae ss teen erate am on a 4 “mn ~ frees a 6 romans Bf sos Sy, Ba tY we mete iar A, ae jenn 1S cw “— Oth em 1 ag, k “ “ a int octane ta | “7 - fens ¥ — te am Sn onsen ase BO amp Malang toga ee oy Pn At ee Hil pes Bgl BM eR get og jue kd Ae A ge GO Rpg GO og pee cerry TER 0s wana ase $5 ee bogs Rg pee A pore hg151 CBCSeng rete Ome cng OTE oy Tee Raia Bel BO dee OEE) rosie e880 eR Bo Be amy e)=(BsKP pow! a; ir emoabg 2K. feo My sks BeBe 5g Ba gaan Tne i. erapster fo 7) tion ¥,(0/F() OF 0 eal sor Fig, 126: shown 1! JL Tow equivalent mechanical ste fr PE. Xan Lae ma) © ‘ yy pinot ftom 22 Kye B BE +09) & ie Nenad SEE +99 2 Taking Laplace of, (1.25.1) we gots ait Fesbe M,o¥ fob KY (a) + BoY (+ Kel¥ (6) Yes) Pa) = Yio) Me + K, + Ky +Bs1-Ka¥ & 1-420 €0-Sem-46) Introduction to Control Systeme ypye Flos Kia ck O° Tis k-R — Taking Laplace ofeq (1.252), meget MA Ke fo)- Vi) =0 1.255) 4. Uning (1.25: neg (1.25), meget UegV fo) + Keel Ky POE HO cue Wg +R KBs” MP Ba eR RS Oi RTE Kyi) : Ke Tag eo oR 8 [Me Beara Hato) Fa x WT RNU BR RI RE Draw the analogous electrical circult for the aystem shown below. Use F-V and F-1analogy- All the symbols have usual menning.and encoders in control maa i the ae of mm acon ? Explain the comers = sensors and encoder’. are used to, Senor an encode ae fener ated nc AAD vinipe of potentiometer? Ce on ria nesta eT Seale. = en ene crise aie © pmol 2 hehe aa pd 2 ee romain dpi 1 alemdar pero mat Foren cn ho conductive plat ptensiomaerie me eel, ronal, rod output ements tone we 1-840 C-8em-6) Inerodcton to Central Systeme 6 Fig 127-1 ehow th lectrie eit reprnentation of potentiomster. Fine 7, aval terial 1. Since the voltage arots the variable terminal and reference is proportional tothe shah daplcemert of potentiometer when avelloge [applied scrouFied terminal the devon ca be inet indent the ‘hoolute potion ofa sytem or Telative postion of te mechanical output a i Tachometer 1 Wis anlectrmechanical devi that eoeverts mechanical energy into clectial ene 2. Reworksras voltage generator. Throat voltgels propertional tothe ‘agate of the angular velcty of the input shal 3 Inenntrol ays DC tachometer canbe used a velocity indiontor to ‘provide cll peud readout orto provide als foeak, sped contol craubiliton 4. These are aoe in conta eytemsto improve stability or damping of the closed oop apetem. The dynamic of tachometer canbe represested yeg. 1281 0.25.0sc mosend) iiss a xls gO eae ; saan BOE gt aneeem Po nawesoegeees po enn bat donot mat ocpsen se ol far ench re 2 hint ion OS ‘g._ Tieavaieleim as Smee? OE a Sea ST anaterecontoled es Deseret OF are controlled DE servo Rotor. Doran (DC servo motor) en cactonis neglected, Career te ante cnurbed DC mates 0 Tinear. Armature Co indo aranar a eee arta sere st and magnetic ce Bo ae ear eho P12 B a = Induced enfin armature V= Applied armature voltage 6 Angular displacement of the motor shaft i ( 1-66 (C-Bem-6) Introduction to Caotzol Systeme oo eo T= Torque developed by motor ‘J+ Equivalent moment of inertia of motor shaft snd leadreerred othe motor = Equivalent viacous friction cofficent. poly vn armatre cei Y= Ro {un erturecontt 1m ee core ‘poz ectdanen or eons Sate tora CEng aposunle te arcatcntneue Tei, rk ame 5 When armatures rotating, anemfisininced B= “82 01.29) (6. The armature current produces the argue which sspiedo the inertial [nos and friction benee tho force talanee equation f= —ee a0 1 tinge norco bide (1288 1.219) eae wo) eee ‘Ge aace re = "aD a tl attr nlc tied s (1.29.6) x VG ” AE aF (HE, FIR ee RB RR| 8. Block aiogrems chown in Fig. 3.292. y Two JE ae vo ae eB 20) cA eae REETEDT] viscuse aout ld controlled DC norvometor. ae] ‘Field controlled DC servomotor: 1, Aschemati diagram ofa fel controled DC mator(DC servo mato) i thown in Fig. 1.301 2 Here, R= Field winding resistance y= Bld winding inductance {j= Field winding eorrentF980 BCSen-6) Introduction Contra Stems @.1. Explain open| Paps co a evo cop contd ersten mt se wax Beri ee @.2. Compare the open lop control ayatem and cloned ig proportional to product ‘control system, also give few. id s ree Cac et ea mx Refer 13. sive few examples for each sytem. Bee andere crest tum aR te ta 23, Dace eet than te owng: ner iseorsaat ; 7 a i Emer a as apd i corte ee Qa ico gua women abe ceas row) Serie Sateen moa Sore inci (5. The equten rte spten 20 mo J ibaa toma sme tera. nex se, 2 | 4, Dette branch point, if at eg st z ec arc eh eee anti Aneete 6 ‘taking the Lplae trator on both ides of (1.40.9 en 1-01 (REE Refer. 18 Pes leas ore sm, weet apn) o)=8fo) ass Gs Boe = Kp) “38 1. Frame abn ogatos th trans fein of heptane wy ast Hay 7 Wea Roe) 3 A. Dleckdingeinsbora nF. 1302. {2 |e Tam, (aeay iar21CECSem5)sitar What ret rity aeons techniques ? of state space on Define the following ter8+ i State i, State variables iii, State vector iv, State space ‘s. State equation. Haare at ofa deancsyton sth males st ovr aioe knowledge hes variables af sth the le rtd determines the soar ofthese corponent oft vector iv, Site poce:Toen imesival pce whouecordnate east tithes a ans. icalled eae pte Any stat ok) represented by a point in the state space, % ‘Sate equation: Asa perepresttinnisamatbemati = athe physical yetem as a et of output ioput and state related by differential equations known a stte equation. vie “Advantages of state space techniques : & Itcanbe applied to nonJinear as wll as timo varying conditions» 2 ‘Heanbeconreiety applied to mile inpat moltiple output) 4. Theytemcar be dese fre opie enon pede ‘this madera method. ‘umuovoysuom Hic st spe eevee en, L Jina alate verabe me ‘Mer, sat variables ar epesented by x(t), Input variabes by 040, % Curate 300, a wt) (0 20 aoel eels 2] [xo beg suits | (0 | 5300s | 9,00 20) ‘ J 4. 8 djanieota gen wali Se sa canbe represented der eeret ayy ay gy oe Ft0, Nd, 0 _ re +4 A sane ~020) 8 Teekowneige otis otis 0, 20,7) Pte th he input fr o 20, completely determines the future behavior of the ‘ oat ete 30, FP on OO asa ve, 1. Letusdefine yay fang, 8 Now fromeg, (22) ima, ia-og-a, 8 Wecanvritethisse of eyilions in matrix fede+ Bu Output; yaGe 5 A where, bls Su xwi tun Ms Sl Whats stat transition mats? Derive ite expression {time and Laplece domain, Also write it properties iar] ong mati PY A State transition matin: Te matric 0 exp Ut) i an nx 2 Bs ett) ‘arc anit asin atin fa las MUtc yee 7 sate ecarstneios , penibet> Ghee ele state transtin mar ae Sater rder(1 mn: = Sealer input 1 Consider he ith ult)= “ae ae jemagencaus cation, with ul) = 0 op Salar outs of Bake Taplace transform, XU) =20.= ANG) (129 %6)= (0) | T= enti matic 4 SoaarLapacoperatr. 2 Malipyingtoth siden fa} Robt ara = 4s) x60) es where, dele [en oe ay" ro to Hr-4 oa Oa Sm. ‘8 Taking inverse Loploe transform of 1), yt a) =E' Me = el AP x0) by be {ta a a Pn aH SEs Lo) ba Be oan | =f x0 ea ao he } 210 =e (0)= 4) (0) o.|" 4. Statetrston mate = 1" [sf —Al = 1 14s) 5 Go, state transition matrix(STM) can bo given as, Lyng day = teats ae Ta a-axstem, tho mati Ai then tho oquation takes called nomogeneous syst eopeneo ace equation + ug) 0 for homogeneous oaustion! od te pte ‘Solution of homone dais big Lal eso SSercaa0 sn, eal) -# os 2 aot meena Lace tye teen 6-8" anaalad Xia) = AIO) = Hs) x00) ‘aking ire apne asa 0) An.) Ht) = 30) 4 Yt)=eia(nn) matric and iscalled State Transition Matis nig een aa a =A40, 80-1 B Sechemornemanien ns tees. ‘cozutatmarix and lapu cots ores ate aplid othe peter the {he wnatem i clled on-homigeneoes ret ‘Solution of non-homogencous equation : 41, Consier date equation £0) = Act + Bul be = Zan} 4G) = He) 2 Taking Laplace traxatrm, Xl 20 » Ato) +00) LAI xi = 20) BE) 8. Premultibingty sf—AP" ‘= Als + AI BUG) 4. Takinginven Laplace anafrm 3022-0) =1otA}100)+ bl -AP BU) n= Hie] He-vrBuedde eHaoyefe" Bude 1, I Ghe initia sa other than aero, ay an ana ot ypefepainde ees feaane & xi) 5204210 A. wine, Hii tinned aise sod (t= for-oauoae a particular solutlonof vector. JUSTstate Variable Analy, Control System Now, with EE re ote al yen Be = *lea-0. i [EERE + oyrtom ts dencebed by the fllowingditerential ‘quaton. Represent ehe wate inthe TEBE Deeiveretaonsip between sat uations anh oder diferent equation.ann Ege ute ssa e440 815-4824, 2 State spcereprerentation: fa] pos oysy foo ow =| 0 0 also o ofa Al [eg -« alla! Le 3 alle! ls nate, per “4. State apace representation : is ne hf a ep «ale balls af A Outputs: | | [BERET earn he corsationbetwoen transfer ful on ‘What is Transfer Function? Also derive the expression for tral function of wstate model re | % Devens 1 Ueeronraveer eater gaion Tae wesouns, 5565 2 wtb nett it eins state space equations, t Mo = aN) +B AU = ll -A¥" BU) ot Wa) = cxin YO) = Cela B01 Forasingleinpotsagleostpat sytem, Vand Uarssealary [Now transfer matrix can be given an, ‘Transfer matri ‘Transfer fanetion = Oat— abn Coa =ADE ‘Deoominalor partis, Jl—Al incall the harcore equton Ie~al=0 i degree characteristic equaticn al A im = ha meets orci [RGSRRTT] wat aetoadranagectstate space echalguee For a a a 2 -Biven transfor funetion obtain the dynam equations. Yo) Uo" Fastraara, Unita ‘Adventages of atte space technique: Hfer Q.21, Page 2-20, ‘Numerical: 7 a Uo) "Frama, ‘The given ance fton can bowen sa FO 50 opt KW ay Fear raaee, ‘he dierent equation ating dorsiniswrten ea Fro teqstaaaun we BCE Gen) \Ccontotsyaem Asc cecsem-0) suze! Bere ose EB ne, sag [Fare Fee ot FrIE Wolesd ats — 4a" rely oe ee Frier8 Franre! eh vor the folowing sntecquation, detormine the transte ae ae oe ‘Basic ways torpresent stale nals 70: ‘A. State space representation using differential equation: The state redl is represented ung these state variables called 0s variable, — = Senses wane ann nnounses cee eee ree ceecteiaies a Minette ont ator $9 sn GE cageb dt baat Og 4G, #8 ul 3 rea | DE Prost eee WV aTE, ueFD © sms ” GeralsBere We can doit for higher ordzr asa. sxat Variable Analy, Cantrol Sytem © we PP Ce Observubility:Asystom ssid tebe voservble fll the state ofthe ‘ptr demise inborn ict te system at given te, BB. Rialman' tnt for observability 1 State equstion SadseBu ad getstates Ala smcmesen ase and oy he th the ee mrmenegt se Comper canker : or emai enw 6. ieee et Paras eta deaseBe a Dh getremtinanions= Me where iat yates C2 a ou “Fora cing mp: sale ont eye, model mates. ay gated, Oy —~ 6.3/7 >. 2 Gyan Oye 41 othe sytea o be oierable, eas term conrenpoading to each Fei beabervedi the outpat- eace none ofthe coufcent of must Be zr [EBT A tae tne nese ie Sarcteriaed ye seats variable model Examine the controllability and observabiliy ofthe exetem. a ee ancmetne " 2 foo 9 oft sf it Pt aL of [10 s oad ofa 4 Contrtabiny tet mate el Lal ve ae U-]10 20-29 sf) 8 am © 19) . Ed woke alt 3‘Obeervability tents SB pense ers (Conte Sytem a) fo 1 a 1 Wome, ore “(8 2 ‘} : act 2-160, Unis 2 ate model fer the system Refer @. 2.12, Paso 1, Comtralails text 4a ba: Scere ne therefore, system is completely obeervable, cee! teen Bata | 8 Therefore he rank of Us equal to its order i, 8 (n= 3) nda | ‘hat Oho epsom contre Wostate Variable Anaya aeaac ucsen sesthotessaermationotn Yeh pm cn rs Operator A, reusson A see Ory {eas pave pont salation oly ais | reg rte tO foaes, io) i, the was of tating the "Geen values the matrix. sent peer Spowcht 5 Bement Ach stele Senate so ch hana i Bish witiag paneer esc sgn eter sect a Shanta, snp fo vse Met aamean ow 4s bere B= 3,2 =% be caeultadby talking o-ators ‘thos M,=Bigen veer fort, = Cu, wiereC, isco tor of matrix 0,7 ~A) of 0m: 6, Modal matric Toth yhy A, aethon eigenvalues tho matrix while Me esos ecto cxrresponding to the eigen value yy ~ respective. hein 12 Hochegen vecerisofthe order nx 1 and plasingall the gene sai perenne eather mtn nxn me sind ‘Sudha atrincbtaned hy placing athe eigen votors ‘reodal mutrixordagondising matrix of matrix. ‘= Modal matrix: ; togethers AM) 238s mere, m0 0. 6 " ‘A= Diagonalmstric-|9 AO = 0 oo. ‘Thus promulting e185), 4%, Beare nena, men 5 MAb A Diagn mara) [a o 8 aa[2 | Determine: 48-84 1 Ghar qutin be Eigen values © Bia vcon & Nota mu Su rod trandratin A age mai ‘The characteristic equations |2.1~Al roo}o 2 0 aforo|-|4 0 ileo oo a] |-45 -24 -s| ° 191) 43 34 149) MO.+8)4+20 454 040-8048) +90.=0 ay a8 one obi¢ 3-0 ‘Thintsrqued horace ego, 2 Solving charateristiogmtin ==), +-and, 4. eewetsien astm "To fnd eigen vstors, bain matric fi, 1A] for each igen sobttusingvaanofh oy 2280). riser “4p32 o fa 8 =] wegen |S og rox) | 8 -|-24/+ «f | 8 | mraneefi HEH aH will set es AO Coto of Tae iat 2 0 7 Pp, 0 0} [0-3 ol*foa, of-a o 0-4 Lo oa, ‘Thus MAM isa dagonal str. ERG] Write n short nove on dingonalintion of matetx ‘When atric A i dagoaied he he lements along is diagonal are the eigen values, ene is winipe 2 he eign vals ae the oan op ples of he system, om which stablityef the etn con boealyed, 4 Mo diognat atric inte non tertionof varioueat sites 4. Thodecvativeofone state varias dependent on the erecposting state vane lon and ther ttavarthlesdona!ineras nie ok | © Thetochnigoes used to ransfr the ganral stato ode into diagonal form fe, canceieal frm are elleddigooelizatnn sechaiquees (Consider n* order stat modelia which matic A i not dagen Hy =Ast0 + Bul) 220) y= xt + Dut) (2202) Let 20s new stato woctor auch thatthe transformation i, we) = Mat) 2203) Hore, ‘A= Modal matrix at, HO = MH 2.204) 7 Using 2.20.1 and 2.20.4) into(2202) and (220.9),gases sig asec ncSen® 4 apeawean soe 205) aera Po maa, Maes > 2i5)=5 = EoIR Rucci equa 5, tmune BOTS > 8 Damped frequency, wy w,Ji=E i vn Ree)” TOWHG)y,_ 4 Fore 1cn B11 C (C-Sommy ante Sree Oo Tee we - eae ow 4. Onsolring partial erential equation Oe & Sotomen 2.0, a= 2,—1. Pew 6 Takeetvne ana, se isbew QaeRET] A unity toedback system has an amplifier with gain Ky 10 and gain ratio Gl) = Ue (+ 2) in the feed forward path, A Arivative feedback, Hl) =1X,ieintrodueed an minor loop around Gi), Determine the derivative feedbnck contanty Ky 20 ttt the stom damping factor i 0.6, [ARTO ITA Maka) oop feedback exstem ix shown i Sig. 1 1 ows Ga“ les oy raed eye geet eae co Ose Zotac a tyeytacenae nae Typo iit. Peatetime Ws _Beltling time, SRSAEY state error ‘verso Delay time 4): Tes the tine tho final vale nfs tine, Sear reek ee Hom a Peak timo): he peak tin sb tine sid ortho epost each the: eek Bel ofthe tine revo et peak versons,yay 5:13 C-Sem) ents are a cewete) nite fr Bien nate it vero] ee oonreied rth ete cine Tasting tne ep gotn ee ve, seater st sansa oresot Of) Nena aera ore od tween stu output ea C8) | eo 2 Characteristics we ese) iu iam Re eas zit 20) som FO” |, ites) are -~ STORE “ann tinct 2408 +16hes 1629 TEED On comparing eg 120 with of 16 p= frites n= OBe IK 2uasedoass ioe 02 ain Ore get Regen,196 HU-Nom) ae en th nee of BEER in ene manne eer ced | i i & usa : ousitimpalce input: + Berens ora moet Potting neg (818.2, iG ak One ray “Ting invere Laplace trenform, wo have syn = 22[ rou = 3a en) 7 Ler a= he Response to unit ramp input: WQ=t 2. Ri)=Ue 1 an rar caer Ef batt erer 8 When te Pines, (3148) Tne Dron Asse Cntl Sytene ee the response of frat order system for unit step inp, ahs re "at aan Pm om oT aT * Fe Trasseat oP snd tate 2 Soevingtinke mt apes, ro=taa Reet Pathway 3439 : coe sana 4 Anerprttntiney fcnbewiteass ae wanes or, i i wo re 8 TakinnvrsoLaplace ag 140 eran (de) ras ce wanes ot) 1-e- he sszor 6aa Be ~ yp 9-21 BC-Som.0) 5220 BC-Bem-6) ‘te wr aS [rarr-5] Ot «ones ay vane Pia Foraunity hedtuc pea asa : os % pele i Steady ate eroris defied aoe PHDOT er vald or al = lina HL Using final value theres” FE mate seer aterm died Brena ctor * scr nipetfenrlesin ring tay stat eror devine 2% ENACT at tan teem pny state rer 1, Stendy eror helps in termining the accuracy, so the steady state oor hob minima nectten, 4 Testud sate pertormace of contro atm is aneted Seiainedeatmroyerranperpamere nn Steady state vor: Baler 235, Pag 3-0, Ua ‘Taegu ste sae evr in a lve oop contol tem enol oon inp conta nc a UO) tin Ques mena = Ge) co) 15 a 5 Bone Re) -Bi be occa) : ove me)-cosme) fe Gnaanens 1 Bo snc ols Ga) tol = Re) ish A __ af 100) For stop inpat, 2 aa Caee tater ped oti etae wn teen ln (aay Where,parc @oSom) 0 Ks 3828 ee)agit ied the Prom ig 4383, in whose open Toop, value of Kao at ininity ‘Tene SSS aid rea point. From ea, (4.36.1) K=4B079 for s=- 08453 4, Theanleofasymptoes is given by PZ 00, = 160, PEDO were, g=0,1,2.4P-2-9 00" Stability of Li @ 5, Contsoid ‘= Real parts of open loop poles -E Real parts of open loop 2570s ° PoE 0. 2 3 ‘tho centroid and asymptotes are shown inthe Fig. 416.10). Thovalue of for marginal stability is dotermined by applying Routh. criterion to the characteristic equation ey]. 8 s] 6 ox +) 48-K se 0 ‘| x 1 The value of K at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is determined by equating the frst term of! row to zero, thorefore 48-K no Ke 4 ALK= 12, the clement of? xow i zro, hence auxiliary equation is ACG) = 65% + Ka O and use K= 48 x Be Fane 828 "The oot locus is shown in Fig. 4.16.2.oo {28 080-50m-0) a gaat Kee x- 9675-45130) Ko, 5205, drar line at an angle P12, je, c05"205= 60" sear tpt rea na, nteaelroo: Tos polos ihrer tra crcnaa of point Par 0.675 +185 11, Use magnitude condition to obtain Kfor point P. ‘As yer magnitude conditions, 16%) Hi) at P= 1 30, For at Le aeaerD " KI : [omts+ TIBI 0676 + 1.154 2]]-0676+ I cree TaRaxAT6WH x BID 8.2278 for = 06 p24 (BC-Som-6) Seti of GEEAATT] Sete the root ovat Conta Stem it the ag nnity feedback control syaten st PHO easter tenetion tha proedor aes ‘ a iKnewor The rete fab Pat 10, ‘homing arin i incus the effects of nd EEIERE] Discuss the ettects of adding potest oot locus with ‘eample, Effects of addition of open loop poles: uct osas shifts towandsimariney et. Shem lal eatiely dees, Shem ncomen more eto. ese sfomaing aot te ay ofthe system dares Consider, G(a)Fs) = K/sls+ 2) peeree4-950 (EC-Semg) a Nowifpleata=—4added to GH) rot ora bosomes shown the Bg 8182 EI ies he tt ot eng net ont et 5 Effects of addition of zeros ‘Root locus shifts tale way from imaginary axis lative stability ofthe ayatem increases System becomes es oscillatory Range of operating values of Kforeyetom stability increase ‘Example: - L 2 8 4 B 1. Root fr Gi) d= Eis ebowm in the Fi 304. 2 Nowitzero ate Fig 4182. Grete) = K+ ora} 1. tesa besgen that ootlous hit owas Sons reoteve ewan loft alfots-plan, hence atv stably increas EER ate torturer cd gotten x with 6e)= 0" Sarna aer® 1 Polesie, en 0,ex—1,9=—24jandee-2-F 2. There eno open lop 300, 8. Number ofpale,Sw A angst G- wen etn | gncnean ocus torminates at infinity, Yalu otic SUC tent 2p 90 St W" PAZ jerefore formed from Ter 90 42 1007-21 sre toi ay, “ 4 2-202 160 +0 2e142, sgge 238" 22 y= BED oe = 205" 4-0 sa, Bade) ge «218° tae Wen a: ipa ferret i & Contrid of ampintes: an net parts ples—2 ea parts of sere 2177 1-9 eh) « 7 i tege MOEA evan ecassag fea ps nok o-t-20j-2-f-0 8 516 4-0 4 te Breakaway pointa :The characteristic equation ix 1+ G{s) HG) =0 q wes tease) K=O Hebe eBite Set KO “deeds G xB) 90 42)45 140 Weg ists 1864520 049142 194e+ 125)=0 G+ 08 s+ 1675/0805) (+ 1.616 +/0.85)1=0 ‘horefoe tree eakaway pinta obtained pe- ton rea ax 174 06ands 11 Intersection points with imaginary axis Toe charcertc equation eo» e+ ot 5+ '=0 ‘The Routh erry: x ° beecomes A aac oe kl eR a Yh ‘Zor state responses? = an pesmi ean Oo eee ge thy ng =e OF Mag ete ay etn? Ra mesipeners en et Terese quate thc + fhe ein eng a ty Scape Esau eet oe =a Vstuteieesatecn-g maar 5, Elaborate the stop wise procedure for plotting the rx locus ofa given open loop tranafer funchen’ a ‘@6, Sketch the root loci for the open loop transfer fuscton ‘Gren below (The gain K is masumed to he socket ‘determine whether a system is stable or uot Goo) =—_K__ Q7. Sketch the root locus of Tio thatthe damping ratio af the lowed loop ayer is0. Bae Toler @. 4.16 Sat PARLE + Rites of Addn > fe he Forward ae” ~~~ 8c ag Effet ot Adding Pe tothe Forward Bate =r Port + Polar Pn, Nomis Silty so ie ear Criterion Parts Stability Anais with te Seat Nats tReet sti -Gaa Po ESC ‘Margin and Phas Merge B1c@Csens)‘Frequency Doman Anal, Frequency FOSPORSE. siationship betwoen the sinuspidal 1 Reid e apt called regu, onal tet im dint er ye Bain(cl +4) Sra wy ealatd rom aia epee ares [ESR tan rte eqveney domain apeciintions LL. Resonant peak (,): Resonant pak isthe poak valuo of magnitude tlosed lop froguenty response. 1 or seco order, M, = ; ae Resonance frequency : The frequency at which resonant peak erin ‘eallod resonant requency. conta ys Tpandidth : Te Frequency. At ya rom its 20 frequency levee (Gat-oft frequency :The frequen (fesero Frequency values cae ‘ 1 For 2 onder system, the transfer functions, oe) Ro) where, 2. Closodloep feequency responses, jad a Tao, wherou = 0/e,, normalized diving frequen. (NOL ae aad eNo) = of oe inane ered rie Se ot Feast Damping far Ne SAC BCsem.6) Pte faa seis 2 Bet ‘Natural reueneyofesiletins ae 1 BH, ee Mabe RGo * "Gareowe a Tes eae ce Fa Goa +O yale is enlled hereto, a gusia zt tinder e A The et se ant eee Be a ae A net ea. feof, x al [ana a =0 ay afer a2 ayy, 288% aed fia (524) kt AB.25) My ai-e * «papier en [ee = [ES] o. nates 1 ThefouencyatwichMhas vaio end cae eut ff rewer a Tesigeal roaoncassbove cutoff are atennabed 2 Thorangeelequecin or which Mz Jy isknown abana “The low pate filers bandwidth oqual to eut-off indicates ‘pve tering charactritics of the system. 8. Norpalizedbenduiith, 0, a Me be oe famar ee V2 ys Hae Pa oy 0-28 ae EP [EEREBT] A secondore ystmn a overshoot of 50 %eand Feet of oscillation 0.2 « in stop response. Determine resonant Po resonant frequency and bandwidth, Tae + ttozonae 3. Resonant peak, M, i. 1 Pearse M, = 2.58 4 Resonant frequency, vn fe = 78.25 ff 0RI5F =221eradee ay (128% faa = 2s25[1-20.216)+ fiona OnE] = 34.9061. BEE] Determine the treavency domsiaspectetions for = sordorder prom with only fedacsd 0+ 5. Re)" 1+G9AOWy Frequoncy Domaln Anaya, soc ecsens) son tee patton bee on, 2 Troe tt ath a Be Set wadieantin 1 np is : : oo 5° yy, eB 5 4 reancy doesn sposicnione = oie 1 1 - . =255 Mem ie Boa we fia = fI-D a = 0989 =164T-3H DOE = 1438 ee tat AS ¢ 2 _[enam 4 Thogueral ete ofaingeee =n [ES ietotncense th bande sma con IMGs) [RESEED] wat is te ettect of adding a zero to tho forwertr™ ‘transfor function 7 Explain with relevant characteristic ae] Consider unity fedback eystom having forward path raza! st sssc ucsens) onl 00 Serger vals of loo bee ? 5 Teun step respec aia eos) Trsbegtes fasta Stn So es Tinereasesrise time decreases. [RESBR] Discuss the effect of adding the pote to the forvan, path transfor function. eo 1 Adog spo nte=—1/P tho frwar pat transfer fenton = 8 Ba teyTeTD 2 Big 66.1 shows the plots of | MG) | versus 0 foro, = 1,8. 0.07 ‘rio valuesof7. Since the systom ia now of the third ons ‘unstable fore certain sot of eystem parameters, (at) BESFRA ssptain Pott pot. ines sine ann ad pn margin on polar plot, a wo A Polar plot : 1 Polar plot ofa transfer function jai apt atthe magia a) Yermitthe phnasangloot Golem eareeediteene etait Therefre zero to infinity. itis the locus of vectors [Ot] Z6jo)ase itvaviea trom zoo to indniy. * Ta eequeney response we have Si er | ja] = Magnitude 3 Meets erage 6 Me (Gun pale tothe forwerd-path transfer nena | = ‘ Te on ntbpavsnies abla whe orang aro © va, See ein sora eens of Fig, 6.6.2 show that for larger 7a tase AF RL ana are obtained hy avg oi and ?'=5), the following relations are observed: “Table 6.7.1 s used to draw polar pt. These time neroasoe with the decrense ofthe bandwidth, ne