EXPERIMENTS

 

Use of Vernier Callipers to
(i) measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body,
(ii) measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass
and hence to determine its density; and
(iii) measure the internal diameter and depth of a given cylindrical object
like beaker/glass/calorimeter and hence to calculate its volume.


Vernier Callipers, Spherical body, such as a pendulum bob or a glass
marble, rectangular block of known mass and cylindrical object like
a beaker/glass/calorimeter

 
1. A Vernier Calliper has two scales–one main scale and a Vernier
scale, which slides along the main scale. The main scale and Vernier
scale are divided into small divisions though of different
magnitudes.
The main scale is graduated in cm and mm. It has two fixed jaws, A
and C, projected at right angles to the scale. The sliding Vernier scale
has jaws (B, D) projecting at right angles to it and also the main scale
and a metallic strip (N). The zero of
main scale and Vernier scale coincide
when the jaws are made to touch each
other. The jaws and metallic strip are
designed to measure the distance/
diameter of objects. Knob P is used to
slide the vernier scale on the main
scale. Screw S is used to fix the vernier
scale at a desired position.
2. The least count of a common scale
is 1mm. It is difficult to further
Fig. E 1.1 Vernier Calliper
subdivide it to improve the least
count of the scale. A vernier scale
enables this to be achieved.

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL



The difference in the magnitude of one main scale division (M.S.D.)
and one vernier scale division (V.S.D.) is called the least count of the
instrument, as it is the smallest distance that can be measured using
the instrument.
n V.S.D. = (n – 1) M.S.D.
Formulas Used
(a) Least count of vernier callipers

the magnitude of the smallest division on the main scale

=
the total number of small divisions on the vernier scale

mass m m
(b) Density of a rectangular body = = = where m is
volume V l.b.h
its mass, l its length, b its breadth and h the height.

π D ′2
(c) The volume of a cylindrical (hollow) object V = πr2h' = . h'
4
where h' is its internal depth, D' is its internal diameter and r is
its internal radius.



(a) Measuring the diameter of a small spherical or cylindrical
body.
1. Keep the jaws of Vernier Callipers closed. Observe the zero mark of
the main scale. It must perfectly coincide with that of the vernier
scale. If this is not so, account for the zero error for all observations to
be made while using the instrument as explained on pages 26-27.
2. Look for the division on the vernier scale that coincides with a
division of main scale. Use a magnifying glass, if available and
note the number of division on the Vernier scale that coincides
with the one on the main scale. Position your eye directly over the
division mark so as to avoid any parallax error.
3. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough
to hold the sphere/cylindrical body gently (without any undue
pressure) in between the lower jaws AB. The jaws should be perfectly
perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten the
screw so as to clamp the instrument in this position to the body.
4. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale
against the main scale. Usually, it will not perfectly coincide with
24

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

any of the small divisions on the main scale. Record the main scale
division just to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
5. Start looking for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with
that of a main scale division in the vernier window from left end
(zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N, carefully.
6. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product
to the main scale reading noted in step 4. Ensure that the product
is converted into proper units (usually cm) for addition to be valid.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to obtain the diameter of the body at different
positions on its curved surface. Take three sets of reading in
each case.
8. Record the observations in the tabular form [Table E 1.1(a)] with
proper units. Apply zero correction, if need be.
9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter
of the body. Express the results in suitable units with appropriate
number of significant figures.
(b) Measuring the dimensions of a regular rectangular body to
determine its density.
1. Measure the length of the rectangular block (if beyond the limits
of the extended jaws of Vernier Callipers) using a suitable ruler.
Otherwise repeat steps 3-6 described in (a) after holding the block
lengthwise between the jaws of the Vernier Callipers.
2. Repeat steps 3-6 stated in (a) to determine the other dimensions
(breadth b and height h) by holding the rectangular block in proper
positions.
3. Record the observations for length, breadth and height of the
rectangular block in tabular form [Table E 1.1 (b)] with proper
units and significant figures. Apply zero corrections wherever
necessary.
4. Find out the arithmetic mean of readings taken for length, breadth
and height separately.
[c] Measuring the internal diameter and depth of the given beaker
(or similar cylindrical object) to find its internal volume.
1. Adjust the upper jaws CD of the Vernier Callipers so as to touch
the wall of the beaker from inside without exerting undue pressure
on it. Tighten the screw gently to keep the Vernier Callipers in this
position.
2. Repeat the steps 3-6 as in (a) to obtain the value of internal diameter
of the beaker/calorimeter. Do this for two different (angular)
positions of the beaker.
25

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Keep the edge of the main scale of Vernier Callipers, to determine

the depth of the beaker, on its peripheral edge. This should be
done in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to go freely
inside the beaker along its depth.
4. Keep sliding the moving jaw of the Vernier Callipers until the strip
just touches the bottom of the beaker. Take care that it does so
while being perfectly perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now
tighten the screw of the Vernier Callipers.
5. Repeat steps 4 to 6 of part (a) of the experiment to obtain depth of
the given beaker. Take the readings for depth at different positions
of the breaker.
6. Record the observations in tabular form [Table E 1.1 (c)] with
proper units and significant figures. Apply zero corrections, if
required.
7. Find out the mean of the corrected readings of the internal diameter
and depth of the given beaker. Express the result in suitable units
and proper significant figures.



(i) Least count of Vernier Callipers (Vernier Constant)
1 main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
Number of vernier scale divisions, N = 10
10 vernier scale divisions = 9 main scale divisions
1 vernier scale division = 0.9 main scale division
Vernier constant = 1 main scale division – 1 vernier scale division
= (1– 0.9) main scale divisions
= 0.1 main scale division
Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
Alternatively,

1MSD 1 mm
Vernier constant = =
N 10

Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

(ii) Zero error and its correction
When the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of the Vernier
should coincide with the zero of the main scale. If it is not so, the
instrument is said to possess zero error (e). Zero error may be
26

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

Fig. E 1.2: Zero error (i) no zero error (ii) positive zero error
(iii) negative zero error

positive or negative, depending upon whether the zero of vernier

scale lies to the right or to the left of the zero of the main scale. This
is shown by the Fig. E1.2 (ii) and (iii). In this situation, a correction
is required to the observed readings.
(iii) Positive zero error
Fig E 1.2 (ii) shows an example of positive zero error. From the
figure, one can see that when both jaws are touching each other,
zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the right of zero of the main
scale (This might have happened due to manufacturing defect or
due to rough handling). This situation makes it obvious that while
taking measurements, the reading taken will be more than the
actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is
proportional to the right shift of zero of vernier scale.
In ideal case, zero of vernier scale should coincide with zero of
main scale. But in Fig. E 1.2 (ii), 5th vernier division is coinciding
with a main scale reading.
∴ Zero Error = + 5 × Least Count = + 0.05 cm
Hence, the zero error is positive in this case. For any measurements
done, the zero error (+ 0.05 cm in this example) should be
‘subtracted’ from the observed reading.
∴ True Reading = Observed reading – (+ Zero error)
(iv) Negative zero error
Fig. E 1.2 (iii) shows an example of negative zero error. From this
figure, one can see that when both the jaws are touching each
other, zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the left of zero of the
main scale. This situation makes it obvious that while taking
measurements, the reading taken will be less than the actual
reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is
proportional to the left shift of zero of vernier scale.
In Fig. E 1.2 (iii), 5th vernier scale division is coinciding with a
main scale reading.
∴ Zero Error = – 5 × Least Count
= – 0.05 cm
27

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Note that the zero error in this case is considered to be negative.

For any measurements done, the negative zero error, ( –0.05 cm in
this example) is also substracted ‘from the observed reading’,
though it gets added to the observed value.
∴ True Reading = Observed Reading – (– Zero error)
Table E 1.1 (a): Measuring the diameter of a small spherical/
cylindrical body

S. Main Scale Number of Vernier scale Measured

No. reading, M coinciding reading, V = N × VC diameter, M + V
(cm/mm) vernier (cm/mm) (cm/mm)
division, N
1
2
3
4

Zero error, e = ± ... cm

Mean observed diameter = ... cm
Corrected diameter = Mean observed diameter – Zero Error
Table E 1.1 (b) : Measuring dimensions of a given regular body
(rectangular block)

Dimension S. Main Scale Number of Vernier scale reading, Measured

No. reading, M coinciding V = N × VC (cm/mm) dimension
(cm/mm) vernier M + V (cm/mm)
division, N

1
Length (l) 2
3
1
Breadth (b) 2
3
1
Height (h) 2
3

Zero error = ± ... mm/cm

Mean observed length = ... cm, Mean observed breadth = ... cm
Mean observed height = ... cm
Corrected length = ... cm; Corrected breath = ... cm;
Corrected height = ...cm
28

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

Table E 1.1 (c) : Measuring internal diameter and depth of a

given beaker/ calorimeter/ cylindrical glass

Dimension S. Main Scale Number of Vernier scale reading, Measured

No. reading, M coinciding V = N × VC (cm/mm) diameter depth,
(cm/mm) vernier M + V (cm/mm)
division, N

Internal 1
diameter 2
(D′) 3

1
Depth (h′) 2
3

Mean diameter = ... cm

Mean depth= ... cm
Corrected diameter = ... cm
Corrected depth = ... cm

 
(a) Measurement of diameter of the sphere/ cylindrical body

D1 + D2 + ... + D6
Mean measured diameter, Do = cm
6
Do = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected diameter of the given body, D = Do – ( ± e ) = ... × 10–2 m
(b) Measurement of length, breadth and height of the rectangular
block
l1 + l 2 + l 3
Mean measured length, l o = cm
3
lo = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected length of the block, l = lo – ( ± e ) = ... cm

b1 + b2 + b3
Mean observed breadth, bo =
3
Mean measured breadth of the block, b0 = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected breadth of the block,
b = bO – ( ± e ) cm = ... × 10–2 m
29

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

h1 + h 2 + h 3
Mean measured height of block h o =
3

Corrected height of block h = ho – ( ± e ) = ... cm

Volume of the rectangular block,
V = lbh = ... cm3 = ... × 10–6 m3
Density ρ of the block,

m
ρ= =... kgm –3
V

(c) Measurement of internal diameter of the beaker/glass

D1 + D 2 + D3
Mean measured internal diameter, D o =
3

Do = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m

Corrected internal diameter,
D = Do – ( ± e ) = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m

h1 + h 2 + h 3
Mean measured depth of the beaker, h o =
3

= ... cm = ... × 10–2 m

Corrected measured depth of the beaker
h = ho – ( ± e ) ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Internal volume of the beaker

πD2 h
V= = ...×10 –6 m 3
4



(a) Diameter of the spherical/ cylindrical body,
D = ... × 10–2m
(b) Density of the given rectangular block,
ρ = ... kgm–3
(c) Internal volume of the given beaker
V'= ... m3
30

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

 
1. If the vernier scale is not sliding smoothly over the main scale,
apply machine oil/grease.
2. Screw the vernier tightly without exerting undue pressure to avoid
any damage to the threads of the screw.
3. Keep the eye directly over the division mark to avoid any error
due to parallax.
4. Note down each observation with correct significant figures
and units.



Any measurement made using Vernier Callipers is likely to be
incorrect if-
(i) the zero error in the instrument placed is not accounted for; and
(ii) the Vernier Callipers is not in a proper position with respect to the
body, avoiding gaps or undue pressure or both.

 
1. A Vernier Callipers is necessary and suitable only for certain
types of measurement where the required dimension of the object
is freely accessible. It cannot be used in many situations. e.g.
suppose a hole of diameter 'd' is to be drilled into a metal block.
If the diameter d is small - say 2 mm, neither the diameter nor
the depth of the hole can be measured with a Vernier Callipers.
2. It is also important to realise that use of Vernier Callipers for
measuring length/width/thickness etc. is essential only when
the desired degree of precision in the result (say determination
of the volume of a wire) is high. It is meaningless to use it where
precision in measurement is not going to affect the result much.
For example, in a simple pendulum experiment, to measure
the diameter of the bob, since L >> d.



1. One can undertake an exercise to know the level of skills developed
in making measurements using Vernier Callipers. Objects, such
as bangles/kangan, marbles whose dimensions can be measured
indirectly using a thread can be used to judge the skill acquired
through comparison of results obtained using both the methods.
2. How does a vernier decrease the least count of a scale.
31

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Determine the density of glass/metal of a (given) cylindrical vessel.

2. Measure thickness of doors and boards.

3. Measure outer diameter of a water pipe.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE

1. In the vernier scale normally used in a Fortin's barometer, 20 VSD

coincide with 19 MSD (each division of length 1 mm). Find the least
count of the vernier.
2. In vernier scale (angular) normally provided in spectrometers/sextant,
60 VSD coincide with 59 MSD (each division of angle 1°). Find the least
count of the vernier.

3. How would the precision of the measurement by Vernier Callipers be

affected by increasing the number of divisions on its vernier scale?

4. How can you find the value of π using a given cylinder and a pair of
Vernier Callipers?

[Hint : Using the Vernier Callipers, - Measure the diameter D and find
the circumference of the cylinder using a thread. Ratio of circumference
to the diameter (D) gives π.]

5. How can you find the thickness of the sheet used for making of a steel
tumbler using Vernier Callipers?

[Hint: Measure the internal diameter (Di) and external diameter (Do) of
the tumbler. Then, thickness of the sheet Dt = (Do – Di)/2.]

32

20/04/2018
  

Use of screw gauge to
(a) measure diameter of a given wire,
(b) measure thickness of a given sheet; and
(c) determine volume of an irregular lamina.


Wire, metallic sheet, irregular lamina, millimetre graph paper, pencil
and screw gauge.

 
With Vernier Callipers. you are usually able to measure length
accurately up to 0.1 mm. More accurate measurement of length, up
to 0.01 mm or 0.005 mm, may be made by using a screw gauge. As
such a Screw Gauge is an
instrument of higher precision than
a Vernier Callipers. You might have
observed an ordinary screw [Fig E2.1
(a)]. There are threads on a screw. The
separation between any two
consecutive threads is the same. The
screw can be moved backward or
forward in its nut by rotating it anti-
Fig.E 2.1A screw (a) without nut (b) with nut
clockwise or clockwise [Fig E2.1(b)].
The distance advanced by the screw
when it makes its one complete
rotation is the separation between
two consecutive threads. This
distance is called the Pitch of the
screw. Fig. E 2.1(a) shows the pitch
(p) of the screw. It is usually 1 mm
or 0.5 mm. Fig. E 2.2 shows a
screw gauge. It has a screw ’S’
which advances forward or
backward as one rotates the head Fig.E 2.2: View of a screw gauge
C through rachet R. There is a linear

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

scale ‘LS’ attached to limb D of the U frame. The smallest division on

the linear scale is 1 mm (in one type of screw gauge). There is a circular
scale CS on the head, which can be rotated. There are 100 divisions
on the circular scale. When the end B of the screw touches the surface
A of the stud ST, the zero marks on the main scale and the circular
scale should coincide with each other.
ZERO ERROR
When the end of the screw and the surface of the
stud are in contact with each other, the linear scale
and the circular scale reading should be zero. In
case this is not so, the screw gauge is said to have
an error called zero error.
Fig. E 2.3 shows an enlarged view of a screw gauge
with its faces A and B in contact. Here, the zero
mark of the LS and the CS are coinciding with each
other.
When the reading on the circular scale across the
linear scale is more than zero (or positive), the
instrument has Positive zero error as shown in
Fig.E 2.3: A screw gauge with no zero error Fig. E 2.4 (a). When the reading of the circular scale
across the linear scale is less than zero (or negative),
the instrument is said to have negative zero error
as shown in Fig. E 2.4 (b).

Fig.E 2.4 (a): Showing a positive zero error

Fig.E 2.4 (b): Showing a negative zero error

TAKING THE LINEAR SCALE READING

The mark on the linear scale which lies close to the
left edge of the circular scale is the linear scale
reading. For example, the linear scale reading as
shown in Fig. E 2.5, is 0.5 cm.
TAKING CIRCULAR SCALE READING
The division of circular scale which coincides with
Fig.E 2.5: Measuring thickness with a screw the main scale line is the reading of circular scale.
guage For example, in the Fig. E 2.5, the circular scale
reading is 2.
34

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

TOTAL READING
Total reading
= linear scale reading + circular scale reading × least count
= 0.5 + 2 × 0.001
= 0.502 cm



The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the
rotation given to it. The linear distance moved by the screw when it is
rotated by one division of the circular scale, is the least distance that
can be measured accurately by the instrument. It is called the least
count of the instrument.
pitch
Least count =
No. of divisions on circular scale

For example for a screw gauge with a pitch of 1mm and 100 divisions
on the circular scale. The least count is
1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm
This is the smallest length one can measure with this screw gauge.
In another type of screw gauge, pitch is 0.5 mm and there are 50
divisions on the circular scale. The least count of this screw gauge
is 0.5 mm/50 = 0.01 mm. Note that here two rotations of the
circular scale make the screw to advance through a distance of 1
mm. Some screw gauge have a least count of 0.001 mm (i.e. 10 –6
m) and therefore are called micrometer screw.
(a) Measurement of Diameter of a Given Wire



1. Take the screw gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the
head of the screw functions properly.
2. Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe
the distance through which it has receded. This distance is the
reading on the linear scale marked by the edge of the circular
scale. Then, find the pitch of the screw, i.e., the distance moved by
the screw in one complete rotation. If there are n divisions on the
circular scale, then distance moved by the screw when it is rotated
through one division on the circular scale is called the least count
of the screw gauge, that is,
pitch
Least count =
n
35

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Insert the given wire between the screw and the stud of the screw
gauge. Move the screw forward by rotating the rachet till the wire
is gently gripped between the screw and the stud as shown in
Fig. E 2.5. Stop rotating the rachet the moment you hear a click
sound.
4. Take the readings on the linear scale and the circular scale.
5. From these two readings, obtain the diameter of the wire.
6. The wire may not have an exactly
circular cross-section. Therefore. it is
necessary to measure the diameter of the
wire for two positions at right angles to
each other. For this, first record the
reading of diameter d1 [Fig. E 2.6 (a)]
and then rotate the wire through 90° at
the same cross-sectional position.
Record the reading for diameter d2 in this
position [Fig. E 2.6 (b)].
7. The wire may not be truly cylindrical.
Fig.E 2.6 (a): Two magnified views (a) and (b) of a wire
Therefore, it is necessary to measure the
showing its perpendicular diameters d1
and d2. d2 is obtained after the rotating diameter at several different places and
the wire in the clockwise direction obtain the average value of diameter. For
through 90°. this, repeat the steps (3) to (6) for three
more positions of the wire.
8. Take the mean of the different values of diameter so obtained.
9. Substract zero error, if any, with proper sign to get the corrected
value for the diameter of the wire.

 
The length of the smallest division on the linear scale = ... mm
Distance moved by the screw when it is rotated
through x complete rotations, y = ... mm

y
Pitch of the screw = = ... mm
x

Number of divisions on the circular scale n = ...

Least Count (L.C.) of screw guage

pitch
= = ... mm
No. of divisions on the circular scale

Zero error with sign (No. of div. × L. C.) = ... mm

36

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

Table E 2.1: Measurement of the diameter of the wire

S. Reading along Reading Measured

No. one direction along diameter
(d1) perpendicular
direction (d2) d1 + d2
d=
2
Linear Circular Diameter Linear Circular Diameter
scale scale d1 = M + n ×L.C. scale scale d = M + n ×L.C .
reading reading reading reading 2
M (mm) (n) (mm) M (mm) (n) (mm)

Mean diameter = ... mm

Mean corrected value of diameter
= measured diameter – (zero error with sign) = ... mm

 
The diameter of the given wire as measured by screw gauge is ... m.

 
1. Rachet arrangement in screw gauge must be utilised to avoid undue
pressure on the wire as this may change the diameter.
2. Move the screw in one direction else the screw may develop “play”.
3. Screw should move freely without friction.
4. Reading should be taken atleast at four different points along the
length of the wire.
5. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to
avoid error due to parallax.



1. The wire may not be of uniform cross-section.
2. Error due to backlash though can be minimised but cannot be
completely eliminated.
37

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

BACKLASH ERROR
In a good instrument (either screw gauge or a spherometer) the
thread on the screw and that on the nut (in which the screw moves),
should tightly fit with each other. However, with repeated use,
the threads of both the screw and the nut may get worn out. As
a result a gap develops between these two threads, which is called
“play”. The play in the threads may introduce an error in
measurement in devices like screw gauge. This error is called
backlash error. In instruments having backlash error, the screw
slips a small linear distance without rotation. To prevent this, it
is advised that the screw should be moved in only one direction
while taking measurements.
3. The divisions on the linear scale and the circular scale may not be
evenly spaced.

 
1. Try to assess if the value of diameter obtained by you is realistic
or not. There may be an error by a factor of 10 or 100 . You can
obtain a very rough estimation of the diameter of the wire by
measuring its thickness with an ordinary metre scale.
2. Why does a screw gauge develop backlash error with use?



1. Is the screw gauge with smaller least count always better? If you
are given two screw gauges, one with 100 divisions on circular
scale and another with 200 divisions, which one would you prefer
and why?
2. Is there a situation in which the linear distance moved by the screw
is not proportional to the rotation given to it?
3. Is it possible that the zero of circular scale lies above the zero line
of main scale, yet the error is positive zero error?
4. For measurement of small lengths, why do we prefer screw gauge
over Vernier Callipers?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Think of a method to find the ‘pitch’ of bottle caps.

2. Compare the ‘pitch’ of an ordinary screw with that of a screw guage.
In what ways are the two different?
3. Measure the diameters of petioles (stem which holds the leaf) of
different leaf and check if it has any relation with the mass or surface
area of the leaf. Let the petiole dry before measuring its diameter by
screw gauge.
38

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

4. Measure the thickness of the sheet of stainless steel glasses of

various make and relate it to their price structure.
5. Measure the pitch of the ‘screw’ end of different types of hooks and
check if it has any relation with the weight each one of these hooks
are expected to hold.
6. Measure the thickness of different glass bangles available in the
Market. Are they made as per some standard?
7. Collect from the market, wires of different gauge numbers, measure
their diameters and relate the two. Find out various uses of wires of
each gauge number.

(b) Measurement of Thickness of a Given Sheet



1. Insert the given sheet between the studs of the screw gauge and
determine the thickness at five different positions.
2. Find the average thickness and calculate the correct thickness by
applying zero error following the steps followed earlier.

 
Least count of screw gauge = ... mm
Zero error of screw gauge = ... mm
Table E 2.2 Measurement of thickness of sheet

S. Linear scale Circular Thickness

No. reading M scale reading
t = M + n × L.C.
(mm) n
(mm)
1

Mean thickness of the given sheet = ... mm

Mean corrected thickness of the given sheet
= observed mean thickness – (zero error with sign) = ... mm



The thickness of the given sheet is ... m.
39

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL



1. The sheet may not be of uniform thickness.
2. Error due to backlash though can be minimised but cannot be
eliminated completely.

 
1. Assess whether the thickness of sheet measured by you is realistic
or not. You may take a pile of say 20 sheets, and find its thickness
using a metre scale and then calculate the thickness of one sheet.
2. What are the limitations of the screw gauge if it is used to measure
the thickness of a thick cardboard sheet?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find out the thickness of different wood ply boards available in the
market and verify them with the specifications provided by the
supplier.
2. Measure the thickness of the steel sheets used in steel almirahs
manufactured by different suppliers and compare their prices. Is it
better to pay for a steel almirah by mass or by the guage of steel
sheets used?
3. Design a cardboard box for packing 144 sheets of paper and give
its dimensions.
4. Hold 30 pages of your practical notebook between the screw and
the stud and measure its thickness to find the thickness of one
sheet.
5. Find the thickness of plastic ruler/metal sheet of the geometry box.

(C) Determination of Volume of the Given Irregular Lamina

 
1. Find the thickness of lamina as in Experiment E 2(b).
2. Place the irregular lamina on a sheet of paper with mm graph.
Draw the outline of the lamina using a sharp pencil. Count the
total number of squares and also more than half squares within
the boundary of the lamina and determine the area of the lamina.
3. Obtain the volume of the lamina using the relation
mean thickness × area of lamina.

 
Same as in Experiment E 2(b). The first section of the table is now for
readings of thickness at five different places along the edge of the
40

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

lamina. Calculate the mean thickness and make correction for zero
error, if any.
From the outline drawn on the graph paper:-
Total number of complete squares = ... mm2 = ... cm2
Volume of the lamina = ... mm3 = ... cm3



Volume of the given lamina = ... cm3

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find the density of cardboard.

2. Find the volume of a leaf (neem, bryophyte).
3. Find the volume of a cylindrical pencil.

41

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To determine the radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a
spherometer.


A spherometer, a spherical surface such as a watch glass or a convex
mirror and a plane glass plate of about 6 cm × 6 cm size.

 
A spherometer consists of a metallic triangular frame F supported on
three legs of equal length A, B and C (Fig. E 3.1). The lower tips of the
legs form three corners of an equilateral triangle ABC
and lie on the periphery of a base circle of known radius,
r. The spherometer also consists of a central leg OS (an
accurately cut screw), which can be raised or lowered
through a threaded hole V (nut) at the centre of the frame
F. The lower tip of the central screw, when lowered to
the plane (formed by the tips of legs A, B and C) touches
the centre of triangle ABC. The central screw also carries
a circular disc D at its top having a circular scale divided
into 100 or 200 equal parts. A small vertical scale P
marked in millimetres or half-millimetres, called main
scale is also fixed parallel to the central screw, at one end
of the frame F. This scale P is kept very close to the rim of
disc D but it does not touch the disc D. This scale reads
the vertical distance which the central leg moves through
Fig. E 3.1: A spherometer the hole V. This scale is also known as pitch scale.

 
Pitch: It is the vertical distance moved by the central screw in one
complete rotation of the circular disc scale.
Commonly used spherometers in school laboratories have
graduations in millimetres on pitch scale and may have100 equal
divisions on circular disc scale. In one rotation of the circular scale,
the central screw advances or recedes by 1 mm. Thus, the pitch of
42 the screw is 1 mm.

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 3
UNIT NAME

Least Count: Least count of a spherometer is the distance moved by

the spherometer screw when it is turned through one division on the
circular scale, i.e.,

Pitch of the spherometer screw

Least count of the spherometer =
Number of divisions on the circular scale

The least count of commonly used spherometers is 0.01 mm.

However, some spherometers have least count as small as
0.005 mm or 0.001 mm.



FORMULA FOR THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A SPHERICAL
SURFACE
Let the circle AOBXZY (Fig. E 3.2) represent the vertical section of
sphere of radius R with E as its centre (The given spherical surface is
a part of this sphere). Length OZ is the diameter (= 2R ) of this vertical
section, which bisects the chord AB. Points A and B are the positions
of the two spherometer legs on the given spherical surface. The position
of the third spherometer leg is not shown in Fig. E 3.2. The point O is
the point of contact of the tip of central screw with the spherical surface.
Fig. E 3.3 shows
the base circle and
equilateral triangle
ABC formed by the
tips of the three
spherometer legs.
From this figure, it
can be noted that the
point M is not only
the mid point of line
AB but it is the
centre of base circle
and centre of the
equilateral triangle
ABC formed by the
lower tips of the legs of
the spherometer (Fig.
E 3.1).
In Fig. E 3.2 the
distance OM is the
height of central Fig. E 3.2: Measurement of radius Fig. E 3.3: The base circle of
screw above the plane of curvature of a spheri- the spherometer
of the circular section cal surface
ABC when its lower
43

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

tip just touches the spherical surface. This distance OM is also called
sagitta. Let this be h. It is known that if two chords of a circle, such
as AB and OZ, intersect at a point M then the areas of the rectangles
described by the two parts of chords are equal. Then
AM.MB = OM.MZ
(AM)2 = OM (OZ – OM) as AM = MB
Let EZ (= OZ/2) = R, the radius of curvature of the given spherical
surface and AM = r, the radius of base circle of the spherometer.
r2 = h (2R – h)

2
r h
Thus, R= +
2h 2

Now, let l be the distance between any two legs of the spherometer or
the side of the equilateral triangle ABC (Fig. E 3.3), then from geometry
we have

l
Thus, r = , the radius of curvature (R) of the given spherical surface
3
can be given by

2
l h
R= +
6h 2



1. Note the value of one division on pitch scale of the given
spherometer.
2. Note the number of divisions on circular scale.
3. Determine the pitch and least count (L.C.) of the spherometer. Place
the given flat glass plate on a horizontal plane and keep the
spherometer on it so that its three legs rest on the plate.
4. Place the spherometer on a sheet of paper (or on a page in practical
note book) and press it lightly and take the impressions of the tips
of its three legs. Join the three impressions to make an equilateral
triangle ABC and measure all the sides of ∆ABC. Calculate the
mean distance between two spherometer legs, l.
In the determination of radius of curvature R of the given spherical
surface, the term l 2 is used (see formula used). Therefore, great
care must be taken in the measurement of length, l.
44

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 3
UNIT NAME

5. Place the given spherical surface on the plane glass plate and then
place the spherometer on it by raising or lowering the central screw
sufficiently upwards or downwards so that the three spherometer
legs may rest on the spherical surface (Fig. E 3.4).
6. Rotate the central screw till it gently touches the spherical surface.
To be sure that the screw touches the surface one can observe its
image formed due to
reflection from the surface
beneath it.
7. Take the spherometer
reading h1 by taking the
reading of the pitch scale.
Also read the divisions of
the circular scale that is in
line with the pitch scale.
Record the readings in
Table E 3.1.
Fig.E 3.4: Measurement of sagitta h
8. Remove the spherical
surface and place the spherometer on plane glass plate. Turn the
central screw till its tip gently touches the glass plate. Take the
spherometer reading h2 and record it in Table E 3.1. The difference
between h1 and h2 is equal to the value of sagitta (h).
9. Repeat steps (5) to (8) three more times by rotating the spherical
surface leaving its centre undisturbed. Find the mean value of h.



A. Pitch of the screw:
(i) Value of smallest division on the vertical pitch scale = ... mm
(ii) Distance q moved by the screw for p complete rotations of the
circular disc = ... mm
(iii) Pitch of the screw ( = q / p ) = ... mm
B. Least Count (L.C.) of the spherometer:
(i) Total no. of divisions on the circular scale (N ) = ...
(ii) Least count (L.C.) of the spherometer
Pitch of the spherometer screw
=
Number of divisions on the circular scale

L.C.= Pitch of the screw = ... cm

N
45

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

C. Determination of length l (from equilateral triangle ABC)

(i) Distance AB = ... cm
(ii) Distance BC = ... cm
(iii) Distance CA = ... cm

AB + BC + CA
Mean l = = ... cm
3

Table E 3.1 Measurement of sagitta h

S. Spherometer readings (h1 – h2)

No.
With Spherical Surface Horizontal Plane Surface

Pitch Circular Circular Spherometer Pitch Circular Circular Spherometer

Scale scale scale reading with Scale scale scale reading with
reading division reading spherical reading division reading spherical
x (cm) coinciding z =y ×L.C. surface x1 (cm) coinciding surface
with pitch (cm) h1 = x + z with pitch z ′ =y ×
L.C. h =x′ + z′
2
scale y (cm) scale y ′ (cm) (cm)

Mean h = ... cm

 
A. Using the values of l and h, calculate the radius of curvature R
from the formula:

2
l h
R= + ;
6h 2

the term h/2 may safely be dropped in case of surfaces of large radii
2
of curvature (In this situation error in l is of the order of h/2).
6h

 
The radius of curvature R of the given spherical surface is ... cm.
46

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 3
UNIT NAME

 
1. The screw may have friction.
2. Spherometer may have backlash error.



1. Parallax error while reading the pitch scale corresponding to the
level of the circular scale.
2. Backlash error of the spherometer.
3. Non-uniformity of the divisions in the circular scale.
4. While setting the spherometer, screw may or may not be touching
the horizontal plane surface or the spherical surface.

 
Does a given object, say concave mirror or a convex mirror, have the
same radius of curvature for its two surfaces? [Hint: Does the thickness
of the material of object make any difference?]

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Determine the focal length of a convex/concave spherical mirror

using a spherometer.

2. (a) Using spherometer measure the thickness of a small piece of

thin sheet of metal/glass.

(b) Which instrument would be precise for measuring thickness of

a card sheet – a screw gauge or a spherometer?

47

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 


To determine mass of two different objects using a beam balance.



Physical balance, weight box with a set of milligram masses and
forceps, spirit level and two objects whose masses are to be determined.

 
A physical balance is a device that measures the weight (or gravitational
mass) of an object by comparing it with a standard weight (or standard
gravitational mass).
The most commonly used two-pan beam
balance is an application of a lever. It consists
of a rigid uniform bar (beam), two pans
suspended from each end, and a pivotal point
in the centre of the bar (Fig. E 4.1). At this pivotal
point, a support (called fulcrum) is set at right
angles to the beam. This beam balance works
on the principle of moments.
For high precision measurements, a physical
balance (Fig. E 4.2) is often used in laboratories.
Like a common beam balance, a physical
balance too consists of a pair of scale pans P1
and P2, one at each end of a rigid beam B. The
pans P1 and P2 are suspended through stirrups
S1 and S2 respectively, on inverted knife-edges
Fig. E 4.1: A beam balance and set of weights E1 and E2, respectively, provided symmetrically
near the end of the beam B. The beam is also
provided with a hard material (like agate) knife-
edge (E) fixed at the centre pointing downwards
and is supported on a vertical pillar (V) fixed on a wooden baseboard
(W). The baseboard is provided with three levelling screws W1, W2 and
W3. In most balances, screws W1 and W2 are of adjustable heights and
through these the baseboard W is levelled horizontally. The third screw
W3, not visible in Fig. E 4.2, is not of adjustable height and is fixed in
48 the middle at the back of board W. When the balance is in use, the

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 4
UNIT NAME

knife-edge E rests on a
plane horizontal plate
fixed at the top of pillar
V. Thus, the central
edge E acts as a pivot
or fulcrum for the beam
B. When the balance is
not in use, the beam
rests on the supports
X 1 and X 2 , These
supports, X1 and X2,
are fixed to another
horizontal bar attached
with the central pillar V.
Also, the pans P1 and
P2 rest on supports A1
and A 2, respectively,
Fig. E 4.2: A physical balance and a weight box
fixed on the wooden
baseboard. In some
balances, supports Al and A2 are not fixed and in that case the pans
rest on board W, when the balance is not in use.
At the centre of beam B, a pointer P is also fixed at right angles to it. A
knob K, connected by a horizontal rod to the vertical pillar V, is also
attached from outside with the board W. With the help of this knob,
the vertical pillar V and supports A 1 and A2 can be raised or lowered
simultaneously. Thus, at the 'ON' position of the knob K, the beam
B also gets raised and is then suspended only by the knife-edge E
and oscillates freely. Along with the beam, the pans P1 and P2 also
begin to swing up and down. This oscillatory motion of the beam
can be observed by the motion of the pointer P with reference to a
scale (G) provided at the base of the pillar V. When the knob K is
turned back to 'OFF' position, the beam rests on supports X1 and X2
keeping the knife-edge E and plate T slightly separated; and the
pans P1 and P2 rest on supports A1 and A2 respectively. In the 'OFF'
position of the knob K, the entire balance is said to be arrested.
Such an arresting arrangement protects the knife-edges from undue
wear and tear and injury during transfer of masses (unknown and
standards) from the pan.
On turning the knob K slowly to its ‘ON’ position, when there are no
masses in the two pans, the oscillatory motion (or swing) of the
pointer P with reference to the scale G must be same on either side
of the zero mark on G. And the pointer must stop its oscillatory
motion at the zero mark. It represents the vertical position of the
pointer P and horizontal position of the beam B. However, if the
swing is not the same on either side of the zero mark, the two
balancing screws B1 and B2 at the two ends of the beam are adjusted.
The baseboard W is levelled horizontal1y to make the pillar V vertical.
49

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

This setting is checked with the help of plumb line (R) suspended by
the side of pillar V. The appartus is placed in a glass case with two
doors.
For measuring the gravitational mass of an object using a physical
balance, it is compared with a standard mass. A set of standard
masses (100 g, 50 g, 20 g, 10g, 5 g, 2 g, and 1 g) along with a pair of
forceps is contained in a wooden box called Weight Box. The masses
are arranged in circular grooves as shown in Fig. E 4.2. A set of
milligram masses (500 mg, 200 mg, 100 mg, 50 mg, 20 mg 10 mg,
5 mg, 2 mg, and 1 mg) is also kept separately in the weight box. A
physical balance is usually designed to measure masses of bodies
up to 250 g.



The working of a physical balance is based on the principle of
moments. In a balance, the two arms are of equal length and the two
pans are also of equal masses. When the pans are empty, the beam
remains horizontal on raising the beam base by using the lower knob.
When an object to be weighed is placed in the left pan, the beam
turns in the anticlockwise direction. Equilibrium can be obtained
by placing suitable known standard weights on the right hand pan.
Since, the force arms are equal, the weight (i.e., forces) on the two
pans have to be equal.
A physical balance compares forces. The forces are the weights (mass
× acceleration due to gravity) of the objects placed in the two pans of
the physical balance. Since the weights are directly proportional to
the masses if weighed at the same place, therefore, a physical balance
is used for the comparison of gravitational masses. Thus, if an object
O having gravitational mass m is placed in one pan of the physical
balance and a standard mass O′ of known gravitational mass ms is
put in the other pan to keep the beam the horizontal, then
Weight of body O in one pan = Weight of body O′ in other pan
Or, mg = msg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, which is constant. Thus,
m = ms
That is,
the mass of object O in one pan = standard mass in the other pan



1. Examine the physical balance and recognise all of its parts. Check
that every part is at its proper place.
50

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 4
UNIT NAME

2. Check that set of the weight, both in gram and milligram, in the
weight box are complete.
3. Ensure that the pans are clean and dry.
4. Check the functioning of arresting mechanism of the beam B by
means of the knob K.
5. Level the wooden baseboard W of the physical balance
horizontally with the help of the levelling screws W1 and W2. In
levelled position, the lower tip of the plumb line R should be
exactly above the fixed needle point N. Use a spirit level for this
purpose.
6. Close the shutters of the glass case provided for covering the
balance and slowly raise the beam B using the knob K.
7. Observe the oscillatory motion of the pointer P with reference to
the small scale G fixed at the foot of the vertical pillar V. In case,
the pointer does not start swinging, give a small gentle jerk to
one of the pans. Fix your eye perpendicular to the scale to avoid
parallax. Caution: Do not touch the pointer.
8. See the position of the pointer P. Check that it either stops at the
central zero mark or moves equally on both sides of the central
zero mark on scale G. If not, adjust the two balancing screws B1
and B2 placed at the two ends of the beam B so that the pointer
swings equally on either side of the central zero mark or stops at
the central zero mark. Caution: Arrest the balance before
adjusting the balancing screws.
9. Open the shutter of the glass case of the balance. Put the
object whose mass (M) is to be measured in the left hand
pan and add a suitable standard mass say M 1, (which may
be more than the rough estimate of the mass of the object)
in the right hand pan of the balance in its rest (or arrested)
position, i.e., when the beam B is lowered and allowed to
rest on stoppers Xl and X2. Always use forceps for taking
out the standard mass from the weight box and for putting
them back.
The choice of putting object on left hand pan and standard
masses on right hand pan is arbitrary and chosen due to the
ease in handling the standard masses. A left handed person may
prefer to keep the object on right hand pan and standard masses
on left hand pan. It is also advised to keep the weight box near
the end of board W on the side of the pan being used for putting
the standard masses.
10. Using the knob K, gently raise the beam (now the beam’s knife
edge E will rest on plate T fixed on the top of the pillar V) and
observe the motion of the pointer P. It might rest on one side of
51

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

the scale or might oscillate more in one direction with reference

to the central zero mark on the scale G.

Note: Pans should not swing while taking the observations. The
swinging of pans may be stopped by carefully touching the pan
with the finger in the arresting position of the balance.

11. Check whether M1 is more than M or less. For this purpose, the
beam need to be raised to the full extent.

12. Arrest the physical balance. Using forceps, replace the standard
masses kept in the right pan by another mass (say M2). It should
be lighter if M1 is more than the mass M and vice versa.

13. Raise the beam and observe the motion of the pointer P and check
whether the standard mass kept on right hand pan is still heavier
(or lighter) than the mass M so that the pointer oscillates more in
one direction. If so, repeat step 12 using standard masses in gram
till the pointer swings nearly equal on both sides of the central
zero mark on scale G. Make the standard masses kept on right
hand pan to be slightly lesser than the mass of object. This would
result in the measurement of mass M of object with a precision of
1 g. Lower the beam B.

14. For fine measurement of mass add extra milligram masses

in the right hand pan in descending order until the pointer
swings nearly equal number of divisions on either side of the
central zero mark on scale G (use forceps to pick the milligram
or fractional masses by their turned-up edge). In the
equilibrium position (i.e., when the masses kept on both the
pans are equal), the pointer will rest at the centre zero mark.
Close the door of the glass cover to prevent disturbances due
to air draughts.

Note: The beam B of the balance should not be raised to the full
extent until milligram masses are being added or removed.
Pointer’s position can be seen by lifting the beam very gently and
for a short moment.

15. Arrest the balance and take out masses from the right hand pan
one by one and note total mass in notebook. Replace them in
their proper slot in the weight box. Also remove the object from
the left hand pan.

16. Repeat the step 9 to step 15 two more times for the same object.

17. Repeat steps 9 to 15 and determine the mass of the second given
object.

Record the observations for the second object in the table similar to
Table E 4.1.
52

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 4
UNIT NAME



TABLE E 4.1: Mass of First Object

S. Standard mass Mass of the object (x + y)

No.
Gram weights, x Milligram weights, y
(g) (mg) (g)
1
2
3

Mean mass of the first object = ... g

TABLE E 4.2: Mass of Second Object

S. Standard mass Mass of the object (x + y)

No.
Gram weights, x Milligram weights, y
(g) (mg) (g)
1
2
3

Mean mass of the second object = ... g

 
The mass of the first given object is ... g and that of the second
object is ... g.



1. The correctness of mass determined by a physical balance depends
on minimising the errors, which may arise due to the friction between
the knife-edge E and plate T. Friction cannot be removed completely.
However, it can be minimised when the knife-edge is sharp and
plate is smooth. The friction between other parts of the balance may
be minimised by keeping all the parts of balance dry and clean.
2. Masses should always be added in the descending order of
magnitude. Masses should be placed in the centre of the pan.
3. The balance should not be loaded with masses more than
capacity. Usually a physical balance is designed to measure
masses upto 250 g.
53

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

4. Weighing of hot and coId bodies using a physical balance should

be avoided. Similarly, active substances like chemicals, liquids
and powders should not be kept directly on the pan.



1. There is always some error due to friction at various parts of the
balance.
2. The accuracy of the physical balance is 1 mg. This limits the
possible instrumental error.

 
The deviation of experimental value from the given value may be due
to many factors.
1. The forceps used to load/unload the weights might contain dust
particles sticking to it which may get transferred to the weight.
2. Often there is a general tendancy to avoid use of levelling and
balancing screws to level the beam/physical balance just before
using it.



1. Why is it necessary to close the shutters of the glass case for an
accurate measurement?
2. There are two physical balances: one with equal arms and other
with unequal arms. Which one should be preferred? What
additional steps do you need to take to use a physical balance
with unequal arms.
3. The minimum mass that can be used from the weight box is 10 g.
Find the possible instrumental error.
4. Instead of placing the mass (say a steel block) on the pan, suppose
it is hanged from the same hook S1 on which the pan P1 is hanging.
Will the value of measured mass be same or different?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Determination of density of material of a non-porous block and

verification of Archimedes principle:

Hint: First hang the small block (say steel block) from hook S1 and
determine its mass in air. Now put the hanging block in a half water-
filled measuring cylinder. Measure the mass of block in water. Will it
be same, more or less? Also detemine the volume of steel block.
Find the density of the material of the block. From the measured
masses of the steel block in air and water, verify Archimedes principle.
54

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT
UNIT NAME

 

Measurement of the weight of a given body (a wooden block) using
the parallelogram law of vector addition.


The given body with hook, the parallelogram law of vector apparatus
(Gravesand's apparatus), strong thread, slotted weights (two sets),
white paper, thin mirror strip, sharp pencil.

 
Gravesand's apparatus: It consists of a wooden board fixed
vertically on two wooden pillars as shown in Fig. E 5.1 (a). Two pulleys
P1 and P2 are provided on its two sides near the upper edge of the
board. A thread carrying hangers for addition of slotted weights is
made to pass over the pulleys so that two forces P and Q can be applied
by adding weights in the hangers. By suspending the given object,
whose weight is to be determined, in the middle of the thread, a third
force X is applied.

Fig. E 5.1(a): Gravesand's apparatus Fig. E 5.1(b): Marking forces to scale

55

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL



Working of this apparatus is based on the parallelogram law of
vector addition. The law states that "when two forces act
simultaneously at a point and are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the
resultant of forces can be represented both in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the
point of application of the two forces.
Let P and Q be the magnitudes of the two forces and θ the angle be-
tween them. Then the resultant R of P and Q is given by

R = P 2 + Q2 + 2PQ cosθ

If two known forces P and Q and a third unknown force due to the
weight of the given body are made to act at a point O [Fig. 5.1 (a)]
such that they are in equilibrium, the unknown force is equal to
the resultant of the two forces. Thus, the weight of a given body
can be found.



1. Set the board of Gravesand's apparatus in vertical position by
using a plumb-line. Ensure that the pulleys are moving
smoothly. Fix a sheet of white paper on the wooden board with
drawing pins.
2. Take a sufficiently long piece of string and tie the two hangers at
its ends. Tie another shorter string in the middle of the first string
to make a knot at 'O'. Tie the body of unknown weight at the
other end of the string. Arrange them on the pulley as shown in
Fig. E 5.1 (a) with slotted weights on the hangers.
3. Add weights in the hangers such that the junction of the threads
is in equilibrium in the lower half of the paper. Make sure that
neither the weights nor the threads touch the board or
the table.
4. Bring the knot of the three threads to position of no-friction. For
this, first bring the knot to a point rather wide off its position of
no-friction. On leaving there, it moves towards the position of
no-friction because it is not in equilibrium. While it so moves,
tap the board gently. The point where the knot thus come to rest
is taken as the position of no-friction, mark this point. Repeat
the procedure several times. Each time let the knot approach the
position of no-friction from a different direction and mark the
point where it comes to rest. Find by judgement the centre of
those points which are close together. Mark this centre as O.
56

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 5
UNIT NAME

5. To mark the direction of the force acting along a string, place a

mirror strip below the string on the paper . Adjust the position of
the eye such that there is no parallax between the string and its
image. Mark the two points A1 and A2 at the edges of the mirror
where the image of the string leaves the mirror [Fig E 5.1 (b)].
Similarly, mark the directions of other two forces by points B1 and
B2 and by points X 1 and X 2 along the strings OB and OX
respectively.
6. Remove the hangers and note the weight of each hanger and slotted
weights on them.
7. Place the board flat on the table with paper on it. Join the three
pairs of points marked on the paper and extend these lines to
meet at O. These three lines represent the directions of the three
forces.
8. Choose a suitable scale, say 0.5 N (50 g wt) = 1cm and cut off
length OA and OB to represent forces P and Q respectively acting
at point O. With OA and OB as adjacent sides, complete the
parallelogram OACB. Ensure that the scale chosen is such that
the parallelogram covers the maximum area of the sheet.
9. Join points O and C. The length of OC will measure the weight of
the given body. See whether OC is along the straight line XO. If
not, let it meet BC at some point C′. Measure the angle COC′.
10. Repeat the steps 1 to 9 by suspending two different sets of weights
and calculate the mean value of the unknown weight.



Weight of each hanger = ... N
Scale, 1cm = ... N

Table E 5.1: Measurement of weight of given body

S. Force P = wt Force Q = wt Length OC Unknown Angle COC′

No. of (hanger + of (hanger + = L weight X =
slotted slotted weight L×s
weight)

P OA Q OB (cm) (N)
(N) (cm) (N) (cm)

1
2
3

57

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
The weight of the given body is found to be ... N.

 
1. Board of Gravesand's apparatus is perpendicular to table on which
it is placed, by its construction. Check up by plumb line that it is
vertical. If it is not, make table top horizontal by putting packing
below appropriate legs of table.

2. Take care that pulleys are free to rotate, i.e., have little friction
between pulley and its axle.



1. Friction at the pulleys may persist even after oiling.

2. Slotted weights may not be accurate.

3. Slight inaccuracy may creep in while marking the position of

thread.

 
1. The Gravesand's apparatus can also be used to verify the
parallelogram law of vector addition for forces as well as
triangle law of vector addition. This can be done by using the
same procedure by replacing the unknown weight by a
standard weight.

2. The method described above to find the point of no-friction for the
junction of three threads is quite good experimentally. If you like
to check up by an alternative method, move the junction to
extreme left, extreme right, upper most and lower most positions
where it can stay and friction is maximum. The centre of these
four positions is the point of no-friction.

3. What is the effect of not locating the point of no-friction accurately?

In addition to the three forces due to weight, there is a fourth
force due to friction. These four are in equilibrium. Thus, the
resultant of P and Q may not be vertically upwards, i.e., exactly
opposite to the direction of X.

4. It is advised that values of P and Q may be checked by spring

balance as slotted weights may have large error in their marked
value. Also check up the result for X by spring balance.
58

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 5
UNIT NAME



1. State parallelogram law of vector addition.
2. Given two forces, what could be the
(a) Maximum magnitude of resultant force.
(b) Minimum magnitude of resultant force.
3. In which situation this parallelogram can be a rhombus.
4. If all the three forces are equal in magnitude, how will the
parallelogram modify?
5. When the knot is in equilibrium position, is any force acting on
the pulleys?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Interchange position of the body of unknown weight with either of

the forces and then find out the weight of that body.
2. Keeping the two forces same and by varying the unknown weight,
study the angle between the two forces.

3. Suggest suitable method to estimate the density of material of a

given cylinder using parallelogram law of vectors.

4. Implement parallelogram law of vectors in the following situations:-

(a) Catapult (b) Bow and arrow (c) Hand gliding

(d) Kite (e) Cycle pedalling

59

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

Using a Simple Pendulum plot L – T and L – T2 graphs, hence find the
effective length of second's pendulum using appropriate graph.


Clamp stand; a split cork; a heavy metallic (brass/iron) spherical bob
with a hook; a long, fine, strong cotton thread/string (about 2.0 m);
stop-watch; metre scale, graph paper, pencil, eraser.

 
The most common device used for measuring time in a school
laboratory is a stop-watch or a stop-clock (analog). As the names
suggest, these have the provision to start or stop their working as
desired by the experimenter.
(a) Stop-Watch
Analog
A stop-watch is a special kind of watch. It has a multipurpose knob
or button (B) for start/stop/back to zero position [Fig. E 6.1(b)]. It has
two circular dials, the bigger one for a longer second’s hand
and the other smaller one for a shorter minute’s hand. The
second’s dial has 30 equal divisions, each division repre-
senting 0.1 second. Before using a stop-watch you should
find its least count. In one rotation, the seconds hand covers
30 seconds (marked by black colour) then in the second
rotation another 30 seconds are covered (marked by red
colour), therefore, the least count is 0.1 second.
(b) Stop-Clock
The least count of a stop-watch is generally about 0.1s [Fig.
E 6.1(b)] while that of a stop-clock is 1s, so for more accurate
measurement of time intervals in a school laboratory, a
stop-watch is preferred. Digital stop-watches are also
available now. These watches may be started by pressing
Fig.E 6.1(a): Stop - Watch
the button and can be stopped by pressing the same button
60

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 6
UNIT NAME

once again. The lapsed time interval is directly

displayed by the watch.



1. Second's pendulum: It is a pendulum which
takes precisely one second to move from one
extreme position to other. Thus, its times period
is precisely 2 seconds.
2. Simple pendulum: A point mass suspended by
an inextensible, mass less string from a rigid Fig.E 6.1(b): Stop - Clock
point support. In practice a small heavy
spherical bob of high density material of radius
r, much smaller than the length of the suspension, is suspended
by a light, flexible and strong string/thread supported at the other
end firmly with a clamp stand. Fig. E 6.2 is a good approximation
to an ideal simple pendulum.
3. Effective length of the pendulum: The distance L between the
point of suspension and the centre of spherical bob (centre of
gravity), L = l + r + e, is also called the effective length where l is the
length of the string from the top of the bob to the hook, e, the
length of the hook and r the radius of the bob.

 
The simple pendulum executes Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
as the acceleration of the pendulum bob is directly proportional to
its displacement from the mean position and is always directed
towards it.
The time period (T) of a simple pendulum for oscillations of small
amplitude, is given by the relation

T = 2π L / g (E 6.1)

where L is the length of the pendulum, and g is the acceleration due

to gravity at the place of experiment.
Eq. (6.1) may be rewritten as
4 π2 L (E 6.2)
T2 =


g


1. Place the clamp stand on the table. Tie the hook, attached to
the pendulum bob, to one end of the string of about 150 cm in
length. Pass the other end of the string through two half-pieces
of a split cork.
61

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Clamp the split cork firmly in the clamp stand such that the line of
separation of the two pieces of the split cork is at right angles to
the line OA along which the pendulum oscillates [Fig. E 6.2(a)].
Mark, with a piece of chalk or ink, on the edge of the table a vertical
line parallel to and just behind the vertical thread OA, the position
of the bob at rest. Take care that the bob hangs vertically (about
2 cm above the floor) beyond the edge of the table so that it is free
to oscillate.
3. Measure the effective length of simple pendulum as shown
in Fig. E 6.2(b).

Fig.E 6.2 (a): A simple pendulum; B and C show Fig.E 6.2 (b): Effective length of a
the extreme positions simple pendulum

4. Displace the bob to one side, not more than 15 degrees angular
displacement, from the vertical position OA and then release it gently.
In case you find that the stand is shaky, put some heavy object on
its base. Make sure that the bob starts oscillating in a vertical plane
about its rest (or mean) position OA and does not (i) spin about its
own axis, or (ii) move up and down while oscillating, or (iii) revolve
in an elliptic path around its mean position.
5. Keep the pendulum oscillating for some time. After completion of
a few oscillations, start the stop-watch/clock as the thread attached
to the pendulum bob just crosses its mean position (say, from left
to right). Count it as zero oscillation.
6. Keep on counting oscillations 1,2,3,…, n, everytime the bob crosses
the mean position OA in the same direction (from left to right).
62

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 6
UNIT NAME

Stop the stop-watch/clock, at the count n (say, 20 or 25) of

oscillations, i.e., just when n oscillations are complete. For better
results, n should be chosen such that the time taken for n
oscillations is 50 s or more. Read, the total time (t) taken by the
bob for n oscillations. Repeat this observation a few times by noting
the time for same number (n) of oscillations. Take the mean of
these readings. Compute the time for one oscillation, i.e., the time
period T ( = t/n) of the pendulum.
7. Change the length of the pendulum, by about 10 cm. Repeat the
step 6 again for finding the time (t) for about 20 oscillations or
more for the new length and find the mean time period. Take 5 or
6 more observations for different lengths of penduLum and find
mean time period in each case.
8. Record observations in the tabular form with proper units and
significant figures.
9. Take effective length L along x-axis and T 2 (or T) along y-axis,
using the observed values from Table E 6.1. Choose suitable scales
on these axes to represent L and T 2 (or T ). Plot a graph between
L and T 2 (as shown in Fig. E 6.4) and also between L and T (as
shown in Fig. E 6.3). What are the shapes of L –T 2 graph and L –T
graph? Identify these shapes.



(i) Radius (r) of the pendulum bob (given) = ... cm
Length of the hook (given) (e) = ... cm
Least count of the metre scale = ... mm = ... cm
Least count of the stop-watch/clock = ... s

Table E 6.1: Measuring the time period T and effective length

L of the simple pendulum

S. Length of the Effective Number of Time for n oscillations Time

No. string from the length, L = oscillations t (s) period T
top of the bob to (l+r+e) counted, n (= t/n)
the point of
suspension l

(cm) m (i)... (ii) (iii) Mean s

t (s)

63

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL



(i) L vs T graphs
Plot a graph between L versus T from observations recorded in
Table E 6.1, taking L along x-axis and T along y-axis. You will
find that this graph is a curve, which is part of a parabola as
shown in Fig. E 6.3.
(ii) L vs T 2 graph
Plot a graph between L versus T 2 from observations recorded in
Table E 6.1, taking L along x-axis and T 2 along y-axis. You will
find that the graph is a straight line passing through origin as shown
in Fig. E. 6.4.
(iii) From the T 2 versus L graph locate the effective length of second's
pendulum for T 2 = 4s2.

Fig. E 6.3: Graph of L vs T Fig. E 6.4: Graph L vs T 2

 
1. The graph L versus T is curved, convex upwards.
2. The graph L versus T 2 is a straight line.
3. The effective length of second's pendulum from L versus T 2 graph
is ... cm.
Note : The radius of bob may be found from its measured
diameter with the help of callipers by placing the pendulum bob
between the two jaws of (a) ordinary callipers, or (b) Vernier
Callipers, as described in Experiment E 1.1 (a). It can also be
found by placing the spherical bob between two parallel card
boards and measuring the spacing (diameter) or distance between
them with a metre scale.
64

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 6
UNIT NAME

 
1. The accuracy of the result for the length of second's pendulum
depends mainly on the accuracy in measurement of effective length
(using metre scale) and the time period T of the pendulum (using
stop-watch). As the time period appears as T 2 in Eq. E 6.2, a small
uncertainty in the measurement of T would result in appreciable
error in T 2, thereby significantly affecting the result. A stop-watch
with accuracy of 0.1s may be preferred over a less accurate
stop-watch/clock.
2. Some personal error is always likely to be involved due to stop-watch
not being started or stopped exactly at the instant the bob crosses
the mean position. Take special care that you start and stop the
stop-watch at the instant when pendulum bob just crosses the
mean position in the same direction.
3. Sometimes air currents may not be completely eliminated. This
may result in conical motion of the bob, instead of its motion in
vertical plane. The spin or conical motion of the bob may cause a
twist in the thread, thereby affecting the time period. Take special
care that the bob, when it is taken to one side of the rest position,
is released very gently.
4. To suspend the bob from the rigid support, use a thin, light, strong,
unspun cotton thread instead of nylon string. Elasticity of the
string is likely to cause some error in the effective length of the
pendulum.
5. The simple pendulum swings to and fro in SHM about the mean,
equilibrium position. Eq. (E 6.1) that expresses the relation
between T and L as T = 2π L / g , holds strictly true for small
amplitude or swing θ of the pendulum.
Remember that this relation is based on the assumption that sin
θ ≈ θ, (expressed in radian) holds only for small angular
displacement θ.
6. Buoyancy of air and viscous drag due to air slightly increase the
time period of the pendulum. The effect can be greatly reduced to
a large extent by taking a small, heavy bob of high density material
(such as iron/ steel/brass).



1. Interpret the graphs between L and T 2, and also between L and T
that you have drawn for a simple pendulum.
2. Examine, using Table E 6.1, how the time period T changes as the
65

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

effective length L of a simple pendulum; becomes 2-fold, 4-fold,

and so on.
3. How can you determine the value of 'g', acceleration due to gravity,
from the T 2 vs L graph?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. To determine 'g', the acceleration due to gravity, at a given place,

from the L – T 2 graph, for a simple pendulum.

2. Studying the effect of size of the bob on the time period of the
simple pendulum.

[Hint: With the same experimental set-up, take a few spherical

bobs of same material (density) but of different sizes (diameters).
Keep the length of the pendulum the same for each case. Clamp
the bobs one by one, and starting from a small angular displacement
of about 10o, each time measure the time for 50 oscillations. Find
out the time period of the pendulum using bobs of different sizes.
Compensate for difference in diameter of the bob by adjusting the
length of the thread.

Does the time period depend on the size of the pendulum bob? If
yes, see the order in which the change occurs.]

3. Studying the effect of material (density) of the bob on the time

period of the simple pendulum.

[Hint: With the same experimental set-up, take a few spherical

bobs (balls) of different materials, but of same size. Keep the
length of the pendulum the same for each case. Find out, in each
case starting from a small angular displacement of about 10°, the
time period of the pendulum using bobs of different materials,

Does the time period depend on the material (density) of the

pendulum bob? If yes, see the order in which the change occurs.
If not, then do you see an additional reason to use the pendulum
for time measurement.]

4. Studying the effect of mass of the bob on the time period of the
simple pendulum.

[Hint: With the same experimental set-up, take a few bobs of

different materials (different masses) but of same size. Keep the
length of the pendulum same for each case. Starting from a small
angular displacement of about 10° find out, in each case, the time
period of the pendulum, using bobs of different masses.

Does the time period depend on the mass of the pendulum bob? If
yes, then see the order in which the change occurs. If not, then
do you see an additional reason to use the pendulum as a time
measuring device.]

5. Studying the effect of amplitude of oscillation on the time period of

the simple pendulum.

[Hint: With the same experimental set-up, keep the mass of the
bob and length of the pendulum fixed. For measuring the angular
amplitude, make a large protractor on the cardboard and have a
scale marked on an arc from 0° to 90° in units of 5°. Fix it on the
edge of a table by two drawing pins such that its 0°- line coincides

66

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 6
UNIT NAME

with the suspension thread of the pendulum at rest. Start the

pendulum oscillating with a very large angular amplitude (say 70°)
and find the time period T of the pendulum. Change the amplitude
of oscillation of the bob in small steps of 5° or 10° and determine
the time period in each case till the amplitude becomes small (say
5°). Draw a graph between angular amplitude and T. How does
the time period of the pendulum change with the amplitude of
oscillation?

How much does the value of T for A = 10° differ from that for A=
50° from the graph you have drawn?

Find at what amplitude of oscillation , the time period begins to vary?

Determine the limit for the pendulum when it ceases to be a simple

pendulum.]

6. Studying the effect on time period of a pendulum having a bob of

varying mass (e.g. by filling the hollow bob with sand, sand being
drained out in steps)

[Hint: The change in T, if any, in this experiment will be so small

that it will not be possible to measure it due to the following reasons:

The centre of gravity (CG) of a hollow sphere is at the centre of the

sphere. The length of this simple pendulum will be same as that of
a solid sphere (same size) or that of the hollow sphere filled
completely with sand (solid sphere).

Drain out some sand from the sphere. The situation is as shown in
Fig. E. 6.5. The CG of bob now goes down to point say A. The
effective length of the pendulum increases and therefore the TA
increases (TA > TO), some more sand is drained out, the CG goes
down further to a point B. The effective length further increases,
increasing T.

The process continues and L and T change in the same direction

(increasing), until finally the entire sand is drained out. The bob is
now a hollow sphere with CG shifting back to centre C. The time
period will now become T0 again.]

C
A
Sand
B

Fig. E 6.5: Variation of centre of gravity of sand filled

hollow bob on time period of the pendulum;
sand being drained out of the bob in steps.
67

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study the relation between force of limiting friction and normal
reaction and to find the coefficient of friction between surface of a
moving block and that of a horizontal surface.


A wooden block with a hook, a horizontal plane with a glass or
laminated table top (the table top itself may be used as a horizontal
plane), a frictionless pulley which can be fixed at the edge of the
horizontal table/plane, spirit level, a scale, pan, thread or string, spring
balance, weight box and five masses of 100 g each.

 
Friction: The tendency to oppose the relative motion between two
surfaces in contact is called friction.
Static Friction: It is the frictional force acting between two solid
surfaces in contact at rest but having a tendency to move (slide) with
respect to each other.
Limiting Friction: It is the maximum value of force of static friction
when one body is at the verge of sliding with respect to the other body
in contact.
Kinetic (or Dynamic) Friction: It is the frictional force acting between
two solid surfaces in contact when they are in relative motion.

 
The maximum force of
static friction, i.e., limiting
friction, FL, between two
dry, clean and unlubricated
solid surfaces is found to
obey the following empirical
laws:
Fig. E 7.1: The body is at rest due to
(i) The limiting friction is static friction
68

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 7
UNIT NAME

directly proportional to the normal reaction, R, which is given by

the total weight W of the body (Fig. E 7.1). The line of action is
same for both W and R for horizontal surface,
FL ∝ R ⇒ FL = µLR

FL
i.e. µL =
R

Thus, the ratio of the magnitude of the limiting friction, FL, to the
magnitude of the normal force, R, is a constant known as the
coefficient of limiting friction (µL) for the given pair of surfaces in
contact.
(ii) The limiting friction depends upon the nature of surfaces in contact
and is nearly independent of the surface area of contact over wide
limits so long as normal reaction remains constant.
Note that FL= µLR is
R = (M+p)g
an equation of a
straight line passing
through the origin.
Pulley
Thus, the slope of the F
straight-line graph Clear glass (or
between Fl (along Y- wood mica) top
axis) and R (along X-
axis) will give the (M+p)g q
value of coefficient of Pan
limiting friction µL.
(m+q)g
In this experiment,
the relationship Fig. E 7.2: Experimental set up to study limiting friction
between the limiting
friction and normal
reaction is studied for a wooden block. The wooden block is made
to slide over a horizontal surface (say glass or a laminated surface)
(Fig. E 7.2).



1. Find the range and least count of the spring balance.
2. Measure the mass (M) of the given wooden block with hooks on its
sides and the scale pan (m) with the help of the spring balance.
3. Place the glass (or a laminated sheet) on a table and make it
horizontal, if required, by inserting a few sheets of paper or
cardboard below it. To ensure that the table-top surface is
horizontal use a spirit level. Take care that the top surface must
be clean and dry.
69

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

4. Fix a frictionless pulley on one edge of table-top as shown in Fig.

E 7.2. Lubricate the pulley if need be.
5. Tie one end of a string of suitable length (in accordance with the
size and the height of the table) to a scale pan and tie its other end
to the hook of the wooden block.
6. Place the wooden block on the horizontal plane and pass the string
over the pulley (Fig. E7.2). Ensure that the portion of the string
between pulley and the wooden block is horizontal. This can be
done by adjusting the height of the pulley to the level of hook of
block.
7. Put some mass (q) on the scale pan. Tap the table-top gently with
your finger. Check whether the wooden block starts moving.
8. Keep on increasing the mass (q) on the scale pan till the wooden
block just starts moving on gently tapping the glass top. Record
the total mass kept on the scale pan in Table E 7.1.
9. Place some known mass (say p ) on the top of wooden block and
adjust the mass (q′) on the scale pan so that the wooden block
alongwith mass p just begins to slide on gently tapping the table
top. Record the values of p′ and q′ in Table E 7.1.
10. Repeat step 9 for three or four more values of p and record the
corresponding values of q in Table E 7.1. A minimum of five
observations may be required for plotting a graph between FL and
R.



1. Range of spring balance = ... to ... g
2. Least count of spring balance = ... g
3. Mass of the scale pan, (m) = ... g
4. Mass of the wooden block (M) = ... g
5. Acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place of experiment= ... m/s2
Table E 7.1: Variation of Limiting Friction with Normal
S. Mass on the Normal Mass on Force of Coefficient Mean L
No. wooden block force R due the pan limiting of friction
(p) (g) to mass (q) g friction FL FL
(M+p) µL =
R
(g) (kg) N (g) (kg) (N)
1
2
3
4
5
70

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 7
UNIT NAME

Reaction

 
Plot a graph between the limiting friction (FL) and
normal force (R) between the wooden block and the
horizontal surface, taking the limiting friction FL
along the y-axis and normal force R along the x-
axis. Draw a line to join all the points marked on it
(Fig. E 7.3). Some points may not lie on the straight-
line graph and may be on either side of it. Extend
the straight line backwards to check whether the
graph passes through the origin. The slope of this
straight-line graph gives the coefficient of limiting
friction (µL) between the wooden block and the
horizontal surface. To find the slope of straight line, Fig. E 7.3: Graph between force of
choose two points A and B that are far apart from limiting friction FL and
each other on the straight line as shown in Fig. E normal reaction, R
7.3. Draw a line parallel to x-axis through point A
and another line parallel to y-axis through point B.
Let point Z be the point of intersection of these two lines. Then, the
slope µL of straight line graph AB would be
FL BZ
µL = =
R AZ

 
The value of coefficient of limiting friction µL between surface of wooden
block and the table-top (laminated sheet/glass) is:
(i) From calculation (Table E 7.1) = ...
(ii) From graph = ...

 
1. Surface of the table should be horizontal and dust free.
2. Thread connecting wooden block and pulley should be horizontal.
3. Friction of the pulley should be reduced by proper oiling.
4. Table top should always be tapped gently.



1. Always put the mass at the centre of wooden block.
71

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Surface must be dust free and dry.

3. The thread must be unstretchable and unspun.



1. The friction depends on the roughness of the surfaces in contact.
If the surfaces in contact are ideally (perfactly) smooth, there
would be no friction between the two surfaces. However, there
cannot be an ideally smooth surface as the distribution of atoms
or molecules on solid surface results in an inherent roughness.

2. In this experimental set up and calculations, friction at the pulley

has been neglected, therefore, as far as possible, the pulley, should
have minimum friction as it cannot be frictionless.

3. The presence of dust particles between the wooden block and

horizontal plane surface may affect friction and therefore lead
to errors in observations. Therefore, the surface of the
horizontal plane and wooden block in contact must be clean
and dust free.

4. The presence of water or moisture between the wooden block

and the plane horizontal surface would change the nature of
the surface. Thus, while studying the friction between the surface
of the moving body and horizontal plane these must be kept
dry.

5. Elasticity of the string may cause some error in the observation.

Therefore, a thin, light, strong and unspun cotton thread must
be used as a string to join the scale pan and the moving block.

6. The portion of string between the pulley and wooden block must
be horizontal otherwise only a component of tension in the string
would act as the force to move the block.

7. It is important to make a judicious choice of the size of the block

and set of masses for this experiment. If the block is too light, its
force of limiting friction may be even less than the weight of empty
pan and in this situation, the observation cannot be taken with
the block alone. Similarly, the maximum mass on the block, which
can be obtained by putting separate masses on it, should not be
very large otherwise it would require a large force to make the
block move.

8. The additional mass, p, should always be put at the centre of

wooden block.

72

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 7
UNIT NAME

9. The permissible error in measurements of coefficient of friction

∆ FL ∆R
= + = ...
FL R



1. On the basis of your observations, find the relation between
limiting friction and the mass of sliding body.
2. Why do we not choose a spherical body to study the limiting
friction between the two surfaces?
3. Why should the horizontal surfaces be clean and dry?
4. Why should the portion of thread between the moving body and
pulley be horizontal?
5. Why is it essential in this experiment to ensure that the surface
on which the block moves should be horizontal?
6. Comment on the statement: “The friction between two surfaces
can never be zero”.
7. In this experiment, usually unpolished surfaces are preferred,
why?
8. What do you understand by self-adjusting nature of force of
friction?
9. In an experiment to study the relation between force of limiting
friction and normal reaction, a body just starts sliding on applying
a force of 3 N. What will be the magnitude of force of friction
acting on the body when the applied forces on it are 0.5 N, 1.0 N,
2.5 N, 3.5 N, respectively.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. To study the effect of the nature of sliding surface. [Hint: Repeat

the same experiment for different types of surfaces say, plywood,
carpet etc. Or repeat the experiment after putting oil or powder on
the surface.]

2. To study the effect of changing the area of the surfaces in contact.

[Hint: Place the wooden block vertically and repeat the experiment.
Discuss whether the readings and result of the experiment are same.]

3. To find the coefficient of limiting friction by sliding the block on an

inclined plane.

73

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To find the downward force, along an inclined plane, acting on a roller
due to gravity and study its relationship with the angle of inclination
by plotting graph between force and sin θ.


Inclined plane with protractor and pulley, roller, weight box, spring
balance, spirit level, pan and thread.

Pulley

Constant v
M1
Roller
v
Mass, M3 Pan, M2
Protractor
W= (M2+M3)

Fig. E 8.1: Experimental set up to find the downward

force along an inclined plane

 
Consider the set up shown in Fig. E 8.1. Here a roller of
mass M 1 has been placed on an inclined plane making
an angle θ with the horizontal. An upward force, along
the inclined plane, could be applied on the mass M1 by
adjusting the weights on the pan suspended with a string
while its other end is attached to the mass through a
pulley fixed at the top of the inclined plane. The force on
the the mass M1 when it is moving with a constant velocity
v will be
W = M 1g sin θ – fr
Fig. E 8.2: Free body diagram where f r is the force of friction due to rolling, M 1 is
mass of roller and W is the total tension in the string
74

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 8
UNIT NAME

(W = weight suspended). Assuming there is no friction between

the pulley and the string.

 
1. Arrange the inclined plane, roller and the masses in the pan as
shown in Fig. E. 8.1. Ensure that the pulley is frictionless. Lubricate
it using machine oil, if necessary.
2. To start with, let the value of W be adjusted so as to permit the
roller to stay at the top of the inclined plane at rest.
3. Start decreasing the masses in small steps in the pan until the
roller just starts moving down the plane with a constant velocity.
Note W and also the angle θ. Fig. E 8.2 shows the free body diagram
for the situation when the roller just begins to move downwards.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for different values of θ. Tabulate your
observations.

 
Acceleration due to gravity, g = ... N/m2
Mass of roller, m = (M1) g
Mass of the pan = (M2) g
Table E 8.1
S. No. ° sin  Mass added to pan Force
M3 W = (M2 + M3 ) g (N)
1
2
3



Plot graph between sin θ and
the force W (Fig. E 8.3). It
should be a straight line.

Fig. E 8.3: Graph between W

and sin 

75

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
Therefore, within experimental error, downward force along inclined
plane is directly proportional to sin θ, where θ is the angle of inclination
of the plane.

 
1. Ensure that the inclined plane is placed on a horizontal surface
using the spirit level.
2. Pulley must be frictionless.
3. The weight should suspend freely without touching the table or
other objects.
4. Roller should roll smoothly, that is, without slipping.
5. Weight, W should be decreased in small steps.



1. Error may creep in due to poor judgement of constant velocity.
2. Pulley may not be frictionless.
3. It may be difficult to determine the exact point when the roller
begins to slide with constant velocity.
4. The inclined surface may not be of uniform smoothness/roughness.
5. Weights in the weight box may not be standardised.

 
As the inclination of the plane is increased, starting from zero,
the value of mg sin θ increases and frictional force also increases
accordingly. Therefore, till limiting friction W = 0, we need not apply
any tension in the string.
When we increase the angle still further, net tension in the string is
required to balance (mg sin θ – fr ) or otherwise the roller will accelerate
downwards.
It is difficult to determine exact value of W. What we can do is we find
tension W1 (< W) at which the roller is just at the verge of rolling
down and W2 (> W) at which the roller is just at the verge of moving
up. Then we can take

W =
(W1 + W2 )
2
76

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 8
UNIT NAME



1. Give an example where the force of friction is in the same direction
as the direction of motion.
2. How will you use the graph to find the co-efficient of rolling friction
between the roller and the inclined plane?
3. What is the relation between downward force and angle of
inclination of the plane?
4. How will you ensure that the roller moves upward/downward with
constant velocity?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. From the graph, find the intercept and the slope. Interpret them
using the given equation.

2. Allow the roller to move up the inclined plane by adjusting the mass
in the pan. Interpret the graph between W′ and sin θ where W′ is
the mass in pan added to the mass of the pan required to allow the
roller to move upward with constant velocity.

77

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To determine Young's modulus of the material of a given wire by using
Searle's apparatus.


Searle's apparatus, slotted weights, experimental
wire, screw gauge and spirit level.
SEARLE'S APPARATUS
It consists of two metal frames P and Q hinged
together such that they can move relative to each
other in vertical direction (Fig. E9.1).
A spirit level is supported on a rigid crossbar
frame which rests on the tip of a micrometer
screw C at one end and a fixed knife edge K at
the other. Screw C can be moved vertically. The
micrometer screw has a disc having 100 equal
divisions along its circumference. On the side of
it is a linear scale S, attached vertically. If there
is any relative displacement between the two
frames, P and Q, the spirit level no longer remains
horizontal and the bubble of the spirit level is
displaced from its centre. The crossbar can again
be set horizontal with the help of micrometer
screw and the spirit level. The distance through
which the screw has to be moved gives the
relative displacement between the two frames.
The frames are suspended by two identical long
wires of the same material, from the same rigid
horizontal support. Wire B is called the
experimental wire and wire A acts as a reference
Fig. E 9.1: Searle's apparatus for wire. The frames, P and Q, are provided with
determination of Y hooks H 1 and H 2 at their lower ends from which
weights are suspended. The hook H 1 attached
to the reference wire carries a constant weight
78 W to keep the wire taut.

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 9
UNIT NAME

To the hook H2 is attached a hanger on which slotted weights can

be placed to apply force on the experimental wire.



The apparatus works on the principle of Hookes’ Law. If l is the
extension in a wire of length L and radius r due to force F (=Mg), the
Young's modulus of the material of the given wire, Y, is

MgL
Y =
πr 2 l



1. Suspend weights from both the hooks so that the two wires are
stretched and become free from any kinks. Attach only the constant
weight W on the reference wire to keep it taut.
2. Measure the length of the experimental wire from the point of its
support to the point where it is attached to the frame.
3. Find the least count of the screw gauge. Determine the diameter of
the experimental wire at about 5 places and at each place in two
mutually perpendicular directions. Find the mean diameter and
hence the radius of the wire.
4. Find the pitch and the least count of the miocrometer screw
attached to the frame. Adjust it such that the bubble in the
spirit level is exactly in the centre. Take the reading of the
micrometer.
5. Place a load on the hanger attached to the experimental wire and
increase it in steps of 0.5 kg. For each load, bring the bubble of the
spirit level to the centre by adjusting the micrometer screw and
then note its reading. Take precautions to avoid backlash error.
6. Take about 8 observations for increasing load.
7. Decrease the load in steps of 0.5 kg and each time take reading on
micrometer screw as in step 5.



Length of the wire (L) = ...
Pitch of the screw gauge = ...
No. of divisions on the circular scale of the screw gauge = ...
Least count (L.C.) of screw gauge = ...
Zero error of screw gauge = ...
79

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Table E 9.1: Measurement of diameter of wire

S. Reading along any Reading along perpen- Mean diameter

No. direction dicular direction d1 + d 2
d=
2
(cm)
Main Circu- Diameter Main Circu- Diameter
scale lar d1 = scale lar d2 =
read- scale S + n ×L.C. read- scale S + n ×L.C.
ing S read- ing S read- (cm)
(cm) ing n (cm) ing n
1
2
3
4
5

Mean diameter (corrected for zero error) = ...

Mean radius = ...

MEASUREMENT OF EXTENSION l

Pitch of the micrometer screw = ...

No. of divisions on the circular scale = ...

Least count (L.C.) of the micrometer screw = ...

Acceleration due to gravity, g = ...

Table E 9.2: Measurement of extension with load

S. Load on experimental Micrometer reading Mean reading

No. wire x + y
M
2
(cm)
Load increasing Load decreasing
(kg)
x y
(cm) (cm)
1 0.5 a
2 1.0 b
3 1.5 c
4 2.0 d
5 2.5 e
6 3.0 f
7 3.5 g
8 4.0 h
80

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 9
UNIT NAME

 
Observations recorded in Table E 9.2 can be utilised to find extension
of experimental wire for a given load, as shown in Table E 9.3.
Table E 9.3: Calculating extension for a given load

S. Mean extension Load Mean extension Extension l′ for

No. (cm) (kg) 1.5 kg

0.5 2.0 d–a

1.0 2.5 e–b

1.5 3.0 f–c

(a – d) + (b – c) + (c – f)
∴ Mean l =
3
= ... cm for 1.5 kg
MgL
Young’s modulus, Y, of experimental wire Y = 2
= ... N / m 2
πr l

 
The value of Y can also be found by plotting a graph between l
and Mg. Draw a graph with load on the x-axis and extension on
∆l
the y-axis. It should be a straight line. Find the slope = of the
∆M
line. Using this value, find the value of Y.

 
The Young's modulus Y of the material of the wire
(using half table method) = Y ± ∆Y N/m2
(using graph) = Y ± ∆Y N/m2



Uncertainty, ∆M, in the measurement of M can be determined by a
beam/physical balance using standard weight box/or by using water
bottles of fixed capacity.
81

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Find the variation in M for each slotted weight of equal mass say
∆M1 and ∆M2. Find the mean of these ∆M. This is the uncertainity
(∆M) in M.
∆L – the least count of the scale used for measuring L.
∆r – the least count of the micrometer screw gauge used for measuring r.
∆l – least count of the device used for measuring extension.

 
1. Measure the diameter of the wire at different positions, check for
its uniformity.
2. Adjust the spirit level only after sufficient time gap following each
loading/unloading.



1. The diameter of the wire may alter while loading.
2. Backlash error of the device used for measuring extension.
3. The nonuniformity in thickness of the wire.

 
Which of the quantities measured in the experiment is likely to have
maximum affect on the accuracy in measurement of Y (Young's
modulus).



1. If the length of the wire used is reduced what will be its effect on
(a) extension on the wire and (b) stress on the wire.
2. Use wire of different radii (r1, r2, r3) but of same material in the
above experimental set up. Is there any change in the value of
Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material? Discuss your result.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Repeat the experiment with wires of different materials, if available.

2. Change the length of the experimental wire, of same material and

study its effect on the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material.

82

20/04/2018
  

To find the force constant and effective mass of a helical spring by
plotting T 2 - m graph using method of oscillation.


Light weight helical spring with a pointer attached at the lower
end and a hook/ring for suspending it from a hanger, (diameter
of the spring may be about 1-1.5 cm inside or same as that in a
spring balance of 100 g); a rigid support, hanger and five slotted
weights of 10 g each (in case the spring constant is of high value
one may use slotted weight of 20 g), clamp stand, a balance, a
measuring scale (15-30 cm) and a stop-watch (with least count
of 0.1s).

 
Spring constant (or force constant) of a spring is given by

Restoring Force (E 10.1)

Spring constant, K =
Extension

Thus, spring constant is the restoring force per unit extension in the
spring. Its value is determined by the elastic properties of the spring.
A given object is attached to the free end of a spring which is suspended
from a rigid point support (a nail, fixed to a wall). If the object is
pulled down and then released, it executes simple harmonic
oscillations.
The time period (T ) of oscillations of a helical spring of spring constant
K is given by the relation T,

m
T = 2π where m is the load that is the mass of the object. If the
K
spring has a large mass of its own, the expression changes to

mo + m (E 10.2)
T = 2π
K

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

where mo and m define the effective mass of the spring system (the
spring along with the pointer and the hanger) and the suspended
object (load) respectively. The time period of a stiff spring (having
large spring constant) is small.
One can easily eliminate the term mo of the spring system appearing
in Eq. (E 10.2) by suspending two different objects (loads) of masses
m1 and m2 and measuring their respective periods of oscillations T1
and T2. Then,

(E 10.3) m0 + m1
T1 = 2π
K

(E 10.4) m0 + m2
and T2 = 2π
K

Eliminating mo from Eqs. (E 2.3) and (E 2.4), we get

(E 10.5) 4 π2 (m1 – m 2 )
K =
(T 12 – T 22 )

Using Eq. (E 10.5), and knowing the values of m1, m2, T1 and T2, the
spring constant K of the spring system can be determined.



1. Suspend the helical spring SA (having pointer
P and the hanger H at its free end A), from a
rigid support, as shown in Fig. E 10.1.

2. Set the measuring scale, close to the spring

vertically. Take care that the pointer P moves
freely over the scale without touching it.
3. Find out the least count of the measuring scale
(It is usually 1mm or 0.1 cm).

4. Familiarise yourself with the working of the

stop-watch and find its least count.

5. Suspend the load or slotted weight with mass

m1 on the hanger gently. Wait till the pointer
comes to rest. This is the equilibrium position
Fig. E 10.1: Experimental arrangement for for the given load. Pull the load slightly
studying spring constant of a downwards and then release it gently so that
helical spring it is set into oscillations in a vertical plane
84

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 10
UNIT NAME

about its rest (or equilibrium) position. The rest position (x) of
the pointer P on the scale is the reference or mean position for
the given load. Start the stop-watch as the pointer P just crosses
its mean position (say, from upwards to downwards) and
simultaneously begin to count the oscillations.

6. Keep on counting the oscillations as the pointer crosses the

mean position (x) in the same direction. Stop the watch after
n (say, 5 to 10) oscillations are complete. Note the time (t)
taken by the oscillating load for n oscillations.

7. Repeat this observation alteast thrice and in each occasion

note the time taken for the same number (n) of oscillations.
Find the mean time (t1), for n oscillations and compute the
time for one oscillation, i.e., the time period T 1 (= t1/n) of
oscillating helical spring with a load m 1.

8. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for two more slotted weights.

t
9. Calculate time period of oscillation T = for each weight and
n
tabulate your observations.

10. Compute the value of spring constant (K1, K2, K3) for each load
and find out the mean value of spring constant K of the given
helical spring.

11. The value of K can also be determined by plotting a graph of T 2 vs

m with T 2 on y-axis and m on x-axis.

[Note: The number of oscillations, n, should be large enough to

keep the error minimum in measurement of time. One convenient
method to decide on the number n is based on the least count of
the stop-watch. If the least count of the stop-watch is 0.1 s. Then
to have 1% error in measurement, the minimum time measured
should be 10.0 s. Hence, the number n for oscillations should be
so chosen that oscillating mass takes more than 10.0 s to
complete them.]



Least count of the measuring scale = ... mm = ... cm

Least count of the stop-watch = ... s

Mass of load 1, m1 = ... g = ... kg

Mass of load 2, m2 = ... g = ... kg

Mass of load 3, m3 = ... g = ... kg

85

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Table E 10.1: Measuring the time period T of oscillations of

helical spring with load

S. Mass of Mean No. of oscilla- Time for (n) Time period,

No. the load, position of tions, (n) oscillations, T = t/n (s)
m (kg) pointer, x t (s)
(cm)

1 2 3 Mean
t (s)
1
2



Substitute the values of m1, m2, m3 and T1, T2,
T3, in Eq. (E 10.5):
K1 = 4π2 (m1 – m2)/(T12 – T22);
K2 = 4π2 (m2 – m3)/(T22 – T32);
K3 = 4π2 (m1 – m3) / (T12 – T32)
Compute the values of K1, K2 and K3 and find
the mean value of spring constant K of the given
helical spring. Express the result in proper SI
units and significant figures.
Alternately one can also find the spring constant
and effective mass of the spring from the graph
between T 2 and m, which is expected to be a
straight line as shown in Fig. E 10.2.
2
Fig. E 10.2: Expected graph between T and m
The value of spring constant K ( = 4π2/m′) of the
for a helical spring
helical spring can be calculated from the slope
m′ of the straight line graph.
From the knowledge of intercept c on y-axis and the slope m, the
value of effective mass m o (= c/m′ ) of the helical spring can be
computed. Alternatively, the effective mass mo (= –c′ ) of the helical
spring can be directly computed from the knowledge of the
intercept c′ made by the straight line on x-axis.



Spring constant of the given helical spring = ... N/m-1
Effective mass of helical spring = ... g = ... kg
Error in K, can be calculated from the error in slope

∆K ∆slope
=
K slope
86

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 10
UNIT NAME

The error in effective mass m0 will be equal to the error in intercept

and the error in slope. Once the error is calculated the result may be
stated indicating the error.

 
1. The accuracy in determination of the spring constant depends
mainly on the accuracy in measurement of the time period T
of oscillation of the spring. As the time period appears as T 2 in
Eq. (E 10.5), a small uncertainty in the measurement of T would
result in appreciable error in T 2, thereby significantly affecting
the result. A stop-watch with accuracy of 0.1s may be
preferred.
2. Some personal error is always likely to occur in measurement of
time due to delay in starting or stopping the watch.
3. Sometimes air currents may affect the oscillations thereby affecting
the time period. The time period of oscillation may also get affected
if the load is released with a jerk. Take special care that the load
while being taken to one side (upwards or downwards) of the rest
(or mean) position, is released very gently.
4. The load attached to the spring executes to and fro motion (in
SHM) about the mean, equilibrium position. Eqs. (E 10.1)
and (E 10.2) hold true for small amplitude of oscillations or
small extensions of the spring within the elastic limit (Hook’s
law). Take care that initially the load is pulled only through a
small distance before being released gently to let it oscillate
vertically.
5. Oscillations of the helical spring are not likely to be absolutely
undamped. Buoyancy of air and viscous drag due to it may slightly
increase the time period of the oscillations. The effect can be greatly
reduced by taking a small and stiff spring of high density material
(such as steel/brass).
6. A rigid support is required for suspending the helical spring. The
slotted weights may not have exactly the same mass as engraved
on them. Some error in the time period of its oscillation is likely to
creep in due to yielding (sometimes) of the support and inaccuracy
in the accepted value of mass of load.



1. Two springs A (soft) and B (stiff), loaded with the same mass on
their hangers, are suspended one by one from the same rigid
support. They are set into vertical oscillations at different times,
and the time period of their oscillations are noted. In which spring
will the oscillations be slower?
87

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. You are given six known masses (m 1, m 2 ..., m 6), a helical

spring and a stop-watch. You are asked to measure time
periods (T 1, T 2, ..., T 6) of oscillations corresponding to each
mass when it is suspended from the given helical spring.
(a) What is the shape of the curve you would expect by using
Eq. (E 10.2) and plotting a graph between load of mass m
along x-axis and T 2 on y-axis?
(b) Interpret the slope, the x-and y-intercepts of the above graph,
and hence find (i) spring constant K of the helical spring, and
(ii) its effective mass mo.
[Hint: (a) Eq. (E 10.2), rewritten as: T 2 =(4π2/K) m + (4π2/K) mo, is
similar to the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c, with m as the
slope of the straight line and c the intercept on y–axis. The graph
between m and T 2 is expected to be a straight line AB, as shown in
Fig. E 10.2. From the above equations given in (a):
Intercept on y–axis (OD), c = (4π2/K) mo; (x = 0, y = c)
Intercept on x-axis (OE), c′=-c/m′ = –mo; (y = 0, x = –c/m′)
Slope, m′ = tan θ = OD/OE = c/c′ = –c/mo = (4π2/K)]

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Take three springs with different spring constants K1, K2, K3 and join them in series
as shown in Fig. E. 10.3. Determine the time period of oscillation of combined spring
and check the relation between individual spring constant and combined system.
2. Repeat the above activity with the set up shown in Fig. E. 10.4 and find out
whether there is any difference in the time period and spring constant between
the two set ups?
3. What is the physical significance of spring constant 20.5 Nm–1?
4. If possible, measure the mass of the spring. Is this related to the effective mass mo?

Fig. E 10.3: Springs joined in series Fig. E 10.4: Springs joined in parallel

88

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT
UNIT NAME

 

To study the variation in volume (V) with pressure (P) for a sample of
air at constant temperature by plotting graphs between P and V, and
1
between P and .
V


Boyle’s law apparatus, Fortin’s Barometer, Vernier Callipers,
thermometer, set square and spirit level.


The Boyle’s law apparatus consists
of two glass tubes about 25 cm long
and 0.5 cm in diameter (Fig. E11.1).
One tube AB is closed at one end
while the other CD is open. The two
tubes are drawn into a fine opening
at the other end (B and D). The ends
B and D are connected by a thick
walled rubber tubing. The glass
tube AB is fixed vertically along the
metre scale. The other tube CD can
be moved vertically along a vertical
rod and may be fixed to it at any
height with the help of screw S.
The tube CD, AB and rubber tubing
are filled with mercury. The closed
tube AB traps some air in it. The
volume of air is proportional to the
length of air column as it is of
uniform cross section.
The apparatus is fixed on a
horizontal platform with a vertical Fig. E11.1: Boyle’s law apparatus
stand. The unit is provided with
levelling screws. 89

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL



(a) Measurement of Pressure:
The pressure of the enclosed air in tube AB is measured by noting the
difference (h) in the mercury levels (X and Y) in the two tubes AB and
CD (Fig. E11.2). Since liquid in interconnected vessels have the same
pressure at any horizontal level,
(E 11.1)
P (Pressure of enclosed air) = H ± h
where H is the atmospheric pressure.

Fig. E 11.2 : Pressure of air in tube AB = H + h Fig. E 11.3 : Volume of trapped air in tube AB

(b) Measurement of volume of trapped air

In case the closed tube is not graduated.
Volume of air in tube
= Volume of air in length PR – Volume of air in curved
portion PQ
Let r be the radius of the tube
Volume of curved portion = volume of the hemisphere of radius r

1 4 3 2 3
= × πr = π r
2 3 3

Volume of PQ = πr2×r = πr3

2 3 1 3
error in volume = π r 3 – π r = πr
3 3

1 3 1
resulting error in length = πr / π r 2 = r
3 3
90

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 11
UNIT NAME

1 1 (E 11.2)
correction in length = – r = – PQ
3 3

This should be subtracted from the measured length l .

Boyle’s law: At a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by an
enclosed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
1
Pα
V
(E 11.3)
or PV = constant

Hence the P – V graph is a curve while that of P –

1 is a straight line.
V
(c) Measurement of volume of air for a given pressure.
1. Note the temperature of the room with a thermometer.
2. Note the atmospheric pressure using Fortin’s Barometer
(Project P-9).
3. Set the apparatus vertically using the levelling screws and
spirit level.
4. Slide the tube CD to adjust the mercury level at the same level as
in AB. Use set square to read the upper convex meniscus of
mercury.
5. Note the reading of the metre scale corresponding to the top end
of the closed tube P and that of level Q where its curvature just
1
ends. Calculate PQ and note it.
3
6. Raise CD such that the mercury level in tubes AB and CD is
different. Use the set square to carefully read the meniscus X
and Y of mercury in tube AB and CD. Note the difference h in the
mercury level.
7. Repeat the adjustment of CD for 5 more values of ‘h’. This should
be done slowly and without jerk. Changing the position of CD
with respect to AB slowly ensures that there is no change in
temperature, otherwise the Boyle’s law will not be valid.
8. Use the Vernier Callipers to determine the diameter of the closed
1 1
tube AB and hence find ‘r’, its radius PQ = r.
3 3
9. Record your observations in the Table E 11.1.

10. Plot graphs (i) P versus V and (ii) P versus 1 , interpret the graphs.
V
91

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL


1. Room temperature = ... °C.
2. Atmospheric pressure as observed from the Fortins Barometer
= ... cm of Hg.
3. For correction in level l due to curved portion of tube AB
(a) Reading for the top of the closed tube AB (P) = ... cm.
Reading where the uniform portion of the tube AB begins (or the
curved portion ends) (Q) = ... cm.
Difference (P – Q) = r = ... cm.
1
Correction = r = ...
3
OR
(b) Diameter of tube AB = d = ... cm.
1
radius r = d = ... cm.
2
1
correction for level l = r
3


1. Within experimental limits, the graph between P and V is a curve.
2. Within experimental limits, the product PV is a constant (from the
calculation).

Table E 11.1 : Measurement of Pressure and Volume of enclosed air

S. Level of Level of Pressure Pressure of Volume PV or 1/V

No. mercury mercury difference air in of air P× l or
in closed in open h = X–Y AB = H ± h XA
1
tube AB tube (cm of (cm of Hg)
X (cm of CD Hg) 1 l
l– r
HG) Y (cm 3
of Hg)
1
2
3
4

Note: H ± h must be considered according to the levels X and Y taking

into account whether the pressure of air in AB will be more than
atmospheric pressure or less.
92

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 11
UNIT NAME

1
Fig. E11.4 : Graph between Volume, V Fig. E11.5 : Graph between and pressure P
and pressure, P V

Note that Fig. E 11.4 shows that the graph between P and V is a curve
1
and that between P and is a straight line (Fig. E 11.5).
V
1
3. The graph P and is a straight line showing that the pressure of
V
a given mass of enclosed gas is inversely proportional to its volume
at constant temperature.

 
1. The apparatus should be kept covered when not in use.
2. The apparatus should not be shifted in between observations.
3. While measuring the volume of the air, correction for the curved
portion of the closed tube should be taken into account.
4. Mercury used should be clean and not leave any trace on the glass.
The open tube should be plugged with cotton wool when not in
use.
5. The set square should be placed tangential to the upper meniscus
of the mercury for determining its level.



1. The enclosed air may not be dry.
2. Atmospheric pressure and temperature of the laboratory may
change during the course of the experiment.
93

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. The closed end of the tube AB may not be hemispherical.

4. The mercury may be oxidised due to exposure to atmosphere.

 
1. The apparatus should be vertical to ensure that the difference in
level (h) is accurate.
2. The diameter of the two glass tubes may or may not be the same
but the apparatus should be vertical.
3. The open tube CD should be raised or lowered gradually to ensure
that the temperature of the enclosed air remains the same.
4. The readings should be taken in order (above and below the
atmospheric pressure). This ensures wider range of consideration,
also if they are taken slowly the atmospheric pressure and
temperature over the duration of observation remain the same. So
time should not be wasted.
5. Why should the upper meniscus of mercury in the two tubes
recorded carefully using a set square?




1 1
1. Plot versus ‘h’ graph and determine the value of when h = 0.
V V
Compare this to the value of atmospheric pressure. Give a suitable
explanation for your result.
2. Comment on the two methods used for estimation of the volume
of the curved portion of the closed tube. What are the assumptions
made for the two methods?
3. If the diameter of tube AB is large, why would the estimation of
the curved portion be unreliable?
4. The apparatus when not in use should be kept covered to avoid
contamination of mercury in the open tube. How will oxidation of
mercury affect the experiment?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Tilt apparatus slightly and note the value of ‘h’ for two or three
values of X and Y.

2. Take a glass U tube. Fill it with water. Pour oil in one arm. Note the
difference in level of water, level of oil and water in the two arms.
Deduce the density of oil. What role does atmospheric pressure
play in this experiment?

94

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT
UNIT NAME

 

To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.


A glass/plastic capillary tube, travelling microscope, beaker, cork with
pin, clamps and stand, thermometer, dilute nitric acid solution, dilute
caustic soda solution, water, plumb line.

 
When a liquid rises in a capillary tube
[Fig. E 12.1], the weight of the column of the
liquid of density ρ below the meniscus, is
supported by the upward force of surface
tension acting around the circumference of the
points of contact. Therefore

2πrT = πr 2h ρg (approx) for water

h ρgr
or T =
2
where T = surface tension of the liquid,
h = height of the liquid column and
r = inner radius of the capillary tube Fig.E 12.1: Rise of liquid in a capil-
lary tube

 
1. Do the experiment in a well-lit place for example, near a window
or use an incandescent bulb.
2. Clean the capillary tube and beaker successively in caustic soda
and nitric acid and finally rinse thoroughly with water.
3. Fill the beaker with water and measure its temperature.
4. Clamp the capillary tube near its upper end, keeping it above the
beaker. Set it vertical with the help of a plumbline held near it.
95

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Move down the tube so that its lower end dips into the water in
the beaker.
5. Push a pin P through a cork C, and fix it on another clamp such
that the tip of the pin is just above the water surface as shown in
Fig. E 12.1. Ensure that the pin does not touch the capillary
tube. Slowly lower the pin till its tip just touches the water
surface. This can be done by coinciding the tip of the pin with its
image in water.
6. Now focus the travelling microscope M on the meniscus of
the water in capillary A, and move the microscope until the
horizontal crosswire is tangential to the lowest point of the
meniscus, which is seen inverted in M. If there is any
difficulty in focussing the meniscus, hold a piece of paper
at the lowest point of the meniscus outside the capillary tube
and focus it first, as a guide. Note the reading of travelling
microscope.
7. Mark the position of the meniscus on the capillary with a pen.
Now carefully remove the capillary tube from the beaker, and then
the beaker without disturbing the pin.
8. Focus the microscope on the tip of the pin and note the microscope
reading.
9. Cut the capillary tube carefully at the point marked on it. Fix the
capillary tube horizontally on a stand. Focus the microscope on
the transverse cross section of the tube and take readings to
measure the internal diameter of the tube in two mutually
perpendicular directions.

 
Determination of h
Least count (L.C.) of the microscope = ... mm

Table E 12.1 : Measurement of capillary rise

S. Reading of meniscus h1 Reading of tip of pin touching h = h1 – h2

(cm) surface of water h2 (cm)
No.

M.S.R. V.S.R. h1 = (S + M.S.R. V.S.R. h 2 = (S ′+n ′×L.C.)

S (cm) n n × L.C.) S ′ (cm) n′ (cm)

1
2
3

96

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 12
UNIT NAME

Table E 12.2 : Measurement of diameter of the capillary tube

S. Reading along a Diameter Reading along Diameter Mean

diameter (cm) d1 (x2– x1) perpendicular d2 (y2– y1) diameter
No.
diameter d

One other (cm) One other (cm) d1 + d 2

=
end end end end 2
1 x1 x2 y1 y2
2
3

Mean radius r = ... cm; Temperature of water θ = ... °C;

Density of water at 0° C = ... g cm–3

 
Substitute the value of h and r and ρ g in the formula for T and calculate
the surface tension.

 
The surface tension of water at ... °C = ... ± ... Nm–1

 
1. To make capillary tube free of contamination, it must be rinsed
first in a solution of caustic soda then with dilute nitric acid and
finally cleaned with water thoroughly.
2. The capillary tube must be kept vertical while dipping it in water.
3. To ensure that capillary tube is sufficiently wet, raise and lower
water level in container by lifting or lowering the beaker. It should
have no effect on height of liquid level in the capillary tube.
4. Water level in the capillary tube should be slightly above the edge
of the beaker/dish so that the edge does not obstruct observations.
5. Temperature should be recorded before and after the experiment.
6. Height of liquid column should be measured from lowest point of
concave meniscus.



1. Inserting dry capillary tube in the liquid can cause gross error in
the measurement of surface tension as liquid level in capillary tube
may not fall back when the level in container is lowered.
97

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Surface tension changes with impurities and temperature of the

liquid.
3. Non-vertical placement of the capillary tube may introduce error
in the measurement of height of the liquid column in the tube.
4. Improper focussing of meniscus in microscope could cause an
error in measurement of the height of liquid column in the
capillary tube.

 
1. In a fine capillary tube, the meniscus surface may be considered
to be semispherical and the weight of the liquid above the lowest
1 3
point of the meniscus as ρr πg . Taking this into account, the
3
1  r
ρ gr  h +  . More
formula for surface tension is modified to T =
2  3
precise calculation of surface tension can be done using this
formula.
2. If the capillary is dry from inside the water that rises to a certain
height in it will not fall back, so the capillary should be wet from
inside. To wet the inside of the capillary tube thoroughly, it is first
dipped well down in the water and raised and clamped.
Alternatively, the beaker may be lifted up and placed down.



1. Suppose the length of capillary tube taken is less than the height
upto which liquid could rise. What do you expect if such a tube is
inserted inside the liquid? Explain your answer.
2. Two match sticks are floating parallel and quite close to each other.
What would happen if a drop of soap solution or a drop of hot
water falls between the two sticks? Explain your answer.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Experiment can be performed at different temperatures and effect

of temperature on surface tension can be studied.

2. Experiment can be performed by adding some impurities and effect

of change in impurity concentration (like adding NaCl or sugar) on
surface tension can be studied.

3. Study the effect of inclination of capillary tube on height of liquid

rise in the capillary tube.

98

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT
UNIT NAME

 

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid by measuring
the terminal velocity of a spherical body.


A wide bore tube of transparent glass/acrylic (approximately 1.25 m
long and 4 cm diameter), a short inlet tube of about 10 cm length and
1 cm diameter (or a funnel with an opening of 1 cm), steel balls of known
diameters between 1.0 mm to 3 mm, transparent viscous liquid (castor
oil/glycerine), laboratory stand, forceps, rubber bands, two rubber
stoppers (one with a hole), a thermometer (0-50 °C), and metre scale.

 
When a spherical body of radius r and density σ falls freely through
a viscous liquid of density ρ and viscosity η, with terminal velocity v,
then the sum of the upward buoyant force and viscous drag, force F,
is balanced by the downward weight of the ball (Fig. E13.1).
= Buoyant force on the ball + viscous force
4 3 4 (E 13.1)
πr σ g = πr 3 ρ g + 6 πηrv
3 3

4 3
πr (σ − ρ ) g (E 13.2)
2 r (σ − ρ ) g
3 2
4/3 r g or υ=3 =
6πηr q η
where v is the terminal velocity, the constant
velocity acquired by a body while moving
6 rv
through viscous fluid under application of
v constant force.
3
4/3 r g
The terminal velocity depends directly on the
square of the size (diameter) of the spherical
Fig.E 13.1: Forces acting on a
spherical body falling ball. Therefore, if several spherical balls of
through a viscous different radii are made to fall freely through
liquid with terminal the viscous liquid then a plot of v vs r2 would
velocity be a straight line as illustrated in Fig. E 13.2.
99

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

The shape of this line will give an average value of υ r 2 which may be
used to find the coefficient of viscosity η of the given liquid. Thus

η=
2 r2 2
g (σ − ρ ) . =
(σ − ρ ) g
(E 13.3) 9 v 9 ( slope of line )

= ... Nsm–2 (poise)

The relation given by Eq. (E 13.3) holds good if

the liquid through which the spherical body falls
freely is in a cylindrical vessel of radius R >> r
and the height of the cylinder is sufficient enough
to let the ball attain terminal velocity. At the same
time the ball should not come in contact with
the walls of the vessel.

 
Fig.E 13.2: Graph between terminal velocity v, and
square of radius of ball, r2

1. Find the least count of the stop-watch.

2. Note the room temperature, using a thermometer.
3. Take a wide bore tube of transparent glass/acrylic (of diameter
about 4 cm and of length approximately1.25 m). Fit a rubber
stopper at one end of the wide tube and ensure that it is airtight.
Fill it with the given transparent viscous liquid (say glycerine).
Fix the tube vertically in the clamp stand as shown in Fig. E
13.3. Ensure that there is no air bubble inside the viscous liquid
in the wide bore tube.
4. Put three rubber bands A, B, and C around the wide bore tube
dividing it into four portions (Fig. E 13.3), such that AB = BC,
each about 30 cm. The rubber band A should be around 40 cm
below the mouth of the wide bore tube (length sufficient to allow
the ball to attain terminal velocity).
5. Separate a set of clean and dry steel balls of different radii. The
set should include four or five identical steel balls of same known
radii (r1). Rinse these balls thoroughly with the experimental
viscous liquid (glycerine) in a petridish or a watch glass. Otherwise
100

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 13
UNIT NAME

these balls may develop air bubble(s) on

their surfaces as they enter the liquid
column.
6. Fix a short inlet tube vertically at the
open end of the wide tube through a
rubber stopper fixed to it. Alternately one
can also use a glass funnel instead of an
inlet tube as shown in Fig. E 13.3. With
the help of forceps hold one of the balls
of radius r1 near the top of tube. Allow
the ball to fall freely. The ball, after
passing through the inlet tube, will fall
along the axis of the liquid column.
7. Take two stop watches and start both of
them simultaneously as the spherical
ball passes through the rubber band A.
Stop one the watches as the ball passes
through the band B. Allow the second
stop-watch to continue and stop it when
the ball crosses the band C.
8. Note the times t1 and t2 as indicated by Fig.E 13.3: Steel ball falling along the
the two stop watches, t1 is then the time axis of the tube filled with
a viscous liquid.
taken by the falling ball to travel from A
to B and t2 is the time taken by it in falling from A to C. If terminal
velocity had been attained before the ball crosses A, then t2 = 2 t1.
If it is not so, repeat the experiment with steel ball of same radii
after adjusting the positions of rubber bands.
9. Repeat the experiment for other balls of different diameters.
10. Obtain terminal velocity for each ball.
11. Plot a graph between terminal velocity, v and square of the radius
of spherical ball, r2. It should be a straight line. Find the slope of
the line and hence determine the coefficient of viscosity of the
liquid using the relation given by Eq. (E 13.3).



1. Temperature of experimental liquid (glycerine) θ = ...°C.
2. Density of material of steel balls σ = ... kg m-3

3. Density of the viscous liquid used in the tube = ... kgm–3

4. Density of experimental viscous liquid ρ = ... kg m-3

101

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

5. Internal diameter of the wide bore tube =... cm = ... m

6. Length of wide bore tube = ... cm = ... m
7. Distance between A and B = ... cm = ... m
8. Distance between B and C = ... cm = ... m
Average distance h between two consecutive rubber bands
= ... cm = ... m
9. Acceleration due to gravity at the place of experiment, = ... gms–2
10. Least count of stop-watch = ... s
Table E 13.1: Measurement of time of fall of steel balls

Diameter of Square of Terminal

S. spherical the Time taken for covering distance Velocity
balls radius of h = ... cm between rubber bands
No. h
the balls v=
d r =d/2 A and B A and C B and C Mean time t
r2 –1
(m )
(cm) (m) (m2) t1 t2 t3 = t 2 – t1 t1 + t 3
t=
2
(s) (s) (s) (s)
1
2
3

 
Plot a graph between r 2 and v taking r 2 along x-axis and v along
y-axis. This graph will be similar to that shown in Fig. E 13.2.

v RT
Slope of line =
r 2 ST

2 r (σ − ρ ) g
2

So η=
9 ( slope of line )

∆η 2 ∆r ∆slope
Error = +
η r slope
Standard value of η = ... Nsm–2
% error in η = ... %

 
The coefficient of viscosity of the given viscous liquid at temperature
θ °C = ... ± ... Nsm–2
102

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 13
UNIT NAME

 
1. In order to minimise the effects, although small, on the value of
terminal velocity (more precisely on the value of viscous drag, force
F), the radius of the wide bore tube containing the experimental
viscous liquid should be much larger than the radius of the falling
spherical balls.
2. The steel balls should fall without touching the sides of the tube.
3. The ball should be dropped gently in the tube containing viscous/
liquid.

 
1. Ensure that the ball is spherical. Otherwise formula used for
terminal velocity will not be valid.
2. Motion of falling ball must be translational.
3. Diameter of the wide bore tube should be much larger than that
of the spherical ball.



1. Do all the raindrops strike the ground with the same velocity
irrespective of their size?
2. Is Stokes’ law applicable to body of shapes other than spherical?
3. What is the effect of temperature on coefficient of viscosity of
a liquid?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Value of η can be calculated for steel balls of different radii

and compared with that obtained from the experiment.

2. To find viscosity of mustard oil [Hint: Set up the apparatus

and use mustard oil instead of glycerine in the wide bore
tube].

3. To check purity of milk [Hint: Use mustard oil in the tall

tube. Take an eye dropper, fill milk in it. Drop one drop of
milk in the oil at the top of the wide bore tube and find its
terminal velocity. Use the knowledge of coefficient of viscosity
of mustard oil to calculate the density of milk].

4. Study the effect of viscosity of water on the time of rise of air

bubble [Hint: Use the bubble maker used in an aquarium.
Place it in the wide bore tube. Find the terminal velocity of
rising air bubble].
103

20/04/2018
 LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and
time by plotting a cooling curve.


Newton’s law of cooling apparatus that includes a copper calorimeter
with a wooden lid having two holes for inserting a thermometer and a
stirrer and an open double – walled vessel, two celsius thermometers
(each with least count 0.5 oC or 0.1 oC), a stop clock/watch, a heater/
burner, liquid (water), a clamp stand, two rubber stoppers with holes,
strong cotton thread and a beaker.


As shown in Fig. E 14.1, the law of cooling
T2 T1
apparatus has a double walled container, which
100

100
90

90

can be closed by an insulating lid. Water filled

80

80

Stirrer
70

70

between double walls ensures that the temperature

60

60

of the environment surrounding the calorimeter

50

50

Lid
40

40

remains constant. Temperature of the liquid and

30

30

the calorimeter also remains constant for a fairly

20

20
10

10

long period of time so that temperature

0

Double walled measurement is feasible. Temperature of water in

-10

-10

container calorimeter and that of water between double walls

of container is recorded by two thermometers.
Calorimeter


The rate at which a hot body loses heat is directly
proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the hot body and that of its
Fig.E 14.1: Newton's law of cooling apparatus surroundings and depends on the nature of
material and the surface area of the body. This is
Newton’s law of cooling.
For a body of mass m and specific heat s, at its initial temperature θ
104 higher than its surrounding’s temperature θo, the rate of loss of heat

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 14
UNIT NAME

dQ
is , where dQ is the amount of heat lost by the hot body to its
dt
surroundings in a small interval of time.
Following Newton’s law of cooling we have

dQ
Rate of loss of heat, = – k (θ – θo) (E 14.1)
dt

dQ dθ
Also = ms (E 14.2)
dt dt

Using Eqs. (E 14.1) and (E 14.2), the rate of fall of temperature is given by
dθ k
=– (θ – θo) (E 14.3)
dt ms
where k is the constant of proportionality and k ′ = k/ms is another
constant (The term ms also includes the water equivalent of the
calorimeter with which the experiment is performed). Negative sign
appears in Eqs. (E 14.2) and (E 14.3) because loss of heat implies
temperature decrease. Eq. (E 14.3) may be re written as
dθ = - k′ (θ – θo) dt
On integrating, we get
dθ
= − k ' dt
θ – θo

or ln (θ – θo) = loge (θ – θo) = – k′t + c

or ln (θ – θo) = 2.303 log10 (θ – θo) = – k′t + c (E 14.4)

where c is the constant of integration.

Eq. (E 14.4) shows that the shape of a plot between log10 (θ – θo) and t
will be a straight line.



1. Find the least counts of thermometers T1 and T2. Take some water
in a beaker and measure its temperature (at room temperature θo)
with one (say T1) of the thermometers.
2. Examine the working of the stop-watch/clock and find its least count.
3. Pour water into the double- walled container (enclosure) at room
temperature. Insert the other thermometer T2 in water contained
in it, with the help of the clamp stand.
4. Heat some water separately to a temperature of about 40 oC above
the room temperature θo. Pour hot water in calorimeter up to its top.
105

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

5. Put the calorimeter, with hot water, back in the enclosure and
cover it with the lid having holes. Insert the thermometer T1 and
the stirrer in the calorimeter through the holes provided in the
lid, as shown in Fig. E14.1.
6. Note the initial temperature of the water between enclosure of
double wall with the thermometer T2, when the difference of
readings of two thermometers T 1 and T2 is about 30 oC. Note the
initial reading of the thermometer T1.
7. Keep on stirring the water gently and constantly. Note the
reading of thermometer T1, first after about every half a minute,
then after about one minute and finally after two minutes
duration or so.
8. Keep on simultaneously noting the reading of the stop-watch and
that of the thermometer T1, while stirring water gently and
constantly, till the temperature of water in the calorimeter falls to
a temperature of about 5 oC above that of the enclosure. Note the
temperature of the enclosure, by the thermometer T2.
9. Record observations in tabular form. Find the excess of
temperature (θ − θο) and also log10 (θ − θο) for each reading, using
logarithmic tables. Record these values in the corresponding
columns in the table.
10. Plot a graph between time t, taken along x-axis and log10 (θ – θo)
taken along y-axis. Interpret the graph.

 
Least count of both the identical thermometers = ... °C
Least count of stop-watch/clock = ... s
Initial temperature of water in the enclosure θ1 = ... °C
Final temperature of water in the enclosure θ2 = ... oC
Mean temperature of the water in the enclosure θο = (θ1 + θ2)/2 = ... oC
Table E 14.1: Measuring the change in temperature of water with time

S. Time (t) Temperature Excess Temperature log10 ( – 0)

No. (s) of hot water of hot water ( – 0)
 °C °C
1
2
.
.
20

106

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 14
UNIT NAME

 
(i) Plot a graph between (θ – θo) and t as shown in Fig. E 14.2 taking t
along x-axis and (θ – θo) along y-axis. This is called cooling curve.
(ii) Also plot a graph between log10 (θ - θo) and time t, as shown in Fig.
E 14.3 taking time t along x-axis and log10 (θ - θo) along y-axis.
Choose suitable scales on these axes. Identify the shape of the
cooling curve and the other graph.

Fig.E 14.2: Graph between (θ – θo) and t for Fig.E 14.3: Graph between log10 (θ – θo) and t
cooling

 
The cooling curve is an exponential decay curve (Fig. E 14.2). It is
observed from the graph that the logarithm of the excess of temperature
of hot body over that of its surroundings varies linearly with time as
the body cools.

 
1. The water in the calorimeter should be gently stirred continuously.
2. Ideally the space between the double walls of the surrounding
vessel should be filled with flowing water to make it an enclosure
having a constant temperature.
3. Make sure that the openings for inserting thermometers are air
tight and no heat is lost to the surroundings through these.
4. The starting temperature of water in the calorimeter should be
about 30°C above the room temperature.


1. Some personal error is always likely to be involved due to delay in
starting or stopping the stop-watch. Take care in starting and
stopping the stop-watch.
107

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. The accuracy of the result depends mainly on the simultaneous

measurement of temperature of hot water (decrease in
temperature being fast in the beginning and then comparatively
slower afterwards) and the time. Take special care while reading
the stop-watch and the thermometer simultaneously.
3. If the opening for the thermometer is not airtight, some loss of heat
can occur.
4. The temperature of the water in enclosure is not constant.

 
Each body radiates heat and absorbs heat radiated by the other. The
warmer one (here the calorimeter) radiates more and receives less.
Radiation by surface occurs at all temperatures. Higher the
temperature difference with the surroundings, higher is rate of heat
radiation. Here the enclosure is at a lower temperature so it radiates
less but receives more from the calorimeter. So, finally the calorimeter
dominates in the process.



1. State Newton's law of cooling and express this law mathematically.
2. Does the Newton’s law of cooling hold good for all temperature
differences?
3. How is Newton's law of cooling different from Stefan's law of heat
radiation?
4. What is the shape of cooling curve?
5. Find the specific heat of a solid/liquid using Newton's law of
cooling apparatus.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find the slope and intercept on y-axis of the straight line graph (Fig.
E 14.2) you have drawn. Determine the value of constant k and the
constant of integration c from this graph.

[Hint: Eq. (E 14.4) is similar to the equation of a straight line: y =

m′ x + c′ , with m′ as the slope of the straight line and c′ the
intercept on y-axis. It is clear m′ = k′ /2.303 and c′ = c' × 2.303.]

2. The cooling experiment is performed with the calorimeter, filled with

same volume of water and turpentine oil successively, by maintaining
the same temperature difference between the calorimeter and the
surrounding enclosure. What ratio of the rates of heat loss would
you expect in this case?

108

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT
UNIT NAME

 

(i) To study the relation between frequency and length of a given
wire under constant tension using a sonometer.
(ii) To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension
for constant frequency using a sonometer.


Sonometer, six tuning forks
of known frequencies, metre
scale, rubber pad, paper
rider, hanger with half-
kilogram weights, wooden
bridges.
SONOMETER
It consists of a long
sounding board or a hollow Fig. E 15.1: A Sonometer
wooden box W with a peg G
at one end and a pulley at
the other end as shown in Fig E 15.1. One end of a metal wire S is
attached to the peg and the other end passes over the pulley P. A
hanger H is suspended from the free end of the wire. By placing slotted
weights on the hanger tension is applied to the wire. By placing two
bridges A and B under the wire, the length of the vibrating wire can be
fixed. Position of one of the bridges, say bridge A is kept fixed so that
by varying the position of other bridge, say bridge B, the vibrating
length can be altered.


The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is
given by

1 T (E 15.1)
n=
2l m
where m = mass per unit length of the string
l = length of the string between the wedges 109

20/04/2018
 LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

T = Tension in the string (including the weight of the

hanger) = Mg
M = mass suspended, including the mass of the hanger
(a) For a given m and fixed T,

1
nα or n l = constant.
l

(b) If frequency n is constant, for a given wire (m is

constant),

T
is constant. That is l 2 ∝ T.
l
Fig. E 15.2: Variation of resonant length
with frequency of tuning fork

(i) Variation of frequency with length


1. Set up the sonometer on the table and clean the groove on the
pully to ensure that it has minimum friction. Stretch the wire by
placing a suitable load on the hanger.
2. Set a tuning fork of frequency n1 into vibrations by striking it
against the rubber pad and hold it near one of your ears. Pluck
the sonometer wire and compare the two sounds, one produced
by the tuning fork and the other by the plucked wire. Make a note
of difference between the two sounds.
3. Adjust the vibrating length of the wire by sliding the bridge B till
the two sounds appear alike.
4. For final adjustment, place a small paper rider R in
the middle of wire AB. Sound the tuning fork and
place its shank stem on the bridge A or on the
sonometer box. Slowly adjust the position of bridge
B till the paper rider is agitated violently, which
indicates resonance.
The length of the wire between A and B is the resonant
length such that its frequency of vibration of the
fundamental mode equals the frequency of the tuning
fork. Measure this length with the help of a metre scale.
5. Repeat the above procedures for other five tuning
forks keeping the load on the hanger unchanged. Plot
a graph between n and l (Fig. E 15.2)
6. After calculating frequency, n of each tuning fork, plot
Fig. E 15.3: Variation of 1/l with n a graph between n and 1/l where l is the resonating
length as shown in Fig. E 15.3.
110

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 15
UNIT NAME

 
Tension (constant) on the wire (weight suspended from the hanger
including its own weight) T = ... N
Table E 15.1: Variation of frequency with length

Frequency n of
n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6
tuning fork (Hz)

Resonating
length l (cm)

1
(cm –1 )
l
nl (Hz cm)



1
Calculate the product nl for each fork. and, calculate the reciprocals,
l
1 1
of the resonating lengths l. Plot vs n, taking n along x axis and
l l
along y axis, starting from zero on both axes. See whether a straight
line can be drawn from the origin to lie evenly between the plotted points.



1
Check if the product n l is found to be constant and the graph of vs n
l
is also a straight line. Therefore, for a given tension, the resonant length
of a given stretched string varies as reciprocal of the frequency.

 
1. Error may occur in measurement of length l. There is always an
uncertainty in setting the bridge in the final adjustment.
2. Some friction might be present at the pulley and hence the tension
may be less than that actually applied.
3. The wire may not be of uniform cross section.
(ii) Variation of resonant length with tension for constant
frequency
1. Select a tuning fork of a certain frequency (say 256 Hz) and hang
a load of 1kg from the hanger. Find the resonant length as before.

111

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of 0.5 kg and each

time find the resonating length with the same tuning fork.
Do it for at least four loads.
3. Record your observations.
4. Plot graph between l 2 and T as shown in Fig. E 15.4.

 
Frequency of the tuning fork = ... Hz

Fig. E 15.4: Graph between l2 Table E 15.2: Variation of resonant length with tension
and T
Tension applied T
(including weight of
the hanger) (N)
Resonating length l
of the wire
l2 (cm2)

T/l2 (N cm–2)



Calculate the value of T l 2 for the tension applied in each case.
Alternatively, plot a graph of l 2 vs T taking l 2 along y-axis and T
along the x-axis.

 
It is found that value of T/l 2 is constant within experimental error.
The graph of l 2 vs T is found to be a straight line. This shows that
l 2 α T or l α T .
Thus, the resonating length varies as square root of tension for a
given frequency of vibration of a stretched string.



1. Pulley should be frictionless ideally. In practice friction at the pulley
should be minimised by applying grease or oil on it.
2. Wire should be free from kinks and of uniform cross section,
ideally. If there are kinks, they should be removed by stretching
as far as possible.
112

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 15
UNIT NAME

3. Bridges should be perpendicular to the wire, its height should be

adjustes so that a node is formed at the bridge.
4. Tuning fork should be vibrated by striking its prongs against a
soft rubber pad.
5. Load should be removed after the experiment.



1. Pulley may not be frictionless.
2. Wire may not be rigid and of uniform cross section.
3. Bridges may not be sharp.

 
1. Error may occur in measurement of length l. There is always an
uncertainty in setting the bridge in the final adjustment.
2. Some friction might be present at the pulley and hence the tension
may be less than that actually applied.
3. The wire may not be of uniform cross section.
4. Care should be taken to hold the tuning fork by the shank only.



1. What is the principle of superposition of waves?
2. What are stationary waves?
3. Under what circumstances are stationary waves formed?
4. Identify the nodes and antinodes in the string of your sonometer.
5. What is the ratio of the first three harmonics produced in a stretched
string fixed at two ends?
6. Keeping material of wire and tension fixed, how will the resonant
length change if the diameter of the wire is increased?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Take wires of the same material but of three different diameters

and find the value of l for each of these for a given frequency, n
and tension, T.
1
2. Plot a graph between the value of m and obtained, in 1 above,
l2
with m along X axis.
3. Pluck the string of an stringed musical instrument like a sitar, voilin
or guitar with different lengths of string for same tension or same
length of string with different tension. Observe how the frequency
of the sound changes.
113

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a
resonance tube.


Resonance tube apparatus, a tuning fork of known frequency
(preferably of 480 Hz or 512 Hz), a rubber pad, a thermometer, spirit
level, a set-square, beaker and water.

 
When a vibrating tuning fork of known frequency ν is
held over the top of an air column in a glass tube AB (Fig.
A E 16.1), a standing wave pattern could be formed in the
A
tube. Under the right conditions, a superposition between
a forward moving and reflected wave occurs in the tube to
cause resonance. This gives a very noticeable rise in the
amplitude, or loudness, of the sound. In a closed organ
pipe like a resonance tube, there is a zero amplitude point
at the closed end (Fig. E 16.2). For resonance to occur, a
node must be formed at the closed end and an antinode
must be formed at the open end. Let the first loud sound
be heard at length l1 of the air column [Fig. E 16.2(a)].
That is, when the natural frequency of the air column of
length l1 becomes equal to the natural frequency of the
B B
tuning fork, so that the air column vibrates with the
(a) (b) maximum amplitude. In fact the length of air column
vibrating is slightly longer than the length of the air column
Fig. E 16.1: Formation of standing
wave in glass tube AB
in tube AB. Thus,
closed at one end
λ (E 16.1)
= l1 + e
4

where e (= 0.6 r, where r = radius of the glass tube) is the end correction
for the resonance tube and λ is the wave-length of the sound produced
by the tuning fork.
Now on further lowering the closed end of the tube AB, let the second
114 resonance position be heard at length l2 of the air column in the tube

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 16
UNIT NAME

[Fig. E 16.2(b)]. This length l 2 would

approximately be equal to three quarters of
the wavelength. That is, l1

3λ
(E 16.2) = l2 + e
4 l2

Subtracting Eq. (E 16.l) from Eq. (E 16.2)

gives
(E. 16.3) λ = 2 (l2–l1 )
T hu s, the velo city o f s o u n d i n a i r a t
room temperature ( v = ν λ ) w o u l d b e
v = 2 ν ( l 2 – l 1) . (a) (b)


Fig. E 16.2: Vibrations in a resonance tube


ADJUSTMENT OF RESONANCE TUBE
The apparatus usually consists of a narrow glass tube about a metre
long and 5 cm in diameter, rigidly fixed in its vertical position with a
wooden stand. The lower end of this tube is attached to a reservoir by
a rubber tube. Using a clamp, the reservoir can be made to slide up
or down along a vertical rod. A pinch cock is provided with the rubber
tube to keep the water level (or the length of air column) fixed in the
tube. A metre scale is also fixed along the tube. The whole apparatus
is fixed on a horizontal wooden base that can be levelled using the
screws provided at the bottom. Both the reservoir and tube contain
water. When reservoir is raised the length of the air column in the
tube goes down, and when it is lowered the length of the air column in
the tube goes up. Now:–
1. Set the resonance tube vertical with the help of a spirit level and
levelling screws provided at the bottom of the wooden base of the
apparatus.
2. Note the room temperature with a thermometer.
3. Note the frequency ν of given tuning fork.
4. Fix the reservoir to the highest point of the vertical rod with the
help of clamp.
De--termination of First Resonance Position
5. Fill the water in the reservoir such that the level of water in the
tube reaches up to its open end.
6. Close the pinch cock and lower down the position of reservoir on
the vertical rod.
7. Gently strike the given tuning fork on a rubber pad and put
it nearly one cm above the open end of the tube. Keep both the
115

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

prongs of the tuning fork parallel to the ground and lying one
above the other so that the prongs vibrate in the vertical plane.
Try to listen the sound being produced in the tube. It may not
be audible in this position.
8. Slowly loosen the pinch cock to let the water level fall in the
tube very slowly. Keep bringing the tuning fork near the open
end of the resonance tube, notice the increasing loudness of
the sound.

9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 till you get the exact position of water
level in the tube for which the intensity of sound being produced
in the tube is maximum. This corresponds to the first resonance
position or fundamental node, if the length of air column is
minimum. Close the pinch cock at this position and note the
position of water level or length l1 of air column in the tube
[Fig. E 16.2]. This is the determination of first resonance
position while the level of water is falling in the tube.

10. Repeat steps (5) to (9) to confirm the first resonance position.

11. Next find out the first resonance position by gradually raising
the level of water in resonance tube, and holding the vibrating
tuning fork continuously on top of its open end. Fix the tube
at the position where the sound of maximum intensity is heard.

Determination of Second Resonance Position

12. Lower the position of the water level further in the resonance tube
by sliding down the position of reservoir on the vertical stand and
opening the pinch cock till the length of air column in the tube
increases about three times of the length l1.

13. Find out the second resonance position and determine the length
of air column l2 in the tube with the same tuning fork having
frequency ν1 and confirm the length l2 by taking four readings,
two when the level of water is falling and the other two when the
level of water is rising in the tube.

14. Repeat steps (5) to (13) with a second tuning fork having frequency
ν2 and determine the first and second resonance positions.

15. Calculate the velocity of sound in each case.



1. Temperature of the room θ = ... o C
2. Frequency of first tuning fork , ν1 = ... Hz
3. Frequency of second tuning fork, ν2 = ... Hz
116

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 16
UNIT NAME

Table E 16.1: Determination of length of the resonant air columns

Frequency of S. length l1 for the first length l2 for the

tuning fork No. resonance position of second resonance
used the tube position of the tube
Water Water Mean Water Water Mean
level is level is length, level is level is length,
falling rising l1 cm falling rising l2 cm
1
ν1 = ... Hz 2
1
ν2 = ... Hz
2



(i) For first tuning fork having frequency ν1 = ... Hz
Velocity of sound in air v1 = 2 ν1 (l2– l1) = ... ms–1
(ii) For second tuning fork having frequency ν2 = ... Hz
Velocity of sound in air v2 = 2ν2 (l2– l1) = ... ms–1
Obtain the mean velocity v of sound in air.

 
The velocity of sound v in air at room temperature is
v1 + v2
= ... ms–1
2



1. The resonance tube should be kept vertical using the levelling
screws.
2. The experiment should be performed in a quiet atmosphere so
that the resonance positions may be identified properly.
3. Striking of tuning fork on rubber pad must be done very gently.
4. The lowering and raising of water level in the resonance tube should
be done very slowly.
5. The choice of frequencies of the tuning forks being used should be
such that the two resonance positions may be achieved in the air
column of the resonance tube.
6. The vibrating tuning fork must be kept about 1 cm above the top
of the resonance tube. In any case it should not touch the walls of
the resonance tube.
117

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

7. The prongs of the vibrating tuning fork must be kept parallel to

the ground and keeping one over the other so that the vibrations
reaching the air inside the tube are vertical.
8. Room temperature during the performance of experiment should
be measured two to three times and a mean value should be taken.



1. The air inside the tube may not be completely dry and the presence
of water vapours in the air column may exhibit a higher value of
velocity of sound.
2. Resonance tube must be of uniform area of cross-section.
3. There must be no wind blowing in the room.

 
1. Loudness of sound in second resonance position is lower than the
loudness in first resonance. We determine two resonance positions
in this experiment to apply end correction. But the experiment
can also be conducted by finding first resonance position only
and applying end correction in resonating length as e = 0.6 r.
2. For a given tuning fork, change in the resonating length of air
coloumn in 2nd resonance does not change the frequency,
wavelength or velocity of sound. Thus, the second resonance is
not the overtone of first resonance.



1. Is the velocity of sound temperature dependent? If yes, write the
relation.
2. What would happen if resonance tube is not vertical?
3. Name the phenomenon responsible for the resonance in this
experiment.
4. Write two other examples of resonance of sound from day to
day life.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Calculate the end correction in the resonance tube.

2. Compare the end correction required for the resonance tubes of

different diameters and study the relation between the end correction
and the diameter of the tube.

3. Perform the same experiment with an open pipe.

118

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT
UNIT NAME

 

To determine the specific heat capacity of a given (i) and solid
(ii) a liquid by the method of mixtures.


Copper calorimeter with lid, stirrer and insulating cover (the lid
should have provision to insert thermometer in addition to the
stirrer), two thermometers (0 °C to 100 °C or 110 °C with a least
count of 0.5 °C), a solid, preferably metallic (brass/copper/steel/
aluminium) cylinder which is insoluble in given liquid and water,
given liquid, two beakers (100 mL and 250 mL), a heating device
(heater/hot plate/gas burner); physical balance, spring balance with
weight box (including fractional weights), a piece of strong non-
flexible thread (25-30 cm long), water, laboratory stand, tripod stand
and wire gauze.

 
For a body of mass m and specific heat s, the amount of heat Q
lost/gained by it when its temperature falls/rises by ∆t is given by
(E 17.1)
∆Q = ms ∆t
Specific heat capacity: It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of a substance through 1°C. Its S.I unit is
Jkg–1 K–1.
Principle of Calorimetry: If bodies of different temperatures are
brought in thermal contact, the amount of heat lost by the body at
higher temperature is equal to the amount of heat gained by the body
at lower temperature, at thermal equilibrium, provided no heat is lost
to the surrounding.
(a) Specific heat capacity of given solid by method of mixtures

 
1. Set the physical balance and make sure there is no zero error.
2. Weigh the empty calorimeter with stirrer and lid with the physical
balance/spring balance. Ensure that calorimeter is clean and dry. 119

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Note the mass m1 of the calorimeter. Pour the given water in the
calorimeter. Make sure that the quantity of water taken would be
sufficient to completely submerge the given solid in it. Weigh the
calorimeter with water along with the stirrer and the lid and note
its mass m2. Place the calorimeter in its insulating cover.
3. Dip the solid in water and take it out. Now shake it to remove
water sticking to its surface. Weigh the wet solid with the physical
balance and note down its mass m3.
4. Tie the solid tightly with the thread at its middle. Make sure that it
can be lifted by holding the thread without slipping.
Place a 250 mL beaker on the wire gauze kept on a tripod stand as
shown in the Fig. E 17.1(a). Fill the beaker up to the half with
water. Now suspend the solid in the beaker containing water by
tying the other end of the thread to a laboratory stand. The solid
should be completely submerged in water and should be atleast
0.5 cm below the surface. Now heat the water with the solid
suspended in it [Fig. E 17.1 (a)].

Fig. E 17.1: Experimental setup for determining specific heat of a given solid

5. Note the least count of the thermometer. Measure the temperature

of the water taken in the calorimeter. Record the temperature t1 of
the water.
6. Let the water in the beaker boil for about 5-10 minutes. Now
measure the temperature t2 of the water with the other thermometer
and record the same. Holding the solid with the thread tied to it,
120

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 17
UNIT NAME

remove it from the boiling water, shake it to remove water sticking

on it and quickly put it in the water in the calorimeter and replace
the lid immediately (Fig. E 17.1 (b)). Stir the water with the stirrer.
Measure the temperature of the water once equilibrium is attained,
that is, temperature of the mixture becomes constant. Record this
temperature as t3.



Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer (m1) = ... g
Mass of the calorimeter with water (m2) = ... g
Mass of solid (m3) = ... g
Initial temperature of the water (t1) = ... °C = ... K
Temperature of the solid in boiling water (t2) = ... °C = ... K
Temperature of the mixture (t3) = ... °C
Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter s1 = ... Jkg–1 °C–1 (Jkg–1 K–1)
Specific heat capacity of water (s) = ... Jkg–1 K–1



1. Mass of the water in calorimeter (m2 – m1) = ... g = ... kg
2. Change in temperature of liquid and calorimeter (t3 – t1) = ... °C
3. Change in temperature of solid (t2 – t3) == ... °C
Heat given by solid in cooling from t2 to t3.
= Heat gained by liquid in raising its temperature from t1 to t3 +
heat gained by calorimeter in raising its temperature from t1 to t3.
m3so (t2 – t3) = (m2 – m1) s (t2 – t1) + m1s1 (t3 – t1)

so =
(m 2 – m1 ) s (t 2 − t1 ) + m1s1 (t 3 − t1 )
= ... J kg–1 °C–1
m 3 (t 2 − t 3 )

(b) Specific heat capacity of given liquid by method of mixtures



1. Set the phyiscal balance and make sure there is no zero error.
2. Weigh the empty calorimeter with stirrer and lid with the
physical balance/spring balance. Ensure that calorimeter is
clean and dry. Note the mass m 1 of the calorimeter. Pour the
121

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

given liquid in the calorimeter. Make sure that the quantity of

liquid taken would be sufficient to completely submerge the
solid in it. Weigh the calorimeter with liquid along with the
stirrer and the lid and note its mass m 2. Place the calorimeter
in its insulating cover.
3. Take a metallic cylinder whose specific heat capacity is known.
Dip it in water in a container and shake it to remove the water
sticking to its surface. Weigh the wet solid with the physical balance
and note down its mass m3.
4. Tie the solid tightly with the thread at its middle. Make sure that it
can be lifted by holding the thread without slipping.
Place a 250 mL beaker on the wire gauze kept on a tripod stand
as shown in Fig. E 17.1(a). Fill the beaker up to half with water.
Now suspend the solid in the beaker containing water by tying
the other end of the thread to a laboratory stand. The solid should
be completely submerged in water and should be atleast 0.5 cm
below the surface. Now heat the water with the solid suspended in
it [Fig. E 17.1(a)].
5. Note the least count of the thermometer. Measure the temperature
of the water taken in the calorimeter. Record the temperature t1 of
the water.
6. Let the liquid in the beaker boil for about 5-10 minutes. Now
measure the temperature t2 of the liquid with the other thermometer
and record the same. Holding the solid with the thread tied to it
remove it from the boiling water, shake it to remove water sticking
on it and quickly put it in the liquid in the calorimeter and replace
the lid immediately [Fig. E 17.1(b)]. Stir it with the stirrer. Measure
the temperature of the liquid once equilibrium is attained, that is,
temperature of the mixture becomes constant. Record this
temperature as t3.



Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer (m1) = ... g
Mass of the calorimeter with liquid (m2) = ... g
Mass of solid (m3) = ... g
Initial temperature of the liquid (t1) = °C = ... K
Temperature of the solid in boiling water (t2) = °C = ... K
Temperature of the mixture (t3) = °C = ... K
Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter s1 = ... Jkg–1 °C–1 (Jkg–1 K–1)
Specific heat capacity of solid (s0) = ... Jkg–1 K–1
122

20/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 17
UNIT NAME



1. Mass of the liquid in calorimeter (m2 – m1) = ... g = ... kg
2. Change in temperature of liquid and calorimeter (t3 – t1) = ... °C
3. Change in temperature of solid (t2 – t3) = ... °C
Heat given by solid in cooling from t2 to t3.
= Heat gained by liquid in raising its temperature from t1 to t3 +
heat gained by calorimeter in raising its temperature from t1 to t3.
m3so (t2 – t3) = (m2 – m1) s (t2 – t1) + m1s1 (t3 – t1)

m 3 s0 (t 2 − t 3 ) – m1s1 (t 3 − t1 )
s= = ... J kg–1 °C–1
(m 2 − m1 ) (t 2 − t1 )

 
(a) The specific heat of the given solid is ... Jkg –1 K –1 within
experimental error.
(b) The specific heat of the given liquid is ... Jkg–1 K –1 within
experimental error.



1. Physical balance should be in proper working condition and ensure
that there is no zero error.
2. The two thermometers used should be of the same range and least
count.
3. The solid used should not be chemically reactive with the liquid
used or water.
4. The calorimeter should always be kept in its insulated cover and at
a sufficient distance from the source of heat and should not be
exposed to sunlight so that it absorbs no heat from the surrounding.
5. The solid should be transferred quickly so that its temperature is
same as recorded when it is dropped in the liquid.
6. Liquid should not be allowed to splash while dropping the solid
in it in the calorimeter. It is advised that the solid should be lowered
gently into the liquid with the help of the thread tied to it.
7. While measuring the temperature, the thermometers should always
be held in vertical position. The line of sight should be
perpendicular to the mercury level while recording the temperature.
123

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL



1. Radiation losses cannot be completely eliminated.
2. Heat loss that takes place during the short period while transferring
hot solid into calorimeter, cannot be accounted for.
3. Though mercury in the thermometer bulb has low specific heat, it
absorbs some heat.
4. There may be some error in measurement of mass and temperature.

 
1. There may be some heat loss while transferring the solid, from
boiling water to the liquid kept in the calorimeter. Heat loss may
also occur due to time lapsed between putting of hot solid in
calorimeter and replacing its lid.
2. The insulating cover of the calorimeter may not be a perfect
insulator.
3. Error in measurement of mass of calorimeter, calorimeter with liquid
and that of the solid may affect the calculation of specific heat
capacity of the liquid.
4. Calculation of specific heat capacity of the liquid may also be
affected by the error in measurement of temperatures.
5. Even though the metal piece is kept in boiling water, it may not
have exactly the same temperature as that of boiling water.



1. What is water equivalent?
2. Why do we generally use a calorimeter made of copper?
3. Why is it important to stir the contents before taking the
temperature of the mixture?
4. Is specific heat a constant quantity?
5. What is thermal equilibrium?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

We can verify the principle of calorimetry, if specific heat capacity of the

solid and the liquid are known.

124

20/04/2018
ACTIVITIES

 

To make a paper scale of given least count: (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 0.5 cm


Thick ivory/drawing sheet; white paper sheet; pencil; sharpener;
eraser; metre scale (ruler); fine tipped black ink or gel pen.

 
Least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest measurement
that can be made accurately with the given measuring instrument.
A metre scale normally has graduations at 1 mm (or 0.1 cm) spacing,
as the smallest division on its scale. You cannot measure lengths
with this scale with accuracy better than 1mm (or 0.1 cm).
You can make paper scale of least count (a) 0.2 cm (b) 0.5 cm, by
dividing one centimetre length into smaller divisions by a simple
method, without using mm marks.

 
(a) Making Paper Scale of Least Count 0.2 cm
1. Fold a white paper sheet in the middle along its length.
2. Using a sharp pencil, draw a line AB, of length 30 cm in either
half of the white paper sheet [Fig. A1.1(a)].
3. Starting with the left end marked A as zero,
mark very small dots on the line AB after
every 1.0 cm and write 0,1,2 ..., 30 at
successive dots.
4. Draw thin, sharp straight lines, each 5 cm
in length, perpendicular to the line AB at
the position of each dot mark.
5. Draw 5 thin, sharp lines parallel to the line
AB at distances of 1.0 cm, 2.0 cm, 3.0
cm, 4.0 cm and 5.0 cm respectively. Let Fig. A1.1(a): Making a paper scale
the line at 5 cm be DC while those at 1 cm, of least count 0.2 cm

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2 cm, 3 cm, and 4 cm be A1B1, A2B2, A3B3 and A4B4 respectively

[Fig A 1.1(a)].
6. Join point D with the dot at 1 cm on line AB. Intersection of this
line with lines parallel to AB at A4, A3, A2 and A1 are respectively
0.2 cm, 0.4 cm, 0.6 cm and 0.8 cm in length.
7. Use this arrangement to measure length of a pencil or a knitting
needle with least count of 0.2 cm.
(b) Making Paper Scale of Least Count 0.5 cm
1. Using a sharp pencil, draw a line AB of length 30 cm
in the other half of the white paper sheet [Fig. A1.1(b)].
2. Repeat steps 3 to 6 as in the above Activity 1.1(a), but
draw only two lines parallel to AB at distances 1.0 cm
and 2.0 cm instead of 5 cm.
3. Join diagonal 1-D by fine tipped black ink pen [Fig. A
Fig. A1.1(b): 1.1 (b)].
4. Use this scale to measure length of a pencil/knitting needle with
least count of 0.5 cm. Fractional part of length 0.5 cm is measured
on line A1B1.
(c) Measuring the Length of a Pencil Using the Paper Scales A and B
1. Place the pencil PP’ along the length of the paper scale A (least
count 0.2 cm) such that its end P is on a full mark (say 1.0 cm or
2.0 cm etc. mark). The position of the other end P′ is on diagonal
1–D. If P′ goes beyond the diagonal, place it on next upper line, in
which fraction of intersection is 0.2 cm larger, and so on. Thus, in
Fig. A 1.1 (a), length of the pencil = 3 cm + .2 × 2 cm = 3.4 cm. Take
care that you take the reading with one eye closed and the other
eye directly over the required graduation mark. The reading is
likely to be incorrect if the eye is inclined to the graduation mark.
2. Repeat preceding step 1, using the paper scale B having least
count 0.5 cm and record your observation in proper units.



Least count of the paper scale A = 0.2 cm
Least count of the paper scale B = 0.5 cm



(i) Scale of least count 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm have been made; and
(ii) Length of pencil as measured by using the scales made above is
(a) ... cm and (b) ... cm.
126

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 1
UNIT NAME

 
(i) Very sharp pencil should be used.
(ii) Scale should be cut along the boundary by using a sharp paper
cutter.
(iii) Observation should be recorded showing accuracy of the scale.
(iv) While measuring lengths, full cm mark should be made to
coincide with one end of the object and other end should be read
on the scale.




The line showing the graduations may not be as sharp as required.

 
1. The accuracy of measurement of length with the scale so formed
depends upon the accuracy of the graduation and thickness of
line drawn.
2. Some personal error is likely to be involved e.g. parallax error.

127

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by the
principle of moments.


A wooden metre scale of uniform thickness (a wooden strip of one
metre length having uniform thickness and width can also be used);
load of unknown mass, wooden or metal wedge with sharp edge, weight
box, thread (nearly 30 cm long), a spirit level, and a raised platform of
about 20 cm height (such as a wooden or metal block).

 
For a body free to rotate about a fixed axis, in equilibrium, the sum of
the clockwise moments is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise
moments.
If M1 is the known mass, suspended at a distance l1 on one side from
the centre of gravity of a beam and M2 is the unknown mass, suspended
at a distance l2 on the other side from the centre of gravity, and the
beam is in equilibrium, then M2 l2 = M1 l1.

 
1. Make a raised platform on a table. One can use a wooden or a
metal block to do so. However, the platform should be a sturdy,
place a wedge having a sharp edge on it. Alternately one can fix
the wedge to a laboratory stand at about 20 cm above the table
top. With the help of a spirit level set the level of the wedge
horizontal.
2. Make two loops of thread to be used for suspending the unknown
mass and the weights from the metre scale (beam). Insert the loops
at about 10 cm from the edge of the metre scale from both sides.
3. Place the metre scale with thread loops on the wedge and adjust
it till it is balanced. Mark two points on the scale above the wedge
where the scale is balanced. Join these two points with a straight
128 line which would facilitate to pin point the location of balance

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 2
UNIT NAME

position even if the scale topples over from the wedge due to some
reason. This line is passing through the centre of gravity of scale.
4. Take the unknown mass in one hand. Select a weight from the
weight box which feels nearly equal to the unknown mass when
it is kept on the other hand.
5. Suspend the unknown mass from
either of the two loops of thread Wedge
attached to the metre scale. A G B
Suspend the known weight from
the other loop (Fig. A 2.1). x y
Unknown
6. Adjust the position of the known Mass, m m Known standard
weight by moving the loop till the W = mg mass
metre scale gets balanced on the
sharp wedge. Make sure that in Fig. A 2.1: Experimental set up for determination
balanced position the line drawn in of mass of a given body
Step 3 is exactly above the wedge
and also that the thread of two loops passing over the scale is
parallel to this line.
7. Measure the distance of the position of the loops from the line
drawn in Step 3. Record your observations.
8. Repeat the activity atleast two times with a slightly lighter and a
heavier weight. Note the distances of unknown mass and weight
from line drawn in Step 3 in each case.



Position of centre of gravity = ... cm
Table A 2.1: Determination of mass of unknown object
S. Mass M1 Distance of Distance of Mass of Average
No. suspended the mass solid of unknown mass of
from the from the unknown load M2 (g) unknown
thread wedge l1 mass from load (g)
M 1l1
loop to (cm) the wedge =
balance l2 (cm) l2
the metre
scale (g)

5
129

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
In balanced position of the metre scale, moment of the force on one
side of the wedge will be equal to the moment of the force on the other
side.
Moment of the force due to known weight = (M1l1) g
Moment of the force due to unknown weight = (M2l2) g

In balanced position

M1l1 = M2l2

M1l1
or M2 =
l2

Average mass of unknown load = ... g

 
Mass of given body = ... g (within experimental)

 
1. Wedge should be sharp and always perpendicular to the length of the
scale.
2. Thread loops should be perpendicular to the length of the scale.
3. Thread used for loops should be thin, light and strong.
4. Air currents should be minimised.



1. Mass per unit length may not be uniform along the length of the
metre scale due to variation in its thickness and width.
2. The line marked on the scale may not be exactly over the wedge
while balancing the weights in subsequent settings.
3. The thread of the loops may not be parallel to the wedge when the
weights are balanced, which in turn would introduce some error
in measurement of weight-arm.
4. It may be difficult to adjudge balance position of the scale exactly.
A tilt of even of the order of 1° may affect the measurement of
mass of the load.
130

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 2
UNIT NAME



1. What is the name given to the point on the scale at which it is
balanced horizontally on the wedge?
2. How does the least count of the metre scale limit the accuracy in
the measurement of mass?
3. What is the resultant torque on the metre scale, due to gravitational
force, when the scale is perfectly horizontal?
4. Explain, how a physical balance works on the principle of
moments.
5. What problems would air currents cause in this activity?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. We can determine the accuracy of various weights available in

the laboratory, by finding out their mass by the above method
and comparing with their marked values.

2. Verify the principle of moments using a metre scale. After

balancing the metre scale at its centre of gravity, suspend
masses M1 and M2 at distances l 1 and l 2 respectively, from the
centre of gravity, on either side. Adjust the distances l1 and l 2
so that the metre scale is horizontal. Calculate and compare
M1l1 and M2l 2. Repeat with other combinations of masses M1
and M2.

131

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To plot a graph for a given set of data choosing proper scale and show
error bars due to the precision of the instruments.


Graph paper, a pencil, a scale and a set of data

 
Graphical representation of experimentally obtained data helps in
interpreting, communicating and understanding the interdependence
between the variable parameters of a given phenomena. Measured
values of variables have some error or expected uncertainty. For this
reason each data point on the graph cannot have a unique position.
That means depending upon the errors, the x-axis coordinate and y-
axis coordinate of every point plotted on the graph will lie in a range
known as an error bar.
Any measurement using a device has an uncertainty in its value
depending on the precision of the device used. For example, in the
measurement of diameter of a spherical bob, the correct way is to
represent it d + ∆d, where ∆d is the uncertainty in measurement of d
given by the least count of the vernier/screw gauze used.
Representation of d + ∆d in a graph is shown as a line having a length
of + ∆d about point ‘d’. This is known as the error bar of d.
We take an example where the diameters of objects, circular in shape,
are measured using a vernier calipers of least count 0.01 cm. These
measured values are given in Table 1. From the measured values of
diameters, it is required to calculate the radius of each object and to
round off the digits in the radius to the value consistent with the least
count of the measuring instrument, in this case, the vernier calipers.
We also estimate the maximum possible fractional uncertainty (or
error) in the values of radius. Next, the area A of each object is then
calculated using the formula.
πd 2
Area, A =
4
132 where  is the well-known constant.

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 3
UNIT NAME

Graphical representation of experimental data provides a convenient

way to look for interdependence or patterns between various
parameters associated with a given experiment or phenomenon or an
event. Graphs also provide a useful tool to communicate a given data
in pictorial form. We are often required to graphically represent the
data collected during an experiment in the laboratory, to verify a given
relation or to infer inter-relationships between the variables. It is,
therefore, imperative that we must know the method for representing
a given set of data on a graph, develop skill to draw most appropriate
curve to represent the plotted data and learn as to how to interpret a
given graph to infer relevant information.

Basic ideas about the steps involved in plotting a line graph for a
given data and finding the slope of the curve have already been
discussed in Chapter I. The steps involved in plotting a graph include
choice of axes (independent variable versus dependent variable), choice
of scale, marking the points on the graph for each pair of data and
drawing a smooth curve/line by joining maximum number of points
corresponding to the given data. Interpretation of the graph usually
involves finding the slope of the curve/line, inferring nature of
dependence between variables/parameters, interpolating/
extrapolating the graph to find desired value of the dependable variable
corresponding to a given value of independent variable or vice versa.
However, so far you have learnt to graphically represent the data for
which uncertainty or error is either ignored or is presumed not to
exist. As you know every data has some uncertainty/error due lack
of precision in measurement or some other factors inherent in the
process/method of data collection. It is possible to plot a graph that
depicts the extent of uncertainty/error in the given data. Such a
depiction in the graph is called an error bar. In general error bars
allow us to graphically illustrate actual errors, the statistical probability
of errors in the measurement or typical data points in comparison to
the rest of the data.

You have learnt to show uncertainty in measurement of a physical

quantity like length, mass, temperature and time on the basis of the
least count of the measuring instruments used. For example, the
diameter of a wire measured with a screw gauge having least count
0.001cm is expressed as 0.181 cm ± 0.001 cm. The figure ± 0.001 cm
in the measurement indicates that the actual value of diameter of the
wire may lie between 0.180 and 0.182 cm. However, the error in
measurement may also be due to many other factors, such as personal
error, experimental error etc. In some cases the error in data may be
due to factors other than those associated with measurement. For
example, angles of scattering of charge particles in an experiment on
scattering of α–particles or opinion collected from a section of a
population on a social issue. The uncertainty due to such errors is
estimated through a variety of statistical methods about which you will
learn in higher classes. Here we shall consider uncertainty in
133

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

measurements only due to the least count of the measuring instrument

so as to learn how uncertainty for a given data is shown in a line graph.
Let us take the example of the graph between time period, T, and the
length, l, of a simple pendulum. The uncertainty in measurement of
time period will depend on the least count of the stop watch/clock
while that in measurement of length of the pendulum will depend on
the least count of the device(s) used to measure length. Table A 3.1
gives the data for the time period of simple pendulum measured in an
experiment along with the uncertainty in measurement of the length
and time period of the pendulum.
Table A 3.1 Time period of simple pendulums of different lengths

S. Length of the pendulum Time period

No.
Length as Length with Average time Time period Square of
measured with uncertainty in L period as with time period
metre scale, L (least count of scale measured uncertainty in T 2 with
(cm) 0.1 cm) with stop T (least count uncertainty
(cm) watch, T of stop watch
(s) 0.1 s)
(s)

1 80.0 80±0.1 1.8 1.8±0.1 3.24±0.2

2 90.0 90±0.1 1.9 1.9±0.1 3.61±0.2
3 100.0 100±0.1 2.0 2.0±0.1 4.0±0.2
4 110.0 110±0.1 2.1 2.1±0.1 4.41±0.2
5 120.0 120±0.1 2.2 2.2±0.1 4.84±0.2
6 130.0 130±0.1 2.3 2.3±0.1 5.29±0.2
7 140.0 140±0.1 2.4 2.4±0.1 5.76±0.2
8 150.0 150±0.1 2.4 2.4±0.1 5.76±0.2

 
Steps involved in drawing a graph with error bars on it are as follows:
1. Draw x- and y- axes on a graph sheet and select an appropriate
scale for plotting of the graph. In order to show uncertainty/error
in given data, it is advisable that the scale chosen should be such
that the lowest value of uncertainty/error on either axes could be
shown by at least the smallest division on the graph sheet.
2. Mark the points on the graph for each pair of data without taking
into account the given uncertainty/error.
134

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 3
UNIT NAME

3. Each point marked on the graph in Step 2 has an uncertainty in

the value shown on either the x-axis or the y-axis or both. For
example, let us consider the
case for the point
corresponding to (80, 1.8)
marked on the graph. If we
take into account the
uncertainty in measurement
for this case, the actual length
of the pendulum may lie
between 79.9 cm and 80.1
cm. This uncertainty in the
data is shown in the graph by
a line of length 0.2 cm drawn
parallel to x-axis with its
midpoint at 80.0 cm, in
accordance with the scale
chosen. The line of length 0.2
cm parallel to x-axis shows
the error bar for the pendulum
of length 80.0 cm. One can
similarly draw error bar for
each length of the pendulum. Fig. A 3.1: Error bars corresponding to uncertainty
in time period of the given pendulum
4. Repeat the procedure explained (uncertainty in length is not shown due to
in Step 3 to draw error bars for limitation of scale)
uncertainty in measurement of
time period. However, the error
bars in this case will be parallel
to the y-axis.
5. Once the error bars showing
the uncertainty for data in both
the axes of the graph have been
marked, each pair of data on
the graph will be marked with
a + or <% or <% sign,
depending on the extent of
uncertainty and the scale
chosen for each axis, instead
of a point usually marked for
drawing line graph (Fig. A 3.1).
6. A smooth curve drawn
passing as close as possible
through all the + marks
marked on the graph, instead
of points, gives us the plot Fig. A 3.2: Graph showing variation in time period
between the two given of a simple pendulum with its length
variables (Fig. A 3.2). along with error bars

135

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
A given set of data gives unique points. However, when plotted, a curve
representing that data may not physically pass through these points.
It must, however, pass through the area enclosed by the error bars
around each point.

 
1. In this particular case the point of intersection of the two x-axis
and y-axis represent the origin of O at (0, 0). However, this is not
always necessary to take the values of physical quantities being
plotted as zero at the intersection of the x-axis and y-axis. For a
given set of data, try to maximize the use of the graph paper area.
2. While deciding on scale for plotting the graph, efforts should be
made to choose a scale which would enable to depict uncertainty
by at least one smallest division on the graph sheet.
3. While joining the data points on the graph sheet, enough care
should be taken to join them smoothly. The curve or line should
be thin.
4. Every graph must be given a suitable heading, which should be
written on top of the graph.



1. Improper choice of origin and the scale.
2. Improper marking of observation points.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

how error bars in the graphs plotted for the data obtained while doing
Experiment Nos. 6, 9, 10, 11, 14 and 15.
Note:
As the aim of the Activity is to choose proper scale while plotting a graph
alongwith uncertainty only due to the measuring devices, the calculation in
the activity should be avoided.
Suggested alternate Activity for plotting cooling curve with error bars
(Experiment No. 14) where temperature and time are measured using a
thermometer and a stop-clock (stop-watch) with complete set of data /
∆θ ∆T
observations with LC of the measuring devices and and values
θ T
be given.
Additionally the same curve along with error bar be asked to be drawn using
two different scales and the discussion may be done using them.
136

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY
UNIT NAME

 

To measure the force of limiting rolling friction for a roller (wooden
block) on a horizontal plane.


Wooden block with a hook on one side, set of weights, horizontal plane
fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end, pan, spring balance, thread,
spirit level, weight box and lead shots (rollers).

 
Rolling friction is the least force required to make a body start rolling
over a surface. Rolling friction is less than the sliding friction.

 
1. Check that the pulley is almost frictionless otherwise oil it to
reduce friction.

2. Check the horizontal surface with a spirit level and spread a layer
of lead shots on it as shown in Fig. A 4.1.

3. Weigh the wooden block.

4. Find the weight of the pan.

Tie one end of the thread to
the pan and let it hang over
the pulley.

5. Now put the block over the

layer of lead shots and tie the
other end of the thread to its
hook.

6. Put a small weight in the pan

and observe whether the
wooden block kept on rollers Fig. A 4.1: Setup to study rolling friction
begin to move.
137

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

7. If the block does not start rolling, put some more weights on the
pan from the weight box increasing weights in the pan gradually
till the block just starts rolling.
8. Note the total weight put in the pan, including the weight of the
pan and record them in the observation table.
9. Put a 100 g weight over the wooden block and repeat Steps (7) to (9).
10. Increase the weights in steps over the wooden block and repeat
Steps (7) to (9).



Mass of wooden block m = ... g = ... kg
Weight of wooden block, W (mg) = ... N
Weight on the pan
= (Mass of the pan + weight) × acceleration due to gravity (g)
= ... N
Table A 4.1: Table for additional weights
S. Mass of Total weight Mass on Total weight (force)
No. standard being pulled pan (p) (kg) pulling the block and
weights on = (W + w) × g standard weights (P+p) g
wooden = Normal
block, W Reaction, R
(N)

 
As the total weight being pulled increases limiting value of rolling
friction increases/decreases.



1. The pulley should be frictionless. It should be lubricated, if
necessary.
2. The portion of the string between the pulley and the hook should
be horizontal.
138

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 4
UNIT NAME

3. The surfaces of lead shots as well as the plane and the block
should be clean, dry and smooth.
4. The weights in the pan should be placed carefully and very gently.



1. Friction at the pulley tends to give larger value of limiting friction.
2. The plane may not be exactly horizontal.

 
1. The two segments of the thread joining the block and the pan
passing over the pulley should lie in mutually perpendicular
planes.
2. The total weight pulling the block (including that of pan) should
be such that the system just rolls without acceleration.
3. While negotiating a curve on a road, having sand spread over it, a
two wheeler has to be slowed down to avoid skidding, why?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find the co-efficient of rolling

friction µ r by plotting the
graph between rolling friction,
F and normal reaction, R.

2. What will be the effect of

greasing the lead shots, and
the horizontal surface on
which they are placed.

3. Study the rolling motion of

a roller as shown in Fig. A
4.2 and compare it with the
motion in the arrangement
for the above Activity. Fig. A 4.2:

139

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study the variation in the range of a jet of water with the change in
the angle of projection.


PVC or rubber pipe, a nozzle, source of water under pressure (i.e., a
tap connected to an overhead water tank or water supply line), a
measuring tape, large size protractor.

 
The motion of water particles in a jet of water could be taken as an
example of a projectile motion under acceleration due to gravity 'g'.
Its range R is given by
v02 sin 2 θ0
R=
g

where θ0 is the angle of projection and v0 is the velocity of projection.

 
1. Making a large protractor: Take a circular plyboard or thick
circular cardboard sheet of radius about 25 cm. Draw a diameter
through its centre. Cut it along the diameter to form two dees. On
one of the dees, draw angles at an interval of 15° starting with 0°.
2. Attach one end of pipe to a tap. At the other end of the pipe fix a
nozzle to obtain a jet of water. Ensure that there is no leakage in
the pipe.
3. Fix the protractor vertically on the ground with its graduated–face
towards yourself, as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
4. Place the jet at the centre O of the protractor and direct the nozzle
of the jet along 15° mark on the protractor.

140 5. Open the tap to obtain a jet of water. The water coming out of the

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 5
UNIT NAME

2
v0 /2g

R (cm)
x
0 15 30 45 60 75
θ (Degrees)

Fig. A 5.1: Setup for studying the variation in Fig. A 5.2: Variation of range with angle
the range of a jet of water with the of projection
angle of projection

jet would strike the ground after completing its parabolic

trajectory. Ask your friend to mark the point (A) where the water
falls. Close the tap.
6. Measure the distance between point O and A. This gives the range
R corresponding to the angle of projection, 15°.
7. Now, vary θ0 in steps of 15° upto 75° and measure the
corresponding range for each angle of projection.
8. Plot a graph between the angle of projection θ0 and range R
(Fig. A 5.2).

 
Least count of measuring tape = ... cm
Table A 5.1: Measurement of range

S. Angle of projection θ0 Range

No. (degrees) R (cm)

1 15°

2 30°

3 45°

4 60°

5 75°

141

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
Plot a graph between angle of projection (on x-axis) and range
(on y-axis).

 
The range of jet of water varies with the angle of projection as shown
in Fig. A 5. 2.
The range of jet of water is maximum when θ0 = ... °

 
1. There should not be any leakage in the pipe and the pressure
with which water is released from the jet should not vary during
the experiment.
2. The jet of water does not strike the ground at a point but gets
spread over a small area. The centre of this area should be
considered for measurement of the range.
3. The nozzle should be small so as to get a thin stream of water.



1. The pressure of water and hence the projection velocity of water
may not remain constant, particularly if there is leakage in
the pipe.
2. T he mark in gs o n t h e p r o t r a ct o r m a y n o t b e a c c u r at e
or uniform.

 
1. Why do you get same range for angles of projection 15° and 75°?
2. Why has a big protractor been taken? Would a protractor of radius
about 10 cm be preferable? Why?



1. This Activity requires the pressure of inlet water be kept constant
to keep projection velocity of water constant. How can this be
achieved?
2. How would the range change if the velocity of projection is
increased or decreased?
142

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 5
UNIT NAME

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Study the variation in maximum height attained by the water stream

for different angles of projection.
2. Study the variation in range of water stream by varying the height at
which the water supply tank is kept.
3, Take a toy gun which shoots plastic balls and repeat the Activity
using this gun.
4. Calculate velocity of projection by using maximum value of horizontal
range measured as above.

143

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study the conservation of energy of a ball rolling down an inclined
plane (using a double inclined plane).


A double inclined plane having hard surface, (for guided motion of
the ball on the double inclined plane it is suggested that an aluminium
channel or rails of two steel wires be used for it), a steel ball of about
2.5 cm diameter, two wooden blocks, spirit level, tissue paper or cotton,
and a half metre scale.

 
The law of conservation of energy states that ‘energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but can only be changed from one form
to another’.
For a mechanical system, viz., the
rolling of a steel ball on a perfactly
smooth inclined plane, the energy of
ball remains in the form of its kinetic
and potential energies and during the
course of motion, a continuous
transformation between these energies
takes place. The sum of its kinetic and
potential energies remains constant
Fig.A 6.1: Set up for studying the conservation of provided there is no dissipation of
energy using double inclined tracks energy due to air resistance, friction etc.
In this experiment, the law of
conservation of energy is illustrated by the motion of a steel ball rolling
on a double inclined plane. A steel ball rolling on a hard surface of
inclined plane is an example of motion with low friction. When the ball
is released from point A on inclined plane AO, it will roll down the
slope and go up the opposite side on the plane OB to about the same
height h from which it was released. If the angle of the slope on right
hand plane is changed, the ball will still move till it reaches the same
144 vertical height from which it was released.

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 6
UNIT NAME
At point of release, A, say on the right hand inclined plane, the steel
ball possesses only potential energy that is proportional to the vertical
height, h, of the point of release and has a zero kinetic energy. This
potential energy transfers completely into kinetic energy when the
steel ball rolls down to the lowest point O on the double inclined plane.
It then starts rolling up on the second inclined plane during which its
kinetic energy changes into potential energy. At point B where it stops
on the left hand inclined plane OB, it again has only potential energy
and zero kinetic energy. The law of conservation of mechanical energy
can be verified by the equality of two vertical heights AA′ and BB′.



1. Adjust the experimental table horizontally with the help of spirit
level.
2. Clean the steel ball and inclined planes with cotton or tissue paper.
Even a minute amount of dust or stain on the ball or on the
plane can cause much friction.
3. Keep the clean double inclined plane on a horizontal table.
Note: In order to reduce friction and thereby reduce loss of energy
due to it one can also design an unbreakable double inclined
track apparatus, in which the steel ball rolls on stainless steel
wire track. In a try outs with such an inclined plane it has been
observed that the rolling friction is extremely low and it is very
good for this Activity. It also does not develop a kink in the centre,
unlike the apparatus presently in use in many schools.
4. Insert identical wooden blocks W1 and W2 underneath each plane
at equal distance from point O. The two planes will be inclined
nearly equally, as shown in Fig. A 6.1. The inclined plane should
be stable on horizontal table otherwise there would be energy
losses due to the movement of inclined plane as well.
5. Release the steel ball from A, on either of the two inclined.
6. Find the vertical height AA′ (x) of the point A from the table
using a scale.
7. Note the point B up to which the ball reaches the inclined plane
on the other side and find the vertical height BB′ (y) (Fig. A. 6.1).
Record the observations. While observing the highest position of
the steel ball on other plane, observer has to be very alert as the
ball stays at the highest position only for an instant.
8. Shift the wooden block W1 and W2, kept under either of the two planes,
towards the centre point O by a small distance. Now the angle of the
slope of one of the planes would be larger than that of the other.
9. Release the ball again from point A on one of the two planes and
mark the point B on the other plane up to which the steel ball
rolls up. Also find the vertical height BB′.
145

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

10. Repeat Steps (8) and (9) for one more angle of the slope of the
inclined plane.
11. Repeat the observations for another point of release on the same
inclined plane.



Table A 6.1:

S. Reading on inclined Reading on the inclined Difference

No. plane from which the plane in which the ball (x – y)
ball is rolled down rolls up (cm)

Position of Vertical Position of Vertical Mean, y

mark A height mark up to height, (cm)
AA′, x which the y
(cm) ball rolls (cm)
up
1 B =
2 C =
3 D=
1 B =
2 C =
3 D=

 
It is observed that initial vertical height and final vertical height upto
which the ball rolls up are approximately same. Thus, the rolling steel
ball has same initial and final potential energies, though during the
motion, the form of energy changes. The total mechanical energy (sum
of kinetic and potential energies) remains same. This is the verification
of law of conservation of energy.



1. Steel balls and inclined planes must be cleaned properly with
cotton/tissue paper.
2. Both wings of the inclined plane must lie in the same vertical plane.
3. Both the planes must be stable and should not have any movement
due to rolling of the ball or otherwise.
4. The position of the ball at the highest point while climbing up the
plane must be noted quickly and carefully.
146

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 6
UNIT NAME



1. Some energy is always lost due to friction.
2. Due to lack of continuity at junction of two inclined planes, rolling
ball usually suffers a collision with second plane and hence
results in some loss of energy.

 
1. The key to the success of this Activity for the verification of law
of conservation of energy is in keeping the rolling friction between
the steel ball and inclined plane as low as possible. Therefore,
the ball and inclined plane surfaces should be smooth, clean
and dry.
2. The dissipation of energy due to friction can be minimised by
minimising the area of contact between the steel ball and inclined
plane. Therefore, it is advised that the inclined planes should be
made of polished aluminium channels having narrow grooves.
3. The surface of inclined planes should be hard and smooth so
that role of friction remains minimum.
4. If the inclination of the planes is large then the dissipation of
energy will be more (how)? Therefore inclination of the planes
should be kept small.



1. Can this Activity be performed successfully with a steel ball of
smaller diameter?
2. If the ball is not reaching exactly up to the same height on the
other wing, comment on the observations?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Study of the effects of mass and size of the ball on rolling down an
inclined plane.

2. Study the effect of inclination of the planes on coefficient of rolling

friction.

147

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum with time.


A heavy metallic spherical ball with a hook; a rigid support; a long
fine strong cotton thread (1.5 m to 2m); metre scale; weighing balance;
sheet of paper; cotton; cellophane sheet.

 
When a simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion, the re-
storing force F is given by
(A 7.1) F(t) = –kx (t)
Where x (t) is the displacement at time t and k = mg/L, the symbols k,
m, g and L have been explained in Experiment E 6. The displacement
is given by
(A 7.2) x (t) = A0 cos (ωt – θ )
where ω is the (angular) frequency and θ is a constant. A0 is the maxi-
mum displacement in each oscillation, which is called the amplititude.
The total energy of the pendulum is given as

(A 7.3) 1 2
E° = k A0
2

The total energy remains a constant in an ideal pendulum, because

its amplitude remains constant.
But in a real pendulum, the amplitude never remains constant. It
decreases with time due to several factors like air drag, some play at
the point of suspension, imperfection in rigidity of the string and sus-
pension, etc. Therefore, the amplitude of A0 falls with time at each
successive oscillation. The amplitude becomes a function of time and
is given by
(A 7.4) A(t) = A0e –λ t/2
148 where A0 is the initial amplitude and λ is a contant which depends on

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 7
UNIT NAME

damping and the mass of the bob. The total energy of the pendulum
at time t is then given by

1
E (t) = kA2(t)
2

= E0 e–λ t (A 7.5)

Thus, the energy falls with time, because some of the energy is being
lost to the surroundings.
The frequency of a damped oscillator does not depend much on the
amplitude. Therefore, instead of measuring the time, we can also
measure the number of oscillations n. At the end of n oscillations,
t = nT, where T is the time period. Then Eq. (A 7.5) can be written in
the form En = E0 e–α n
(A 7.6)
where α = λt
and En is the energy of the oscillator at the end of n oscillations.



1. Find the mass of the pendulum bob.
2. Repeat Steps 1 to 5 of Experiment E 6.
3. Fix a metre scale just below the pendulum so that it is in the
plane of oscillations of the pendulum, and such that the zero mark
of the scale is just below the bob at rest.
4. When the pendulum oscillates, you have to observe the point on
the scale above which the bob rises at its maximum displace-
ment. In doing this, do not worry about millimetre marks. Take
observations only upto 0.5 cm.
5. Pull the pendulum bob so that it is above the 15 cm mark. Thus,
the initial amplitude will be A0 = 15 cm at n = 0. Leave the bob
gently so that it starts oscillating.
6. Keep counting the number of oscillations when the bob is at its
maximum displacement on the same side.
7. Record the amplitude An at the end of n oscillations for n = 5, 10,
15, ..., that is at the end of every five oscillations. You may even
note An after every ten oscillations.

8. Plot a graph of An2 versus n and intepret the graph (Fig. A 7.1).

9. Stick a bit of cotton or a small strip of paper to the bob so as to

increase the damping, and repeat the experiment.
149

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

A2n
2
(m )

Fig. A 7.1: Graph between An2 and n

for a simple pendulum



Least count of the balance = ... g
Least count of the metre scale = ... cm
Mass of the pendulum bob. m = ... g
Radius (r) of the pendulum bob (given) = ... cm
Effective length of the pendulum (from the tip of the bob to the point
of suspension), L = ... cm
Force constant, k = mg/L = ... N m–1
Initial amplitude of oscillation, A0 = ... cm
Initial energy, E0 = 1/2 (k A2)= ... J

Table A 7.1 : Decay of amplitude with time and dissipation of

energy of simple pendulum

S. Amplitude, Number of A2n Energy of Dissipation

No. An (cm) oscillations, oscillater, En of energy,
n (J) (En–Eo) (J)
1
2
3
4



From the graphs, we may conclude that the energy of a simple
pendulum dissipates with time.
150

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 7
UNIT NAME

 
1. The experiment should be performed in a section of the laboratory
where air flow is minimum.
2. The pendulum must swing for atleast a couple of oscillations
before recording its amplitude, this will ensure that the pendulum
is moving in the same plane.



1. Some movement of air is always there in the laboratory.
2. Accurate measurement of amplitude is difficult.

 
1. Which graph among the A – n and A2 – n graph would you prefer
for studying the dissipation of energy of simple pendulum with
time and why?
2. How would the amplitude of oscillation change with time with
the variation in (a) size and (b) mass of the pendulum bob; and
(c) length of the pendulum?



1. Interpret the graph between A2 and n you have drawn for a sim-
ple pendulum.
2. Examine how the amplitude of oscillations changes with time.
3. What does the decreasing amplitude of oscillation with time indi-
cate in terms of variations in energy of simple pendulum with time.
4. In what way does graph between A and n differ from that between
the A2 and n graph, you have drawn.
5. Compare the A2 – n plots for
(a) oscillations with small damping and
(b) oscillations with large damping.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Take a plastic ball (5 cm diameter) make two holes in it along its

diameter. Fill it with sand. Use the sand filled ball to make a pendulum
of 100 cm length.
Swing the pendulum allowing the sand to drain out of the hole.
Find the rate at which the amplitude of pendulum falls and compare
it with the case when mass of the bob is constant.
151

20/04/2018
 LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To observe the change of state and plot a cooling curve for
molten wax.


A 500 mL beaker, tripod stand, wire gauge, clamp stand, hard glass
boiling tube, celsius thermometer of least count 0.5 °C, a stop-watch/
stop-clock, burner, parraffin wax, cork with a hole to fit the boiling
tube and hold a thermometer vertically.

 
Matter exists in three states – solid, liquid and gas.
On heating a solid expands and its temperature increases. If we
continue to heat the solid, it changes its state.
The process of conversion of solid to a liquid state is called melting.
The temperature at which the change takes place is called melting
point. Melting does not take place instantaneously throughout
the bulk of a solid, the temperature of solid-liquid remains
y
constant till the whole solid changes into
liquid. The time for melting depends upon the
nature and mass of solid.
A liquid when cooled freezes to solid state at the
same temperature as its melting point. In this case
Temperature (°C)

TM
also the temperature of liquid-solid remains
constant till all the liquid solidifies.

TR Paraffin wax is widely used in daily life. We can

determine the melting point of wax by plotting
a cooling curve. The temperature of molten
wax is recorded at equal intervals of time. First
x
0 the temperature of wax falls with time then
Time (min)
becomes constant at T M, the melting point,
when it solidifies. On further cooling the
Fig. A 8.1: Cooling curve
temperature of solid wax falls to room
152 temperature TR as shown in Fig. A 8.1.

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 8
UNIT NAME



1. Note the least count and range of the thermometer.
2. Note the least count of the stop-clock.
3. Record the room temperature.
4. Set up the tripod, burner, heating
arrangement as shown in Fig A 8.2.
5. Adjust the boiling tube and the thermometer
such that the graduation marks could be
easily read by you.
6. Heat the water and observe the state of wax.
Continue to heat till all the wax melts, note
the approximate melting point.
7. Continue to heat the wax in the water bath Fig. A 8.2: Experimental set up
till the temperatue is atleast 20°C above the
approximate melting point as observed in Step 6.
8. Turn off the burner, and carefully raise the clamp to remove the
boiling tube from the water bath.
9. Record readings of temperature after every 2 minutes.
10. Plot a graph of temperature of wax versus time, (temperature on
y – axis).
11. From the graph
(i) determine the melting point of wax.
(ii) mark the time interval for which the wax is in liquid state/solid state.



Least count of thermometer = ... °C
Thermometer range ... °C to ... °C
Room temperature = ... °C
Least count of stop clock = ... s
Table A 8.1: Change in temperature of molten wax with time

S. time temperature
No. s °C
1
2
3
4
153

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
The cooling curve of molten wax is shown in the graph. From the
graph (i) the melting point of wax is ... °C and (ii) the wax remains in
liquid state for ... s and in solid state for ... s.

 
1. The boiling tube with wax should never be heated directly on
a flame.
2. The stop clock should be placed on the right hand side of the
apparatus as it may be easy to see.
3. Wax should not be heated more than 20°C above its melting point.



Simultaneous recording of temperature and time may give rise to
some errors.



1. Why should we never heat the wax directly over a flame?
2. Why is water bath used to melt the wax and heat it further?
3. What is the maximum temperature to which molten wax can be
heated in a water bath?
4. Would this method be suitable to determine the melting point of
plastics? Give reason for your answer.
5. Will the shape of the curve for coding of hot water be different
than that for wax?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find melting point of ice.

2. Study the effect of addition of colour/fragrance on the melting point

of a given sample of colour less wax. Find the change in melting
point of wax by adding colour/fragrance in different proportions.

154

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY
UNIT NAME

 

To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.


A iron-brass bi-metallic strip with an insulating (wooden) handle;
heater/burner.

 
A bi-metallic strip is made of
two bars/strips of different
metals (materials), but of same
dimensions. These metallic
bars/strips (A and B) are
put together lengthwise and
firmly rivetted. An insulating
(wooden) handle is also fixed
at one end of the bi-metallic
strip. A bi-metallic strip can
be made by selecting metals
(materials) with widely
different values of coefficients
of linear thermal expansion.
T he b i- metallic str i p i s
straight at room temperature, Fig. A 9.1: A bi-metallic strip in (a) straight, and (b)
as shown in position (a) of bent positions
Fig. A 9.1. When the bi-metallic
strip is heated, both metallic pieces expand to different extents
because of their different linear thermal expansivities, as shown
in position (b) of Fig. A 9.1. As a result, the bimetallic strip
appears to bend.

 
The linear thermal expansion is the change in length of a bar on
heating. If L 1 and L 2 are the lengths of rod/bar of a metal at
temperatures t1°C and t2°C (such that t2 > t1), the change in length 155

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

(L2 – L1) is directly proportional to the original length L1 and the rise
in temperature (t2 – t1).

(A 9.1) Then, (L2 – L1) = α L1 (t2 – t1)

(A 9.2) or L2 = L1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)]

(A 9.3) and α = (L2 – L1)/(t2 – t1)

where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the material

of the bar/rod.
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion (α) is the increase in length
per unit length for unit degree rise in temperature of the bar. It is
expressed in SI units as K–1.



1. Light a burner or switch on the electric heater.
2. Keep the bi-metallic strip in the horizontal position by holding it
with the insulated handle and heat it with the help of burner/
heater. Note which side of the bi-metallic strip is in direct contact
of heat source.
3. Observe the effect of heating the strip. Note carefully the direction
of the bending of the free end of the bi-metallic strip, whether it is
upwards or downwards?
4. Identify the metal (A or B) which is on the convex side of the
bi-metallic strip and also the one which is on its concave side.
Which one of the two metals/materials strips have a larger
thermal expansion? (The one on the convex side of the bi-
metallic strip will expand more and hence have larger linear
thermal expansion).
5. Note down the known values of coefficient of linear thermal
expansion of two metals (A and B) of the bi-metallic strip. Verify
whether the direction of bending (upward or downward) is on
the side of the metal/material having lower coefficient of linear
thermal expansion.
6. Take the bi-metallic strip away from the heat source. Allow the
strip to cool to room temperature.
7. Repeat the Steps 1 to 6 to heat the other side of the bi-metallic
strip. Observe the direction of bending of the bi-metallic strip.
What change, if any, do you observe in the direction of
bending of the strip in this case relative to that observed
earlier in Step 3?
156

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 9
UNIT NAME

 
The bending of a bi-metallic strip on heating is due to difference in
coefficient of linear expansion of the two metals of the strip.

 
The two bars (strips) should be firmly rivetted near their ends.

 
The direction of bending of the bi-metallic strip is towards the side of
the metal which has lower value of linear thermal expansion.



1. You have been given bars of identical dimensions of following
metals/materials along with their α - values, for making a bi-
metallic strip:
Aluminium (α = 23 × 10–6 K–1); Nickel (α = 13 × 10–6 K–1)
Copper (α = 17 × 10–6 K–1); Invar (α = 0.9 × 10–6 K–1)
Iron (α = 12 × 10–6 K–1); Brass (α = 18 × 10–6 K–1)
which pair of metals/materials would you select as best choice
for making a bi-metallic strip for pronounced effect of bending?
Why?
2. What would be the effect on the bending of the bi-metallic strip if
it is heated to a high temperature?
3. Name a few devices in which bi-metallic strips are generally used
as a thermostat?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Design fire alarm circuit using a bi-metallic strip.

157

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study the effect of heating on the level of a liquid in a container and
to interpret the observations.


A round bottom flask of 500 mL capacity, a narrow tube about 20 cm
long and of internal diameter 2mm, a rubber cork, glycerine, hot water,
a stand for holding the flask, a strip of graph paper, a thermometer.

 
A container is required to keep the liquid. When we heat the liquid, the
container also gets heated. On being heated, liquid and container both
expand. Therefore, the observed expansion of liquid is its apparent
expansion, i.e. (the expansion of the liquid) – (the expansion of the
container). For finding the real expansion of the liquid, we must take
into account the expansion of the container. Real expansion = apparent
expansion of the liquid + expansion of the container.

 
1. Fill the flask with glycerine upto the brim. Close
its mouth with a tight fitting cork having a long
narrow tube fixed in it. Glycerine will rise in
the tube; mark the level of the glycerine in
the tube as A. Set the apparatus as shown in
Fig. A 10.1.
2. Place the flask in the trough filled with hot water
and hold the flask in position with the help of a
stand as shown.

 
It is observed that as the flask is immersed in hot
Fig.A 10.1: Expansion of liquid (glycerine)
water, the level of glycerine in the tube first falls down
to a point, say B, and then rises up to a level C.
158

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 10
UNIT NAME

 
The level falls from A to B on account of expansion of the flask on
coming in contact with hot water. This fall is equal to the expansion
of the container. After some time glycerine also gets heated and
expands. Finally, the glycerine level attains a stationary level C.
Obviously the glycerine has expanded from B to C. B C gives the real
expansion and A C is the apparent expansion.



Water in a flask is heated in one case from 25°C to 45°C and in another
case, from 50°C to 70°C. Will the apparent expansion/real expansion
be the same in the two cases?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Take equal volume of water in a glass tumbler and a steel tumbler having
similar shape and size. Cover them both with thermocol sheet and insert
a narrow bore tube in each. Heat both from 25°C to 50°C and study the
apparent/real expansion in both cases. Are they equal? Give reason for
your answer.

159

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 

To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by
observing capillary rise.


A capillary tube, a beaker of 250 mL, small quantity of solid/liquid
detergent, 15/30 cm plastic scale, rubber band, stand with clamp
and water.

 
Substances that can be used to separate grease, dust and dirt
sticking to a surface are called detergents. When added to water
detergents lower its surface tension due to additional
intermolecular interactions.
The lowering of surface tension by addition of
detergent in water can be observed by capillary rise
method.
For a vertically placed capillary tube of radius r in
a water - filled shallow vessel, the rise of water in
capillary tube h (Fig. A11.1) is given by:
2 S cosθ
h=
ρ gr
Or
h ρgr
Fig. A 11.1: Rise of water in capillary tube S=
2cosθ
where S is the surface tension of the water vapour
film; θ is the contact angle (Fig. A11.1), ρ is the
density of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity. For pure
or distilled water in contact with a clean glass capillary tube θ ≈ 8°
or cos θ ≈ 1. Thus,
1
S= h ρ gr
160 2

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 11
UNIT NAME

Using this result, the surface tension of different detergent solutions

(colloidal) in water can be compared. In a detergent solution, the
capillary rise (or the surface tension) would be lower than that for
pure and distilled water. And an increase in detergent’s concentration
would result in a further lowering the rise of solution in the capillary.
A detergent for which the capillary rise is minimum (or the one that
causes maximum lowering of surface tension), is said to have better
cleansing effect.



1. Take a capillary tube of uniform bore. Clean and rinse it with
distilled water. Also clean and rinse the beaker with water. Pour
water to fill the beaker up to half. Make sure that the capillary
tube is dry and free from grease, oil etc. Also check that the top
of the capillary tube is open and not blocked by anything.
2. Take a plastic scale and mount the capillary tube on it using
rubber bands.
3. Hold the scale with capillary in vertical position with the help of a
clamp stand.
4. Place the half filled beaker below the lower end of the scale and
gradually lower down the scale till its lower end get immersed
below the surface of water in the beaker as shown in Fig. A 11.2.
5. Read the position of the water level inside and outside the capillary
tube on the scale. Let the positions be h2 and h1 respectively. The
rise of water in the capillary is h = h2 – h1.
6. Rinse the capillary thoroughly in running water and dry it.
7. Take a little quantity of the given
detergent and mix it with water in Rubber
the beaker. band
Capillary tube

8. Repeat the experiment with

Scale
detergent solution and find h2
capillary rise again. Let it be h′.
h
Note Rubber
band
h1
The concentration of detergent must
not be made high, otherwise the
density of solution (colloidal) will Water with
change substantially as compared detergent

to water. Moreover, the value of

angle of contact between the surface
Fig. A 11.2: To study capillary rise in water
of glass and solution may also
and detergent mixed in it
change substantially.
161

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

 
The height to which water rose in the capillary h = ... cm
The height to which the detergent solution rose in the capillary
h′ = ... cm.

 
The capillary rise of detergent solution h′ is less than the capillary rise
of water, h.

 
1. The inner surface of the beaker and the part of capillary tube to
be immersed in water or solution in the beaker should not be
touched by hand after cleaning them. This is essential to avoid
contamination by the hand.
2. To wet the inside of the capillary tube freely, it is first dipped well
down in the water and then raised and clamped. Alternatively,
the beaker may be lifted up and then put down.



1. Contamination of liquid surface as also of the capillary tube cannot
be completely ruled out.
2. The tube may not be at both ends or its one end may be open
blocked.

 
Can you also think of materials, which have a property of increasing
the surface tension of a liquid? If yes, what are these?
[Hint: There are some polymeric materials which can increase the
surface tension of water. Such materials are called hydrophilic.
These have immense use in pumping out oil from the ground with
less power.]

162

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY
UNIT NAME

 

To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.


Two copper calorimeters of different sizes (one small and another
big); two copper calorimeters of same size (one painted black and
the other highly polished), two tumblers of same size (one metallic
and another plastic); two thermometers having a range of - 10° C to
110° C and least count 0.5 °C, stop watch/clock, cardboard lids for
calorimeters, two laboratory stands, a pan to heat water; a measuring
cylinder, a plastic mug.

 
Hot bodies cool whenever placed in a cooler surrounding.
dQ
Rate of loss of heat is given by
ds

Q = mass × specific heat capacity(s) × temperature (θ ) = msθ

dQ dθ
= ms
dt dt

hence rate of loss of heat is proportional to rate of change of

temperature.
The rate of loss of heat of a body depends upon (a) the difference in
temperature of the hot body and its surroundings, (b) area of the
surface losing heat, (c) nature of the surface losing heat and (d) material
of the container.

 
(A). Effect of area of surface on rate of loss of heat.
1. Note the room temperature, least count of the two thermometers
(TA and TB).
163

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Take the big (A) and small (B)

calorimeters.

3. Heat water in the pan up to

nearly 80°C (no need to boil
the water).

4. Pour 100 mL of hot water in

calorimeter (A) and also in
calorimeter (B). This should be
done carefully and with least time
loss. One can use a plastic mug
to pour 100 mL of hot water in a
measuring cylinder.

5. Insert a thermometer in each

of the two calorimeters. Use
stands to keep the thermometers
Fig. A 12.1: Experimental set up for studying the
vertical. Also ensure that the
effect of surface area on cooling thermometer bulb is well
inside the hot water in the
calorimeters (Fig. A 12.1).

6. Note the temperature of the

water in the two calorimeters
initially at an interval of 1
minute till the temperature of
water in the calorimeter is about
40–30°C above the room
temperature and thereafter at
intervals of 2 minutes when the
temperature of hot water is
about 20–10°C above room
temperature.

7. Record your observation in

Table A 12.1. Plot graphs
between θA versus time and θB
Fig. A 12.2: Cooling curve for water cooled ve rs us t im e fo r bo th t he
in calorimeters A and B.
calorimeters on the same graph
Surface area of water is more
for calorimeter B than for the
paper (Fig. A 12.2).
calorimeter A
8. Determine the slope of θ versus t
graph after 5 minute interval.


Least count of thermometer = ... °C
Room temperature = ... °C
164

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 12
UNIT NAME

Table A 12.1: Effect of area of surface on rate of cooling

Calorimeter A (Big) Calorimeter B (Small)

S. Time Temp θA S. Time Temp θB

No. No.

B. Effect of nature of surface of container on rate of cooling of

a liquid
1. Use the two identical small calorimeters; one with black (A)
and the other with highly polished (B) surfaces.

2. Repeat Steps 3 to 8 as in part A.

Table A 12.2: Effect of nature of surface on rate of cooling

Calorimeter Black (A) Calorimeter White (B)

S. Time Temp θA S. Time Temp θB

No. No.

C. Effect of material of container on rate of cooling of a liquid

1. Use the metallic tumbler (A) and the plastic tumbler (B) instead of
calorimeters.
2. Repeat Steps 3 to 8 as in part A. Record your observations in a
table similar to Table A 12.1.



From the six graphs plotted on 3 graph sheets complete the following:
1. The rate of cooling is ... °C/min in the larger calorimeter as
compared to the smaller calorimeter.
165

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Least rate of cooling is ... °C/min observed in calorimeter ... part

A/B/C.
3. Black surfaces radiate ... heat as compared to white or polished
surface in the same time when heated to the same temperature.
4. Plastic mugs are preferred for drinking tea, as the rate of cooling
of a liquid in them is ...



1. θA, θB and time recordings are to be done simultaneously so a set-
up that allows both thermometers could be read quickly and at
the same time should be planned.
2. The lid of the calorimeter should be covered with insultating
material to make sure that the heat is lost (cooling takes place)
only from the calorimeter surface.
3. All three activities should be performed under similar conditions
of wind and temperature of the surrounding to reduce their effect
on the rate of cooling.

 
1. The rate of cooling in summers is lower than in winters. Give a
reason for your answer.
2. Surface of metallic kettles are often polished to keep the tea warm
for a long time.
3. Why does the rate of cooling decrease when the temperature of
liquid is closer to the room temperature?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Compare the effectiveness of disposable thermocole tumblers with

that of glass for taking tea.

2. Study the rate of cooling of tea contained in a stainless steel (metallic)

teapot and a ceremic teapot.

3. Compare the rate of cooling of tea in a cup and in a saucer.

166

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY
UNIT NAME

 

To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre
scale loaded (i) at its end; and (ii) in the middle.
A. Bending of a metre scale loaded at its end


Metre scale (or a thick wooden strip of about 1 m length), thread,
slotted weights with hanger (10 g, 20 g, 50 g, 100 g), another
graduated scale to be used to measure depression, a pin, cellotape
and clamp.

 
The depression 'y' of a cantilever of length 'L' clamped at one end and
loaded at the free end with a load M (weight Mg) is given by relation
MgL3
y=
3Y (bd 3 /12)
where L, b and d are length, width and thickness of the rectangular
cantilever respectively and Y is the modulus of elasticity of the material
of the rod.

4 MgL3
or y =
Y bd 3

The readings of depression ‘y’ of the cantilever, in this case with

variation of load suspended at the other end, are taken. The variation
of depression with load is expected to be linear.

 
1. Clamp the metre scale firmly to the edge of the table. As shown in
Fig. A 13.1 ensure that the length and breadth of the scale are in
horizontal plane and 90 cm of the length of the scale is projected
out. Fix a pin with a tape at the free end of the metre scale along
its length to act as a pointer.
167

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Fix a graduated scale vertically near the

Rigid but
adjustable 1 free end of the clamped metre scale and
G clamp Beam 2 note its least count. Ensure that the pointed
3 end of the pin is just above the graduation
y
4 marks of the scale but do not touch it.
5 3. Read the pointer 'p' when metre scale
6 cantilever is without any load.
Load (Mg)
4. Suspend a hanger of known mass for
keeping slotted weights to depress the free
end of the cantilever.
5. Read the pointer on vertical scale and record
Fig. A 13.1: Experimental set up to study the observation.
depression of metre scale (used as
cantilever) with load suspended at 6. Keep on adding 20 g masses to the hanger
free end of the cantilever and record the reading of the pointer
everytime when it stops vibrating.

7. After taking 6-7 observations with increasing load, gradually

remove the slotted weights one by one and record the reading
while unloading.
8. Plot a graph between the depression and the load.



Length of the cantilever L = ... cm

Width of the metre scale cantilever b = ... cm

Thickness of the metre scale d = ... cm

Reading of the free end of the cantilever with no load, l0=

Table A 13.1: Effect of load on depression of cantilever

S . Load M Reading of free end of Depression

No. (g) cantilever y = lm – lo
l1 (cm) when l2 (cm) when Mean
load is load is l1 + l 2
increasing decreasing lm =
2
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

168

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13
UNIT NAME

 
The depression 'y' is directly proportional to the load M.

 
1. The beam should be rigidly clamped at one end.
2. Loading and unloading of the slotted weights should be done
carefully without disturbing the position of the hanger on
the beam.
3. The vertical scale should be adjusted close to the pointer in such
a way that the pointer moves along it freely.

 
1. The scale should not be loaded beyond its elastic limit.

(This can be easily checked by comparing the zero load reading

after removing the maximum suspended load with that taken at
the beginning of the experiment).

2. There should be no vibratory motion of the beam when reading is

recorded.

3. While noting down the observation, the eye should be normal to

the tip of the pin and the graduated scale.

4. Observations should be repeated while removing masses.

B. Bending of metre scale loaded in the middle


Metre scale, two wedges to rest the ends of the metre scale, thread,
slotted weights 200 g each, hanger for slotted weights, a graduated
scale with a stand to hold the scale vertical, a plane mirror, a pointer
and plasticine.

 
Fig. A 13.2 shows the arrangement. A horizontal metre scale is held
on two wedges, a hanger is provided at the middle of the metre scale
for applying load. A pointer is fixed at the mid point to measure the
dipression. A graduated (least count 1 mm) scale with a plane mirror
strip attached to it is held in vertical position in a stand behind the
horizontal metre scale.
169

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Plane mirror for taking reading

Scale 1 without any parallex
2
3 Depression Beam
4
5
Wedge 6 Wedge
W
Hanger with weights
in middle of beam

Fig. A 13.2: Experimental set up to study depression,

i.e., sag of a beam with load in the middle



Let a beam be loaded at the centre and supported near its ends as
shown in Fig A 13.2. A bar of length 'L', breadth 'b' and thickness 'd'
when loaded at the centre by a load 'W' sags by an amount given by

W l3
y=
4b d 3 Y

where 'Y' is the Young’s modulus of the material of the rod/ beam, W,
the load (= mg), where 'm' is the mass of the hanger with weights.
The depression 'y' is directly proportional to the load.

 
1. Place the metre scale on two wedges with (5–10 cm) length
projecting out on either side. Metre scale supported at both ends
is like a beam.
2. Tie a loop of thread in the middle of the load such that a hanger
to support slotted weights each of 200 g can be suspended on
it. Ensure that the thread is tied tightly with the rod and does
not slip.
3. Place a graduated scale (with least count 0.1 cm) vertically in a
stand at the centre of the metre scale used as beam. To facilitate
readings the vertical scale should be kept on the far side of the
metre scale. Fix a pin to the hanger such that its pointed end is
close to the edge of the vertical scale which has graduation marks
on it.
4. Suspend the hanger of mass 200 g and record the position of the
pointer fixed to the hanger. The mirror strip on the vertical scale
should be used to remove any parallax.
170

20/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13
UNIT NAME

5. Keep on adding 200 g slotted masses to the hanger and record

the readings of the pointer each time.
6. Take about six observations.
7. Now, remove masses of 200g one by one recording the position of
the pointer each time while unloading.
8. Calculate the depression for the load M gram and hence depression
per unit load.
9. Plot a graph between the values of depression y against
corresponding values of load and interpret the result.

 
Width of the beam, b =
Thickness of the beam, d =
Length of the beam between the wedges, L =
Table A 13.2 Depression of the beam for different loads

S. Load Reading of the centre of Depression Depression Mean y/M

No. M (g) cantilever for load M per unit (cm/g)
(g), y (cm) load y/M
(cm/g)
Load Load Mean
increasing decreasing reading
r′1 (cm) r′2 (cm) r1′ + r2′
r=
2
(cm)
1 0 r0 0
2 200 r1 r1 – r0
3 400 r2 r2 – r0
4
5
6

 
The depression of the metre scale at its middle is ... mm/g. The
depression 'y' is directly proportional to the load M.



1. The rod should not be loaded beyond elastic limit.
171

20/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. There should be no vibratory motion of the rod when reading is

recorded.
3. While taking readings, the eye should be normal to tip of the
pointer and the metre scale.
4. The beam should be of uniform thickness and density throughout
its length.
5. The masses used must have standard value as engraved on them.



1. The beam should be symmetrical on the knife edges.
2. Loading and unloading of the slotted weights should be done
carefully without disturbing the centre point.
3. Mirror strip used to eliminate parallax error should not disturb
the experimental setup.

172

20/04/2018