CHAPTER > 01 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry (> KEY NOTES Development of Chemistry «+ Inancient India, chemistry was called Resayon Shasta, Rastantra, Ras Kriya or Resi, + According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton were practised during 1000-400 BCE. + Kauiya’sArthasasira describes the production of salt from sa, Tralso mentions about many type of liquors + Sushrata Seta explains the importance of alkalies ‘The Charake Samhita mentions ancient Indians who knew how to peepare sulphuric acid, nitric acid and oxides of. copper, tin and zinc, the sulphates of copper zinc and irom and the carbonates of lead and iron. + Rasopanishads describes the preparation of gunpowder + Nagarjuna’s work Rasratnakar deals with the formulation fof mercury compounds. He has aso discussed methods for the extraction of metals lke gold silver, tin and copper CChaleapani discovered mercury sulphide. He used ‘mustard oil and some alkalies as ingredients for making, soap. + Brat Samhita informs about the preparation of glutinous ‘material to be applied on walls and roofs of houses and temples. It also gives references to perfumes and cosmetics. + Atharoaveda mention some dye stuf. The material used were turmeric, madder, sunflower, lac te Acharya Kanada was first proponent of atomie theory. ‘According to him, all substances are aggregated form of smaller units called atoms whieh are eterna, indestructible, spherical, suprasensible and in motion in the original stat, Importance of Chemistry einciples of chemistry are applicable in diverse areas such as ‘weather pattems, functioning of brain and operation of chemical Industries, manulacturing fertilisers, alkalis, acids, salts dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps, detergents, metal, alloys et. nat ‘of these drugs are cisplatin and taxol which ax ‘Chemistry provides methods for isolation of life saving drugs from ral sources and makes possible synthesis of such drugs Some effective in cancer therapy. The drug AZT is used for helping AIDS patents Safer alternatives to environmentally hazardous refrigerants like ‘CFC’s responsible for ozone depletion inthe stratosphere have ‘been successfully synthesised Nature and Classification of Matter * Anything that occupies space andl has mass is called matter, All ‘substances contain matter on physical basis, it can be classified into soli, liquid and gases. @ @ «a In slid, the particles are held very close to each other in an ‘orderly fashion and there is not much freedom of ‘movement. Due to such arrangement, solids have definite volume and definite shape, In liquids, the particles ae close to each other but they can move around, Liquids possess definite volume but do not possess definite shape. They take the shape of the container in which they are placed. In gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid of liquid states and their movement is easy And fas, Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape. + These three states of matter are interconvertible, by changing the ‘condition of temperature and pressure Solid —S iquid = Gas* On the basis of chemical composition, matter is classified as mixture or pure substances ‘© Mixture contains particles of wo ot more pure substances which may be present in itn any ratio, Their composition 's variable. A mixture may be homogeneous oF heterogeneous, = Ina homogeneous mixture, the components completely imix with each other. This means, the particles of components ofthe mixtures are uniformly distributed throughout the bulk ofthe mixture and its eomposition ‘suniform throughout. eg sat dissolved in water. = Ina heterogeneous mixture, the composition is not uniform throughout and sometimes different components ate visible. ex. salt and sand in water + Pure substances have different characteristic from mixtures, Constituent particles of pure substances have fixed composition. = These can further be classified into elements and compounds. = Particles ofan element consist of only one type of atoms. These particles may exist as atoms or molecules. ~ Some elements such as sodium or copper contain atoms as their constituents particles and their all atoms are of Same type, where in some others such as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, the constituent particles are ‘molecules which are formed by two oF more atoms. = When two or more atoms of different elements combine together ina definite ratio, the molecule ofa compound ‘s obtained, The constituents of 2 compound cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical methods, However, these can be separated by chemical methods, = The atoms of diferent elements are present in 2 compound ina fixed and definite ratio. The properties of ‘a compound are different feom those of is constituent tlements Properties of Matter and their Measurement ach substance is associated with some unique set of characteristics, which are collectively called the properties of matter The properties of matter are categorised into two types Physical Properties Thase properties which can be measured of observed without changing the identity oF the composition ofthe substance are called physical properties. eg colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density ete Chemical Properties Those properties which require a chemical change to occur for their measurement or observation are known as chemical properties. eg. characteristic reactions of different substances acidity, basicity, combustbiity ete. Measurements of Physical Properties Quantitative measurements of properties is requzed for scientific investigation Many properties of mate ke length, area or volume are guanbiative in nature and is represented bby a number followed by units in which ts measured For example, length ofa room canbe shown as 6m. The International System of Units (SI) Many systems or measurement exist among them the English and the metic systems are widely used. The scientific ommnity has agreed to have a uniform and common system {hroughout the world which s abbreviated a SL units Mass and Weight + Mass ofa substances the amount of mattr presenti it, ile weight is the force exerted by gravity onan object. + The mass ofa substance constant, whereas the weight may vary from one place to another due to change in gravity + The Sl unit of mass is ilogram (kg). The mass ofa substance canbe determined accurately by Using analytical balance Volume « This theamount of space occupied by a substance InSIsystem, volume has unit of + Inlaboratory, the volumes of liquids or solutions an be measured by graduated cylinders, burette, pipetteete + A volumetric ask is used to prepare a knoven volume of a solution. Density «+ Density ofa substances he amount of mass per unit volume. + STnits of density is kgm“ + Density ofa substance tells us about how closely its particles are packed If density is more, means particles Bre more closely packed Temperature + Temperatures the measure of hotness or coldness of body. «There are theee common seales to measure temperature °C (epee Celsius), F (degree Fahrente and K (Kelvin) The untof temperature i K + The temperature on Fabenbt scale and Celsius scale are related to each other by following relationship F=2¢0)+32 + The Kelvin scale is related to Celsius scale as flows K="C427315 + Temperature below 0°C are possible in Celsius scale but in Kelvin sale, negative temperature is not possible. Uncertainty in Measurement ‘# Acconvenient system of expressing the numbers in scientific notation is used, ie. exponential notation in, Which any number can be represented in the form N10", Where nis an exponent having postive or negative values and N isa number which varies between 1.000 and 999.* Inaddition and subtraction, first the number are waitten in such @ way that they have the same exponents. After that, the coefficients are added or subtracted asthe case may be © Multiplication and division operation follow the same rue. « Significant figures are the meaningful digits which are known with certainty plus one whichis estimated oF uncertain. * Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity. Accuracy isthe agreement of particular value tothe true vale of the result. © While addition and subtraction of significant figures, the result cannot have more digits tothe right ofthe decimal point than either ofthe original numbers. * All non-zero digits or zero present between two non-zero Cigits are significant, Zeroes on the left side of a number are never significant, while that on right side, if present after a decimal point, are significant + In multiplication and division of significant Figures, the result must be reported with no more significant figures os inthe measurement withthe few significant figures. ‘The method used to convert units from one system to the other is called factor label method or unit factor method ‘or dimensional analysis, Laws of Chemical Combinations Elements combine to form molecules in accordance to the following five basic laws of chemical combinations. » [Law of conservation ofmass] Antoine Lavoisier ‘Matter can neither be created nor be destroyed during the course af a chemical reaction, however its physical and chemical nature may change, L, [Law of definite proportions | Joseph Proust Itis alto called as low of definite composition. ‘A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight [Law of multiple proportions] John Dalton Tf two elements can combine to form more than one ‘compound, the masses of one element that combine ‘with a fixed mass ofthe ofher element, ae in the ratio of small whole numbers [Law of gaseous volumes] Gay Lussac ‘When gases combine orare produced ina chemical reaction, they do so ina simple ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure. Avogadra’s aw Avogadro Equal volumes of all gases under the same condition of temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules. Dalton's Atomic Theory + Dalton proposed atomie theory in which he proposed the following: (i) Matter consists of indivisible atoms, (i) All the atoms ofa given element have identical properties including identical mass. Atoms of different ‘lements diff (ii) Compounds are formed when atoms of different «elements combine na fixed rato. (iv) Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms, ‘These are neither created nor destroyed in a chemica * Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical combination. However, it could not explain the law of gaseous volumes, Itcould not provide the reason For combining of toms Atomic and Molecular Masses «The present system of atomic masses is based on carbor-12, (0) as the standard whichis one ofthe isotopes of earbon. «+ In this system, "Cis assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic sass unit and masses of al oer atoms are given relative to this standard + One atomic mass unit is defined asa mass exactly equal to ‘onetwelfth of dhe mass of one carbon-12 atom. At present, ‘amu has been replaced by ' which is known as nied 1 ama = 1.66510" g «+ Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one fsotope. When we take into acount the existence ofthese isotopes and their relative abundance, the average atomic ‘mass ofthe element can be computed + Molecular mass i the sum of atomie masses of the elements present ina molecule, Its obtained by :multiplying the atomic mass ofeach element by the ‘umber of ts atom and adding them together. + Some substances such a sodium chioride do not contain discrete molecules as their constituent units, The formula such as NaClis used to calculate the formula mass instead (of molecular mass as in the solid state sodium chloride does not exist as a single entity Mole Concept and Molar Masses © One moles the amount of a substance that contains as many particles or entities as there ace atoms in exactly 12g, of the °C isotope, + 6022 10° this number s called Avogadro's number or Avogadro's constant, Its denoted by N, + The mass of one mole ofa substance in grams is called its ‘molar mass which is numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass inv.«© For determining the percentage composition of each clement in 8 compound. Mass % of an element _ Mass ofthat elementin a compound ‘Molar mass of te compound —*!”° Empirical and Molecular Formula Anempirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in a compound, whereas the ‘molecular formula shows the exact numberof different types ‘of atoms present ina molecule of» compound, Short Trick to Find Empirical and Molecular Formula ‘Step 1 Divide percentage composition by atomic mass to ‘oblain atomic ratio Divide atomic ratio by minimum value of atomic ratio fo obtain simplest ratio. Step 2 ‘Step 3 Multiply simplest ratio by integer to obtain simplest whole number ratio. Step 4 Write symbols of various elements present with their respective whole number ratio as a subscript to the lower hand comer of symbol to obtain, ‘empirical formula “Maltiply empirical formula by nto obtain Step 5 moles forma [n=-—Meat as Tmpirical formula mass Reactions in Solutions © The concentration of sol following ways shown in belove table: Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations «Stoichiometry deals withthe ealeulation of masses of the reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. Itcan be determined with the knowledge of balanced chemical equation. + ANbalanced chemical equation has the same numberof atoms of each element on both sides ofthe equation «Inthe balanced reaction, CH,(g) + 20,(g) —> CO,(g) + 24,015), the coefficients 2 for O, and H,0 are called stoichiometric coefficients Similarly, for CH, and CO, stoiehiometce ‘coefficients are I only + According tothe above chemical reaction, {) One mole of CH,(@) reacts with two moles of Ox() to give one mole of CO,(g) and two moles of F043) (i) One molecule of CHa(g) reacts with 2 molecules of (044g) to give one molecule of CO,(g) and 2 molecules of 0% (i) 227 L of CH) reacts with 45.41 of O,(3) 0 give 227 Lof COxig) and 454 Lof HO. (iv) 16 g of CH(g) reacts with 232. of Ox() to give dig ‘of CO, and 2x18 of 1,069). + The resctant which gts constimed fest nd limits the amount of product formed ina chemical reaction i called {he limiting reagent or the amount of substance present in its given volumes can be expressed in any of the Comparison between Concentration Terms Mass percent Mole fraction (i) Motaiy() ____Molariy (0, Formality () The mast ofa ‘The rai of amber of mole ofa The numberof moles of The numberof moles ofthe slate component per 1003, pacar component intl slite prevent in keof ike he soliton fthesoluion. umber of motes ofthe solution. solvent. Yates 100 yy, = X10 Mork=— Pains air Tom * a Fern OT) een = 5100 Moueting) 1000 Mor am Ma Bie ® D a) ate * Kaien 1 Wrae Feet XV G1) aa %X daz X10 Mai Units ——_Unilss Vaiss role ‘ol Note Molarty of solution ater ditution, MV, = MyVy