J.R.

INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
189/35 BEHIND RAILWAY STATION, VAISH COLLEGE ROAD, ROHTAK PIN-124001 (HARYANA)
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Chapter - 1
1.1 Vector space and subspace
Introduction : This section introduces the concept of vector space. A vector space is a collection of
objects called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied by numbers, called scalars. These
operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication must satisfy certain axioms. Historically, the
first idea leading to vector spaces can be tracked back as far as the 17th century’s analytic geometry,
matrices, system of linear equations and Euclidean vectors.
1.1 Vector space : Let  F ,  ,  be a field. The elements of F are called scalars. Let V be a non-empty

set whose elements are called vectors. Then V is a vector space over the field F (denoted by
V  F  if

(a) there is an internal composition in V called addition of vectors which is denoted by ‘+’ such that
for this composition V is an abelian group, i.e.,
(i)     V for all  ,  V .
(ii)        for all  ,  V .

(iii)               for all  ,  ,   V .

(iv)  an element 0  V such that   0    0   for all   V . This element 0  V is

called the zero vector.
(v) To every vector  V , there exists a vector   V such that       0       .

(b) There is an external composition in V over F called scalar multiplication and is denoted
multiplicatively, i.e., a  V for all a  F and for all   V . In other words, V is closed with
respect to scalar multiplication.
(c) The two composition, i.e., scalar multiplication and addition of vectors satisfy the following
conditions :
(i) a      a  a  a  F and   ,  V .

(ii)  a  b   a  b  a, b  F and    V .

(iii)  ab   a  b   a, b  F and   V .

(iv) 1.     V and 1 is the unity of the field F.

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Note 1 : A field K can be regarded as a vector space over any subfield F of K. If F is any field, then F
itself is a vector space over the field F.
Note 2 : If  is the field of complex numbers and  is the field of real numbers, then  is a vector
space over  because  is a subfield of  but  is not a vector space over  as  is not closed
with respect to scalar multiplication. For example, 2   and 3  4i   but  3  4i  2   .

 The set of all ordered n-tuples over a field F forms a vector space.
 Let S be any non-empty set and let F be any field. Let V be the set of all functions from S to F,
i.e., V   f | f : S  F  . Let the sum of two elements f and g in V be defined as follows :

f  g  x   f  x   g  x   x  S .

Also, let the scalar multiplication of an element f in V by an element c in F be defined as follows :

 cf  x   cf  x   x  S . Then V  F  is a vector space.

Note 3 : Let V be the set of all m  n matrices with entries from an arbitrary field K, then V forms a
vector space over the field F, where either F  K or F is subfield of K.
General Properties of a vector space : Let V  F  be a vector space and 0 be the zero vector of V.

Then,
(i) a0  0  a  F
(ii) 0  0   V .

(iii) a        a   a  V .

(iv)  a     a   a  F ,  a V .

(v) a      a  a   a  F and   ,  V .

(vi) a  0  either a  0 or   0 .

Theorem 1.1.1 Let V  F  be a vector space.

(i) If a, b  F and  is a non-zero vector of V, then a  b  a b.

(ii) If  ,  V and a is a non-zero element of F, then a  a    .

Example 1.1.1 Show that the set of all elements of type a  b 2  c 3 3 ; a, b, c   form a vector
space over the field  under usual addition and scalar multiplication of real numbers.

Solution : Given, V  a  b 2  c 3 3 | a, b, c   .

Let x  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3 . y  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3 ; a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2   .
Then the addition and scalar multiplication is defined as :
x  y   a1  a2    b1  b2  2   c1  c2  3 3 and  x   a1    b1  2   c1  3 3
J.R. INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
189/35 BEHIND RAILWAY STATION, VAISH COLLEGE ROAD, ROHTAK PIN-124001 (HARYANA)
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I. Under addition (Internal composition)

A1 Closure : Let x, y  V .

   
Then x  y  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3   a1  a2    b1  b2  2   c1  c2  3 3 V

 a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2    a1  a2 , b1  b2 , c1  c2  

 closure property holds in V.

A2 Associativity : Let x, y and z  V , where z  a3  b3 2  c3 3 3 ; a3 , b3 , c3  

    
Then x   y  z   a1  b1 2  c1 3 3   a2  b2 2  c2 3 3  a3  b3 2  c3 3 3 
  
 
 a1  b1 2  c1 3 3   a2  a3    b2  b3  2   c2  c3  3 3 

  a1   a2  a3     b1   b2  b3   2   c1   c2  c3   3 3

   a1  a2   a3     b1  b2   b3  2    c1  c2   c3  3 3   x  y   z

(  Associative law holds in  )

 Associative law holds in V
A3 Existence of identity : Let x  V , i.e., x  a  b 2  c 3 3 a, b, c  

Also, 0  0  0 2  0 3 3 V

   
Now 0  x  0  0 2  0 3 3  a  b 2  c 3 3   0  a    0  b  2   0  c  3 3

 a b 2  c3 3
Similarly x  0  x  0 x  x  x0

 0  0 2  0 3 3 is the additive identity in V.

A4 Existence of Inverse : Let x V , i.e., x  a  b 2  c 3 3 a, b, c  

Then  x   a    b  2   c  3 3  V  a, b, c     a, b, c   

  
Now x    x   a  b 2  c 3 3    a    b  2   c  3 3 
  a   a     b   b   2   c   c   3 3  0  0 2  0 3 3  0

Similarly,   x   x  0;

 x   x  0   x  x
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  x   a    b  2    c  3 3 is the additive inverse of x  a  b 2  c 3 3 in V.

A5 Commutativity : Let x, y  V ,

  
Then x  y  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3 
( Commutative law holds in  )

  
 a2  b2 2  c2 3 3  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  y  x 
 Addition is commutative.
II. Under scalar multiplication (External Composition)
Let    and x  V

 
Then  x   a  b 2  c 3 3   a    b  2   c  3 3 (  , a     a  ; etc)

 V is closed under scalar multiplication.

III. Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors
M1 Let  ,    and x  V


Then     x      a  b 2  c 3 3 
     a      b 2      c 3 3   a   a    b   b  2   c   c  3 3

  
 a  b 2  c 3 3   a   b 2   c 3 3 

 a b 2 c3 3   a  b 
2 c3 3 x x

Hence,     x   x   x   ,    and  x  V

M2 Let    and x, y  V

  
Then   x  y    a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3 
  
   a1  a2    b1  b2  2   c1  c2  3 3     a1  a2      b1  b2  2    c1  c2  3 3

  a1   a2    b1   b2  2   c1   c2  3 3

  
  a1   b1 2   c1 3 3   a2   b2 2   c2 3 3 

  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a 2 
 b2 2  c2 3 3   x   y

Hence,   x  y    x   y     and  x, y  V

M3 Let  ,    and x  V

Then   x     a  b 2  c 3 3 

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   a     b  2    c  3 3     a      b   2     c  c 3 3

 
   a   b 2   c 3 3      a  b 2  c 3 3      x 
 
Hence,   x     x    ,    and x  V

M4 Let 1 be the unity element of  and x  V .

 
Then 1  x  1 a  b 2  c 3 3  1  a   1 b  2  1 c  3 3  a  b 2  c 3 3  x

Hence, V is a vector space over  .

Example 1.1.2 Let   be the set of positive real numbers. Define the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication as follows :
u  v  u  v  u , v    and au  u a ,  u    and a  

Show that   is a real vector space (vector space over  )

Solution :    

1. (Internal Composition) : (   ,  ) is an abelian group

A1 Closure : Since product of two positive real numbers is a positive real number.   is closed
with respect to ‘+’
A2 Associativity :  u  v   w   u  v   w and u   v  w   u   v  w 

Since  u  v   w  u   v  w  (in real numbers)

  u  v   w  u   v  w  u , v, w   

A3 Exitence of identity : For each u    , there exists 1    such that u  1  u 1  u

Also 1  u  1  u  u  1 is the additive identity.

1 1 1
A4 Existence of inverse : For each u    , there exists    such that u   u   1 and
u u u
1 1 1
 u  u  1  is the inverse of u
u u u
A5 Commutativity : u  v  u  v and v  u  v  u
Since u  v  v  u ,  u  v  v  u .
II. Scalar multiplication (External Composition)
Suppose u    and a  
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Then au  u a (Clearly u a    ,  u    and a   )

 For u    and a  , au       is closed with respect to scalar multiplication.

III. Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors
Scalar multiplication is defined by a  u  u a ,  u    and a   . It satisfies the following
properties :
M1 1  u  u1  u
a a
M2 a u  v   u  v   u  v   u a  va

Also, au  av  u a  v a  u a  v a (By definition of ‘+’)

 a  u  v   au  av,  a   and u , v   

M3  a  b  u   u ab (By definition of scalar multiplication)

 u a  u b  u a  u b  au  bu
Hence,  a  b  u  au  bu  a, b   and  u   
a
M4  ab  u  u ab and a  bu   a  u b    u b   u ba  u ab

  ab  u  a  bu   a, b   and  u   

Hence,   is a vector space over  .

Example 2 : Show that the axiom u  v  v  u of a vector space can be derived from the other
axioms.
Proof : Commutativity can be derived from associativity, distributivity and from the existence of
inverses as : u  v    v  u   u  v   v  u (by distributivity)

 u  v  v  u (by associativity)

u 0u (by existence of inverse)

u u (by existence of inverse)
0
So, u v  vu
Exercise 1.1
1. (Number system) : Which of the following are vector spaces ?
(i)     (ii)     (iii)     (iv)    

(v)     (vi)     (vii)     (viii)    

(ix)     (x)     (xi)     (xii)    

(xiii)     (xiv)     (xv)     (xvi)    

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2. (n-tuples) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :

(i) n    (ii) n    (iii) n   

(iv)  n    (v)  n    (vi) n   

 
Notation : M m ,n  F    aij  aij  F = Set of all m  n matrices whose entries are from F.
mn

3. (Matrices) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :

(i) M m,n    over  (ii) M m,n    over  (iii) M m,n    over 

(iv) M m,n    over  (v) M m,n    over  (vi) M m,n    over 

Notation : Pn  F   a0  a1 x  .....  an x n : ai  F and n is a fixed non negative integer

 Set of all polynomials of degree atmost n with coefficients from F and the zero
polynomial.
4. (Polynomials of degree atmost n) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) Pn    over  (ii) Pn    over  (iii) Pn    over 

(iv) Pn    over  (v) Pn    over  (vi) Pn    over 

Notation : P  F   a0  a1 x  .....  an x n : ai  F and n is any non negative integer

 Set of all polynomials with coefficients from F.

5. (All polynomials) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) P    over  (ii) P    over  (iii) P    over 

(iv) P    over  (v) P    over  (vi) P    over 

6. (Functions) : Show that the set V of all real valued continuous functions of x defined on interval
 0,1 is a vector space over the field R of real numbers with respect to vector addition and scalar

multiplication defined by ( f1  f 2 ) x = f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x) for all f1 , f 2  V

(af1 ) x = af1 ( x) for all a  R , f1  V .

7. (Finite vector spaces) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) np over  p (ii) M m,n   p  over  p (iii) Pn   p  over  p

8. Find the number of elements in the vector spaces given in above question.
9. Write all the elements of following vector spaces :
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(i)  22 over  2 (ii) 32 over  2 (iii)  23 over  3

(iv) 33 over  3 (v) M 2,2   2  over  2 (vi) M 2,3   2  over  2

(vii) P2   2  over  2 (viii) P2   3  over  3 (ix) P3   2  over  2

10. Show that every field is a vector space over itself.

11. Show that every field is a vector space over its subfield .
12. Let   be the set of all positive real numbers. Define the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication as : u  v  u.v for all u , v    and au  u a for all u    , a   . Show that

  is a vector space over  .

13. Let V  (a , b) : a , b   then show that V is not a vector space over reals under addition

and scalar multiplication defined as in each one of the following cases :

(i) ( a , b)  (c , d )  (0 , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  ( ka , kb)
(ii) ( a , b)  (c , d )  ( a  c , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  (0 , kb)
(iii) ( a , b)  (c , d )  ( a  c , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  ( ka , b)

(iv)  a , b    c, d    a  d , b  c  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

(v)  a , b    c, d    a  c, b  d  and k  a, b    a, b 

(vi)  a, b    c, d    0, 0  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

(vii)  a, b    c, d    ac, bd  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

14. Prove that the set of all vectors in a plane over the field of real numbers is a vector space over 
with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication.
 x y
15. Prove that the set of all matrices of the form  , where x, y   , the set of complex
 y x 
numbers , is a vector space over  with respect to matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

16. Show that the set   2  = a  b 

2 : a, b   is a vector space over  with respect to the

vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as ( a  b 2)  ( c  d 2)  ( a  c)  (b  d ) 2

and  ( a  b 2)  a  b 2 where a, b, c, d and  are all rational numbers.

17. Show that the set V of all polynomials with constant term 2 over  is not a vector space over  .
Further tell which fixed value can be assigned to the constant term so that V can become a vector
space.
Answers
1. (vi), (vii), (viii), (xi), (xii), (xvi) 8. (i) p n (ii) p mn (iii) p n1