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DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE : III B.Sc

PAPERCODE : 22UCAE03

PAPER NAME : MOBILE COMPUTING

SEMESTER : V
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THEORY

QUESTION PAPER PATTERN

Total Marks : 75 Marks
Time: 3 Hours

Unit Section-A Section-B Section-C

I Q. 1, 2,3 Q. 16 Q. 21a, 21b

II Q. 4,5,6 Q. 17 Q. 22a, 22b

III Q. 7,8,9 Q. 18 Q. 23a, 23b

IV Q. 10,11,12 Q. 19 Q. 24a, 24b

V Q. 13,14,15 Q. 20 Q. 25a, 25b

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MOBILE COMPUTING
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UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Syllabus: Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking – Mobile
Computing Applications – Characteristics of Mobile computing – Structure of
Mobile Computing Application. MAC Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed
Assignment Schemes – Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based
Schemes.

The Objective of Unit 1 is:

The student will be able to:
 Understand the basic concepts of Mobile Computing.
 Understand the difference between Wireless Networking and Mobile Computing.
 Know the different types of Mobile Computing Applications.
 Understand the various issues in Mobile Computing and its solutions.

MOBILE COMPUTING
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be
connected to a fixedphysical link.

Mobile Computing is the use of portable computing devices (such as laptop

and handheld computers) in conjunction with mobile communications technologies
to enable users to access the Internet and data on their home or work computers
from anywhere in the world.

It is the process of computation on a mobile device. In mobile computing, a

set of distributed computing systems or service provider servers participate, connect,
andsynchronise through mobile communication protocols.

Mobile computing is a generic term describing ability to use the technology to

wirelessly connect to and use centrally located information and/or application
software through the application of small, portable, and wireless computing and
communication devices. It provides decentralized (distributed) computations on
diversified devices, systems, and networks, which are mobile, synchronized, and
interconnected via mobile
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communication standards and protocols. Mobile device does not restrict itself to just
oneapplication, such as, voice communication.

The main concept involves −

 Mobile communication
 Mobile hardware
 Mobile software

Mobile communication
The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in
place to ensure that seamless and reliable communication goes on. These would
include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to
facilitate and support the stated services. The data format is also defined at this
stage. This ensures that there is no collision with other existing systems which offer
the same service.

Since the media is unguided / unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is

basically radio wave-oriented. That is, the signals are carried over the air to intended
devices that are capable of receiving and sending similar kinds of signals.
Mobile Hardware
Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive
or access the service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smart
phones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital Assistants.
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These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and
receiving signals. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex, whereby
they are capable of sending and receiving signals at the same time.
They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the
other device to initiate communications. Above mentioned devices use an existing
and established network to operate on. In most cases, it would be a wireless
network.

Mobile software
Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It
deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the
engine of the mobile device. In other terms, it is the operating system of the
appliance. It's the essential componentthat operates the mobile device.

Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that users
are not tied or pinned to a single physical location, but are able to operate from
anywhere. Itincorporates all aspects of wireless communications.
Evolution of Mobile Computing
In today's computing world, different technologies have emerged. These have
grown to support the existing computer networks all over the world. With mobile
computing, we findthat the need to be confined within one physical location has been
eradicated. We hear of terms such as telecommuting, which is being able to work
from home or the field but at the same time accessing resources as if one is in the
office.
The advent of portable computers and laptops, Personal Digital Assistants
(PDA), PC tablets and smart phones, has in turn made mobile computing very
convenient. The portabilityof these devices ensure and enable the users to access all
services as if they were in the internal network of their company. For example, the
use of Tablet PC and iPads. This new technology enables the users to update
documents, surf the internet, send and receive e-mail, stream live video files, take
photographs and also support video and voice conferencing.
The constant and ever increasing demand for superior and robust smart
devices has been a catalyst for market share. Each manufacturer is trying to carve a
niche for himself in the market. These devices are invented and innovated to provide
state-of-the-art applicationsand services. For instance, different manufacturers of
cellular phones have come up with
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unique smart phones that are capable of performing the same task as computers
and at the same processing speed.
The market share for different competitors is constantly being fought for. For
example, the manufacturers of Apple's iPhone OS, Google's Android' Microsoft
Windows Mobile, Research In Motion's Blackberry OS, are constantly competing to
offer better products with each release.
The need for better, portable, affordable, and robust technology has made
these vendors to constantly be innovative. Market figure and statistics show an ever
growing need to purchase and use such devices for either professional or personal
use. It is in this light that services to suit long-term implementation are developed or
innovated. It has also pushed other industry vendors to adopt services that will
provide better services.
For example, cellular service providers are forced to improve and be innovative
to capture more subscribers. This can be in terms of superior services such as high
speed internet and data access, voice and video service etc. Hence the adoption of
different generations of networks like of 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G network services.

The essence of mobile computing is to be able to work from any location. The
use of iPads, tablets, smart phones, and notebooks have pushed the demand for
these devices.Modern day workers have such devices that enable them to carry out
their work from the confines of their own location. These devices are configured to
access and store large amountsof vital data.
Executive and top management can take decisions based on ready information
without going to the office. For example, sales reports and market forecasts can be
accessed through these devices or a meeting can take place via video or audio
conferencing through these
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devices. With such features being high in demand, manufacturers are constantly
coming upwith applications geared to support different services in terms of

mobile computing.
Advantages of Mobile
ComputingLocation Flexibility
This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection
established. A user can work without being in a fixed position. Their mobility
ensures that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the same time and
perform their stated jobs.
Saves Time
The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to
the office and back, has been slashed. One can now access all the important
documents and files over a secure channel or portal and work as if they were on
their computer. It has enhanced telecommuting in many companies. It has also
reduced unnecessary incurred expenses.
Enhanced Productivity
Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find
comfortable. This in turn enhances their productivity level.
Ease of Research
Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the
field and search for facts and feed them back into the system. It has also made it
easier for field officers and researchers to collect and feed data from wherever they
are without making unnecessary trips to and from the office to the field.
Entertainment
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Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile
computing. It's easy to access a wide variety of movies, educational and informative
material. With the improvement and availability of high speed data connections at
considerable cost, one is able to get all the entertainment they want as they browse
the internet for streamed data. One is able to watch news, movies, and
documentaries among other entertainment offers over the internet. This was not
possible before mobile computing dawned on the computing world.
Streamlining of Business Processes
Business processes are now easily available through secured connections.
Looking into security issues, adequate measures have been put in place to ensure
authentication and authorization of the user accessing the services.
Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of
information between business partners can also take place. Meetings, seminars and
other informative services can be conducted using video and voice conferencing.
Travel time and expenditure is also considerably reduced.
Disadvantages of Mobile
ComputingQuality of Connectivity
One of the disadvantages is that the mobile devices will need either WiFi
connectivity or mobile network connectivity such as GPRS, 3G and in some countries
even 4G connectivity that is why this is a disadvantage because if you are not near
any of these connections your access to the internet is very limited.
Security Concerns
Mobile VPNs are unsafe to connect to, and also syncing devices might also
lead to security concerns. accessing a WiFi network can also be risky because WPA
and WEP security can be bypassed easily.
Power Consumption
Due to the use of batteries in these devices, these do not tend to last long, if in
a situation where there is no source of power for charging then that will certainly be a
let down.

MOBILE COMPUTING Vs WIRELESS NETWORKING

The terms "mobile" and "wireless" are often used interchangeably but in reality,
they are two very different concepts applied to modern computing and technology.
Mobile is a word thatis commonly used to describe portable devices. A mobile device is
one that is made to be taken anywhere. Therefore, it needs an internal battery for power,
and must be connected to a modern mobile network that can help it to send and receive
data without attaching to a hardware infrastructure.
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Wireless, on the other hand, does not mean mobile. Traditional computers or
other non- mobile devices can access wireless networks. One very common example is
the use of a localized browser product in a local area network (LAN), where the router
takes what used to be a cabled interaction and makes it wireless. Other kinds of wireless
networks called wide area networks (WAN) can even use components of 3G or 4G
wireless systems made specifically for mobile devices, but that doesn‘t mean that the
devices on these networks are mobile. They may still be plugged in or require proximity
to a router or network node.
Mobile and wireless systems really accomplish two very different things. While
a wireless system provides a fixed or portable endpoint with access to a distributed
network, a mobile system offers all of the resources of that distributed network to
something that can go anywhere, barring any issues with local reception or technical
area coverage.
For another example of the difference between mobile and wireless, think of
businesses that offer Wi-Fi hotspots. A Wi-Fi hotspot is typically a resource for someone
who has a relatively fixed device, such as a laptop computer that doesn‘t have its own
internal Internet access built in. By contrast, mobile devices already have inherent
access to the Internet or other wireless systems through those cell tower networks that
ISPs and telecom companies built specifically for them. So mobile devices don‘t need Wi
-Fi - they already have their connections.
To some who are used to using both wireless and mobile networks, this
distinction may seem very simple. However, the difference between providing mobile
and wireless is likely to be something that gets explored more as new technologies
continue to develop, and companies continue to offer more different kinds of interfaces
to consumers.

Mobile is subgroup from wireless. We have wireless systems that are not mobile
and we have technologies which are wireless but not mobile in sense of technologies
deployed in mobile operators networks. We have fixed wireless (e.g. fixed WiMAX) and
e.g. TETRA which is not technology deployed in mobile (operators) networks.
In communication engineering, wireless communication(both static and dynamic)
is communication between Nodes/system without use of direct physical connection
rather it is through a non conducting or dielectric media. Where as in mobile
communication, communicating nodes moves within specified area and method of
communication is wireless communication suitably..e.g.-Mobile Ad-hoc networks
(MANETs).
Wireless Communication in itself is a very broad concept that is achieved using
various inter-related technologies. Mobile Communication utilizes some of the
technologies that are madeavailable / possible by Wireless Communication. Some of the
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popular wireless technologies employed in Mobile Communication include: GPRS

(General Packet Radio Service), LTE (Long Term Evolution), HSPA (High Speed Packet
Access), GSM (Global System for Mobile
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Communication), EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Environment), CDMA (Code Division

Multiple Access) and its variants, etc.
Wireless refers to the method of transferring information between a computing
device, such as a personal data assistant (PDA), and a data source, such as an agency
database server, without a physical connection. However, not all wireless
communications technologies are created equally, offer the same uses or are even
mobile.
Mobile computing refers to computing devices that are not restricted to a desktop.
A mobile device may be a PDA, a smart phone or a web phone, a laptop computer, or any
one of numerous other devices that allow the user to complete tasks without being
tethered, or connected, to a network. Mobile computing does not necessarily require
wireless communication. In fact, it may not require communication between devices at
all.
Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of a
landline. This may involve a cellular telephone, a two way radio, a fixed wireless
connection, a laser, or satellite communications. Here the computing device is
continuously connected to the base network.
Mobile computing essentially refers to a device that is not always connected to a
central network. This group of devices includes laptops, newly created smart phones
and also PDA's. These products may communicate with a base location, with or without,
a wireless connection

MOBILE COMPUTING APPLICATIONSFor

Estate Agents
Estate agents can work either at home or out in the field. With mobile
computers they can be more productive. They can obtain current real estate
information by accessing multiple listing services, which they can do from home,
office or car when out with clients. They can provide clients with immediate feedback
regarding specific homes or neighbourhoods, and with faster loan approvals, since
applications can be submitted on the spot. Therefore, mobile computers allow them
to devote more time to clients.
Emergency Services
Ability to receive information on the move is vital where the emergency
services are involved. Information regarding the address, type and other details of an
incident can be dispatched quickly, via a CDPD system using mobile computers, to
one or several appropriatemobile units which are in the vicinity of the incident. Here
the reliability and security implemented in the CDPD system would be of great
advantage.
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Police Incident Information Screen

In courts
Defence counsels can take mobile computers in court. When the opposing
counsel references a case which they are not familiar, they can use the computer to
get direct, real- time access to on-line legal database services, where they can gather
information on the case
and related precedents. Therefore mobile computers allow immediate access to a
wealth of information, making people better informed and prepared.
In companies
Managers can use mobile computers in, say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small recess, they
can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information. They can
communicate with the office about possible new offers and call meetings for discussing
responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile computers can leverage competitive
advantages.
Stock Information Collation/Control
In environments where access to stock is very limited i.e.: factory warehouses.
The use of small portable electronic databases accessed via a mobile computer would
be ideal. Data collated could be directly written to a central database, via a CDPD
network, which holds all stock information hence the need for transfer of data to the
central computer at a later date is not necessary. This ensures that from the time that a
stock count is completed, there is no inconsistency between the data input on the
portable computers and the central database.
Credit Card Verification
At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when customers use
credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between the bank central
computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the card usage, can
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take place quickly and

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securely over cellular channels using a mobile computer unit. This can speed up the
transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals.
Taxi/Truck Dispatch
Using the idea of a centrally controlled dispatcher with several mobile units
(taxis), mobile computing allows the taxis to be given full details of the dispatched job
as well as allowing the taxis to communicate information about their whereabouts back
to the centraldispatch office. This system is also extremely useful in secure deliveries ie:
Securicor. This allows a central computer to be able to track and receive status
information from all of its mobile secure delivery vans. Again, the security and reliability
properties of the CDPD system shine through.

Taxi Dispatch Network

Electronic Mail/Paging
Usage of a mobile unit to send and read emails is a very useful asset for any
business individual, as it allows him/her to keep in touch with any colleagues as well
as any urgent developments that may affect their work. Access to the Internet, using
mobile computing technology, allows the individual to have vast arrays of knowledge
at his/her fingertips. Paging is also achievable here, giving even more
intercommunication capability between individuals, using a single mobile computer
device.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE COMPUTING

1. Portability - The Ability to move a device within a learning environment or to
differentenvironments with ease.
2. Social Interactivity - The ability to share data and collaboration between users.
3. Context Sensitivity - The ability to gather and respond to real or simulated data
unique to acurrent location, environment, or time.
4. Connectivity - The ability to be digitally connected for the purpose of communication
of datain any environment.
5. Individual - The ability to use the technology to provide scaffolding on difficult
activitiesand lesson customization for individual learners.
6. Small Size - Mobile devices are also known as handhelds, palmtops and smart
phones due to their roughly phone-like dimensions. A typical mobile device will fit in
the average adult's hand or pocket. Some mobile devices may fold or slide from a
compact, portable mode to a slightly larger size, revealing built-in keyboards or larger
screens. Mobile devices make use of touch screens and small keypads to receive
input, maintaining their small size and independence from external interface devices.
The standard form of a mobile device allows the user to operate it with one hand,
holding the device in the palm or fingers while executing its functions with the thumb.
Netbooks and small tablet computers are sometimes mistaken for true mobile
devices, based on their similarity in form and function, but if the device's size
prohibits one-handed operation or hinders portability, then it cannot be considered a
true mobile device.
7. Wireless Communication - Mobile devices are typically capable of communication
with other similar devices, with stationary computers and systems, with networks and
portable phones. Base mobile devices are capable of accessing the Internet through
Bluetooth or Wi-Fi networks, and many models are equipped to access cell phone and
wireless data networks as well. Email and texting are standard ways of
communicating with mobile devices, although many are also capable of telephony,
and some specialized mobile devices, such as RFID and barcode.
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STRUCTURE OF MOBILE COMPUTING APPLICATION

Programming languages are used for mobile system software. Operating

system functions to run the software components onto the hardware. Middleware
components deployment. Layered structure arrangement of mobile computing
components is used. Protocols and layers are used for transmission and reception.
Programming Languages
The following are the programming languages used for Mobile Computing applications are:
 Java - J2SE.
 J2ME (Java2 Micro edition)
 JavaCard (Java for smart card)
 The Java enterprise edition (J2EE) used for web and enterprise server based
applications ofmobile services
 C and C++
 Visual C++
 Visual Basic

Operating System
Symbian OS, Window CE, Mac OS are the operating systems used in Mobile
computing applications. It offers the user to run an application without
considering the
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hardware specifications and functionalities. It provides functions which are used for
scheduling the multiple tasks in a system.
It provides the functions required for the synchronization of multiple tasks in
the system. It uses multiple threads synchronization and priority allocation.
Management functions (such as creation, activation, deletion, suspension, and delay)
are used for tasks and memory. It provides Interfaces for communication between
software components at the application layer, middleware layers, and hardware
devices.
It facilitates the execution of software components on diversified hardware. It
provides Configurable libraries for the GUI (graphic user interface) in the device. It
provides User application‘s GUIs, VUI (voice user interface) components, and phone
API. It provides the device drivers for the keyboard, display, USB, and other devices.
Middleware
Software components that link the application components with the network-
distributed components. It is used to discover the nearby device such as Bluetooth. It
is used to discover the nearby hot spot for achieving device synchronization with the
server or an enterprise server. It is used for retrieving data (which may be in Oracle or
DB2) from a network database. It is used for service discovery at network. It is used
for adaptation of the application to the platform and service availability.
Architecture of Mobile Computing Applications
Client/server architecture (and its variants) is often adopted for this kind of
applications. However we have to take into consideration some specific aspects
related to the mobile devices (clients), and their connectivity with servers.
Clients
There are many mobile device types, including RIM devices, cellular
telephones, PDAs, Tablet, PCs, and Laptop PCs. These mobile devices can typically
operate as thin clients or fat clients, or they can be developed so that they can host
web pages
Thin Clients
Thin clients have no custom application code and completely rely on the
server for their functionality. They do not depend as heavily on the mobile device‘s
operating system or the mobile device type as fat clients. Thin clients typically use
widely available web and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) browsers to display
the application content pages.
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Fat Clients
Fat clients typically have one to three layers of application code on them
and canoperate independently from a server for some period of time. Typically, fat
clients are mostuseful in situations where communication between a client and
server cannot be guaranteed. For example, a fat client application may be able to
accept user input and store data in a localdatabase until connectivity with the server
is re-established and the data can be moved to theserver.
This allows a user to continue working even if he/she is out of contact with
the server.Fat clients depend heavily on the operating system and mobile device type
and the code can be difficult to release and distribute. Fat clients can be
implemented using one, two, or three layers of application code. However, if you only
use one layer it is extremely difficult to isolate the individual areas of functionality
and reuse and distribute the code over multiple device types.

MAC PROTOCOLS
The Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is used to provide the data link
layer of the Ethernet LAN system. The MAC protocol encapsulates a SDU (payload
data) by adding a 14 byte header (Protocol Control Information (PCI)) before the data
and appending an integrity checksum, The checksum is a 4-byte (32-bit) Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) after the data. The entire frame is preceded by a small idle
period (the minimum inter-frame gap, 9.6 microsecond (µS)) and a 8 byte preamble
(including the start of frame delimiter).
Preamble
The purpose of the idle time before transmission starts is to allow a small time
interval for the receiver electronics in each of the nodes to settle after completion of
the previous frame.A node starts transmission by sending an 8 byte (64 bit) preamble
sequence. This consists of 62alternating 1's and 0's followed by the pattern 11. Strictly
speaking the last byte which finished with the '11' is known as the "Start of Frame
Delimiter". When encoded using Manchester
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encoding, at 10 Mbps, the 62 alternating bits produce a 10 MHz square wave (one
completecycle each bit period).

The purpose of the preamble is to allow time for the receiver in each node to
achieve lock of the receiver Digital Phase Lock Loop which is used to synchronise the
receive data clock to the transmit data clock. At the point when the first bit of the
preamble is received, each receiver may be in an arbitrary state (i.e. have an arbitrary
phase for its local clock). During the course of the preamble it learns the correct phase,
but in so doing it may miss (or gain) a number of bits. A special pattern is therefore
used to mark the last two bits of the preamble. When this is received, the Ethernet
receive interface starts collecting the bits into bytes for processing by the MAC layer. It
also confirms the polarity of the transition representing a '1' bit to the receiver (as a
check in case this has been inverted).
Header

MAC encapsulation of a packet of

dataThe header consists of three parts:
A 6-byte destination address, which specifies either a single recipient node
(unicast mode), a group of recipient nodes (multicast mode), or the set of all recipient
nodes (broadcast mode).
A 6-byte source address, which is set to the sender's globally unique node
address. This may be used by the network layer protocol to identify the sender, but
usually other mechanisms are used (e.g.arp). Its main function is to allow address
learning which may be used to configure the filter tables in a bridge.
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A 2-byte type field, which provides a Service Access Point (SAP) to identify the
type ofprotocol being carried (e.g. the values 0x0800 is used to identify the IP network
protocol, other values are used to indicate other network layer protocols).
CRC
The final field in an Ethernet MAC frame is called a Cyclic Redundancy Check
(sometimes also known as a Frame Check Sequence). A 32-bit CRC provides error
detection in the case where line errors (or transmission collisions in Ethernet) result in
corruption of the MAC frame. Any frame with an invalid CRC is discarded by the MAC
receiver without further processing. The MAC protocol does not provide any indication
that a frame has been discarded due to an invalid CRC.
The link layer CRC therefore protects the frame from corruption while being
transmitted over the physical medium (cable). A new CRC is added if the packet is
forwarded by the router on another Ethernet link. While the packet is being processed
by the router the packet data is not protected by the CRC. Router processing errors
must be detected by network or transport-layer checksums.
Inter Frame Gap
After transmission of each frame, a transmitter must wait for a period of 9.6
microseconds (at 10 Mbps) to allow the signal to propagate through the receiver
electronics at the destination. This period of time is known as the Inter-Frame Gap
(IFG). While every transmitter must wait for this time between sending frames,
receivers do not necessarily see a "silent" period of 9.6 microseconds. The way in
which repeaters operate is such that they may reduce the IFG between the frames
which they regenerate.
Byte Order
It is important to realise that nearly all serial communications systems transmit
the least significant bit of each byte first at the physical layer. Ethernet supports
broadcast, unicast, and multicast addresses. The appearance of a multicast address
on the cable (in this case
an IP multicast address, with group set to the bit pattern 0xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
xxxx) istherefore as shown below (bits transmitted from left to right):
0 23 IP Multicast Address Group 47 | | <---------------
>|
1000 0000 0000 0000 0111 1010 xxxx xxx0 xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
| |
Multicast Bit 0 = Internet Multicast
1 = Assigned for other uses
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However, when the same frame is stored in the memory of a computer, the bits
are ordered such that the least significant bit of each byte is stored in the right most
position (the bits are transmitted right-to-left within bytes, bytes transmitted left-to-
right):
0 23 47
| | |

0000 0001 0000 0000 0101 1110 0xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
| < >
Multicast Bit IP Multicast
Address Group
WIRELESS MAC ISSUES
The three important issues
are:
1. Half Duplex operation –> either send or receive but not both at a given time
2. Time varying channel
3. Burst channel errors
1. Half Duplex Operation
In wireless, it‘s difficult to receive data when the transmitter is sending the
data, because: When node is transmitting, a large fraction of the signal energy leaks
into the receiver path. The transmitted and received power levels can differ by orders
of magnitude. The leakage signal typically has much higher power than the received
signal -―Impossible to detect a received signal, while transmitting data‖. Collision
detection is not possible, while sending data. As collision cannot be detected by the
sender, all proposed protocols attempt to minimize the probability of collision - Focus
on collision avoidance.
2. Time Varying Channel
Three mechanisms for radio signal propagation
 Reflection – occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object that
has very large dimensions than the wavelength of the radio wave e.g. reflection
occurs from the surfaceof the earth and from buildings and walls
 Diffraction – occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the
receiver isobstructed by a surface with sharp edges
 Scattering – occurs when the medium through which the wave travels
consists ofobjects with
The received signal by a node is a superposition of time-shifted and attenuated
versions of the transmitted signals the received signal varies with time .The time
varying signals (time varying channel) phenomenon also known as multipath
propagation. The rate of variation of
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channel is determined by the coherence time of the channel Coherence time is

defined as time within which When a node‘s received signal strength drops below a
certain threshold the nodeis said to be in fade .Handshaking is widely used strategy
to ensure the link quality is good enough for data communication. A successful
handshake between a sender and a receiver (small message) indicates a good
communication link.
3. Burst Channel Errors
As a consequence of time varying channel and varying signals strengths errors
are introduced in the transmission (Very likely) for wire line networks the bit error rate
(BER) is the probability of packet error is small .For wire line networks the errors are
due to random For wireless networks the BER is as high. For wireless networks the
errors are due to node being in fade as a result errors occur in a long burst. Packet
loss due to burst errors - mitigation techniques
 Smaller packets
 Forward Error Correcting Codes
 Retransmissions (Acks)
Location Dependent Carrier Sensing
Location Dependent Carrier Sensing results in three types of nodes that
protocols needto deal with
Hidden Nodes: Even if the medium is free near the transmitter, it may not be free
near theintended receiver
Exposed Nodes: Even if the medium is busy near the transmitter, it may be free
near theintended receiver
Capture: Capture occurs when a receiver can cleanly receive a transmission from one of two
simultaneous transmissions
Hidden Node/Terminal Problem
A hidden node is one that is within the range of the intended destination but
out of range of sender Node B can communicate with A and C both A and C cannot
hear each other When A transmits to B, C cannot detect the transmission using the
carrier sense mechanism Cfalsely thinks that the channel is idle
Exposed Nodes
An exposed node is one that is within the range of the sender but out of range
of destination .when a node‘s received signal strength drops below a certain
threshold the node is said to be in fade .Handshaking is widely used strategy to
ensure the link quality is good
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

enough for data communication. A successful handshake between a sender and a

receiver (small message) indicates a good communication link.
In theory C can therefore have a parallel transmission with any node that
cannot hear the transmission from B, i.e. out of range of B. But C will not transmit to
any node because itsan exposed node. Exposed nodes waste bandwidth.
Capture
Capture is said to occur when a receiver can cleanly receive a transmission
from one of two simultaneous transmissions both within its range Assume node A
and D transmit simultaneously to B. The signal strength received from D is much
higher than that from A, and D‘s transmission can be decoded without errors in
presence of transmissions from A.D has captured A. Capture is unfair because it
gives preference to nodes that are closer to the receiver. It may improve protocol
performance.
FIXED ASSIGNMENT SCHEMES
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital wireless telephony
transmission technique. TDMA allocates each user a different time slot on a given
frequency. TDMA divides each cellular channel into three time slots in order to
increase the amount of data that can be carried.
TDMA technology was more popular in Europe, Japan and Asian countries,
where as CDMA is widely used in North and South America. But now a days both
technologies are very popular through out of the world.
Advantages of TDMA:
 TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication.
 TDMA has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice band data, and SMS
as wellas bandwidth-intensive application such as multimedia and video
conferencing.
 Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that
there willbe no interference from simultaneous transmissions.
 TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only
portion ofthe time during conversations.
 TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to digital.
Disadvantages of TDMA
 Disadvantage using TDMA technology is that the users has a predefined time
slot. When moving from one cell site to other, if all the time slots in this cell are full
the user might be disconnected.
 Another problem in TDMA is that it is subjected to multipath distortion. To
overcome this distortion, a time limit can be used on the system. Once the time limit
is expired the signal is ignored.
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital wireless technology that
uses spread-spectrum techniques. CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to
each user. Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual
conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence. CDMA
consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than other
commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any given
time, and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.
Advantages of CDMA
 One of the main advantages of CDMA is that dropouts occur only when the
phone is at least twice as far from the base station. Thus, it is used in the rural areas
where GSM cannot cover.
 Another advantage is its capacity; it has a very high spectral capacity
that it canaccommodate more users per MHz of bandwidth.
Disadvantages of CDMA
 Channel pollution, where signals from too many cell sites are present in the
subscriber. s phone but none of them is dominant. When this situation arises, the
quality of the audio degrades.
 When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 The ability to upgrade or change to another handset is not easy with this
technology because the network service information for the phone is put in the
actual phone unlike GSMwhich uses SIM card for this.
 Limited variety of the handset, because at present the major mobile
companies useGSM technology.
FDMA
FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple
individual bands, each for use by a single user. Each individual band or channel is
wide enough to accommodate the signal spectra of the transmissions to be
propagated. The data to be transmitted is modulated on to each subcarrier, and all of
them are linearly mixed together.

FDMA divides the shared medium bandwidth into individual channels.

Subcarriers modulated by the information to be transmitted occupy each sub channel.
The best example of this is the cable television system. The medium is a
single coax cable that is used to broadcast hundreds of channels of video/audio
programming to homes. The coax cable has a useful bandwidth from about 4 MHz to
1 GHz. This bandwidth is divided up into 6-MHz wide channels. Initially, one TV
station or channel used a single 6- MHz band. But with digital techniques, multiple TV
channels may share a single band today thanks to compression and multiplexing
techniques used in each channel.
This technique is also used in fibre optic communications systems. A single
fibre optic cable has enormous bandwidth that can be subdivided to provide FDMA.
Different data or information sources are each assigned a different light frequency
for transmission. Light generally isn‘t referred to by frequency but by its wavelength
(λ). As a result, fiber optic FDMA is called wavelength division multiple access
(WDMA) or just wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).
One of the older FDMA systems is the original analog telephone system, which
used a hierarchy of frequency multiplex techniques to put multiple telephone calls on
single line. The analog 300-Hz to 3400-Hz voice signals were used to modulate
subcarriers in 12 channels
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from 60 kHz to 108 kHz. Modulator/mixers created single sideband (SSB) signals,
both upper and lower sidebands. These subcarriers were then further frequency
multiplexed on subcarriers in the 312-kHz to 552-kHz range using the same
modulation methods. At the receiving end of the system, the signals were sorted out
and recovered with filters and demodulators.
Original aerospace telemetry systems used an FDMA system to accommodate
multiple sensor data on a single radio channel. Early satellite systems shared
individual 36-MHz bandwidth transponders in the 4-GHz to 6-GHz range with multiple
voice, video, or data signals via FDMA. Today, all of these applications use TDMA
digital techniques. Wireless medium makes the MAC design more challenging than
the wire line networks.
SDMA
Space-division multiple access (SDMA) is a channel access method based on
creating parallel spatial pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial
multiplexing and/or diversity, by which it is able to offer superior performance in radio
multiple access communication systems. In traditional mobile cellular network
systems, the base station has no information on the position of the mobile units
within the cell and radiates the signal in all directions within the cell in order to
provide radio coverage.
This results in wasting power on transmissions when there are no mobile
units to reach, in addition to causing interference for adjacent cells using the same
frequency, so called co-channel cells. Likewise, in reception, the antenna receives
signals coming from all directions including noise and interference signals. By using
smart antenna technology and differing spatial locations of mobile units within the
cell, space-division multiple access techniques offer attractive performance
enhancements.
The radiation pattern of the base station, both in transmission and reception,
is adapted to each user to obtain highest gain in the direction of that user. This is
often done using phased array techniques. In GSM cellular networks, the base
station is aware of the distance (but not direction) of a mobile phone by use of a
technique called "timing advance" (TA). The base transceiver station (BTS) can
determine how distant the mobile station (MS) is by interpreting the reported TA.
This information, along with other parameters, can then be used to power
down the BTS or MS, if a power control feature is implemented in the network. The
power control in either BTS or MS is implemented in most modern networks,
especially on the MS, as this ensures a better battery life for the MS. This is also why
having a BTS close to the user resultsin less exposure to electromagnetic radiation.
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This is why one may actually be safer to have a BTS close to them as their MS
will be powered down as much as possible. For example, there is more power being
transmitted from the MS than what one would receive from the BTS even if they were
6 meters away from a BTS mast. However, this estimation might not consider all the
Mobile stations that a particular BTS is supporting with EM radiation at any given
time.
In the same manner, 5th generation mobile networks will be focused in
utilizing the given position of the MS in relation to BTS in order to focus all MS Radio
frequency power tothe BTS direction and vice versa, thus enabling power savings for
the Mobile Operator, reducing MS SAR index, reducing the EM field around base
stations since beam forming will concentrate rf power when it will be actually used
rather than spread uniformly around the BTS, reducing health and safety concerns,
enhancing spectral efficiency, and decreased MS battery consumption.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT SCHEMES

Pure Aloha
With Pure Aloha, stations are allowed access to the channel whenever they
have datato transmit. Because the threat of data collision exists, each station must
either monitor its transmission on the rebroadcast or await an acknowledgment from
the destination station. By comparing the transmitted packet with the received
packet or by the lack of an acknowledgement, the transmitting station can
determine the success of the transmitted packet. If the transmission was
unsuccessful it is resent after a random amount of time to reduce the probability of
re-collision.
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Slotted Aloha
The first of the contention based protocols we evaluate is the Slotted Aloha
protocol. The channel bandwidth is a continuous stream of slots whose length is the
time necessary to transmit one packet. A station with a packet to send will transmit
on the next available slot boundary. In the event of a collision, each station involved in
the collision retransmits at some random time in order to reduce the possibility of
recollision.
Obviously the limits imposed which govern the random retransmission of the
packet will have an effect on the delay associated with successful packet delivery. If
the limit is too short, the probability of recollision is high. If the limit is too long the
probability of recollisionlessens but there is unnecessary delay in the retransmission.
For the Mars regional network studied here, the resending of the packet will occur at
some random time not greater than the burst factor times the propagation delay.
Another important simulation characteristic of the Slotted Aloha protocol is
the action which takes place on transmission of the packet. Methods include
blocking (i.e. prohibiting packet generation) until verification of successful
transmission occurs. This is known as "stop-and-wait". Another method known as "go
-back-n" allows continual transmission of queued packets, but on the detection of a
collision, will retransmit all packets from the point of the collision.
This is done to preserve the order of the packets. In this simulation model
queued packets are continually sent and only the packets involved in a collision are
retransmitted. This is called "selective-repeat" and allows out of order transmission
of packets. By making a small restriction in the transmission freedom of the
individual stations, the throughput of the Aloha protocol can be doubled.
Assuming constant length packets, transmission time is broken into slots
equivalent to the transmission time of a single packet. Stations are only allowed to
transmit at slot
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boundaries. When packets collide they will overlap completely instead of partially.
This has the effect of doubling the efficiency of the Aloha protocol and has come to
be known as Slotted Aloha.

CSMA
CSMA is a network access method used on shared network topologies such as
Ethernet to control access to the network. Devices attached to the network cable
listen (carriersense) before transmitting. If the channel is in use, devices wait before
transmitting. MA (Multiple Access) indicates that many devices can connect to and
share the same network. Alldevices have equal access to use the network when it is
clear.
In other words, a station that wants to communicate "listen" first on the media
communication and awaits a "silence" of a preset time (called the Distributed Inter
Frame Space or DIFS). After this compulsory period, the station starts a countdown
for a random period considered. The maximum duration of this countdown is called
the collision window (Window Collision, CW). If no equipment speaks before the end
of the countdown, the stationsimply deliver its package. However, if it is overtaken by
another station, it stops immediately its countdown and waits for the next silence.
She then continued his account countdown where it left off.
The waiting time random has the advantage of allowing a statistically
equitable distribution of speaking time between the various network equipment, while
making little unlikely (but not impossible) that both devices speak exactly the same
time. The countdown system prevents a station waiting too long before issuing its
package. It's a bit what place in a meeting room when no master session (and all the
World's polite) expected a silence, then a few moments before speaking, to allow
time for someone else to speak. The time is and randomly assigned, that is to say,
more or less equally.
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Again, this is what we do naturally in a meeting room if many people speak

exactly the same time, they are realizing account immediately (as they listen at the
same time they speak), and they interrupt without completing their sentence. After a
while, one of them speaks again. If a new collision occurs, the two are interrupted
again and tend to wait a little longer before speaking again.
CSMA protocol was developed to overcome the problem found in ALOHA i.e.
to minimize the chances of collision, so as to improve the performance. CSMA
protocol is basedon the principle of 'carrier sense'. The station senses the carrier or
channel before transmitting a frame. It means the station checks the state of channel,
whether it is idle or busy.
Even though devices attempt to sense whether the network is in use, there is a
good chance that two stations will attempt to access it at the same time. On large
networks, the transmission time between one end of the cable and another is enough
that one station may access the cable even though another has already just
accessed it.
The chances of collision still exist because of propagation delay. The frame
transmitted by one station takes some time to reach other stations. In the meantime,
other stations may sense the channel to be idle and transmit their frames. This
results in the collision.
There Are Three Different Type of CSMA Protocols
(I) I-persistent CSMA
(ii) Non- Persistent CSMA
(iii) p-persistent CSMA
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(i) I-persistent CSMA

In this method, station that wants to transmit data continuously senses the
channel to check whether the channel is idle or busy. If the channel is busy, the
station waits until it becomes idle. When the station detects an idle-channel, it
immediately transmits the frame with probability 1. Hence it is called I-persistent
CSMA. This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more
stations may find channel to be idle at the same time and transmit their frames.
When the collision occurs, the stations wait a random amount of time and start all
over again.
Drawback of I-persistent
The propagation delay time greatly affects this protocol. If after the station I
begins its transmission, station 2 also became ready to send its data and senses the
channel. If the stationI signal has not yet reached station 2, station 2 will sense the
channel to be idle and will begin its transmission. This will result in collision.

Even if propagation delay time is zero, collision will still occur. If two stations became
.ready in the middle of third station's transmission, both stations will wait until the
transmission of first station ends and then both will begin their transmission exactly
simultaneously. This will also result in collision.
(ii) Non-persistent CSMA
In this scheme, if a station wants to transmit a frame and it finds that the
channel is busy (some other station is transmitting) then it will wait for fixed interval
of time. After this time, it again checks the status of the channel and if the channel is
free it will transmit. A station that has a frame to send senses the channel.
If the channel is idle, it sends immediately. If the channel is busy, it waits a
random amount of time and then senses the channel again. In non-persistent CSMA
the station does not continuously sense the channel for the purpose of capturing it
when it detects the end of previous transmission.
Advantage of non-persistent
It reduces the chance of collision because the stations wait a random
amount of time.It is unlikely that two or more stations will wait for same amount of
time and will retransmitat the same time.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Disadvantage of non-persistent

It reduces the efficiency of network because the channel remains idle when
there may be stations with frames to send. This is due to the fact that the stations
wait a random amount of time after the collision.

(iii) p-persistent CSMA

This method is used when channel has time slots such that the time slot
duration is equal to or greater than the maximum propagation delay time. Whenever a
station becomes ready to send, it senses the channel. If channel is busy, station
waits until next slot. If channel is idle, it transmits with a probability p.
With the probability q=l-p, the station then waits for the beginning of the next
time slot. If the next slot is also idle, it either transmits or waits again with
probabilities p and q. This process is repeated till either frame has been transmitted
or another station has begun transmitting. In case of the transmission by another
station, the station acts as though collision

has occurred and it waits a random amount of time and starts again.

Advantage of p-persistent
• It reduces the chance of collision and improves the efficiency of the network.

RESERVATION BASED SCHEMES

Polling
Polling is the process where the computer or controlling device waits for an
external device to check for its readiness or state, often with low-level hardware. For
example, when a printer is connected via a parallel port, the computer waits until the
printer has received the next character. These processes can be as minute as only
reading one bit.
Polling is sometimes used synonymously with busy-wait polling. In this
situation, when an I/O operation is required, the computer does nothing other than
check the status of the I/O device until it is ready, at which point the device is
accessed. In other words, the computer waits until the device is ready. Polling also
refers to the situation where a device is
lOMoARcPSD|26960503
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repeatedly checked for readiness, and if it is not, the computer returns to a different
task. Although not as wasteful of CPU cycles as busy waiting, this is generally not as
efficient as the alternative to polling, interrupt-driven I/O.
In a simple single-purpose system, even busy-wait is perfectly appropriate if no
action is possible until the I/O access, but more often than not this was traditionally a
consequence of simple hardware or non-multitasking operating systems. Polling is
often intimately involved with very low-level hardware. For example, polling a parallel
printer port to check whether it is ready for another character involves examining as
little as one bit of a byte.
That bit represents, at the time of reading, whether a single wire in the printer
cable is at low or high voltage. The I/O instruction that reads this byte directly
transfers the voltage state of eight real world wires to the eight circuits (flip flops)
that make up one byte of a CPU register. Polling has the disadvantage that if there
are too many devices to check, the time required to poll them can exceed the time
available to service the I/O device. ≠
Algorithm
Polling can be described in following steps:
1. The host repeatedly reads the busy bit of the controller until it becomes clear.
2. When clear, the host writes in the command register and writes a byte into the
data-outregister.
3. The host sets the command-ready bit (set to 1).
4. When the controller senses command-ready bit is set, it sets busy bit.

5. The controller reads the command register and since write bit is set, it performs
necessary I/O operations on the device. If the read bit is set to one instead of write
bit, data from device is loaded into data-in register, which is further read by the host.
6. The controller clears the command-ready bit once everything is over, it clears error
bit to show successful operation and reset busy bit (0).
Types
A polling cycle is the time in which each element is monitored once. The
optimal polling cycle will vary according to several factors, including the desired
speed of response and the overhead (e.g., processor time and bandwidth) of the
polling.
In roll call polling, the polling device or process queries each element on a list
in a fixed sequence. Because it waits for a response from each element, a timing
mechanism is necessary to prevent lock-ups caused by non-responding elements.
Roll call polling can be inefficient if the overhead for the polling messages is high,
there are numerous elements to be polled in each polling cycle and only a few
elements are active.
lOMoARcPSD|26960503
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In hub polling, also referred to as token polling, each element polls the next
element in some fixed sequence. This continues until the first element is reached, at
which time the polling cycle starts all over again.
Polling can be employed in various computing contexts in order to control the
execution or transmission sequence of the elements involved. For example, in
multitasking operating systems, polling can be used to allocate processor time and
other resources to the various competing processes. In networks, polling is used to
determine which nodes want to access the network. It is also used by routing
protocols to retrieve routing information, as is the case with EGP (exterior gateway
protocol).
An alternative to polling is the use of interrupts, which are signals generated
by devices or processes to indicate that they need attention, want to communicate,
etc. Although polling can be very simple, in many situations (e.g., multitasking
operating systems) it is more efficient to use interrupts because it can reduce
processor usage and/or bandwidth consumption.
Token Bus
Token Bus is described in the IEEE 802.4 specification, and is a Local Area
Network (LAN) in which the stations on the bus or tree form a logical ring. Each
station is assigned a place in an ordered sequence, with the last station in the
sequence being followed by the first, as shown below. Each station knows the
address of the station to its "left" and "right" in the sequence.

A Token Bus network

This type of network, like a Token Ring network, employs a small data frame only
a few bytes in size, known as a token, to grant individual stations exclusive access to the
network transmission medium. Token-passing networks are deterministic in the way
that they control access to the network, with each node playing an active role in the
process. When a station acquires control of the token, it is allowed to transmit one or
more data frames, depending on the time limit imposed by the network.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

When the station has finished using the token to transmit data, or the time limit
has expired, it relinquishes control of the token, which is then available to the next
station in the logical sequence. When the ring is initialised, the station with the highest
number in the sequence has control of the token. The physical topology of the network is
either a bus or a tree, although the order in which stations are connected to the network
is not important.
The network topology means that we are essentially dealing with a broadcast
network, and every frame transmitted is received by all attached stations. With the
exception of broadcast frames, however, frames will only be read by the station to which
they are addressed, and ignored by all other stations. As the token frame is transmitted,
it carries the destination address of the next station in the logical sequence. As each
individual station is powered on, it is allocated a place in the ring sequence (note that in
the diagram above, station two is not participating in the ring). The Token Bus medium
access control protocol allows stations to join the ring or leave the ring on an ad-hoc
basis. Token Bus networks were conceived to meet the needs of automated industrial
manufacturing systems and owe much to a proposal by General Motors for a
networking system to be used in their own manufacturing plants -Manufacturing
Automation Protocol (MAP).
Ethernet was not considered suitable for factory automation systems because of
the contention-based nature of its medium access control protocol, which meant that
the length of time a station might have to wait to send a frame was unpredictable.
Ethernet also lacked a

priority system, so there was no way to ensure that more important data would not
be held up by less urgent traffic.
A token-passing system in which each station takes turns to transmit a frame
was considered a better option, because if there are n stations, and each station
takes T seconds to send a frame, no station has to wait longer than T seconds to
acquire the token. The ring topology of existing token-passing systems, however, was
not such an attractive idea, since a break in the ring would cause a general network
failure.
A ring topology was also considered to be incompatible with the linear
topology of assembly-line or process control systems. Token Bus was a hybrid
system that provided the robustness and linearity of a bus or tree topology, whilst
retaining the known worst-case performance of a token-passing medium access
control method. The transmission medium most often used for broadband Token
Bus networks is 75 Ohm coaxial cable (the same type of cable used for cable TV),
although alternative cabling configurations are available. Both single and dual cable
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

systems may be used, with or without head-ends.

 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

QUESTION BANK

ONE MARKS
1. What is Mobile communication?
a) Allows to communicate from different locations without the use of physical medium
b) Allows to communicate from different locations with the use of physical medium
c) Allows to communicate from same locations without the use of physical medium
d) Allows to communicate from same locations with the use of physical medium

2. What is wireless communication?

a) Sending data from one location to with the use of physical medium
b) Sending data from one location to another without the use of physical medium
c) Sending data from one location to another without the use of virtual medium
d) None of the mentioned

3. Which of the following is a type of wireless communication?

a) LAN
b) WAN
c) PAN
d) All of the mentioned

4. Which of the following is not an example of wireless communication?

a) Wi-Fi
b) Mobiles
c) Landline
d) Wireless Computer Parts

5. Why wireless communication is used?

a) It enables billions of people to connect to the Internet
b) Lowers the cost of network infrastructure
c) Makes services more inexpensive
d) All of the mentioned
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

6. _______ is a transmission method used in MIMO wireless communications to transmit encoded

data signals independently.
a) MU-MIMO
b) STTD
c) SM
d) Collaborative Uplink MIMO

7. Space diversity s also known as ________

a) Frequency diversity
b) Antenna diversity
c) Polarization diversity
d) Time diversity

8. MIMO was initially developed in the year __________

a) 1970
b) 1990
c) 1960
d) 1985

9. MIMO is a smart antenna technology.

a) False
b) True

10. Which type of transmission technique is employed by paging system?

a) Multicasting
b) Unicasting
c) Hybrid
d) Simulcasting

11. Which of the following is the drawback for cordless telephones?

a) Security
b) Wireless technology
c) Limited coverage area
d) Mobile

12. Which two channels are responsible for initiating mobile calls?
a) FCC and RVC
b) FVC and FCC
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

c) FVC and RVC

d) FCC and RCC

13. Which of the following is a CDMA standard of second generation network?

a) ETACS
b) EDGE
c) IS-95
d) IS-136

14. Which of the following is not a TDMA standard of 2.5G network?

a) GPRS
b) GSM
c) HSCSD
d) EDGE

15. Which of the following leads to the 3G evolution of GSM, IS-136 and PDC systems?
a) GPRS
b) HSCSD
c) W-CDMA
d) EDGE

16. Which of the following has no backward compatibility with 3G Cdma2000?

a) IS-95B
b) IS-95A
c) IS-95
d) GPRS

17. Which of the following specifies a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer
specifications for implementing WLANs?
a) IEEE 802.11
b) IEEE 802.16
c) IEEE 802.15
d) IEEE 802.3

18. Which modulation scheme is used by Bluetooth?

a) GFSK
b) DQPSK
c) BPSK
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

d) MSK

19. Which of the following is a universally adopted shape of cell?

a) Hexagon
b) Square
c) Circle
d) Triangle

20. Which of the following is associated with the handoff in first generation analog cellular
systems?
a) Breathing cell
b) Locator receiver
c) MAHO
d) Cell dragging

21. Which of the following problem occur due to adjacent channel interference?
a) Cross talk
b) Missed calls
c) Blocked calls
d) Near-far effect

22. Which of the following technology distributes the coverage of the cell and extends the cell
boundary to hard-to-reach places?
a) Sectoring
b) Cell splitting
c) Micro cell zone concept
d) Scattering

23. Which of the following do not undergo free space propagation?

a) Wired telephone systems
b) Wireless line of sight radio links
c) Microwave line of sight radio links
d) Satellite communication system
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24. What is the dimension of object as compared to wavelength of propagating wave when
reflection occurs?
a) Small
b) Same
c) Very small
d) Large

25. Which of the following explains the concept of diffraction loss?

a) Archimedes’ Principle
b) Fresnel zone
c) Principle of Simultaneity
d) Pascal’s Principle

26. Which of the following is not a practical path loss estimation technique?
a) Determination of percentage of coverage area
b) Hata model
c) Log distance path loss model
d) Log normal shadowing

27. Which of the most widely used model for signal prediction in urban areas?
a) Okumura model
b) Attenuation factor model
c) Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
d) Log distance path loss model

28. Which of the following is not an effect caused by multipath in radio channel?
a) Random frequency modulation
b) Time dispersion
c) Rapid changes in signal strength
d) Power of base station

29. What is the main disadvantage of RF pulse system?

a) Simplicity
b) Interference and noise
c) Not real time
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d) Complexity

30. Which of the following is not a multipath channel parameter that can be determined from
power delay profile?
a) RMS delay spread
b) Doppler spread
c) Mean excess delay
d) Excess delay spread

10 MARKS

1. Why do we go for MAC algorithms? How is the DLL of ISO/OSI split to form the
MAClayer? (NOV / DEC 2010)
2. What is the motivation for a specialized MAC ? (MAY / JUNE 2012)
5 MARKS
1. Define Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking
2.Structure Of Mobile Computing Application
3.Characteristics Of Mobile Computing

UNIT -1 FINISHED
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UNIT II
MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER
Syllabus: Overview of Mobile IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in Mobile
IP – route Optimization. Overview of TCP/IP – Architecture of TCP/IP- Adaptation of
TCP Window – Improvement in TCP Performance.

OVERVIEW OF MOBILE IP
Mobile IP is an open standard, defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF)RFC 3220. By using Mobile IP, you can keep the same IP address, stay
connected, andmaintain ongoing applications while roaming between IP networks.
Mobile IP is scalable forthe Internet because it is based on IP—any media that can
support IP can support Mobile IP. The Cisco Mobile Networks feature enables a
mobile access router and its subnets to bemobile and maintain all IP connectivity,
transparent to the IP hosts connecting through thismobile access router.
Currently, this feature is a static network implementation that supports stub
routers only. In IP networks, routing is based on stationary IP addresses. A device on
a network is reachable through normal IP routing by the IP address it is assigned on
the network. When a device roams away from its home network, it is no longer
reachable by using normal IP routing. This results in the active sessions of the device
being terminated.
Mobile IP enables users to keep the same IP address while travelling to a
different network, ensuring that a roaming individual can continue communication
without sessions or connections being dropped. Because the mobility functions of
Mobile IP are performed at the network layer rather than the physical layer, the mobile
device can span different types of wireless and wire line networks while maintaining
connections. Remote login, remote printing, and file transfers are examples of
applications where it is desirable not to interrupt communications while an individual
roams across network boundaries.
Also, certain network services, such as software licenses and access
privileges, are based on IP addresses. Changing these IP addresses could
compromise the network services. A device that can roam while appearing to a user
to be at its home network is called a mobile node. Examples of mobile nodes include:
a personal digital assistant, a laptop computer, or a data-ready cellular phone—that
can change its point of attachment from one network or subnet to another.
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This mobile node can travel from link to link and maintain communications
using the same IP address. There is no need for any changes to applications,
because the solution is at the network layer, which provides the transparent network
mobility. The Cisco Mobile Networks feature comprises three components—the
mobile access router (MR), home agent (HA), and foreign agent (FA). Figure shows
the three components (mobile access router, home agent, and foreign agent) and
their relationships within the mobile network.

The mobile access router functions similarly to the mobile node with one key
difference—the mobile access router allows entire networks to roam. For example,
an airplane with a mobile access router can fly around the world while passengers
stay connected to the Internet. This communication is accomplished by Mobile IP
aware routers tunnelling packets, which are destined to hosts on the mobile
networks, to the location where the mobile access router is visiting.
The mobile access router then forwards the packets to the destination device.
These devices can be mobile nodes without Mobile IP client software. The mobile
access router eliminates the need for a Mobile IP client. The mobile access router
―hides‖ the IP roaming from the local IP nodes so that the local nodes appear to be
directly attached to the home network. A home agent is a router on the home
network of the mobile access router. It provides the anchoring point for the mobile
networks.
The home agent maintains an association between the home IP address of
the mobile access router and its care-of address, which is the current location of the
mobile access router on a foreign or visited network. The home agent is responsible
for keeping track of where the mobile access router roams and tunnelling packets to
the current location of the mobile network. The home agent also inserts the mobile
networks into its routing table.
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A foreign agent is a router on a foreign network that assists the mobile access
router in informing its home agent of its current care-of address. It functions as the
point of attachment to the mobile access router, delivering packets from the home
agent to the mobile access router. The foreign agent is a fixed router with a direct
logical connection to the mobile accessrouter. The mobile access router and foreign
agent need not be connected directly by a wireless link. For example, if the mobile
access router is roaming, the connection between the foreign agent and mobile
access router occurs on interfaces that are not on the same subnet. This feature
does not add any new functionality to the foreign agent component.

FEATURES OF MOBILE IP
Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP) was created in order to provide better
mobileconnectivity without interrupting computers that are already connected to a
network. Whenmobile devices were introduced, there was no network technology in
place for these devicesto connect to the Internet. Mobile IP created a new subset of
IP connectivity that worked within the already established system, keeping network
engineers from having to scrap andreinvent the way Internet connection works.
Roaming Connectivity
Mobile IP allows mobile devices to connect to the Internet when they are not
at their home network. This lets laptops connect to hotspots and it lets phones
connect through 3G and other Internet network sources. An IP address lets a network
know where to send and receive information from on a network. Mobile IP uses an
address that references its home network while finding a location on the new
network. This keeps Mobile IP from knocking other computers off of a network,
because each computer comes from a unique network and has a unique number.
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Compatibility
Mobile IP is compatible with most networks that offer the Internet. This
include the 3G network used for mobile televisions; Internet hotspots found in cafes,
airports and book stores; and all home network devices. Early attempts at Mobile IP
would only work with certain routers or certain types of networks. Mobile IP today
has no special requirements because the system is universal and fits within the
original IP infrastructure.
Tunnelling and Reverse Tunnelling
The method by which mobile IP receives information from a network is called
tunnelling. A network cannot directly send information to a mobile IP device. In order
to get this information the mobile device must create an IP address within its new IP
address. This allows the network to send information to the IP address through the
―tunnel‖ of the two newIPs. Firewalls and routers can sometimes block tunnelling by
enabling what is called ingress filtering. Mobile IP also can use the process of
reverse tunnelling, which is a similar process that reverses the flow of information to
achieve the same result as tunnelling.
Cordless
The greatest feature of Mobile IP is that there are no cords needed to
complete the network connection. The standard IP required that networks be
connected by a phone line or Ethernet cord. With Mobile IP, the device finds the
network automatically and attempts to establish a connection. Some mobile capable
devices like laptop computers have the ability toconnect using the Mobile IP or using
the standard IP with an Ethernet or phone cord.

KEY MECHANISM IN MOBILE IP

The Mobile IP process has three main phases, which are discussed in the
following sections. i.Agent Discovery - A Mobile Node discovers its Foreign and
Home Agentsduring agent discovery.
ii. Registration - The Mobile Node registers its current location with the Foreign
Agent and Home Agent during registration.
iii. Tunnelling - A reciprocal tunnel is set up by the Home Agent to the care-of
address (current location of the Mobile Node on the foreign network) to route
packets to the Mobile Node as it roams.
i. Agent Discovery

During the agent discovery phase, the Home Agent and Foreign Agent
advertise their services on the network by using the ICMP Router Discovery
Protocol (IRDP). The Mobile Node listens to these advertisements to determine if
it is connected to its home network or foreign network.
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The IRDP advertisements carry Mobile IP extensions that specify whether

an agent is a Home Agent, Foreign Agent, or both; its care-of address; the types of
services it will provide such as reverse tunnelling and generic routing
encapsulation (GRE); and the allowed registration lifetime or roaming period for
visiting Mobile Nodes. Rather than waiting for agent advertisements, a Mobile
Node can send out an agent solicitation. This solicitation forces any agents on the
link to immediately send an agent advertisement.
If a Mobile Node determines that it is connected to a foreign network, it
acquires acare-of address. Two types of care-of addresses exist:
 Care-of address acquired from a Foreign Agent
 Co-located care-of address
A Foreign Agent care-of address is an IP address of a Foreign Agent that has
an interface on the foreign network being visited by a Mobile Node. A Mobile Node
that acquires this type of care-of address can share the address with other Mobile
Nodes. A co-located care-of address is an IP address temporarily assigned to the
interface of the MobileNode itself.
A co-located care-of address represents the current position of the Mobile
Node on theforeign network and can be used by only one Mobile Node at a time.
When the Mobile Node

hears a Foreign Agent advertisement and detects that it has moved outside of its
home network, it begins registration.
ii. Registration

The Mobile Node is configured with the IP address and mobility security
association (which includes the shared key) of its Home Agent. In addition, the
Mobile Node is configured with either its home IP address, or another user identifier,
such as a Network Access Identifier.
The Mobile Node uses this information along with the information that it
learns from the Foreign Agent advertisements to form a Mobile IP registration
request. It adds the registration request to its pending list and sends the registration
request to its Home Agent either through the Foreign Agent or directly if it is using a
co-located care-of address and is not required to register through the Foreign Agent.
If the registration request is sent through the Foreign Agent, the Foreign Agent
checks the validity of the registration request, which includes checking that the
requested lifetime does not exceed its limitations, the requested tunnel
encapsulation is available, and that reverse tunnel is supported. If the registration
request is valid, the Foreign Agent adds the
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visiting Mobile Node to its pending list before relaying the request to the Home Agent.
If the registration request is not valid, the Foreign Agent sends a registration reply
with appropriate error code to the Mobile Node.
The Home Agent checks the validity of the registration request, which includes
authentication of the Mobile Node.
If the registration request is valid, the Home Agent creates a mobility binding
(an association of the Mobile Node with its care-of address), a tunnel to the care-of
address, and a routing entry for forwarding packets to the home address through the
tunnel.
The Home Agent then sends a registration reply to the Mobile Node through
the Foreign Agent (if the registration request was received via the Foreign Agent) or
directly to the Mobile Node. If the registration request is not valid, the Home Agent
rejects the request by sending a registration reply with an appropriate error code.
The Foreign Agent checks the validity of the registration reply, including
ensuring thatan associated registration request exists in its pending list.
If the registration reply is valid, the Foreign Agent adds the Mobile Node to its
visitor list, establishes a tunnel to the Home Agent, and creates a routing entry for
forwarding packets to the home address. It then relays the registration reply to the
Mobile Node.

Finally, the Mobile Node checks the validity of the registration reply, which
includes ensuring an associated request is in its pending list as well as proper
authentication of the Home Agent.

If the registration reply is not valid, the Mobile Node discards the reply. If a
valid registration reply specifies that the registration is accepted, the Mobile Node is
confirmed that the mobility agents are aware of its roaming.

In the co-located care-of address case, it adds a tunnel to the Home Agent.
Subsequently, it sends all packets to the Foreign Agent.
The Mobile Node reregisters before its registration lifetime expires.
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The Home Agent and Foreign Agent update their mobility binding and visitor
entry, respectively, during re- registration. In the case where the registration is denied,
the Mobile Node makes the necessaryadjustments and attempts to register again.

For example, if the registration is denied because of time mismatch and the
Home Agent sends back its time stamp for synchronization, the Mobile Node adjusts
the time stamp in future registration requests.

Thus, a successful Mobile IP registration sets up the routing mechanism for

transporting packets to and from the Mobile Node as it roams.

iii. Tunnelling

The Mobile Node sends packets using its home IP address, effectively
maintaining theappearance that it is always on its home network.

Even while the Mobile Node is roaming on foreign networks, its movements
are transparent to correspondent nodes.Data packets addressed to the Mobile Node
are routed to its home network, where the Home Agent now intercepts and tunnels
them to the care-of address toward the Mobile Node.

Tunnelling has two primary functions: encapsulation of the data packet to

reach the tunnel endpoint, and decapsulation when the packet is delivered at that
endpoint.

The default tunnel mode is IP Encapsulation within IP Encapsulation.

Optionally, GRE and minimal encapsulation within IP may be used.Typically, the
Mobile Node sends packets to the Foreign Agent, which routes them to their final
destination, the Correspondent Node.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Packet Forwarding

However, this data path is topologically incorrect because it does not reflect
the true IPnetwork source for the data — rather, it reflects the home network of the
Mobile Node. Because the packets show the home network as their source inside a
foreign network, an access control list on routers in the network called ingress
filtering drops the packets instead of forwarding them. A feature called reverse
tunnelling solves this problem by having the Foreign Agent tunnel packets back to the
Home Agent when it receives them from the MobileNode.
Reverse Tunnel

Tunnel MTU discovery is a mechanism for a tunnel encapsulator such as the

Home Agent to participate in path MTU discovery to avoid any packet fragmentation
in the routing path between a Correspondent Node and Mobile Node. For packets
destined to the Mobile Node, the Home Agent maintains the MTU of the tunnel to the
care-of address and informs the Correspondent Node of the reduced packet size.
This improves routing efficiency by avoiding fragmentation and reassembly at the
tunnel endpoints to ensure that packets reach the Mobile Node.
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Security
Mobile IP uses a strong authentication scheme for security purposes. All
registration messages between a Mobile Node and Home Agent are required to
contain the Mobile-Home Authentication Extension (MHAE).
The integrity of the registration messages is protected by a preshared 128-bit
key between a Mobile Node and Home Agent. The keyed message digest algorithm 5
(MD5) in "prefix+suffix" mode is used to compute the authenticator value in the
appended MHAE, which is mandatory. Mobile IP also supports the hash-based
message authentication code (HMAC-MD5). The receiver compares the authenticator
value it computes over the message with the value in the extension to verify the
authenticity.
Optionally, the Mobile-Foreign Authentication Extension and Foreign-Home
Authentication Extension are appended to protect message exchanges between a
Mobile Node and Foreign Agent and between a Foreign Agent and Home Agent,
respectively.
Replay protection uses the identification field in the registration messages as
a timestamp and sequence number. The Home Agent returns its time stamp to
synchronize the Mobile Node for registration.
Cisco IOS software allows the mobility keys to be stored on an authentication,
authorization, and accounting (AAA) server that can be accessed using TACACS+ or
RADIUS protocols. Mobile IP in Cisco IOS software also contains registration filters,
enabling companies to restrict who is allowed to register.

ROUTE OPTIMIZATION
Mobile IPv4 route
optimization
Mobile IPv4 route optimization is a proposed extension to the Mobile IPv4
protocol. Itprovides enhancements to the routing of data grams between the mobile
node and to the correspondent node. The enhancements provide means for a
correspondent node to tunneldata grams directly to the mobile node or to its foreign
agent care-of address.
Route optimization messages and data structures
The route optimization extension adds a conceptual data structure, the
binding cache, to the correspondent node and to the foreign agent. The binding
cache contains bindings for mobile nodes' home addresses and their current care-of
addresses. With the binding the correspondent node can tunnel data grams directly
to the mobile node's care-of address.
Every time the home agent receives a datagram that is destined to a mobile
node currently away from home, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node
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to update the information in the correspondent node's binding cache. After this the
correspondent node can
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directly tunnel packets to the mobile node. Thus direct bi-directional communication
isachieved with route optimization.
Direct routing with route optimization and foreign agent care-of address.

Route optimization adds four new UDP-messages to the Mobile IPv4 protocol:
Binding update informs the correspondent node or foreign agent of the mobile
node's new location. It is sent by the home agent or in the case of previous foreign
agent notification,by the new foreign agent, as shown in Figure 4. The binding update
contains the care-of

address and the home address of the mobile node and also the lifetime of the
binding. It also must contain a mobile IP authentication extension. An identification
number may also be present to provide a way of matching updates with
acknowledgements and to protect against replay attacks.
Binding acknowledgement is sent by the correspondent node or the foreign
agent in response to the binding update. It contains the mobile node's home address
and a status code. It also contains an identification number, if there was one in the
corresponding binding update.
Binding request is sent by the correspondent node to the home agent to
request a binding update. It contains the home address of the queried mobile node
and possibly an identification number.
Binding warning is sent by the previous foreign agent in response to receiving
a tunnelled datagram for a mobile node for which it has a binding and for which it is
not acting as the current foreign agent. The binding warning is sent to the home
agent. It contains the home address of the mobile node and the address of the
correspondent node that does not have
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up to date information of the mobile node's current care-of address. With this
information the home agent can send a binding update to the correspondent node.
Binding update to correspondent node

The effect on static routes

As the correspondent node learns the care-of address of the mobile node from
the binding update, it can tunnel data grams directly to the mobile node's care-of
address . Thus only the first data grams are routed via the home agent. This reduces
the network load and

also reduces the delays caused by routing. Thus the optimization is valuable to
mobile nodes that visit networks located far from their home agent.
However, the overhead caused by tunnelling is not decreased. The
correspondent node's use of minimal encapsulation is a partial remedy, if both the
encapsulator and the decapsulator support it. Ingress filtering may also prevent the
mobile node from sending data grams directly to the correspondent node. The use of
direct reverse tunnelling from the care-of address to the correspondent node's
address is a possible solution to ingress filtering. However, it is not possible with
foreign agent care-of addresses, since the current reverse tunnelling standard
requires the foreign agent to tunnel all packets to the home agent of the mobile node.
Smooth handoffs with route optimization
In the static case the protocol is fairly simple, but handoffs somewhat
complicate the situation. When the correspondent node has an out of date entry for
the mobile node's care-of address it tries to send the tunnelled datagram to the
mobile node's previous location and the
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datagram is lost. To solve this problem the protocol includes the previous foreign
agent notification mechanism, which adds a binding cache to the foreign agent.
When a mobile node moves to a new sub network it sends a registration
request to the new foreign agent. The registration request may contain a previous
foreign agent notification extension. Upon receiving such a request the foreign agent
builds a binding update and sends it to the previous foreign agent. The previous
foreign agent can then, after authenticating the update, create a binding for the
mobile node. With this binding it can re-tunnel data grams to the mobile node's new
care-of address. The re-tunnelling requires foreign agent care-of addresses in order
for the agents to act as tunnel endpoints.
The previous foreign agent notification mechanism provides temporary
localization of the handoffs. It does not reduce the signalling load between the home
agent and the mobile node, but reduces the number of data grams lost due to
correspondent nodes with out-of date bindings.
Security considerations
Since the correspondent nodes and foreign agents have binding caches, which
change the routing of data grams destined to mobile nodes, the binding updates
must be authenticated. The authentication is performed in a similar manner as in
base Mobile IPv4. All binding updates contain a route optimization or smooth
handoff authentication extension. This extension contains a hash, which is calculated
from the datagram and the shared secret.

The correspondent node and the mobile node's home agent need a
security association. This association is used for the authentication of the
binding updates. Since the mobile node sends a binding update directly to its
previous foreign agent, they also need a security association. If the security
associations are not preconfigured they can be established via a key management
protocol such as ISAKMP or SKIP.
General deployment requirements
In order to make use of the binding updates the correspondent nodes must
be able to process and authenticate them and be able to encapsulate data grams.
To establish this, the network stacks of the operating systems require changes.
Since correspondent nodes need to establish a security association with the
home agent and foreign agents need to establish one with the mobile node, a
widely deployed key management system is obviously needed. Otherwise only
nodes with statically configured security associations can benefit from the
binding updates.
Mobile IPv6 and route
optimization Main characteristics
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of Mobile IPv6
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Whereas Mobile IP was added on top of the IPv4 protocol, in IPv6 mobility
support is built into the IP-layer. In mobile IPv6 route optimization is an essential
part of the protocol. Mobile nodes have a binding update list, which contains the
bindings other nodes have for it. Correspondent nodes and home agents have a
binding cache, which contains the home and care-of addresses of mobile nodes
they have been recently communicating with. All signalling is performed via
destination options that are appendedto the base IPv6 header. Thus all signalling
traffic can be piggybacked on data grams with a data payload, as in Figure 5.
Destination option.

The destination options are:

 Binding update option, which is sent by the mobile node to its home
agent andcorrespondent nodes to inform them of a change of location.
 Binding acknowledgement option, which is sent in response to the binding update.
 Binding request option, with which a node can request a new binding
update fromthe mobile node, when the binding is about to expire.

 Home address option, which the mobile node appends to all data grams it
sends while away from its home network. The home address option is used to
avoid the negative effects of ingress filtering by using the topologically correct
care-of address as the source address and including the home address in the
option. The receiving node will then copy the home address to the source address
before passing the packet to any transport level protocol.
All care-of addresses in Mobile IPv6 are co-located; thus foreign agents are
not a part of the protocol. Since all nodes are only required to understand the
home address option, triangle routing will occur also with mobile IPv6. However, if
the correspondent node implements the draft fully, only the first data grams it
sends will be routed via the home agent. The mobile node always sends a binding
update to the original sender of a tunnelled datagram. With this binding the
correspondent node can send data grams directly to the mobile node using a
routing header.
A datagram with a routing header contains the care-of address as the
destination address and the home address in the routing extension header as the
final destination. Thus the datagram will be normally routed to the care-of
address. When the mobile node
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receives a datagram with a routing header it swaps the final destination with the
destination address field. The home address option and the routing header make
the mobility transparent with direct routing.
The Effect on Routing
By using direct routes in both directions the consumption of network
resources is minimized. The 40-byte IPv6 headers consume extra bandwidth
when compared to 20 byte IPv4 headers. However the use of routing header and
home address option removes the need for constant tunnelling, thus decreasing
the bandwidth consumption. Although they both add overhead to packets they
still are considerably smaller than IPv6 headers, which would be used in tunnelling.
The destination options used for signalling can be piggybacked [4] which
decreases the signalling overhead considerably, since the options are relatively
small when compared to UDP packets.
The effect on handoffs
The IPv6 mobility support provides the previous router notification
mechanism, with which the amount of lost of packets in handoffs can be reduced.
In IPv6 the mobile node sends a binding update directly to the previous router,
which consumes more bandwidth but is faster than the mechanism used with
Mobile IPv4 route optimization.

Problems solved
Mobile IPv6 provides improvements on routing and signalling efficiency. As
thesignalling can be mostly piggybacked on data packets there will be considerably
less signalling overhead between the mobile node and the correspondent nodes than
in mobile IPv4 route optimization between the home agent and the correspondent
nodes. The minimum requirements for the correspondent node provide at least
triangle routing even in the worst case, since care-of address can be used as the
source address. Hosts that are likely to communicate with mobile nodes will probably
implement the binding cache and communicatedirectly with the mobile node. In both
cases the routing saves network capacity and decreases delays, when compared to
reverse bi-directional tunnelling between the mobile node and correspondent node.
The key management problem is not solved Mobile IPv6 does not solve the
key management problem, but the integration of IPSec into IPv6 is likely to result in
support for key management protocols in most operating systems implementing
IPv6.
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OVERVIEW OF TCP / IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic
communicationlanguage or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a
communications protocol in a private network (either an intranet or an extranet).
When you are set up with direct access to the Internet, your computer is provided
with a copy of the TCP/IP program just as every othercomputer that you may send
messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP. TCP/IP is a two-
layer program.
The higher layer, Transmission Control Protocol, manages the assembling of
a message or file into smaller packets that are transmitted over the Internet and
received by a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the original message. The
lower layer, Internet Protocol, handles the address part of each packet so that it gets
to the right destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this address
to see where to forward the message. Even though some packets from the same
message are routed differently than others, they'll be reassembled at the destination.
TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication in which a computer
user (a client) requests and is provided a service (such as sending a Web page) by
another computer(a server) in the network. TCP/IP communication is primarily point-
to-point, meaning each communication is from one point (or host computer) in the
network to another point or host computer.
TCP/IP and the higher-level applications that use it are collectively said to be
"stateless" because each client request is considered a new request unrelated to any
previous one (unlike ordinary phone conversations that require a dedicated
connection for the call duration). Being stateless frees network paths so that
everyone can use them continuously. (Note that the TCP layer itself is not stateless
as far as any one message is concerned. Its connection remains in place until all
packets in a message have been received.)
Many Internet users are familiar with the even higher layer application
protocols that use TCP/IP to get to the Internet. These include the World Wide Web's
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet (Telnet)
which lets you logon to remote computers, and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP). These and other protocols are often packaged together with TCP/IP as a
"suite."
Personal computer users with an analog phone modem connection to the
Internet usually get to the Internet through the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) or
the Point-to-
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Point Protocol (PPP). These protocols encapsulate the IP packets so that they can
be sent overthe dial-up phone connection to an access provider's modem.
Protocols related to TCP/IP include the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which
is used instead of TCP for special purposes. Other protocols are used by network
host computers for exchanging router information. These include the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP), the Exterior Gateway
Protocol (EGP), and the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
TCP/IP Protocols for the Web
Web browsers and servers use TCP/IP protocols to connect to the Internet.
Common TCP/IPprotocols are:
i. HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

HTTP takes care of the communication between a web server and a web
browser. HTTP is used for sending requests from a web client (a browser) to a web
server, returning web content (web pages) from the server back to the client.
ii. HTTPS - Secure HTTP

HTTPS takes care of secure communication between a web server and a web browser.
HTTPS typically handles credit card transactions and other sensitive data.
iii. FTP - File Transfer Protocol

FTP takes care of transmission of files between computers.

TCP/IP Protocols for Email
E-mail programs use TCP/IP for sending and receiving e-mails. The TCP/IP protocols
for email are:
i. SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP takes care of sending emails. Often emails are sent to an email server
(SMTP server), then to other servers, and finally to its destination. SMTP can only
transmit pure text.It cannot transmit binary data like pictures, sounds or movies.
ii. MIME - Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extensions

The MIME protocol lets SMTP transmit multimedia files including voice, audio,
and binary data across TCP/IP networks. The MIME protocol converts binary data to
pure text, before it is sent.
iii. POP - Post Office Protocol

The POP protocol is used by email programs to retrieve emails from an email
server. If your email program uses POP, all your emails are downloaded to your email
program (alsocalled email client), each time it connects to your email server.
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iv. IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol

The IMAP protocol works much like the POP protocol. The main difference is
that the IMAP protocol will not automatically download all your emails each time
your email program connects to your email server.
The IMAP protocol allows you to look through your email messages at the
email server before you download them. With IMAP you can choose to download
your messages orjust delete them. This way IMAP is perfect if you need to connect
to your email server from different locations, but only want to download your
messages when you are back in your office.
Other TCP/IP Protocols
ARP - Address Resolution Protocol
ARP is used by IP to find the hardware address of a computer network card
based on the IP address.
BOOTP - Boot Protocol
BOOTP is used for booting (starting) computers from the network.
DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DHCP is used for allocation of dynamic IP addresses to computers in a network.
ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP takes care of error-handling in the network.
LDAP - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
LDAP is used for collecting information about users and e-mail addresses
from theinternet.
NTP - Network Time Protocol
NTP is used to synchronize the time (the clock) between computers.
PPTP - Point to Point Tunnelling Protocol
PPTP is used for setting up a connection (tunnel) between private networks.
RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
RARP is used by IP to find the IP address based on the hardware
address of acomputer network card.
SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol
SNMP is used for administration of computer networks.
SSL - Secure Sockets Layer
The SSL protocol is used to encrypt data for secure data transmission.
TLS - Transport Layer Security
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

The TLS protocol is a newer and more secure version of SSL.

Topic: Architecture of TCP/IP

ARCHITECTURE OF TCP / IP

When communication among computers from different vendors is desired,

the software development effort can be a nightmare. Different vendors use different
data formats and data exchange protocols. Even within one vendor's product line,
different model computers may communicate in unique ways.
As the use of computer communications and computer networking
proliferates, a one-at-a-time, special-purpose approach to communications software
development is too costly to be acceptable. The only alternative is for computer
vendors to adopt and implement a common set of conventions. For this to happen,
standards are needed. Such standards would have two benefits:
i. Vendors feel encouraged to implement the standards because of an expectation
that,because of wide usage of the standards, their products would be less marketable
without them.
ii. Customers are in a position to require that the standards be
implemented by anyvendor wishing to propose equipment to them.
However, no single standard will suffice. Any distributed application, such
aselectronic mail or client/server interaction, requires a complex set of
communications
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

functions for proper operation. Many of these functions, such as reliability

mechanisms, are common across many or even all applications. Thus, the
communications task is best viewed as consisting of a modular architecture, in
which the various elements of the architecture perform the various required functions.
Hence, before standards can be developed, there should be a structure, or protocol
architecture, that defines the communications tasks.
Two protocol architectures have served as the basis for the development of
interoperable communications standards: the TCP/IP protocol suite and the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. TCP/IP is the most widely used
interoperable architecture, and has won the "protocol wars." Although some useful
standards have been developed in the context of OSI, TCP/IP is now the universal
interoperable protocol architecture. No product should be considered as part of a
business information system that does not support TCP/IP.
TCP/IP is a result of protocol research and development conducted on the
experimental packet-switched network, ARPANET, funded by the Defence Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and is generally referred to as the TCP/IP
protocol suite. This protocol suite consists of a large collection of protocols that
have been issued as Internet standards by the Internet Activities Board (IAB).
TCP/IP Layers
There is no official TCP/IP protocol model, as there is in the case of OSI.
However, based on the protocol standards that have been developed, we can
organize the communication task for TCP/IP into five relatively independent layers:
 Application layer
 Host-to-host, or transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network access layer
 Physical layer
The physical layer covers the physical interface between a data transmission
device (such as a workstation or computer) and a transmission medium or network.
This layer is concerned with specifying the characteristics of the transmission
medium, the nature of the signals, the data rate, and related matters.
The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between an
end system and the network to which it's attached. The sending computer must
provide the network with the address of the destination computer, so that the
network can route the data to
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

the appropriate destination. The sending computer may need to invoke certain
services, such as priority, that might be provided by the network.
The specific software used at this layer depends on the type of network to be
used; different standards have been developed for circuit-switching, packet-switching
(for example, frame relay), local area networks (such as Ethernet), and others. Thus, it
makes sense to separate those functions having to do with network access into a
separate layer. By doing this, the remainder of the communications software, above
the network access layer, need not be concerned about the specifics of the network
to be used. The same higher-layer software should function properly regardless of
the particular network to which the computer is attached.
The network access layer is concerned with access to and routing data across
anetwork for two end systems attached to the same network. In those cases where
two devices are attached to different networks, procedures are needed to allow data
to traverse multiple interconnected networks. This is the function of the Internet
layer. The Internet protocol (IP) is used at this layer to provide the routing function
across multiple networks. This protocol is implement not only in the end systems
but also in routers. A router is a processor that connects two networks; its primary
function is to relay data from one network to the other on its route from the source to
the destination end system.
Regardless of the nature of the applications that are exchanging data, there is
usually a requirement that data be exchanged reliably. That is, we want to be assured
that all of the data arrives at the destination application, in the order in which it was
sent. The mechanisms for providing reliability are essentially independent of the
nature of the applications. Thus, it makes sense to collect those mechanisms in a
common layer shared by all applications; this is referred to as the host-to-host or
transport layer. The transmission control protocol (TCP) isthe most commonly used
protocol to provide this functionality.
Finally, the application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications. For each type of application, such as file transfer, a separate module is
needed that's peculiar to that application.

The Application Layer

The application layer defines how certain services operate and how they can be used.
Examples are the FTP service for transferring files, HTTP for serving Web pages and
SMTP for e-mail.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

These services are defined in a rather abstract manner. Two parties, called the client
and the server, set up a connection over which they exchange messages in
accordance with a specific protocol. The client starts the protocol by requesting the
service. Often the next step is for the server to authenticate the client, for example by
asking for a password or by executing a public-key based protocol.
Taking e-mail as an example, the protocol in question is called the Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP). The client and the server set up an SMTP connection
over which they
exchange identifying information. The client then tells who the message is from and
who the intended recipient is. The server then indicates whether it accepts or refuses
the message (for example if it's spam or the intended recipient is unknown). If the
message is accepted, the

The Transport Layer

On the Internet, the transport layer is realized by two protocols. The first is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the second is the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP). Both break up amessage that an application wants to send into packets and
attempt to deliver those packets to the intended recipient. At the recipient's side,
both take the payload from the received packets and pass those to the application
layer.
The main difference between TCP and UDP is that TCP is reliable and UDP is not.
TCP will collect incoming packets, put them in the right order and thereby
reassemble the original message. If necessary, TCP requests retransmission of lost
or damaged packets. UDP merely takes each incoming packet and delivers the
UDP is much faster than TCP, and so is mainly used for applications like audio and
video streaming, where the occasional error is less important than getting all the data
there at the right time. More generally, UDP is designed for applications that do not
require the packets to be in any specific order. Because of this, UDP is sometimes
called a "connection-less"protocol.
Taking the example of e-mail again, the e-mail client and server communicate over a
reliable TCP connection. The server listens on a certain port (port 25) until a
connection request arrives from the client. The server acknowledges the request, and
a TCP connection is established. Using this connection the client and server can
exchange data.
The content of this data is not really relevant at this level: that's the responsibility of
the application layer. The e-mail message and all the other information exchanged at
that SMTP
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

application layer are merely payload, data that needs to be transported. Hence the
name transport layer.

The Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for transmitting and routing data packets over the
network. The Internet uses the Internet Protocol or IP as its network layer. Each node
on the network has an address, which of course is called the IP address. Data is sent
as IP packets.
A transport layer connection is made up up of a large number of IP packets
exchanged by the client and server. The Internet Protocol (IP) is very simple: a packet
has a source, a destination and a payload, and it's passed from one node in the
network to another until it gets to the destination. The IP does not notice that a
packet gets lost. It just never gets to the destination. If a particular node cannot pass
the packet to the next node along the normal route, it will do its best to find an
alternative path. That's why IP is sometimes called a "best- effort" protocol.
When the client sends its TCP connection request, the network layer puts the request
in a number of packets and transmits each of them to the server. Each packet can
take a different route, and some of the packets may get lost along the way. If they all
make it, the transport layer at the server is able to reconstruct the request, and it will
prepare a response confirming that a TCP connection has been set up. This response
is sent back again in a number of IP packets that will hopefully make it to the client.

The Link Layer

The Internet Protocol basically assumes all computers are part of one very large
"web" of nodes that can all pass packets to other nodes. There's always a route from
one node to another, even if sometimes a very large number of intermediate nodes
get involved. The link layer is what makes this assumption true.
The link layer provides a network connection between hosts on a particular local
network, as well as interconnection between such local networks. The e-mail client
runs on a personal computer in someone's home network, which is set up using the
Ethernet protocol. The link layer now is that Ethernet network. The IP packets that
this computer transmits, are added as payload to Ethernet packets (called "frames")
that are transmitted over the local network to the ADSL modem that connects the
local network to the provider.
A different kind of link layer protocol is used to transmit the payload taken from the
Ethernet frames from the ADSL modem to the provider. At the provider this payload
is again passed
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

forward using yet another link level protocol. The "web of nodes" that the Internet
Protocol relies on thus actually is made up of a large number of local networks, each
with their own link layer protocol, that each forward the IP packet by putting it into
their own kind of message that is then sent over the local network.

The Physical Layer

The lowest layer is the physical layer, which defines how the cables, network cards,
wireless transmitters and other hardware connect computers to networks and
networks to the rest of theInternet. Examples of physical layer networks are Ethernet,
WiFi, Token Ring and Fiber Data Distributed Interface (FDDI). Note that many of these
technologies also have their own link layer protocol. Often link and physical layer are
closely related.
The physical layer provides the means to transfer the actual bits from one computer
to another. In an Ethernet network (a link layer protocol), a computer is connected by
plugging a network cable into its Ethernet card, and then plugging the other end of
that cable into a router or switch. The physical layer specifies how bits of data are
sent over that cable: how do the electrical currents or the pulses the card sends
get turned back into the data for the higherlevel layers. For wireless networks, this
works exactly the same, except of course there is no cable.

ADAPTATION OF TCP WINDOW

The first phase of a TCP session is establishment of the connection. This
requires a three-way handshake, ensuring that both sides of the connection have an
unambiguous understanding of the sequence number space of the remote side for
this session. The operationof the connection is as follows:
 The local system sends the remote end an initial sequence number to the remote
port, using aSYN packet.
 The remote system responds with an ACK of the initial sequence number and
the initialsequence number of the remote end in a response SYN packet.
 The local end responds with an ACK of this remote sequence number.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 The performance implication of this protocol exchange is that it takes one and a
half round-trip times (RTTs) for the two systems to synchronize state before any
data can be sent.

After the connection has been established, the TCP protocol manages the
reliable exchange of data between the two systems. The algorithms that determine
the various retransmission timers have been redefined numerous times. TCP is a
sliding-window protocol, and the general principle of flow control is based on the
management of the advertised window size and the management of retransmission
timeouts, attempting to optimize protocol performance within the observed delay and
loss parameters of the connection.
Tuning a TCP protocol stack for optimal performance over a very low-delay,
high- bandwidth LAN requires different settings to obtain optimal performance over a
dialup Internet connection, which in turn is different for the requirements of a high-
speed wide-area network. Although TCP attempts to discover the delay bandwidth
product of the connection, and attempts to automatically optimize its flow rates
within the estimated parameters of the network path, some estimates will not be
accurate, and the corresponding efforts by TCP to optimize behavior may not be
completely successful.
Another critical aspect is that TCP is an adaptive flow-control protocol. TCP
uses a basic flow-control algorithm of increasing the data-flow rate until the network
signals that some form of saturation level has been reached (normally indicated by
data loss). When the sender receives an indication of data loss, the TCP flow rate is
reduced; when reliable transmission is reestablished, the flow rate slowly increases
again.
If no reliable flow is reestablished, the flow rate backs further off to an initial
probe of a single packet, and the entire adaptive flow-control process starts
again.This process has numerous results relevant to service quality. First, TCP
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

behaves adaptively , rather

 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

than predictively . The flow-control algorithms are intended to increase the data-flow
rate to fill all available network path capacity, but they are also intended to quickly
back off if the available capacity changes because of interaction with other traffic, or
if a dynamic change occurs in the end-to-end network path.
For example, a single TCP flow across an otherwise idle network attempts to
fill the network path with data, optimizing the flow rate within the available network
capacity. If a second TCP flow opens up across the same path, the two flow-control
algorithms will interact so that both flows will stabilize to use approximately half of
the available capacity per flow. The objective of the TCP algorithms is to adapt so
that the network is fully used wheneverone or more data flows are present. In design,
tension always exists between the efficiency of network use and the enforcement of
predictable session performance. With TCP, you give up predictable throughput but
gain a highly utilized, efficient network.

IMPROVEMENT IN TCP PERFORMANCE

The protocols to improve the performance of TCP are:
Link-layer protocols
There have been several proposals for reliable link-layer protocols. The two
main classes of techniques employed by these protocols are: error correction (using
techniques such as forward error correction (FEC)), and retransmission of lost
packets in response to automatic repeat request (ARQ) messages. The link-layer
protocols for the digital cellular systems in the U.S. — both CDMA and TDMA —
primarily use ARQ techniques. While the TDMA protocol guarantees reliable, in-order
delivery of link-layer frames, the CDMA protocol only makes a limited attempt and
leaves it to the (reliable) transport layer to recover from errors in the worst case.
The AIRMAIL protocol employs a combination of FEC and ARQ techniques for
lossrecovery. The main advantage of employing a link-layer protocol for loss recovery
is that it fits naturally into the layered structure of network protocols. The link-layer
protocol operates independently of higher-layer protocols (which makes it applicable
to a wide range
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

of scenarios), and consequently, does not maintain any per-connection state. The
main concern about link-layer protocols is the possibility of adverse effect on certain
transport-layerprotocols such as TCP.
Indirect-TCP (I-TCP) protocol
This was one of the early protocols to use the split-connection approach. It
involves splitting each TCP connection between a sender and receiver into two
separate connections at the base station — one TCP connection between the sender
and the base station, and the other between the base station and the receiver. In our
classification of protocols, ITCP is a split- connection solution that uses regular TCP
for its connection over wireless link. I-TCP, like other split-connection proposals,
attempts to separate loss recovery over the wireless link from that across the
wireline network, thereby shielding the original TCP sender from the wireless link.
However, as experiments indicate, the choice of TCP over the wireless link
resultsin several performance problems. Since TCP is not well-tuned for the lossy link,
the TCP sender of the wireless connection often times out, causing the original
sender to stall. In addition, every packet incurs the overhead of going through TCP
protocol processing twice at the base station (as compared to zero times for a non-
split-connection approach), although extra copies are avoided by an efficient kernel
implementation.
Another disadvantage of this approach is that the end-toend semantics of
TCP acknowledgments is violated, since acknowledgments to packets can now
reach the source even before the packets actually reach the mobile host. Also, since
this protocol maintains a significant amount of state at the base station per TCP
connection, handoff procedures tend to be complicated and slow.
The Snoop Protocol
The snoop protocol introduces a module, called the snoop agent, at the base
station. The agent monitors every packet that passes through the TCP connection in
both directions and maintains a cache of TCP segments sent across the link that
have not yet been acknowledged by the receiver. A packet loss is detected by the
arrival of a small number of duplicate acknowledgments from the receiver or by a
local timeout.
The snoop agent retransmits the lost packet if it has it cached and
suppresses the duplicate acknowledgments. In classification of protocols, the snoop
protocol is a link-layer protocol that takes advantage of the knowledge of the higher-
layer transport protocol (TCP). The main advantage of this approach is that it
suppresses duplicate acknowledgments for TCP
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

segments lost and retransmitted locally, thereby avoiding unnecessary fast

retransmissions and congestion control invocations by the sender.
The per-connection state maintained by the snoop agent at the base station is
soft, and is not essential for correctness. Like other link-layer solutions, the snoop
approach could also suffer from not being able to completely shield the sender from
wireless losses.
Selective Acknowledgments
Since standard TCP uses a cumulative acknowledgment scheme, it often does
not provide the sender with sufficient information to recover quickly from multiple
packet losses within a single transmission window. Several studies have shown that
TCP enhanced with selective acknowledgments performs better than standard TCP in
such situations. SACKs were added as an option to TCP by RFC 1072. However,
disagreements over the use of SACKs prevented the specification from being adopted,
and the SACK option was removed from later TCP RFCs. Recently, there has been
renewed interest in adding SACKs to TCP.
Two of the more interesting proposals are the TCP SACKs Internet Draft and
the SMART scheme. The Internet Draft proposes that each acknowledgment contain
information about up to three non-contiguous blocks of data that have been received
successfully. Each block of data is described by its starting and ending sequence
number. Due to the limited number of blocks it is best to inform the sender about the
most recent blocks received.
An alternate proposal, SMART, uses acknowledgments that contain the
cumulative acknowledgment and the sequence number of the packet that caused the
receiver to generate the acknowledgment (this information is a subset of the three-
blocks scheme proposed in the Internet Draft). The sender uses these SACKs to create
a bitmask of packets that have been successfully received. This scheme trades off
some resilience to reordering and lost acknowledgments in exchange for a
reduction in overhead to generate and transmit
acknowledgments.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

QUESTION BANK
ONE MARKS

1. _______ is responsible for tunneling multicast packets to the MS’s currently subscribed FA.
a) Multicast home agent
b) Mobile multicast
c) Mobile station
d) Base station

2. Every MS can have only one MHA.

a) True
b) False

3. _______ provides a fast and efficient handoff for MSs in foreign networks.
a) MHA
b) MMP
c) CBT
d) MS

4. MMP combines the concepts of _______ and ________

a) Mobile IPs, GSM
b) Core based trees, GSM
c) Mobile IPs, core based trees
d) Core based trees, LTE

5. ________ designed for an Internet work environment with small wireless cells.
a) MMP
b) RMDP
c) RM2
d) Mobicast

6. ________ serve as multicast forwarding agents and are meant to isolate the mobility of the mobile host
from the main multicast delivery tree.
a) DFA
b) MHA
c) FA
d) MMP
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

7. Mobicast is based on a method proposed by the IETF to support multicast over Mobile-IP.
a) True
b) False

8. _______ is meant to be implemented for use on the MBONE.

a) MMP
b) RMDP
c) RM2
d) Mobicast
. __________ is a reliable multicast protocol and is used for both wired and wireless environments.
a) MMP
b) RMDP
c) RM2
d) Mobicast

10. ____________ relies on IGMP.

a) MMP
b) RMDP
c) RM2
d) Mobicast

11. What layer in the TCP/IP stack is equivalent to the Transport layer of the OSI model?
a) Application
b) Host to host
c) Internet
d) Network Access

12. You want to implement a mechanism that automates the IP configuration, including IP address, subnet
mask, default gateway, and DNS information. Which protocol will you use to accomplish this?
a) SMTP
b) SNMP
c) DHCP
d) ARP

13. The DoD model (also called the TCP/IP stack) has four layers. Which layer of the DoD model is
equivalent to the Network layer of the OSI model?
a) Application
b) Host to Host
c) Internet
d) Network Access
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

14. Which of the following protocols uses both TCP and UDP?
a) FTP
b) SMTP
c) Telnet
d) DNS

15. Length of Port address in TCP/IP is _________

a) 4bit long
b) 16bit long
c) 32bit long
d) 8 bit long

16. TCP/IP layer is equivalent to combined Session, Presentation and _________

a) Network layer
b) Application layer
c) Transport layer
d) Physical layer

17. How many levels of addressing is provided in TCP/IP protocol?

a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four

18. Virtual terminal protocol is an example of _________

a) Network layer
b) Application layer
c) Transport layer
d) Physical layer

19. TCP/IP is related to __________

a) ARPANET
b) OSI
c) DECNET
d) ALOHA
20. A device operating at network layer is called __________
a) Router
b) Equalizer
c) Bridge
d) Repeater
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

21. A device operating at physical layer is called __________

a) Router
b) Equalizer
c) Bridge
d) Repeater

22.Which of the following services use TCP?

a)DHCP
b)SMTP
c)HTTP
d)TFTP
e)FTP
23. Which of the following protocols uses both TCP and UDP?
a)FTP
b)SMTP
c)Telnet
d) DNS
24.Which layer 4 protocol is used for a Telnet connection?
a)IP
b)TCP
c)TCP/IP
d)UDP
25.Which of the following allows a router to respond to an ARP request that is intended for a remote host?
a)Gateway DP
b)Reverse ARP (RARP)
c)Proxy ARP
d)Inverse ARP (IARP)
26.The DoD model (also called the TCP/IP stack) has four layers. Which layer of the DoD model is
equivalent to the Network layer of the OSI model?
a)Application
b)Host-to-Host
c)Internet
d)Network Access
27.If you use either Telnet or FTP, which is the highest layer you are using to transmit data?
a)Application
b)Presentation
c)Session
d)Transport
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

10 MARKS

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Give the Overview of TCP / IP.

2. Give The Overview Of Mobile IP.

3. Key Machanism Of Mobile IP.

5 MARKS
1.Feature Of Mobile IP
2.Improvement Of TCP Performance

UNIT -2 FINISHED
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

UNIT III
MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Syllabus : Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – General Packet Radio
Service(GPRS) – Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS).

GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital
cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. The concept
of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in the
early 1970s. GSM is the nameof a standardization group established in 1982 to create
a common European mobile telephone standard.
GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is
implemented globally.GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz
channel into eight 25 kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication
bands 900 MHz and 1800MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in
the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.
GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital
cellular subscribers. GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) technique for transmitting signals. GSM was developed using digital
technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates. Presently GSM
supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.
GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming
service. Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM
network.GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel
with two other streams of user data,each in its own timeslot.
Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
 Improved spectrum efficiency
 International roaming
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
 High-quality speech
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other

telephonecompany services
 Support for new services
GSM History
The following table shows some of the important events in the rollout of the GSM system.

Years Events

1982 Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes

a GSMgroup to widen the standards for a pan-European cellular
mobile system.

1985 A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is

accepted.
1986 Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques
recommendedfor the air interface.

1987 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access

method(with Frequency Division Multiple Access [FDMA]). The
initial Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is signed by
telecommunicationoperators representing 12 countries.

1988 GSM system is validated.

1989 The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was

giventhe responsibility of the GSM specifications.

1990 Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.

1991 Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800

specifications are finalized.

1992 The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes
place.Coverage spreads to larger cities and airports.

1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.

1994 Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks

rises to69 in 43 countries by the end of 1994.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

1995 Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs. Coverage is extended

to ruralareas.

1996 June: 133 network in 81 countries operational.

1997 July: 200 network in 109 countries operational, around 44

million
subscribers worldwide.

1999 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) came into existence and

became
operational in 130 countries with 260 million subscribers.

2000 General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) came into existence.

2001 As of May 2001, over 550 million people were subscribers to

mobiletelecommunications.

A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and

interfacesare explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided
into:
The Mobile Station (MS)
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The Network Switching Subsystem
(NSS)The Operation Support
Subsystem (OSS)
Given below is a simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of

databases andmessaging systems functions:
 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements:
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also

known as theair interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network
Service Switching (NSS) center across the A interface.
GSM network areas
In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:
Cell : Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell
GlobalIdentity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
Location Area : A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is
paged when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location
Area Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area : The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service
area.
PLMN : The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land
MobileNetwork (PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.

GSM protocol stack

GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow
communications between two different systems. The lower layers assure the
services of the upper-layer protocols. Each layer passes suitable notifications to
ensure the transmitted data has been formatted, transmitted, and received
accurately. The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shownbelow:
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

MS Protocols
Based on the interface, the GSM signalling protocol is assembled into three general layers:
Layer 1 : The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
Layer 2 : The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a
modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol
used in ISDN, calledLink access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A
interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
Layer 3 : GSM signalling protocol‘s third layer is divided into three sublayers:
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).
MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed,
between the MS and the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are
the MS, BSS, and MSC. The responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-
session, the time when a mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio channels
including the allocation of dedicated channels.
The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that
arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security
aspects. Location management is concerned with the procedures that enable the
system to know the current location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call
routing can be completed.
The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is
responsible for Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short
Message
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Service Management. Each of these services are treated as individual layer within
the CM layer. Other functions of the CC sub layer include call establishment,
selection of the type of service (including alternating between services during a call),
and call release.
BSC Protocols
The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the
BTS. The Abis interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio
resources at the lower portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base
Transceiver Station Management (BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay
function at the BTS to the BSC.
The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic
channels between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial
access to the system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites,
power control, and call termination. The BSC still has some radio resource
management in place for the frequency coordination, frequency allocation, and the
management of the overall network layer for the Layer 2 interfaces.
To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the
direct application part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that
the MTP 1-3 canbe used as the prime architecture.
MSC Protocols
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A
interface to the MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management
Application Part (BSS MAP) is said to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The
relay process is finished by the layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols,
they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes the relay process.
To find and connect to the users across the network, MSCs interact using the
control-signalling network. Location registers are included in the MSC databases to
assist in the role of determining how and whether connections are to be made to
roaming users.Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user‘s
location and subscribed services.VLR is a separate register that is used to track the
location of a user.
When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the
MS to find the location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control
network, signals the HLR of the MS‘s new location. With the help of location
information contained in the user‘s HLR, the MT calls can be routed to the user.
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GSM addressing

GSM treats the users and the equipment in different ways. Phone numbers,
subscribers, and equipment identifiers are some of the known ones. There are many
other identifiers that have been well-defined, which are required for the subscriber‘s
mobility management and for addressing the remaining network elements. Vital
addresses and identifiers that are used in GSM are addressed below.
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)
The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) looks more like a
serialnumber which distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally. This is
allocated by the equipment manufacturer and registered by the network operator,
who stores it in the Entrepreneurs-in-Residence (EIR). By means of IMEI, one
recognizes obsolete, stolen, or non-functional equipment.
Following are the parts of IMEI:
 Type Approval Code (TAC) : 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.
 Final Assembly Code (FAC) : 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
 Serial Number (SNR) : 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
 Spare (SP) : 1 decimal place.
Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile
stationand gives clues about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
Every registered user has an original International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI)with a valid IMEI stored in their Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). IMSI
comprises of the following parts:
 Mobile Country Code (MCC) : 3 decimal places, internationally standardized.
 Mobile Network Code (MNC) : 2 decimal places, for unique
identification ofmobile network within the country.
 Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN) : Maximum 10 decimal
places,identification number of the subscriber in the home mobile network.
Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber
ISDN Number (MSISDN). Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many
MSISDNs, as each subscriber is assigned with a separate MSISDN to their SIM
respectively.
Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are
defined based on international ISDN number plan:
 Country Code (CC) : Up to 3 decimal places.
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 National Destination Code (NDC) : Typically 2-3 decimal places.

 Subscriber Number (SN) : Maximum 10 decimal places.
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent
ISDN number, assigned to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor
Location Register (VLA). Using MSRN, the incoming calls are channelled to the MS.
The MSRN has the samestructure as the MSISDN.
 Country Code (CC) : of the visited network.
 National Destination Code (NDC) : of the visited network.
 Subscriber Number (SN) : in the current mobile network.
Location Area Identity (LAI)
Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area
Identity (LAI). The LAI hierarchy is based on international standard and structured in
a unique format as mentioned below:
 Country Code (CC) : 3 decimal places.
 Mobile Network Code (MNC) : 2 decimal places.
 Location Area Code (LAC) : maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice
8 bitscoded in hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR,
which is responsible for the current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs to
have only local significance in the area handled by the VLR. This is stored on the
network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the Home Location Register (HLR).
Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber
uniquely. It can contain up to 4 × 8 bits.
Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI)
Each mobile station can be assigned with a Local Mobile Subscriber Identity
(LMSI), which is an original key, by the VLR. This key can be used as the auxiliary
searching key foreach mobile station within its region. It can also help accelerate the
database access. An LMSI is assigned if the mobile station is registered with the
VLR and sent to the HLR. LMSIcomprises of four octets (4x8 bits).
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Cell Identifier (CI)

Using a Cell Identifier (CI) (maximum 2 × 8) bits, the individual cells that are
within an LA can be recognized. When the Global Cell Identity (LAI + CI) calls are
combined, thenit is uniquely defined.
GSM security
GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system available today.
GSM has its security methods standardized. GSM maintains end-to-end security by
retaining the confidentiality of calls and anonymity of the GSM subscriber.
Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the subscriber‘s number
to maintain the privacy of the user. The privacy of the communication is maintained
by applying encryption algorithms and frequency hopping that can be enabled using
digital systems and signalling.
Mobile Station Authentication
The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use
of a challenge-response mechanism. A 128-bit Random Number (RAND) is sent to
the MS. The MS computes the 32-bit Signed Response (SRES) based on the
encryption of the RAND with the authentication algorithm (A3) using the individual
subscriber authentication key (Ki). Upon receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the
GSM network repeats the calculationto verify the identity of the subscriber.
The individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the
radio channel, as it is present in the subscriber's SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and
VLR databases. If the received SRES agrees with the calculated value, the MS has
been successfully authenticated and may continue. If the values do not match, the
connection is terminated and an authentication failure is indicated to the MS.
The calculation of the signed response is processed within the SIM. It
provides enhanced security, as confidential subscriber information such as the IMSI
or the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never released from the SIM
during the authentication process.
Signalling and Data Confidentiality
The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that is used to
produce the 64-bit ciphering key (Kc). This key is computed by applying the same
random number (RAND) used in the authentication process to ciphering key
generating algorithm (A8) with the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki).
GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to change the
ciphering key, making the system more resistant to eavesdropping. The ciphering
key may be
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

changed at regular intervals as required. As in case of the authentication

process, thecomputation of the ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the
SIM. Therefore, sensitive information such as the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never revealed by the SIM.
Encrypted voice and data communications between the MS and the
network isaccomplished by using the ciphering algorithm A5. Encrypted
communication is initiated bya ciphering mode request command from the GSM
network. Upon receipt of this command, the mobile station begins encryption and
decryption of data using the ciphering algorithm (A5) and the ciphering key (Kc).
Subscriber Identity Confidentiality
To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary Mobile
Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is used. Once the authentication and encryption
procedures are done, the TMSI is sent to the mobile station. After the receipt, the
mobile station responds. The TMSIis valid in the location area in which it was
issued. For communications outside the locationarea, the Location Area
Identification (LAI) is necessary in addition to the TMSI. GSM Billing

GSM service providers are doing billing based on the services they are
providing to their customers. All the parameters are simple enough to charge a
customer for the provided services.
Telephony Service
These services can be charged on per call basis. The call initiator has to pay
the charges, and the incoming calls are nowadays free. A customer can be charged
based on different parameters such as:
 International call or long distance call.
 Local call.
 Call made during peak hours.
 Call made during night time.
 Discounted call during weekends.
 Call per minute or per second.
 Many more other criteria can be designed by a service provider to
charge theircustomers.
SMS Service
Most of the service providers charge their customer's SMS services based on
the number of text messages sent. There are other prime SMS services available
where service providers charge more than normal SMS charge. These services are
being availed in
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

collaboration of Television Networks or Radio Networks to demand SMS from the

audiences.
Most of the time, the charges are paid by the SMS sender but for some
services like stocks and share prices, mobile banking facilities, and leisure booking
services, etc. the recipient of the SMS has to pay for the service.
GPRS Services
Using GPRS service, you can browse, play games on the Internet, and
download movies. So a service provider will charge you based on the data uploaded
as well as data downloaded on your mobile phone. These charges will be based on
per Kilo Byte data downloaded/uploaded.
Additional parameter could be a QoS provided to you. If you want to watch a
movie, then a low QoS may work because some data loss may be acceptable, but if
you are downloading a zip file, then a single byte loss will corrupt your complete
downloaded file.Another parameter could be peak and off peak time to download a
data file or to browse the Internet.
Supplementary Services
Most of the supplementary services are being provided based on monthly
rental or absolutely free. For example, call waiting, call forwarding, calling number
identification,and call on hold are available at zero cost.
Call barring is a service, which service providers use just to recover their dues,
etc., otherwise this service is not being used by any subscriber. Call conferencing
service is a form of simple telephone call where the customers are charged for
multiple calls made at a time. No service provider charges extra charge for this
service.
Closed User Group (CUG) is very popular and is mainly being used to give
special discounts to the users if they are making calls to a particular defined group
of subscribers. Advice of Charge (AoC) can be charged based on number of queries
made by a subscriber.

GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE

General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation
step toward internet access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System
Mobile Communications Internet Protocol as it keeps the users of this system online,
allows to make voice calls, and access internet on-the-go. Even Time-Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio
access.
GPRS also permits the network operators to execute an Internet Protocol (IP)
based core architecture for integrated voice and data applications that will continue
to be used and expanded for 3G services.
GPRS supersedes the wired connections, as this system has simplified
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

access to the packet data networks like the internet. The packet radio principle is
employed by GPRS to
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

transport user data packets in a structure way between GSM mobile stations and
external packet data networks. These packets can be directly routed to the packet
switched networks from the GPRS mobile stations.
In the current versions of GPRS, networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP)
like the global internet or private/corporate intranets and X.25 networks are
supported.
Who owns GPRS ?
The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications
Standard Institute (ETSI), the European counterpart of the American National
Standard Institute (ANSI).
Key Features
Following three key features describe wireless packet data:
 The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications
only oneclick away.
 An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their
equipment;rather, GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.
 An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network
for 3Gsystems EDGE and WCDMA.
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Goals of GPRS
GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the
followinggoals:
 Open architecture
 Consistent IP services
 Same infrastructure for different air interfaces
 Integrated telephony and Internet infrastructure
 Leverage industry investment in IP
 Service innovation independent of infrastructure
Benefits of
GPRS Higher
Data Rate
GPRS benefits the users in many ways, one of which is higher data rates in
turn of shorter access times. In the typical GSM mobile, setup alone is a lengthy
process and equally, rates for data permission are restrained to 9.6 kbit/s. The
session establishment time offered while GPRS is in practice is lower than one
second and ISDN-line data rates are upto many 10 kbit/s.
Easy Billing
GPRS packet transmission offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered
by circuit switched services. In circuit switched services, billing is based on the
duration of the connection. This is unsuitable for applications with bursty traffic. The
user must pay for the entire airtime, even for idle periods when no packets are sent
(e.g., when the user reads a Web page).
In contrast to this, with packet switched services, billing can be based on the
amount of transmitted data. The advantage for the user is that he or she can be
"online" over a long period of time but will be billed based on the transmitted data
volume.
GPRS Architecture
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has
additional entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps
a second-generation GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates
from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet data transport the GSM network
accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface resources
concurrently. Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as

possible, but to effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new
network elements, interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.
Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as
summarized below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS

services.These new terminals will be backward
compatible with GSM for voice calls.

BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing

BaseTransceiver Station(BTS).

BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a

software upgrade and the installation of new
hardware called thepacket control unit (PCU). The
PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS network
and can be a separate hardware element
associated with the BSC.

GPRS Support Nodes The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of

(GSNs)
newcore network elements called the serving GPRS
support node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support
node (GGSN).
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network will
requiresoftware upgrades to handle the new call
models and functions introduced by GPRS.

GPRS Mobile Stations

New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because
existing GSM phones do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A
variety of MS can exist, including a high-speed version of current phones to support
high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an embedded GSM phone, and PC
cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are backward compatible for
making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs)
and a software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to
the Base StationSubsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a
software upgrade but typically does not require hardware enhancements.
When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is
transported over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the
same way as a standard GSM call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is
separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM,
and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay
interface.
GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs)
and,Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to
external networks. It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used
to tunnel packets through the IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving
GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects charging information connected to the
use of the external data networks and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
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Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS
mobiles, registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and
collecting information on charging for the use of the air interface.
Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between
different GSNs. Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal
backbone does not need any information about domains outside the GPRS network.
Signalling from a GSN to aMSC, HLR or EIR is done using SS7.
Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to
Location Area in GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing
areas are smaller than location areas, less radio resources are used while
broadcasting a page message.

GPRS Protocol Stack

The flow of GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message from MS to the
GGSN is displayed in the below diagram. GTP is the protocol used between the
SGSN and GGSN using the Gn interface. This is a Layer 3 tunnelling protocol.

The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-
network for the users both inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs
attention is, the application communicates via standard IP, that is carried through
the GPRS network and out through the gateway GPRS. The packets that are mobile
between the GGSN and the SGSN use the GPRS tunnelling protocol, this way the IP
addresses located on the external side of
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the GPRS network do not have deal with the internal backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.

SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link

Control (LLC) combination used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP
flattens data to reduce the load on the radio channel. A safe logical link by
encrypting packets is provided by LLC and the same LLC link is used as long as a
mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different
SGSN; then, the old LLC link is removed and a new link is established with the new
Serving GSN
X.25. Services are provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.
GPRS Applications
GPRS has opened a wide range of unique services to the mobile wireless
subscriber. Some of the characteristics that have opened a market full of enhanced
value services to the users. Below are some of the characteristics:
 Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications
while onthe move.
 Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed,
regardless oflocation and without a lengthy login session.
 Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their
currentlocation.
 Using the above three characteristics varied possible applications are being
developed to offer to the mobile subscribers. These applications, in general,
can be divided into two high-level categories:
o Corporation
o Consumer

 Communications - E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/internet access, etc.

 Value-added services - Information services and games, etc.
 E-commerce - Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading, etc.
 Location-based applications - Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail
schedulesand location finder, etc.
 Vertical applications - Freight delivery, fleet management and sales
-forceautomation.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 Advertising - Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user

entering amall can receive advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.
Along with the above applications, non-voice services like SMS, MMS and
voice callsare also possible with GPRS. Closed User Group (CUG) is a common term
used after GPRS is in the market, in addition, it is planned to implement
supplementary services, such as Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), and Call
Forwarding on Mobile subscriber Not Reachable (CFNRc), and closed user group
(CUG).
GPRS Quality Of Service
Quality of Service (QoS) requirements of conventional mobile packet data
applications are in assorted forms. The QoS is a vital feature of GPRS services as
there are different QoS support requirements for assorted GPRS applications like
realtime multimedia, web browsing, and e-mail transfer.
GPRS allows defining QoS profiles using the following parameters :
 Service Precedence
 Reliability
 Delay and
 Throughput
These parameters are described below:
Service Precedence
The preference given to a service when compared to another service is
known as
Service Precedence. This level of priority is classified into three levels called:
 high
 normal
 low
When there is network congestion, the packets of low priority are
discarded ascompared to high or normal priority packets.
Reliability
This parameter signifies the transmission characteristics required by an
application. The reliability classes are defined which guarantee certain maximum
values for the probability of loss, duplication, mis-sequencing, and corruption of
packets.
Delay
The delay is defined as the end-to-end transfer time between two
communicating mobile stations or between a mobile station and the GI interface to
an external packet data network.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

This includes all delays within the GPRS network, e.g., the delay for request
and assignment of radio resources and the transit delay in the GPRS backbone
network. Transfer delays outside the GPRS network, e.g., in external transit
networks, are not taken into account.
Throughput
The throughput specifies the maximum/peak bit rate and the mean bit rate.
Using these QoS classes, QoS profiles can be negotiated between the mobile user
and the network for each session, depending on the QoS demand and the available
resources. The billing of the service is then based on the transmitted data volume,
the type of service, and the chosen QoS profile.
GPRS Mobile Station Class
Mobile Station Classes talk about the globally-known equipment handset
which is also known as Mobile Station (MS) and its three different classes. This
equipment, more popular as handset, is used to make phone calls and access data
services. The MS comprises of Terminal Equipment (TE) and Mobile Terminal (MT).
TE is the equipment that accommodates the applications and the user
interaction, while the MT is the part that connects to the network.
In the following example, Palm Pilot is TE and Mobile phone is MT.

In order to take advantage of the new GPRS services, we need new GPRS
enabled handsets. There are three different classes of GPRS terminal equipments:
Class A
Class A terminals can manage both packet data and voice simultaneously.
Which means, one needs two transceivers, as the handset has to send or receive
data and voice at
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

the same time. This is the main reason why class A terminals are high-priced to
manufacturethan class B and C terminals.
Class B
Class B terminals do not play the same role like Class A. These terminals can
manage either packet data or voice at a time. One can use a single transceiver for
both, resulting in the low cost of terminals.
For example, If a user is using the GPRS session (like WAP browsing, file
transfer, etc.) then this session is halted if he or she receives a call. This terminal
does not allow both the sessions active in one go. This backlog needs rectification
thereby giving the user a facility of both receiving a call and maintaining the data
session.
Class C
Class C terminals can manage either only packet data or only voice.
Examples of class C terminals are GPRS PCM/CIA cards, embedded modules in
vending machines, and so on. Due to the high cost of class A handsets, most
handset manufacturers have announced that their first handsets will be class B.
Currently, work is going on in 3GPP to standardize a light weight class A in order to
make handsets with simultaneous voice and data available at a reasonable cost.
GPRS Access Mode
The GPRS access modes specify whether or not the GGSN requests user
authentication at theaccess point to a Public Data Network (PDN). The available
options are:
 Transparent - No security authorization/authentication is requested by the GGSN.
 Non-transparent - In this case, GGSN acts as a proxy for
authenticating.The GPRS transparent and non-transparent modes relate
only to PDP type IPv4. Transparent Mode
Transparent access pertains to a GPRS PLMN that is not involved in subscriber
access
authorization and authentication. Access to PDN-related security procedures are
transparent to GSNs. In transparent access mode, the MS is given an address
belonging to the operator orany other addressing space of domain. The address is
given either at subscription as a static address or at PDP context activation, as a
dynamic address.
The dynamic address is allocated from a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) server in the GPRS network. Any user authentication is done within the GPRS
network. No RADIUS authentication is performed; only IMSI-based authentication
(from the subscriber identity module in the handset) is done.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Non Transparent Mode

Non-transparent access to an intranet/ISP means that the PLMN plays a role
in the intranet/ISP authentication of the MS. Non-transparent access uses the
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) or Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol (CHAP)message issued by the mobile terminal and piggybacked in the GTP
PDP context activation message. This message is used to build a RADIUS request
toward the RADIUS serverassociated with the access point name (APN).
GPRS Access Point Name
The GPRS standards define a network identity called an Access Point Name
(APN). An APN identifies a PDN that is accessible from a GGSN node in a GPRS
network. In GPRS,only the APN is used to select the target network. To configure an
APN, the operatorconfigures three elements on the GSN node:
 Access point - Defines an APN and its associated access characteristics,
includingsecurity (RADIUS), dynamic address allocation (DHCP), and DNS
services.
 Access point list - Defines a logical interface that is associated with the virtual template.
 Access group - Defines whether access is permitted between the PDN and the MS.
GPRS Billing
As packet data is introduced into mobile systems, the question of how to bill
for the services arises. Always online and paying by the minute does not sound all
that appealing. Here, we describe the possibilities but it totally depends on different
service providers, how they want to charge their customers.
The SGSN and GGSN register all possible aspects of a GPRS user's behaviour
and generate billing information accordingly. This information is gathered in so-
called Charging Data Records (CDR) and is delivered to a billing gateway.
The GPRS service charging can be based on the following parameters:
 Volume - The amount of bytes transferred, i.e., downloaded and uploaded.
 Duration - The duration of a PDP context session.
 Time - Date, time of day, and day of the week (enabling lower tariffs at
off peakhours).
 Final destination - A subscriber could be charged for access to the specific
network,such as through a proxy server.
 Location - The current location of the subscriber.
 Quality of Service - Pay more for higher network priority.
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 SMS - The SGSN will produce specific CDRs for SMS.

 Served IMSI/subscriber - Different subscriber classes (different tariffs for
frequentusers, businesses, or private users).
 Reverse charging - The receiving subscriber is not charged for the
received data;instead, the sending party is charged.
 Free of charge - Specified data to be free of charge.
 Flat rate - A fixed monthly fee.
Bearer service - Charging based on different bearer services (for an operator
who has several networks, such as GSM900 and GSM1800, and who wants
to promote usage of one of the networks). Or, perhaps the bearer service
would be good for areas where it would be cheaper for the operator to offer
services from a wireless LAN rather than from the GSM network.

UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third
generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard.
Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project), UMTS
is a component of the Standard International Union all IMT-2000
telecommunications and compares it with the standard set for CDMA2000
networks based on competition cdma One technology. UMTS uses wideband code
division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to provide greater
spectral efficiency and bandwidth mobile network operators.
Network Evolution
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An Evolution that Makes Sense

HSUPA : High Speed Uplink Packet Access

HSDPA : High speed downlink packet access
The main idea behind 3G is to prepare a universal infrastructure able to carry
existing and also future services. The infrastructure should be so designed that
technology changes and evolution can be adapted to the network without causing
uncertainties to the existing services using the existing network structure.
WCDMA Technology
The first Multiple Access Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
Wideband Code Division networks (WCDMA) were launched in 2002. At the end of
2005, there were 100 WCDMA networks open and a total of more than 150
operators with licenses for frequencies WCDMA operation. Currently, WCDMA
networks are deployed in UMTS bandof around 2 GHz in Europe and Asia, including
Japan and America Korea.
WCDMA is deployed in the 850 and 1900 of the existing frequency allocations
and the new 3G band 1700/2100 should be available in the near future. 3GPP has
defined WCDMA operation for several additional bands, which are expected to be
commissioned in the coming years. As WCDMA mobile penetration increases, it
allows WCDMA networks to carry a greater share of voice and data traffic.
WCDMA technology provides some advantages for the operator in that it
allows the data, but also improves the voice of base. Voice capacity offered is
very high due tointerference control mechanisms, including frequency reuse of 1,
fast power control, and softhandover. WCDMA can offer a lot more voice minutes to
customers. Meanwhile WCDMA can also improve broadband voice service with
AMR codec, which clearly
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

provides better voice quality than fixed telephone landline. In short, WCDMA can
offer more voice minutes with better quality.
In addition to the high spectral efficiency, third-generation (3G) WCDMA
provides even more dramatic change in capacity of the base station and the
efficiency of the equipment. The high level of integration in the WCDMA is achieved
due to the broadband carrier: a large number of users supported by the carrier, and
less radio frequency (RF) carriers are required to provide the same capacity.
With less RF parts and more digital baseband processing, WCDMA can take
advantage of the rapid evolution of digital signal processing capability. The level of
integration of the high base station enables efficient building high capacity sites
since the complexity of RF combiners, additional antennas or power cables can be
avoided. WCDMA operators are able to provide useful data services, including
navigation, person to person video calls, sports and video and new mobile TV clips.
WCDMA enables simultaneous voice and data which allows, for example,
browsing or email when voice conferencing or video sharing in real time during
voice calls.
The operators also offer mobile connectivity to the Internet and corporate intranet
with maximum bit rate of 384 kbps downlink and both uplink. The first terminals
and networks have been limited to 64 to 128 kbps uplink while the latter products
provide 384 kbps uplink.
HSPA Standardization
High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) was standardized as part of
3GPP Release 5 with the first specification version in March 2002. High-speed
uplink packet access (HSUPA) was part of 3GPP Release 6 with the first
specification version in December 2004. HSDPA and HSUPA together are called
High-Speed Packet Access‘ (HSPA).
The first commercial HSDPA networks were available at the end of 2005 and
the commercial HSUPA networks were available on 2007. The HSDPA peak data
rate available in the terminals is initially 1.8Mbps and will increase to 3.6 and 7.2
Mbps during 2006 and 2007, and later on 10Mbps and beyond 10Mbps. The HSUPA
peak data rate in the initial phase was 1–2 Mbps and the second phase was
3–4Mbps.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

HSPA is deployed over the WCDMA network on the same carrier or - for high
capacity and high speed solution - using another carrier. In both cases, WCDMA and
HSPA can share all the network elements in the core network and the radio network
comprising base stations, radio network controller (RNC), Serving GPRS Support
Node (SGSN) and theGateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). WCDMA and HSPA also
share the site base station antennas and antenna cables.
The upgrade WCDMA HSPA requires new software and potentially new
equipment in the base station and RNC to support the rate and higher data capacity.
Because of the shared infrastructure between WCDMA and HSPA, the cost of the
upgrade WCDMA HSPA is very low compared to the construction of a new stand-
alone data network.
UMTS - Radio Interface and Radio Network Aspects
After the introduction of UMTS the amount of wide area data transmission by
mobile users had picked up. But for the local wireless transmissions such as WLAN
and DSL, technology has increased at a much higher rate. Hence, it was important to
consider the data transmission rates equal to the category of fixed line broadband,
when WIMAX has already set high targets for transmission rates. It was clear that
the new 3GPP radio technology Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA, synonymous with the LTE
radio interface) had to become strongly competitive in all respect and for that
following target transmission rates were defined:
 Downlink: 100 Mb/s
 Uplink: 50 Mb/s
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Above numbers are only valid for a reference configuration of two antennas for
reception and one transmit antenna in the terminal, and within a 20 MHz spectrum
allocation.
UMTS – All IP Vision
A very general principle was set forth for the Evolved 3GPP system. It should
―all IP‖, means that the IP connectivity is the basic service which is provided to the
users. All other layer services like voice, video, messaging, etc. are built on that.
Looking at the protocol stacks for interfaces between the network nodes, it is clear
that simple model of IPis not applicable to a mobile network.
There are virtual layers in between, which is not applicable to a mobile
network. There are virtual layer in between, in the form of ―tunnels‖, providing the
three aspects - mobility, security, and quality of service. Resulting, IP based
protocols appear both on the transport layer (between network nodes) and on
higher layers.
UMTS – Requirements of the New Architecture
There is a new architecture that covers good scalability, separately for user
plane and control plane. There is a need for different types of terminal mobility
support that are: fixed, nomadic, and mobile terminals. The minimum transmission
and signalling overhead especially in air, in an idle mode of the dual mode UE
signalling should be minimized, in theradio channel multicast capability.
It is required to be reused or extended, as roaming and network sharing
restrictions, compatible with traditional principles established roaming concept,
quite naturally, the maximum transmission delay required is equivalent to the fixed
network, specifically less than 5 milliseconds, set to control plane is less than 200
milliseconds delay target.
Looking at the evolution of the 3GPP system in full, it may not seem less
complex than traditional 3GPP system, but this is due to the huge increase in
functionality. Another strong desire is to arrive at a flat structure, reducing
CAPEX/OPEX for operators in the 3GPP architecture carriers.
Powerful control functions should also be maintained with the new 3GPP
systems, both real-time seamless operation (for example, VoIP) and non-real-time
applications and services. The system should perform well for VoIP services in both
the scenarios. Special attention is also paid to the seamless continuity with legacy
systems (3GPP and 3GPP2), supports the visited network traffic local breakout of
voice communications.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

UMTS – Security and Privacy

Visitor Location Register (VLR) and SNB are used to keep track of all the
mobile stations that are currently connected to the network. Each subscriber can be
identified by its International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). To protect against
profiling attacks, the permanent identifier is sent over the air interface as
infrequently as possible. Instead, local identities Temporary Mobile Subscriber force
(TMSI) is used to identify a subscriber whenever possible.
Each UMTS subscriber has a dedicated home network with which it shares a secret
key Ki long term. The Home Location Register (HLR) keeps track of the current
location of all the home network subscribers. Mutual authentication between a
mobile station and a visited network is carried out with the support of the current
GSN (SGSN) and the MSC / VLR, respectively. UMTS supports encryption of the
radio interface and the integrity protection of signalling messages.
UMTS – WCDMA Technology
The first Multiple Access Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
Wideband Code Division networks (WCDMA) were launched in 2002. At the end of
2005, there were
100 WCDMA networks open and a total of more than 150 operators with licenses for
frequencies WCDMA operation. Currently, WCDMA networks are deployed in UMTS
band of around 2 GHz in Europe and Asia, including Japan and America Korea.
WCDMA is deployed in the 850 and 1900 of the existing frequency allocations and
the new 3G band 1700/2100 should be available in the near future. 3GPP has defined
WCDMA operation for several additional bands, which are expected to be
commissioned in the coming years.
As WCDMA mobile penetration increases, it allows WCDMA networks to carry
a greater share of voice and data traffic. WCDMA technology provides some
advantages for theoperator in that it allows the data, but also improves the voice of
base. Voice capacity offered is very high due to interference control mechanisms,
including frequency reuse of 1, fast power control, and soft handover.
WCDMA can offer a lot more voice minutes to customers. Meanwhile WCDMA
can also improve broadband voice service with AMR codec, which clearly provides
better voice quality than fixed telephone landline. In short, WCDMA can offer more
voice minutes with better quality.
In addition to the high spectral efficiency, third-generation (3G) WCDMA
provides even more dramatic change in capacity of the base station and the
efficiency of the equipment. The high level of integration in the WCDMA is achieved
due to the broadband
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

carrier: a large number of users supported by the carrier, and less radio frequency
(RF) carriers are required to provide the same capacity.
With less RF parts and more digital baseband processing, WCDMA can take
advantage of the rapid evolution of digital signal processing capability. The level of
integration of the high base station enables efficient building high capacity sites
since the complexity of RF combiners, additional antennas or power cables can be
avoided. WCDMA operators are able to provide useful data services, including
navigation, person to person video calls, sports and video and new mobile TV clips.
WCDMA enables simultaneous voice and data which allows, for example,
browsing or email when voice conferencing or video sharing in real time during voice
calls.
The operators also offer mobile connectivity to the Internet and corporate intranet
withmaximum bit rate of 384 kbps downlink and both uplink. The first terminals and
networks have been limited to 64 to 128 kbps uplink while the latter products provide
384 kbps uplink.
WCDMA-3G
3G wireless service has been designed to provide high data speeds, always-on
data access, and greater voice capacity. Listed below are a few notable points: The
high data speeds, measured in Mbps, enable full motion video, high-speed internet
access and video- conferencing. 3G technology standards include UMTS, based on
WCDMA technology (quite often the two terms are used interchangeably) and
CDMA2000, which is the outgrowth of the earlier CDMA 2G technology.
UMTS standard is generally preferred by countries that use GSM network.
CDMA2000 has various types, including 1xRTT, 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV. The data
rates they offer range from 144 kbps to more than 2 mbps.
Sub-systems of 3G Network
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems:
 Network Subsystem (NSS): MSC/VLR, HLR, AuC, SMSC, EIR, MGW.
Commonfor both 2G & 3G Network.
 UTRAN: RNC & RBS.
 Operation and maintenance Support Subsystem (OSS).

 IuCS: Between RNC and MSC for speech & Circuit data;
 IuPS: Between RNC & SGSN for packet data;
 Uu interface: Between the RNC and MS.
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UMTS – 3GPP
rd
3 Generation Partnership Project or 3GPP, is the standardization group for mobile
networks and is in existence since 1998. 3GPP specification come in bundles called
―Release‖.
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
3GPP releases are from Release 99 to Release 7.

Release Published Key Architectural Features

Release 99 March 2000 UTRAN, USIM

Release 4 March 2001 MSC Split into MSC server and Media Gateway

Release 5 March 2002 IMS, HSPDA, IP based UTRAN

Release 6 March 2005 I-WLAN, HSUPA, MBMS, IMS

Release 7 Dec 2007 Unified PCC, Direct Tunnel, MIMO, HSPA+, IMS, VCC

The network entities in brief are:

UE User Equipment: the mobile terminal

BTS Base Transceiver Station: the 2G/2,5G radio base station

BSC Base Station Controller: a controlling node in the 2G radio network

NodeB 3G radio base station

RNC network Radio NW controller: controlling and concentrating node in the 3G

radio
(G)MSC Nodes (Gateway) Mobile Switching Center: circuit switched core network

S/GGSN Nodes Serving/Gateway GPRS Support Node: packet switched core

network
HLR/HSS base Home Location Register / Home Subscription Server: central data

PCRF Policy and Charging Rules Function: a control node for

policymanagement and charging

3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2)

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3GPP2 is the corresponding part of 3GPP market. 3GPP2 standards body has
also developed a large set of specifications describing own mobile network
technology, the current generation being labelled as CDMA2000 ©. 3GPP2 is 3GPP
concepts and solutions, but is chosen selectively different. Regarding LTE, there has
been a growing interest of 3GPP2 operators in recent years to allow between flexible
and efficient. The inheritance 3GPP2 technology includes a component called 1xRTT
CS and PS component (EVDO vs eHRPD). 3GPP2 consider their (eHRPD) high-speed
packet data network as equivalent to 3GPP old system, the right to transfer
procedures optimized specially designed.
Architecture of the 3GPP System
The overall architecture of the 3GPP, evolved system as well as the core and
access networks already existing 3GPP defined are called "legacy 3GPP system".
The access networks which are not defined by the 3GPP, but may be used in
conjunction withthe evolved 3GPP system are called "non-3GPP access networks".
The area of service must be understood as the multitude of IP services, so in
general they are represented and implemented by packet data networks (PDN). IP
service can simply offer a raw IP connectivity (i.e. allowing an internet connection),
providing a connection to a corporate network, or an advanced IP-based control
functionality such as telephony and instant messaging via IMS.
It is called "Evolved UTRAN" (EUTRAN). GERAN and UTRAN are the existing
radio access networks and are connected to the legacy PS domain. Evolved Packet
Core (EPC) in addition to the basic functions to manage packet routing and
forwarding (for the transport of user data) contains all the features necessary to
control especially for mobility, session handling, safety and load.
For interworking with legacy CS domain, the CS core network should be
consideredas well and interfaced with the backend IMS. The dotted arrow indicates
an optional interconnection between legacy CS core networks and the new network
Evolved Packet Core, the decline in profit to the CS domain for voice services, if
necessary.
UMTS – Radio Access Network
The more general term "Evolved Radio Access Network" (eRAN), can also be
used as part of signalling protocols, as the term "access stratum" (AS) can be used.
The comparison reveals that E-UTRAN consists of one type of nodes, namely
Evolved Node B (eNodeB), and the variety of interconnections is reduced to a
minimum. eNodeB is a radio base station and transmits/receives via its antenna in
an area (cell), limited by physical
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

factors (signal strength, interference conditions, and conditions of radio wave

propagation). It has logical interfaces X2 with neighbouring eNodeB and the EPC
via S1.
Both have a control part (that is, say for signalling) and a user plane part (for
payload data). Point to the EU reference (which includes radio link interface and a
mobile network protocol stack bound) is called "LTE-U u" to indicate that it differs
from the legacy counterpart EU X2 connectivity neighbouring eNodeBs. They may
be considered for most of the E-UTRAN and is used in most cases of handovers
between radio cells.
As the UE moves, long handover preparation is done via signalling, through X2
between the two data eNodeBs and affected users can be transmitted between
them for a short period of time. Only in special cases, it may happen that X2 is not
configured for eNodeB between two neighbours. In this case transfers are always
supported, but the preparation of transfer and the data transmission is then made
via the EPC. Accordingly, higher latency and less "homogeneity" must therefore be
provided.

In more detail, the functions performed by the eNodeB are:

 Radio Resource Management: Radio Bearer Control, Radio Admission Control,
Connection Control Mobility, dynamic allocation of resources (i.e. scheduling)
to UES as uplink and downlink.
 Header compression of IP and encryption of user data stream.
 Forwarding the data packets of user plane to the EPC (especially, toward
the GWnode service).
 Transport level packet marking in the uplink, for example, DiffServ code
pointsetting, based on the QoS class index (QCI) of the EPS bearer
associated.
 Planning and delivery of paging messages (on request of MS).
 Planning and transmission of broadcast information (origin of the MME or O & M).
 Measurement configuration delivering and reporting on the extent of
mobility andprogramming.
UMTS – evolved packet core
By the early architectural work for the system evolved 3GPP, two views on the
implementation of mobility with the user plane and control plane protocols were
presented. The first was promoted as the good performance of the GPRS Tunnelling
Protocol (GTP), while the other pushed for the new (and the so-called "base" of the
IETF) protocols. Both hadgood arguments on their side:
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 GTP evolution : This protocol has proven its usefulness and capabilities to
operators, and was very successful in the large scale operations. It was
designed exactly to the needs of the mobile networks PS.
 IETF based protocols : IETF is the de facto standards body for the internet.
Their mobility protocols have evolved from focusing on mobile IP-based
network client to "Proxy Mobile IP (MIP)." PMIP was standardized in 3GPP
Evolved parallel system. (But Mobile IP client base is used in EPS in
conjunction with non-3GPP access support.)
EPC for 3GPP access in non-roaming
The functions provided by the reference points and the protocols employed are:
LTE-Uu
LTE-Uu is the point of reference for radio interface between EU and eNodeB,
encompasses control plane and user plane. The top layer of the control plan is called
"Radio Resource Control" (RRC). It is stacked on "Packet Data Convergence Protocol"
(PDCP), Radio Link Control and MAC layers.
S1-U
SI-U is the point for user plane traffic between eNodeB and serve GW
reference. The main activity via this benchmark is to transfer IP packets
encapsulated users arising from traffic or tunnel shape. Encapsulation is needed to
realize the virtual IP link between eNodeB and GW service, even during the movement
of EU, and thus enable mobility. The protocol used is based on GTP-U.
S1-MME
S1-MME is the point for the control plane between eNodeB and MME
reference. All control activities are carried out on it, for example, signalling for
attachment, detachment, andthe establishment of the support of the change, safety
procedures, etc. Note that some of this traffic is transparent to the E-UTRAN and is
exchanged directly between EU and MS, it is a part called "non-access stratum" (NAS)
signalling.
S5
S5 is the benchmark that includes the control and user plane between GW and
PDN GW Service and applies only if both nodes reside in the HPLMN; the
corresponding referencepoint when serving GW is VPLMN is called S8. As explained
above, two protocol variants are possible here, an enhanced GPRS Tunnelling
Protocol (GTP) and Proxy Mobile IP(PMIP).
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

S6a
S6a is the reference point for the exchange of information relating to
subscriptions
equipment (download and purging). It corresponds to Gr and D reference point in the
existingsystem, and is based on the DIAMETER protocol.
SGi
This is the point of exit for DPR, and corresponds to the Gi reference point
GPRS and Wi in I-WLAN. IETF protocols are based here for the user plane (i.e. IPv4
and IPv6 packet forwarding) protocols and control plane as DHCP and
radius/diameter for configuring IP address/external network protocol are used.
S10
S10 is a reference point for the MME relocation purposes. It is a pure control
planeinterface and advanced GTP-C protocol is used for this purpose.
S11
S11 is a reference point for the existing control plane between MME and GW
service. It employs the advanced GTP-C (GTP-C v2) protocol. The holder(s) of data
between eNodeBand serve GW are controlled by the concatenation S1-S11 and MME.
S13
S13 is the reference point for Equipment Identity Register (EIR) and MME, and
it is used for identity control (e.g. based on IMEI, if blacklisted). It uses the diameter
protocol SCTP.
Gx
Gx is the reference point of the QoS policy filtering policy and control the load
between PCRF and PDN GW. It is used to provide filters and pricing rules. The
protocol usedis the DIAMETER.
Gxc
Gxc is the reference point that exists in over Gx but is located between GW and
PCRFand serves only if PMIP is used on S5 or S8.
Rx
Rx is defined as an application function (AF), located in NDS and PCRF for the
exchange of policy and billing information; it uses the DIAMETER protocol.
EPC for 3GPP Access in Roaming
In roaming this case the user plane either:

Extends back to the HPLMN (via an interconnection network), which means

that allEU user traffic is routed through a PDN GW in the HPLMN, where the DPRs are
connected;
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

or For the sake of a more optimal way of traffic, it leaves a PDN GW in the VPLMN to
a local PDN.
The first is called "home routed traffic" and the second is called "local
breakout". (Note that the second term is also used in the discussion of traffic
optimization for home NBs/eNodeB, but with a different meaning because in the
concept of roaming 3GPP, the control plan always involves the HPLMN).
Interworking between EPC and Legacy
From the beginning, it was clear that the 3GPP Evolved system will
interoperate seamlessly with existing 2G and 3G systems, 3GPP PS widely deployed
or, more precisely, with GERAN and UTRAN GPRS base (For aspects of interworking
with the old CS system for the treatment of optimized voice).
The question of the basic architectural design to 2G/3G in EPS is the
location of theGGSN map. Two versions are available, and both are supported:
 The GW used : It is the normal case where serving the GW ends the user plane
(as seen in the existing GPRS network).The control plan is completed in the
MME, according to the distribution of users and control plane in EPC. S3 and
S4 reference points are introduced, and they are based on GTP-U and GTP-C,
correspondingly. S5/S8 is chained to the PDN GW. The advantage is that
interoperability is smooth and optimized. The downside is that for this kind of
interoperability SGSN must be upgraded to Rel. 8 (due to the necessary
support new features on S3 and S4).
 The PDN GW : In this case the unchanged benchmark inheritance Gn (when
roaming, it would Gp) is reused between SGSN and PDN GW, for both control
and user plane. The advantage of this use is that SGSN can be pre-Rel. 8.
Furthermore, it carries a certain restriction on IP versions, transfer and S5 / S8
protocol.
Interworking with Legacy 3GPP CS System
During the 3GPP Evolved design phase, it became clear that the legacy CS
system, with its most important service "voice" communication, could not be ignored
by the new system. The operators were simply too related investments in the field,
and so very efficient interworking was requested.
Two solutions have been developed:
 Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC) for transferring voice calls from
LTE(with voice over IMS) to the legacy system.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 CS fallback: Enabling a temporary move to the legacy CS before a CS

incoming oroutgoing activity is performed.
Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC)
In this solution chosen by 3GPP for SRVCC with GERAN/UTRAN, a specially
reinforced MSC is connected via a new interface control plane for MME. Note that the
MSC serving the EU can be different than supporting the Sv interface. In the IMS, an
application server (AS) for SRVCC is necessary. Sv is based on GTPv2 and helps
prepare resources in the target system (access and core network and the
interconnection between CS and IMS domain), while being connected to access the
source.
Similarly, with SRVCC CDMA 1xRTT requires interworking 1xRTT Server (IWS),
which supports the interface and signal relay from / to 1xRTT MSC serving the UE
S102 with the same purpose. S102 is a tunnel interface and transmits 1xRTT
signaling messages;between MME and UE these are encapsulated.
CS Fallback
Serving GW and PDN GW are not separated (S5/S8 is not exposed) and the
VLR is integrated with the MSC server. A new SG interface is introduced between the
MSC Server/VLR and MME, allowing combined and coordinated procedures. The
concept consists of:
 Signal relay to end the CS request (incoming calls, handling network triggered
additional service or SMS Legacy) from the MSC Server for MS on SG and vice
versa;
 The combined operating procedures between the PS domain and the CS domain.
Interworking with Non-3GPP Access
Interworking with different system of 3GPP access networks (called non-
3GPP/access) was an important target for SAE; this should be done under the EPC
umbrella. This interoperability can be achieved at different levels (and in fact, this
was done on the layer4 with VCC/SRVCC). But for the generic type of interworking, it
seemed necessary to rely on generic mechanisms, so the IP level seemed most
appropriate.

In general, complete systems for mobile and fixed networks have an

architecture similar to that described above. For the evolved 3GPP system there is
normally an access network and a core network. In the interworking architecture
scheduled evolved 3GPP system, other access technologies systems connect to the
EPC.
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In general, complete mobile network system and fixed network systems have
a similar architecture as described outlined in Evolved 3GPP system and normally
consist of an access network and a core network/ It was also decided to allow two
different types of interoperability, based on the property of the access systems. For
networks with non-3GPP access confidence, it is assumed that secure
communication between them and the EPC is implemented and also robust data
protection is sufficiently guaranteed.
UMTS – GPRS Tunnelling Protocol
The generation of GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) was virtually impossible,
but is also not desirable to give it for the new system, but, on the other hand, it is
quite understandable that the improvements are also needed in order to be able to
interact with the world of legacy PS smoothly and support functions needed for the
newest system.

GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)

GTP protocol is designed for tunnelling and encapsulation of data units and
control messages in GPRS. Since its design in the late 1990s, it was put to deploy on
a large scale, and solid experience has been gathered. GTP for Evolved 3GPP system
is available in two variants, control and user plane. GTP-C manages the control plane
signalling, and it is necessary in addition to the data transfer protocol on the purity of
the user, GTP-U; it is called user plane. Current versions, suitable for EPS are GTPv1
US and GTPv2-C.
The peculiarity of GTP is that it supports the separation of traffic within its
primary GTP tunnel holder, or in other words, the ability to group them together and
treat carriers. The ends of GTP tunnels are identified by TEIDs (Tunnel Endpoint
identifiers); they are assigned to the local level for the uplink and downlink by peer
entities and reported transversely between them. TEIDs are used on different
granularity by specific example PDN connection on S5 and S8 and EU on S3 / S4 /
S10 / S11 interfaces.
Control Plane of GPRS Tunnelling Protocol
GTPv2-C is used on the EPC signalling interfaces (including SGSNs of at least Rel.
8). Forexample:
 S3 (between SGSN and MME),
 S4 (between SGSN and Serving GW),
 S5 and S8 (between Serving GW and PDN GW),
 S10 (between two MMEs), and
 S11 (between MME and Serving GW).
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Corresponding to this, a typical GTPv2-C protocol data unit like shown in the
figure above, the specific part GTP is preceded by IP and UDP headers, it consists of
a header GTPv2-C and part containing information GTPv2-C variable in number,
length and format, depending on the type of the message. As the echo and the
notification of a protocol version is not supported, TEID information is not present.
The version is obviously firmly set at 2 in thisversion of the protocol.
GTP had a complex legacy extension header mechanism; it is not used in
mostGTPv2-C. The message type is defined in the second byte (so the maximum of
256 messages can be defined for future extensions). Below table provides an
overview of messages currently defined GTPv2-C. The length of the message is
coded in bytes 3 and 4 (measured in bytes and not containing the first four bytes
themselves).
TEID is the ID of the tunnel end point, a single value on the opposite/receiving
side; itallows multiplexing and de-multiplexing tunnels at one end in the very frequent
cases over a GTP tunnel must be distinguished.

Message Type Message Additional Explanation

0 Reserved Shall never be used (intentionally

excludedfrom protocol, to enforce
explicit setting)

½ Echo Used to probe if a GTP version supported by

Request/ thesending node.
Response

3 Version Not Contains the latest GTP version

Supported supported thesending node.
Indication

4/5 Direct Transfer Used for tunneling signaling message on

Request/ Response S101interface for optimized handover,
between
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HRPD access not and MME

6/7 Notification Used for tunneling notification on

Request/Response S101between HRPD access node
and MME

25/26 SRVCC PS to CS Used to trigger and confirm SRVCC

request initiationbetween SGSN/MME and MSC
server

27/28 SRVCC PS to CS Used to indicated and confirm

completion ofSRVCC between MSC
complete server and SGSN/ MME
Notification
32/33 Create Used to establish connectivity between
Session twonodes
Request

34/35 Modify Used to modify properties of a single

Bearer or ofmultiple bearer, include bearer
Request context information

36/37 Delete Tears down GTP control session

Session
Request

38/39 Change Used for reporting location information

Notification
request
Instruct nodes to delete bearer and
66/67 Delete bearer confirmback
command/
failureindication

68/69 Bearer resource Used to allocate or modify resources

command/
failureindication

73 Stop paging Sent from SGW to the MME or SGSN

indication
95/96 Create bearer Instruct nodes to install bearers and
request/response confirmsback
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97/98 Update bearer Used to inform the control plane nodes

request
from theuser plane about bearer changes

Enhanced GTPv1-U
Only a small but effective improvement was applied to GTP-U, and for that
it wasnot considered necessary to strengthen the number of protocol version. Thus,
we still expect GTPv1-U, but at least it‘s most recent Rel. 8.
The protocol stack is essentially the same as for GTPv2-C with only the name of the
layers and the protocols substituted accordingly. The extension header mechanism
is kept in place; it allows inserting two elements if necessary.
 UDP source port of the triggering message (two octets);
 PDCP PDU number: related to the characteristic transfer without loss; in
this case,data packets need to be numbered in the EPC (two octets).
The improvement is the ability to transmit an "end market" in the user plane. It is
used in the inter-eNodeB handover procedure and gives the indication that the
pathway is activated immediately after the data packet, for example, the feature is
not necessary to pre-Rel.8 because GTP-U did not end in the radio access node (i.e.
not in the BS or NodeB) only a fewmessages exist. GTPv1-U, and they are listed in
the table above.
It is clear that, in fact a very limited kind of signaling is possible via GTPv1-U
(echo mechanisms and end labeling). The only message that the transfer of real
user data is of type 255, the so-called G-PDU message; the only piece of
information it carries, after the header is the original data packet from a user or
external PDN equipment.
Not all instances of GTP-U tunnels are listed in the reference architecture (which
aimed to capture the associations were no longer living between network nodes);
temporary tunnelsare possible:
 Between two Serving GWs, applicable for the transfer based on S1, in the
case thatthe service is moved GW;
 Between two SGSNs, corresponds to the previous case, but in the legacy PS network;
 Between two RNCs, applicable for the relocation of the RNC in the 3G PS
network(no relation to the EPC, it is mentioned here just for completeness).
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

QUESTION BANK

ONE MARKS

1. Which of the following is the world’s first cellular system to specify digital modulation and network level
architecture?
a) GSM
b) AMPS
c) CDMA
d) IS-54

2. Previously in 1980s, GSM stands for ____________

a) Global system for mobile
b) Groupe special mobile
c) Global special mobile
d) Groupe system mobile
\
3. Who sets the standards of GSM?
a) ITU
b) AT & T
c) ETSI
d) USDC

4. Which of the following does not come under the teleservices of GSM?
a) Standard mobile telephony
b) Mobile originated traffic
c) Base originated traffic
d) Packet switched traffiC
5. Which of the following comes under supplementary ISDN services?
a) Emergency calling
b) Packet switched protocols
c) Call diversion
d) Standard mobile telephony

6. Which of the following memory device stores information such as subscriber’s identification number in
GSM?
a) Register
b) Flip flop
c) SIM
d) SMS
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

7. Which of the following feature makes impossible to eavesdrop on GSM radio transmission?
a) SIM
b) On the air privacy
c) SMS
d) Packet switched traffic
8. Which of the following does not come under subsystem of GSM architecture?
a) BSS
b) NSS
c) OSS
d) Channel
9. Which of the following subsystem provides radio transmission between mobile station and MSC?
a) BSS
b) NSS
c) OSS
d) BSC

10. ___________ manages the switching function in GSM.

a) BSS
b) NSS
c) OSS
d) MSC

11. What is the full form of UMTS?

a) Universal Mobile Telephone System
b) Ubiquitous Mobile Telephone System
c) Ubiquitous Mobile Telemetry System
d) Universal Machine Telemedicine System

12. UMTS use which multiple access technique?

a) CDMA
b) TDMA
c) FDMA
d) SDMA

13. UMTS does not has backward compatibility with ____________

a) GSM
b) IS-136
c) IS-95
d) GPRS
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

14. UMTS is also known as _____________

a) IS-95
b) GPRS
c) CdmaOne
d) W-CDMA

15. What is the chip rate of W-CDMA?

a) 1.2288 Mcps
b) 3.84 Mcps
c) 270.833 Ksps
d) 100 Mcps

16. W-CDMA works in FDD mode only.

a) True
b) False

17. How much packet data rate per user is supported by W-CDMA if the user is stationary?
a) 2.048 Kbps
b) 100 Mbps
c) 2.048 Mbps
d) 1 Gbps

18. What is the minimum spectrum allocation required by W-CDMA?

a) 5 MHz
b) 20MHz
c) 1.25 MHz
d) 200 KHz

19. W-CDMA requires a complete change of RF equipment at each base station.

a) True
b) False
20. How much increase in spectral efficiency is provided by W-CDMA in comparison to GSM?
a) Two times
b) Three times
c) No increase
d) Six times
21. __________ supports the operation and maintenance of GSM.
a) BSS
b) NSS
c) OSS
d) MSC
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

22) A GPRS Network is a part of ____ in GSM network.

A) BTS
B) BSS
C) NSS
D) VLR
23) Which is the organization providing standards for GPRS network?
A) ANSI
B) ETSI
C) 3GPP
D) UMTS
24) Which is the main protocol that transfers packets in a GPRS Core network?
A) GTP
B) SSTP
C) SCTP
D) None
25) A GPRS Network works same in _____.
A) 2G
B) 3G
C) 2G and /or 3G
D) 4G
26) What is the interface between BSC and SGSN in a GPRS Network Structure?
A) Ga
B) Gb
C) Gc
D) Gd
27) What is the interface betalen SGSN and GGSN in a GPRS network?
A) Gs
B) Gn
C) Ga
D) Gb
28) What is the interface between GGSN and Inter-PLMN GPRS network?
A) Ga
B) Gs
C) Gi
D) Gp
5 MARKS

1.General Packet Radio Service

2.GSM

10 MARKS
1.UMTS
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

UNIT-III FINISHED

UNIT IV
MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS
Syllabus: Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts – Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues –
Routing
– Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing Protocols – Vehicular
Ad Hocnetworks ( VANET) – MANET Vs VANET – Security.

4.1 ADHOC BASIC CONCEPTS

A wireless ad hoc network (WANET)is a decentralized type of wireless network. The network is
ad hoc because it does not rely on a pre existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or
access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless networks.
Instead, each node participates in routing by which nodes forward data is made dynamically
based on the network connectivity.
This is incontrast to older network technologies in which some designated nodes, usually with
custom hardware and variously known as routers, switches, hubs, and firewalls, perform the task of
forwarding the data.
Minimal configuration and quick deployment make ad hoc networks suitable
foremergency situations like natural or human-induced disasters, military conflicts.
The earliest wireless ad-hoc networks were called "packet radio" networks,
and were sponsored by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the
early 1970s.
Bolt, Beranek andNewman Technologies (BBN) and SRI International designed,
built, and experimented with these earliest systems.

Experimenters included Jerry Burchfield, Robert Kahn, and Ray Tomlinson of

laterTEN-EXtended (TENEX), Internet and email fame.

Similar experiments took place in the Ham radio community. It is interesting to

note that these early packet radio systems predated the Internet, and indeed were part
of the motivation of the original Internet Protocol suite. Later DARPA experiments
included the Survivable Radio Network (SURAN) project, which took place in the 1980s.

Another third wave of academic activity started in the mid-1990s with the advent
of inexpensive 802.11 radio cards for personal computers. Current wireless ad-hoc
networks are designed primarily for military utility.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

MANET

It is an infrastructureless IP based network of mobile and wireless machine

nodes connected with radio. In operation, the nodes of a MANET do not have a
centralized administration mechanism. It is known for its routeable network properties
where each node act as a ―router‖ to forward the traffic to other specified node in the
network.

The characteristics are:

 In MANET, each node act as both host and router. That is it is autonomous in behaviour.
 Multi-hop radio relaying- When a source node and destination node for a message
is out ofthe radio range, the MANETs are capable of multi-hop routing.
 Distributed nature of operation for security, routing and host configuration. A
centralizedfirewall is absent here.
 The nodes can join or leave the network anytime, making the network topology
dynamic innature.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 Mobile nodes are characterized with less memory, power and light weight features.
 The reliability, efficiency, stability and capacity of wireless links are often inferior
whencompared with wired links. This shows the fluctuating link bandwidth of
wireless links.
 Mobile and spontaneous behaviour which demands minimum human
intervention toconfigure the network.
 All nodes have identical features with similar responsibilities and capabilities and
hence itforms a completely symmetric environment.
 High user density and large level of user mobility.
 Nodal connectivity is intermittent.
 Distributed operation: There is no background network for the central control of the
network operations, the control of the network is distributed among the nodes. The
nodes involved in a MANET should cooperate with each other and communicate
among themselves and each node acts as a relay as needed, to implement specific
functions such as routing and security.

 Multi hop routing: When a node tries to send information to other nodes which is
out of itscommunication range, the packet should be forwarded via one or more
intermediate nodes.
 Autonomous terminal: In MANET, each mobile node is an independent node,
which couldfunction as both a host and a router.
 Dynamic topology: Nodes are free to move arbitrarily with different speeds; thus,
the network topology may change randomly and at unpredictable time. The nodes in
the MANET dynamically establish routing among themselves as they travel around,
establishing their own network.
 Light-weight terminals: In maximum cases, the nodes at MANET are mobile with
less CPUcapability, low power storage and small memory size.
 Shared Physical Medium: The wireless communication medium is accessible to any
entity with the appropriate equipment and adequate resources. Accordingly, access
to the channel cannot be restricted.
APPLICATIONS
 Military battlefield: Ad-Hoc networking would allow the military to take
advantage of commonplace network technology to maintain an information
network between the soldiers, vehicles, and military information head quarter.
 Collaborative work: For some business environments, the need for collaborative
computing might be more important outside office environments than inside
and where people do need to have outside meetings to cooperate and exchange
information on a given project.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 Local level: Ad-Hoc networks can autonomously link an instant and temporary
multimedia network using notebook computers to spread and share
information among participants at a e.g. conference or classroom. Another
appropriate local level application might be in home networks where devices
can communicate directly to exchange information.
 Personal area network and bluetooth: A personal area network is a short range,
localizednetwork where nodes are usually associated with a given person. Short
-range MANET such as Bluetooth can simplify the inter communication between
various mobile devicessuch as a laptop, and a mobile phone.
 Commercial Sector: Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations for
disaster relief efforts, e.g. in fire, flood, or earthquake. Emergency rescue
operations must take

place where non-existing or damaged communications infrastructure

and rapiddeployment of a communication network is needed.
 Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) : A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a
continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices
connected without wires.
 Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are used for communication between
vehicles and roadside equipment. Intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks (In
VANETs) are a kind of artificial intelligence that helps vehicles to behave in
intelligent manners during vehicle-to-vehicle collisions, accidents.
 Smart Phone Ad hoc Networks (SPANs) leverage the existing hardware (primarily
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi) in commercially available smart phones to create peer-to-
peer networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points,
or traditional network infrastructure.
 Internet based mobile ad hoc networks (iMANETs) are ad hoc networks that link
mobile nodes and fixed Internet-gateway nodes. One implementation of this is
Persistent System's Cloud Relay.
 Military / Tactical MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on security,
range,and integration with existing systems.

DESIGN ISSUES
 The wireless link characteristics are time-varying in nature: There are
transmission impediments like fading, path loss, blockage and interference that
adds to the susceptible
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

behaviour of wireless channels. The reliability of wireless transmission is

resisted by different factors.
 Limited range of wireless transmission – The limited radio band results in
reduced data rates compared to the wireless networks. Hence optimal usage of
bandwidth is necessary by keeping low overhead as possible.

 Packet losses due to errors in transmission – MANETs experience higher packet

loss due to factors such as hidden terminals that results in collisions, wireless
channel issues (highbit error rate (BER)), interference, frequent breakage in paths
caused by mobility of nodes, increased collisions due to the presence of hidden
terminals and uni-directional links.
 Route changes due to mobility- The dynamic nature of network topology
results infrequent path breaks.
 Frequent network partitions- The random movement of nodes often leads to
partition ofthe network. This mostly affects the intermediate nodes.
 Limited bandwidth: Wireless link continue to have significantly lower capacity
than infra structured networks. In addition, the realized throughput of wireless
communication after accounting for the effect of multiple access, fading, noise,
and interference conditions, etc., is often much less than a radio‘s maximum
transmission rate.
 Dynamic topology: Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust
relationship among nodes. The trust may also be disturbed if some nodes are
detected as compromised.
 Routing Overhead: In wireless adhoc networks, nodes often change their location
within network. So, some stale routes are generated in the routing table which
leads to unnecessary routing overhead.
 Hidden terminal problem: The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of
packets at a receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those
nodes that are not within the direct transmission range of the sender, but are
within the transmission range of the receiver.
 Packet losses due to transmission errors: Ad hoc wireless networks experiences
a much higher packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due to the
presence of hidden terminals, presence of interference, uni-directional links,
frequent path breaks dueto mobility of nodes.
 Mobility-induced route changes: The network topology in an ad hoc wireless
network is highly dynamic due to the movement of nodes; hence an on-going
session suffers frequent path breaks. This situation often leads to frequent route
changes.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

 Battery constraints: Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the

power sourcein order to maintain portability, size and weight of the device.

 Security threats: The wireless mobile ad hoc nature of MANETs brings new
security challenges to the network design. As the wireless medium is
vulnerable to eavesdropping and ad hoc network functionality is established
through node cooperation, mobile ad hoc networks are intrinsically exposed
to numerous security attacks.

ROUTING
Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network. In the past, the term routingalso meant
forwarding network trafficamong networks. However, that latter function is better described as
forwarding. Routing is performed for many kinds of the routing process usually directs forwarding on
the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus,
constructing routing tables, which are held in the router's memory, is very important for efficient routing.
Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable theuse
of multiple alternative paths.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

In internetworking, the process of moving a packet of data from source to

destination. Routing is usually performed by a dedicated device called a router.
Routing is a key feature of the Internet because it enables messages to pass from one
computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. Each intermediary
computer performs routing by passing along the message to the next computer. Part
of this process involves analyzing a routing table to determine the best path.
Routing is often confused with bridging, which performs a similar function. The
principal difference between the two is that bridging occurs at a lower level and is
therefore more of a hardware function whereas routing occurs at a higher level where
the software component is more important. And because routing occurs at a higher
level, it can perform more complex analysis to determine the optimal path for the
packet.

ESSENTIAL OF TRADITIONAL ROUTING

PROTOCOLSLink State Routing Protocol
Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of distance vector
routing. In link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire topology of the
domain the list of nodes and links, how they are connected including the type, cost
(metric), and condition of the links (up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's algorithm
to build a routing table.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Concept of link state routing

The figure shows a simple domain with five nodes. Each node uses the same
topology to create a routing table, but the routing table for each node is unique
because the calculations are based on different interpretations of the topology. This is
analogous to a city map. While each person may have the same map, each needs to
take a different route to reach her specific destination.
The topology must be dynamic, representing the latest state of each node and
each link. If there are changes in any point in the network (a link is down, for example),
the topology must be updated for each node.
Building Routing Tables
In link state routing, four sets of actions are required to ensure that each
node has the routing table showing the least-cost node to every other node.

1. Creation of the states of the links by each node, called the link state packet (LSP).
2. Dissemination of LSPs to every other router, called flooding, in an efficient and
reliableway.
3. Formation of a shortest path tree for each node.
4. Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest path tree.
Creation of Link State Packet (LSP)
A link state packet can carry a large amount of information. For the moment,
however, we assume that it carries a minimum amount of data: the node identity, the
list of links, a sequence number, and age. The first two, node identity and the list of
links, are needed to make the topology. The third, sequence number, facilitates
flooding and distinguishes new LSPs from old ones. The fourth, age, prevents old
LSPs from remaining in the domain for a long time. LSPs are generated on two
occasions:
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

1. When there is a change in the topology of the domain. Triggering of LSP

dissemination isthe main way of quickly informing any node in the domain to
update its topology.
2. On a periodic basis. The period in this case is much longer compared to
distance vectorrouting. As a matter of fact, there is no actual need for this type of
LSP dissemination.
It is done to ensure that old information is removed from the domain. The
timer set for periodic dissemination is normally in the range of 60 min or 2 h based on
the implementation. A longer period ensures that flooding does not create too much
traffic on the network.
Flooding of LSPs After a node has prepared an LSP, it must be disseminated
to all other nodes, not only to its neighbours. The process is called flooding and based
on the following:
1. The creating node sends a copy of the LSP out of each interface.
2. A node that receives an LSP compares it with the copy it may already have. If the
newly arrived LSP is older than the one it has (found by checking the sequence
number), it discards the LSP. If it is newer, the node does the following:
a. It discards the old LSP and keeps the new one.
b. It sends a copy of it out of each interface except the one from which the packet
arrived. Thisguarantees that flooding stops somewhere in the domain (where a node
has only one interface).Formation of Shortest Path Tree
Dijkstra Algorithm After receiving all LSPs, each node will have a copy of the
whole topology. However, the topology is not sufficient to find the shortest path to
every other node;a shortest path tree is needed.
A tree is a graph of nodes and links; one node is called the root. All other
nodes can be reached from the root through only one single route. A shortest path
tree is a tree in which the path between the root and every other node is the shortest.
What we need for each node is a shortest path tree with that node as the root.
The Dijkstra algorithm creates a shortest path tree from a graph. The
algorithm divides the nodes into two sets: tentative and permanent. It finds the
neighbours of a current node, makes them tentative, examines them, and if they
pass the criteria, makes them permanent. The following shows the steps. At the end
of each step, we show the permanent (filled circles) and the tentative (open circles)
nodes and lists with the cumulative costs.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Fig:Dijkstra algorithm
Example of formation of shortest path tree
lOMoARcPSD|26960503
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 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

OSPF
The Open Shortest Path First or OSPF protocol is an intra domain routing protocol
based on link state routing. Its domain is also an autonomous system. Areas To
handle routing efficiently and in a timely manner, OSPF divides an autonomous
system into areas. An area isa collection of networks, hosts, and routers all contained
within an autonomous system. An autonomous system can be divided into many
different areas.
All networks inside an area must be connected. Routers inside an area flood
the area with routing information. At the border of an area, special routers called area
border routers summarize the information about the area and send it to other areas.
Among the areas inside anautonomous system is a special area called the backbone;
all the areas inside an autonomous system must be connected to the backbone. In
other words, the backbone serves as a primary area and the other areas as secondary
areas.
This does not mean that the routers within areas cannot be connected to each
other, however. The routers inside the backbone are called the backbone routers. Note
that a backbone router can also be an area border router. If, because of some
problem, the connectivity between a backbone and an area is broken, a virtual link
between routers must be created by an administrator to allow continuity of the
functions of the backbone as the primary area.Each area has an area identification.
The area identification of the backbone is zero. Below Figure shows an autonomous

system and its areas.

Areas in an autonomous system

Metric
The OSPF protocol allows the administrator to assign a cost, called the metric, to each
route. The metric can be based on a type of service (minimum delay, maximum
throughput,and so on). As a matter of fact, a router can have multiple routing tables,
each based on a
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

different type of service. Types of Links In OSPF terminology, a connection is called

a link.Four types of links have been defined: point-to-point, transient, stub, and
virtual.

Types of links
A point-to-point link connects two routers without any other host or router in
between. In other words, the purpose of the link (network) is just to connect the two
routers. An example of this type of link is two routers connected by a telephone line or
a T line. There is no need to assign a network address to this type of link. Graphically,
the routers are represented by nodes, and the link is represented by a bidirectional
edge connecting the nodes. The metrics, which are usually the same, are shown at the
two ends, one for each direction.

Point-to-point link
A transient link is a network with several routers attached to it. The data can
enter through any of the routers and leave through any router. All LANs and some
WANs with two or more routers are of this type. In this case, each router has many
neighbors. For example, consider the Ethernet in Figure. Router A has routers B, C, D,
and E as neighbors. Router B has routers A, C, D, and E as neighbors.

Transient link
A stub link is a network that is connected to only one router. The data packets
enter the network through this single router and leave the network through this same
router. This is a special case of the transient network. We can show this situation
using the router as a node andusing the designated router for the network.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Stub link
When the link between two routers is broken, the administration may create a
virtual link between them, using a longer path that probably goes through several
routers. Graphical Representation Let us now examine how an AS can be represented
graphically. Figure shows a small AS with seven networks and six routers. Two of the
networks are point-to-point networks. We use symbols such as Nl and N2 for transient
and stub networks. There is no needto assign an identity to a point-to-point network.
The figure also shows the graphical representation of the AS as seen by OSPF.

Example of an AS and its graphical representation in OSPF

 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Distance Vector Routing Protocol

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an implementation of the distance vector
protocol. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an implementation of the link state
protocol. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an implementation of the path vector
protocol.
In distance vector routing, the least-cost route between any two nodes is the
route withminimum distance. In this protocol, as the name implies, each node maintains
a vector (table) of minimum distances to every node. The table at each node also guides
the packets to the desired node by showing the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).
Distance vector routing tables

Initialization
The table for node A shows how we can reach any node from this node. For
example, our least cost to reach node E is 6. The route passes through C. Each node
knows how to reach any other node and the cost. Each node can know only the distance
between itself and its immediate neighbors, those directly connected to it.
So for the moment, we assume that each node can send a message to the
immediate neighbors and find the distance between itself and these neighbors.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

Sharing - In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its
immediateneighbors periodically and when there is a change.
Updating - When a node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it needs to
update itsrouting table.
Updating takes three steps:
1. The receiving node needs to add the cost between itself and the sending node to
each value in the second column. The logic is clear. If node C claims that its distance
to a destination is x mi, and the distance between A and C is y mi, then the distance
between A and that destination,via C, is x + y mi.
2. The receiving node needs to add the name of the sending node to each row as the
third column if the receiving node uses information from any row. The sending node is
the next nodein the route.
3. The receiving node needs to compare each row of its old table with the
corresponding row ofthe modified version of the received table.
a. If the next-node entry is different, the receiving node chooses the row with the
smaller cost.If there is a tie, the old one is kept.
b. If the next-node entry is the same, the receiving node chooses the new row. For
example, suppose node C has previously advertised a route to node X with distance 3.
Suppose that now there is no path between C and X; node C now advertises this route
with a distance of infinity.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Node A must not ignore this value even though its old entry is smaller. The old route
does notexist any more. The new route has a distance of infinity.

Updating in distance vector routing

Each node can update its table by using the tables received from
other nodes.When to Share:
Periodic Update A node sends its routing table, normally every 30 s, in a periodic
update. Theperiod depends on the protocol that is using distance vector routing.
Triggered Update A node sends its two-column routing table to its neighbors anytime
there is achange in its routing table. This is called a triggered update. The change can
result from the following.
1. A node receives a table from a neighbor, resulting in changes in its own table after updating.
2. A node detects some failure in the neighboring links which results in a distance
change toinfinity.
RIP
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an intra-domain routing protocol used
inside an autonomous system. It is a very simple protocol based on distance vector
routing. RIP implements distance vector routing directly with some considerations:
1. In an autonomous system, we are dealing with routers and networks (links). The
routers haverouting tables; networks do not.
2. The destination in a routing table is a network, which means the first column
defines anetwork address.
3. The metric used by RIP is very simple; the distance is defined as the number of
links (networks) to reach the destination. For this reason, the metric in RIP is
called a hop count.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

4. Infinity is defined as 16, which means that any route in an autonomous system
using RIPcannot have more than 15 hops.
5. The next-node column defines the address of the router to which the packet is to
be sent toreach its destination.

POPULAR ROUTING PROTOCOLS

i.Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV)
Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is adapted from the
conventional Routing Information Protocol (RIP) to ad hoc networks routing. It adds a
new attribute, sequence number, to each route table entry of the conventional RIP.
Using the newly added sequence number, the mobile nodes can distinguish stale route
information from the new and thus prevent the formation of routing loops.
Packet Routing and Routing Table Management
In DSDV, each mobile node of an ad hoc network maintains a routing table,
which lists all available destinations, the metric and next hop to each destination and a
sequence number generated by the destination node. Using such routing table stored
in each mobile node, the packets are transmitted between the nodes of an ad hoc
network. Each node of the ad hoc network updates the routing table with
advertisement periodically or when significant new information is available to maintain
the consistency of the routing table with the dynamically changing topology of the ad
hoc network.
Periodically or immediately when network topology changes are detected, each
mobile node advertises routing information using broadcasting or multicasting a
routing table update packet. The update packet starts out with a metric of one to
direct connected nodes. This indicates that each receiving neighbor is one metric (hop)
away from the node. It is different from that of the conventional routing algorithms.
After receiving the update packet, the neighbors update their routing table with
incrementing the metric by one and retransmit the update packet to the corresponding
neighbors of each of them. The process will be repeated until all the nodes in the ad
hoc
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

network have received a copy of the update packet with a corresponding metric. The
update data is also kept for a while to wait for the arrival of the best route for each
particular destination node in each node before updating its routing table and
retransmitting the update packet.
If a node receives multiple update packets for a same destination during the
waiting time period, the routes with more recent sequence numbers are always
preferred as the basis for packet forwarding decisions, but the routing information is
not necessarily advertised immediately, if only the sequence numbers have been
changed. If the update packets have the same sequence number with the same node,
the update packet with the smallest metric will be used and the existing route will be
discarded or stored as a less preferable route. In this case, the update packet will be
propagated with the sequence number to all mobile nodes in the ad hoc network.
The advertisement of routes that are about to change may be delayed until the
best routes have been found. Delaying the advertisement of possibly unstable route
can damp the fluctuations of the routing table and reduce the number of rebroadcasts
of possible route entries that arrive with the same sequence number. The elements in
the routing table of each mobile node change dynamically to keep consistency with
dynamically changing topology of an ad hocnetwork.
To reach this consistency, the routing information advertisement must be
frequent orquick enough to ensure that each mobile node can almost always locate
all the other mobilenodes in the dynamic ad hoc network. Upon the updated routing
information, each node has torelay data packet to other nodes upon request in the
dynamically created ad hoc network. ii.Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is a routing protocol for wireless mesh
networks. It is similar to AODV in that it forms a route on-demand when a transmitting
node requests one. However, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing
table at each intermediate device.
Determining source routes requires accumulating the address of each device
between the source and destination during route discovery. The accumulated path
information iscached by nodes processing the route discovery packets. The learned
paths are used to route packets. To accomplish source routing, the routed packets
contain the address of each device the packet will traverse. This may result in high
overhead for long paths or large addresses, like IPv6.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

To avoid using source routing, DSR optionally defines a flow id option that
allows packets to be forwarded on a hop-by-hop basis. This protocol is truly based on
source routing whereby all the routing information is maintained (continually updated)
at mobile nodes. It has only two major phases, which are Route Discovery and Route
Maintenance. Route Reply would only be generated if the message has reached the
intended destination node (route record which is initially contained in Route Request
would be inserted into the Route Reply).
To return the Route Reply, the destination node must have a route to the source
node. If the route is in the Destination Node's route cache, the route would be used.
Otherwise, the node will reverse the route based on the route record in the Route
Request message header (this requires that all links are symmetric). In the event of
fatal transmission, the Route Maintenance Phase is initiated whereby the Route Error
packets are generated at a node.
The erroneous hop will be removed from the node's route cache; all routes
containing the hop are truncated at that point. Again, the Route Discovery Phase is
initiated to determine the most viable route.
Dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) is an on-demand protocol designed to
restrict the bandwidth consumed by control packets in ad hoc wireless networks by
eliminating the periodic table-update messages required in the table-driven approach.
The major difference between this and the other on-demand routing protocols is that it
is beacon-less and hence does not require periodic hello packet (beacon)
transmissions, which are used by a node to inform itsneighbors of its presence.
The basic approach of this protocol (and all other on-demand routing protocols)
during the route construction phase is to establish a route by flooding RouteRequest
packets in the network. The destination node, on receiving a RouteRequest packet,
responds by sending a RouteReply packet back to the source, which carries the route
traversed by the RouteRequest packet received.
Consider a source node that does not have a route to the destination. When it
has data packets to be sent to that destination, it initiates a RouteRequest packet. This
RouteRequest is flooded throughout the network. Each node, upon receiving a
RouteRequest packet, rebroadcasts the packet to its neighbors if it has not forwarded
it already, provided that the nodeis not the destination node and that the packet‘s time
to live (TTL) counter has not been exceeded.
Each RouteRequest carries a sequence number generated by the source node
and the path it has traversed. A node, upon receiving a RouteRequest packet, checks
the sequence number on the packet before forwarding it. The packet is forwarded only
if it is not a duplicate
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

RouteRequest. The sequence number on the packet is used to prevent loop formations
and to avoid multiple transmissions of the same RouteRequest by an intermediate
node that receives itthrough multiple paths.
Thus, all nodes except the destination forward a RouteRequest packet during
the route construction phase. A destination node, after receiving the first
RouteRequest packet, replies to the source node through the reverse path the
RouteRequest packet had traversed. Nodes can also learn about the neighbouring
routes traversed by data packets if operated in the promiscuous mode (the mode of
operation in which a node can receive the packets that are neither broadcast nor
addressed to itself). This route cache is also used during the routeconstruction phase.
This protocol uses a reactive approach which eliminates the need to periodically
flood the network with table update messages which are required in a table-driven
approach. In a reactive (on-demand) approach such as this, a route is established only
when it is required and hence the need to find routes to all other nodes in the network
as required by the table-driven approach is eliminated. The intermediate nodes also
utilize the route cache information efficiently to reduce the control overhead.
The disadvantage of this protocol is that the route maintenance mechanism
does not locally repair a broken link. Stale route cache information could also result in
inconsistencies during the route reconstruction phase. The connection setup delay is
higher than in table-driven protocols. Even though the protocol performs well in static
and low-mobility environments, the performance degrades rapidly with increasing
mobility. Also, considerable routing overhead is involved due to the source-routing
mechanism employed in DSR. This routing overhead is directly proportional to the path
length.
iii.Adhoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
Reactive protocols seek to set up routes on-demand. If a node wants to
initiatecommunication with a node to which it has no route, the routing protocol will
try to establish such a route. The Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector routing
protocol is described in RFC 3561. The philosophy in AODV, like all reactive protocols,
is that topology information is only transmitted by nodes on-demand. When a node
wishes to transmit traffic to a host to which it has no route, it will generate a route
request(RREQ) message that will be flooded ina limited way to other nodes.
This causes control traffic overhead to be dynamic and it will result in an
initial delay when initiating such communication. A route is considered found when
the RREQ message reaches either the destination itself, or an intermediate node with
a valid route entry for the

destination. For as long as a route exists between two endpoints, AODV remains
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

passive.When the route becomes invalid or lost, AODV will again issue a request.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

AODV avoids the ``counting to infinity'' problem from the classical distance
vector algorithm by using sequence numbers for every route. The counting to infinity
problem is the situation where nodes update each other in a loop. Consider nodes A,
B, C and D making up a MANET. A is not updated on the fact that its route to D via C is
broken. This means that A has a registered route, with a metric of 2, to D. C has
registered that the link to D is down, so once node B is updated on the link breakage
between C and D, it will calculate the shortest path to Dto be via Ausing a metric of 3. C
receives information that B can reach D in 3 hops and updatesits metric to 4 hops. A

then registers an update in hop-count for its route to D via C and updatesthe metric to

5. And so they continue to increment the metric in a loop.

A scenario that can lead to the ``counting to infinity'' problem.
The way this is avoided in AODV, for the example described, is by B noticing
that Asroute to D is old based on a sequence number. B will then discard the route
and C will be the node with the most recent routing information by which B will
update its routing table. AODV defines three types of control messages for route
maintenance:
RREQ - A route request message is transmitted by a node requiring a route to a node.
As an optimization AODV uses an expanding ring technique when flooding these
messages. Every RREQ carries a time to live (TTL) value that states for how many
hops this message should be forwarded. This value is set to a predefined value at
the first transmission and increased at retransmissions. Retransmissions occur if no
replies are received. Data packets waiting to be transmitted(i.e. the packets that
initiated the RREQ) should be buffered locally and transmitted by a FIFO principal
when a route is set.
RREP - A route reply message is unicasted back to the originator of a RREQ if the
receiveris either the node using the requested address, or it has a valid route to the
requested address. The reason one can unicast the message back, is that every
route forwarding a RREQ cachesa route back to the originator.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

RERR - Nodes monitor the link status of next hops in active routes. When a link
breakage in an active route is detected, a RERR message is used to notify other nodes
of the loss of the link. In order to enable this reporting mechanism, each node keeps a
``precursor list'', containing the IP address for each its neighbors that are likely to use
it as a next hop towards each destination.

A possible path for a route reply if A wishes to find a route to J.

Node A wishes to initiate traffic to node J for which it has no route. A
broadcasts a RREQ which is flooded to all nodes in the network. When this request is
forwarded to J from H, J generates a RREP. This RREP is then unicasted back to A
using the cached entries in nodes H, G and D.
VEHICULAR ADHOC NETWORKS (VANET)
Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET), a subclass of mobile Ad Hoc networks
(MANETs), is a promising approach for future intelligent transportation system (ITS).
These networks have no fixed infrastructure and instead rely on the vehicles
themselves to provide netw ork functionality. However, due to mobility constraints,
driver behavior, and high mobility, VANETs exhibit characteristics that are dramatically
different from many generic MANETs.
Networking Properties of VANET
VANETs are an instantiation of a Mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs). MANETs
have no fixed infrastructure and instead rely on ordinary nodes to perform routing of
messages and network management functions. However, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks
behave in fundamentally different ways than the models that predominate MANET
research. Driver behavior, constraints on mobility, and high speeds create unique
Characteristics in IVC networks. These characteristics have important implications for
design decisions in these
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

networks. The major differences are as follows. a) Rapid changes in the VANETs
topology are difficult to manage. Due to high relative speed between cars network's
topology changes very fast. b) The IVC network is subject to frequent fragmentation,
even at a high rate of IVC deployment. Although the connectivity characteristic of
MANETs has been studied broadly, there is few research which tries to tackle this
problem. It is mostly because VANET's connectivity depends on the scenario. Of
course being connective for VANETs is not importantfor emergency safety messages
since while the network is not connected there is no problem in safety point of view. c)
The IVC network has small effective network diameter. Rapid changes in connectivity
cause many pas to disconnect before they can be utilized.
This characteristic is important for mostly comfort application as they need to
establish unicast and multicast routes (e.g., to the internet gateway). d) No significant
power constraints, unlike sensor and other types of mobile networks where limited
battery life is a major concern. Potentially large-scale: In a city center or highways at
the entrance of big cities the network

could be quite large scale. Variable Network density: the network's density depends on
vehicular density which is highly variable. In traffic jam situations the network can be
categorized in very dense networks in suburban traffics it could be a sparse network. g)
The topology of the network could be affected by driver's behavior due to his/her
reaction to the messages. In other words the content of messages can change net-
work's topology.
Safety Applications
Examples of vehicle-to-vehicle safety communication may include collision
waning, road obstacle warning, cooperative driving, intersection collision warning, and
lane change assistance. There are two types of safety messages in the control
channel (e.g., of DSRC) and can be classified depending on how they are generated:
event driven and periodic. The first ones are the result of the detection of an unsafe
situation, (eg., a car crash, the proximity of vehicles at high speed, etc). Periodic
messages instead can be seen as preventive messages in terms of safety, and their
information can also be used by other (non-safety) applications (e.g., traffic monitoring)
or protocols (e.g., routing).
Periodic message exchange (also called beaconing) is needed to make vehicles
aware of their environment. Thus, they will be able to avoid emergency or unsafe
situations even before they appear. Therefore beacon messages essentially contain
the stat of the sending vehicle, i.e., position, direction, speed, etc., and also
aggregated data regarding the state of their neighbors.It is reasonable to assume that
these periodic messages will be sent in a broadcast fashion since the messages'
content can be beneficial for all vehicles around. In the following we come to debate
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

the previous related works attempting to providing safety applications. MAC Layer
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Issues.: As mentioned before, event driven messages should have higher

priority than periodic and comfort messages. Thus some mechanisms for service
differentiation and admission control are needed. In the other words, we could define
the levels of priority. event driven safety messages, beacon safety messages and
comfort messages, in decreasing order.
These mechanisms are highly depended on MAC layer policy. Therefore in the
first step the research and industry should standardized a standard for MAC layer in
VANETs. There are some promising MAC techniques for future VANETs . Currently
IEEE 802.1 la is chosen by ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) to be
basis for its standard of DSRC and IEEE P 1609 Working Group is proposing DSRC as
IEEE 802.11p standard .
However MAC layers based on UTRA TDD , promoted by CarTALK can be
another alternative. Also still some efforts are running on Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA). Message Dissemination: Due to specific characteristics of safety
messages, broadcasting could be the only possible way for message exchange. So it
could be possible to get complete

MANET vs VANET
MANET is the short form of Mobile AdHoc Network. In ad-hoc networks all
the nodes are mobile in nature and hence they can be interfaced dynamically in
arbitrary fashion.As we know any wireless transmission has distance coverage
limitation, wireless node will utilize its neighbouring nodes to transmit the packet
beyond its distance limitation.To overcome this limitation, MANET nodes require ad
-hoc type routing protocols. They areof two types viz. table driven routing protocols
and On demand routing protocols. Followingare the features of MANET network:
• Dynamic topologies
• variable capacity links
• Energy constrained operation
• Limited physical security
VANET is the short form of Vehicular Adhoc Network. It is subclass of
network of MANET type. The routing protocols of MANET are not feasible to be used
in the VANET network. If they are used then also they will not be able to deliver
required throughput as it has fast changing adhoc network.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

In VANET, the communication nodes are moving on pre-defined roads as

finalizedinitially.

The VANET architecture consists of three type of categories as mentioned below:

• cellular and WLAN network
• Pure Ad hoc (network between vehicles and fixed gateways)
• hybrid(combination of both infrastructure and adhoc networks), as shown in figure.

In the first type, fixed gateways and WiMaX/WiFi APs are used at traffic
junctions to connect with the internet, to obtain traffic information and used for
routing. The VANET nodes are not subject to storage and power limitation.

MANETs are a kind of wireless ad hoc networks that usually has a routable
networkingenvironment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network. A mobile ad-hoc
network (MANET) is aself-configuring infrastructure- less network of mobile devices
connected by wireless. Eachdevice in a MANET is free to move independently in any
direction, and will therefore changeits links to other devices frequently . Vehicular Ad
hoc Network (VANET) is a subclass of mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs). These
networks have no fixed infrastructure and instead
rely on the vehicles themselves to provide network functionality.

These networks offer several benefits to organizations of any size. While such
a network does pose certain safety concerns but this does not limit VANET‘s potential
as a productivity tool. GPS and navigation systems can benefit, as they can be
integrated with trafficreports to provide the fastest route to work.

SECURITY
Among all the challenges of the VANET, security got less attention so far.
VANET packets contains life critical information hence it is necessary to make sure
that these packets are not inserted or modified by the attacker; likewise the liability of
drivers should also be established that they inform the traffic environment correctly
and within time. These security

problems do not similar to general communication network. The size of network,

mobility, geographic relevancy etc makes the implementation difficult and distinct
from other network security.
Security Challenges in VANET
The challenges of security must be considered during the design of VANET
architecture, security protocols, cryptographic algorithm etc. The following list
presents some security challenges:
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Real time Constraint: VANET is time critical where safety related message should be
delivered with 100ms transmission delay. So to achieve real time constraint, fast
cryptographic algorithm should be used. Message and entity authentication must be
done in time.
Data Consistency Liability: In VANET even authenticate node can perform malicious
activities that can cause accidents or disturb the network. Hence a mechanism should
be designed to avoid this inconsistency. Correlation among the received data from
different node on particular information may avoid this type of inconsistency.
Low tolerance for error: Some protocols are designed on the basis of probability.
VANET uses life critical information on which action is performed in very short time. A
small error in probabilistic algorithm may cause harm.
Key Distribution: All the security mechanisms implemented in VANET dependent on
keys. Each message is encrypted and need to decrypt at receiver end either with same
key or differentkey. Also different manufacturer can install keys in different ways and
in public key infrastructure trust on CA become major issue. Therefore distribution of
keys among vehicles isa major challenge in designing a security protocols.
Incentives: Manufactures are interested to build applications that consumer likes
most. Very few consumers will agree with a vehicle which automatically reports any
traffic rule violation. Hence successful deployment of vehicular networks will require
incentives for vehicle manufacturers, consumers and the government is a challenge to
implement security in VANET.High Mobility: The computational capability and energy
supply in VANET is same as the wired network node but the high mobility of VANET
nodes requires the less execution time of security protocols for same throughput that
wired network produces. Hence the design of security protocols must use the
approaches to reduce the execution time. Two approaches can be implementing to
meet this requirement.
Low complexity security algorithms: Current security protocols such as SSL/TLS,
DTLS, WTLS, generally uses RSA based public key cryptography. RSA algorithm uses
the integer factorisation on large prime no. which is NP-Hard. Hence decryption of the
message that used

RSA algorithm becomes very complex and time consuming. Hence there is need to
implement alternate cryptographic algorithm like Elliptic curve cryptosystems and
lattice based cryptosystems. For bulk data encryption AES can be used.
Transport protocol choice: To secure transaction over IP, DTLS should be preferred
over TLS as DTLS operates over connectionless transport layer. IPSec which secures
IP traffic should be avoided as it requires too many messages to set up. However
IPSec and TLS can be used when vehicles are not in motion.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Security requirements in VANET

VANET must satisfy some security requirements before they are deployed. A
security system in VANET should satisfy the following requirements:
Authentication: Authentication ensures that the message is generated by the
legitimate user. InVANET a vehicle reacts upon the information came from the other
vehicle hence authentication must be satisfied.
Availability: Availability requires that the information must be available to the
legitimate users. DoS Attacks can bring down the network and hence information
cannot be shared. Non-Repudiation: Non-repudiation means a node cannot deny that
he/she does not transmit the message. It may be crucial to determine the correct
sequence in crash reconstruction. Privacy:The privacy of a node against the
unauthorised node should be guaranteed. This is required to eliminate the massage
delay attacks.
Data Verification: A regular verification of data is required to eliminate the false messaging.
Attackers on Vehicular Network
To secure the VANET, first we have to discover who are the attacker, their
nature, and capacity to damage the system. On the basis of capacity these attackers
may be three type • Insider and Outsider: Insiders are the authenticated members of
network whereas Outsiders are the intruders and hence limited capacity to attack.
Malicious and Rational: Malicious attackers have not any personal benefit to attack;
they just harm the functionality of the network. Rational attackers have the personal
profit hence they arepredictable.
Active and Passive: Active attackers generate signals or packet whereas passive
attackers onlysense the network.
Attacks in the VANET
To get better protection from attackers we must have the knowledge about the
attacks in VANET against security requirements. Attacks on different security
requirement are given below:

Impersonate: In impersonate attack attacker assumes the identity and privileges of an

authorised node, either to make use of network resources that may not be available to
it under normal circumstances, or to disrupt the normal functioning of the network.
This type of attackis performed by active attackers.
They may be insider or outsiders. This attack is multilayer attack means
attacker can exploit either network layer, application layer or transport layer
vulnerability. This attack canbe performed in two ways: a) False attribute possession:
In this scheme an attacker steals some property of legitimate user and later with the
use of attribute claims that it is who (legitimate
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

user) that sent this message. By using this type attack a normal vehicle can claim
that he/she isa police or fire protector to free the traffic. b) Sybil: In this type of attack,
an attacker use different identities at the same time.
Session hijacking: Most authentication process is done at the start of the session.
Hence it is easy to hijack the session after connection establishment. In this attack
attackers take control of session between nodes.
Identity revealing: Generally a driver is itself owner of the vehicles hence getting
owner‘s identity can put the privacy at risk.
Location Tracking: The location of a given moment or the path followed along a period
of time can be used to trace the vehicle and get information of driver.
Repudiation: The main threat in repudiation is denial or attempt to denial by a node
involved in communication. This is different from the impersonate attack. In this
attack two or more entity has common identity hence it is easy to get indistinguishable
and hence they can be repudiated.
Eavesdropping: Eavesdropping is a most common attack on confidentiality. This
attack is belongs to network layer attack and passive in nature. The main goal of this
attack is to get access of confidential data. • Denial of Service: DoS attacks are most
prominent attack in this category. In this attack attacker prevents the legitimate user
to use the service from the victim node. DoS attacks can be carried out in many ways.
a) Jamming: In this technique the attacker senses the physical channel and gets the
information about the frequency at which the receiver receives the signal. Then he
transmits thesignal on the channel so that channel is jam.
b) SYN Flooding: In this mechanism large no of SYN request is sent to the victim
node,spoofing the sender address. The victim node send back the SYN-ACK to the
spoofed address but victim node does not get any ACK packet in return. This result
too half opens connection tohandle by a victim node‘s buffer. As a consequence the
legitimate request is discarded.

c) Distributed DoS attack: This is another form Dos attack. In this attack, multiple
attackers attack the victim node and prevents legitimate user from accessing the
service.
Routing attack: Routing attacks re the attacks which exploits the vulnerability of
network layer routing protocols. In this type of attack the attacker either drops the
packet or disturbs the routing process of the network. Following are the most common
routing attacks in the VANET:
a) Black Hole attack: In this type of attack, the attacker firstly attracts the nodes to
transmit the packet through itself. It can be done by continuous sending the malicious
route reply with fresh route and low hop count. After attracting the node, when the
packet is forwarded through this node, it silently drops the packet.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

b) Worm Hole attack: In this attack, an adversary receives packets at one point in the
network, tunnels them to another point in the network, and then replays them into the
network from that point. This tunnel between two adversaries are called wormhole. It
can be established through a single long-range wireless link or a wired link between
the two adversaries. Hence it is simple for the adversary to make the tunnelled packet
arrive sooner than other packets transmitted over a normal multi-hop route.
c) Gray Hole attack: This is the extension of black hole attack. In this type of attack
the malicious node behaves like the black node attack but it drops the packet
selectively. This selection can be of two type:
i) A malicious node can drop the packet of UDP whereas the TCP packet
will beforwarded.
ii) The malicious node can drop the packet on the basis of probabilistic distribution.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

QUESTION BANK
ONE MARKS
1. When using ________there is a shared key between all the stations and access points.
WPA
WEP
ICV
SSID
2.Which one is the first protocols proposed for adhoc wireless networks?
Wireless routing protocol(WRP)
Destination sequenced distance-vector routing
Source-tree adaptive routing protocol (STAR)
Dynamic source routing protocol (DSR)
3.Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) allows ----- .
Adhoc sensors
Wired communication
Safety messages
Physical infrastrucute
4.In __________ an adversary node advertises routes to non-existent nodes, to the authorized nodes present
in the network.
Routing table poisoning
Route cache poisoning
Routing table overflow
Packet replication
5.Which protocol ensure that all nodes are treated fairly with respect to bandwidth allocation?
MAC
MACAW
BTMA
PRMA
6._____________ is a standard from the WifiAlliance based upon the IEEE 802.11i.
WEP
WPA
WPA2
IEEE 802.11
7.Which one of the following event is not possible in wireless LAN?
Collision detection
Acknowledgeme nt of data frames
Multi-mode data transmission
Connection to wired networks
8: Following are considered as characteristics of VANET.
Static Topology Wired communication
Fixed ifrastucture Mobility Modeling and Prediction
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

9: BTMA protocol comes under which mechanism?

Contention Based Protocols
Contentionbased protocols with reservation mechanisms
MAC protocols
Contentionbased protocols with scheduling
10: Classification of routing protocol is based on _________ .
Routing information update mechanism
Protocol(DSDV) Routing topology
Utilization of specific resources
Processing Utilization
11 A vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) can be used ----- loads, and
to alert drivers of traffic jams ahead, help balance traffic informing the
balance traffic loads, and reduce traveling time by
close the jam route
to observe the road to maintain street safty
12 The channel is divided into frames in ___________ .
D-PRMA
MARCH
BTMA
MACA

13 What is VANET stands for -------- .

Vehicular AdHoc Network
Vehicular Address Network
Vehicular Adhoc Neural Network
Wireless Sensor Networks

14 Which of these is not a fast fading propogation mechanisms?

Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
Scattering
15 Application Controlled Transport Protocol ---------
Provides freedom of choosing the required choosing the required
Is very compatible with TCP
Is very not compatible with TCP
is Less dependent on routing protocol

16.Nodes must be scheduled in a distributed fashion for gaining access to the channel because
a. There is no centralized coordinators
b. Nodes are not communicating with each other
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

c. Exposed terminal problem

d. Power level of the receiving data is very weak
Answer a
17.Identify the network for which the following statement is most suitable. “ The bandwidth reservation
requires complex medium access control protocols”
a. Cellular network
b. dhoc wireless network
c. Fixed line network
d. Bluetooth network
Answer b
18.Identify the network with the following characteristics .” Fixed infrastructure based, single hop wireless
links, guaranteed bandwidth for voice based traffic, circuit switched ,seamless connectivity”
a. dhoc wireless network
b. Cellular network
c. Fixed land line network
d. Bluetooth network
Answer b
19.Which of the following network is using ISM band in the following
networks
a. Fixed landline
b. Optical fibre network
c. Microwave network
d. Adhoc wireless network
Answer d
20.Identify the topic which is not a primary responsibility of MC protocol in adhoc wireless network
a. Distributed arbitration for the shared channel for transmission of packets
b. Time synchronization
c. Hidden and exposed terminal problem
d.It must converge to optimal routes once the network topology becomes stable. the convergence must
be quick
Answer d
21. “MC – By Invitation “is an example for M
a. Sender -initiated protocol
b. Receiver –i
c. synchronous protocols
d. Synchronous protocol
Answer b
22. Multichannel protocols are example for M
a. Contention based protocol
b. Contention based protocol with reservation mechanism
c. Contention based protocol with scheduling mechanism
d. Other M C protocol
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Answer a
23.In M C which of the following packet avoids hidden terminal problem
a. CTS
b. RTS
c. D T
d. DS
Answer a
24.In M C protocol, a neighboring node near sender which receives the RTS packet
a. Will not transmit till it receives data packet
b. Will transmit RTS-CTS packet as per the requirement
c. Will delay the transmission for long enough period so that sender could receive CTS packet
d. Will delay the transmission it receives CTS packet
Answer c
25.In a M C protocol, a node near the receiver upon hearing the CTS packet
a. Will differs its transmission till the receiver receives the data packet
b. may initiates its data transmission process as per the requirement
c.Wait for the sender stops transmission
d.will send RTS packet to the transmitter
Answer a
26.The binary exponential back off algorithm (BEB) is used when
a. The packet transmitted by the node is lost
b. The packet is too big in size
c. Faster transmission is required
d. When CTS packet is not received by the sender
Answer a
27.which of the following features are not part of The MC protocol that uses directional antenna
a. Increase in the system throughput
b. Increase in signal interference
c. Increase in channel reuse
d. Increase in overall capacity of the channel
Answer b 28.Multiple access collision avoidance -by invitation (M C -BI) Protocol is an example for
a. Receiver initiated protocol
b. Sender initiated protocol
c. Synchronous protocol
d. synchronous protocol
Answer a
29.Which of the statement is not valid for Dual Busy tone Multiple access (DBTM )Protocol
a.The transmission channel is divided into two data channel and control channel
b.The DBTM exhibits worse network utilization compared to M C and M C W
c.The control channel is used for control packet transmissions (RTS and CTS) and also for transmitting
busy tones
d. The DBTM uses two busy tones on the control channel
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Answer b

30.Which of the following statement is not valid for Busy Tone Multiple ccess (BTM ) protocol
a.BTM protocol is one of the earliest protocols proposed for overcoming the hidden terminal problem in
wireless environment
b.The transmission channel is split into data channel and control channel
c.When a node is ready for transmission it senses the channel whether the busy tone is active or not.
d.When a node is transmitting data ,at the most other nodes within the transmission range of this node is
not allowed to transmit.
Answer d

5 MARKS

1.Design Issues
2.Explain VANET

10 MARKS

1.Manet Versus Vanet

2.Routing

UNIT-1V FINISHED
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

UNIT V
MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS

Syllabus: Mobile Device Operating Systems – Special Constrains & Requirements –

Commercial Mobile Operating Systems – Software Development Kit: iOS, Android,
BlackBerry, Windows Phone – MCommerce – Structure – Pros & Cons – Mobile
Payment System – Security Issues.

MOBILE DEVICE OPERATING SYSTEMS

A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an operating system for smart phones, tablets,
PDAs, or othermobile devices. While computers such as the typical laptop are mobile, the
operating Mobile devices with mobile communications capabilities (e.g. smartphones) containtwo mobile
operating systems – the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level
proprietary real-time operating system which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown
that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base
stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device
A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating system
that is specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones,
smartphones, PDAs, tablet computers and other handheld devices. The mobile
operating system is the software platform on top of which other programs, called
application programs, can run on mobile devices.

SPECIAL CONSTRAINTS AND REQUIREMENTS

Design and capabilities of a Mobile OS (Operating System) is very different
than ageneral purpose OS running on desktop machines
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Physically Constrained
 Battery-powered device
 Small screens of varying shapes,
sizes,and resolutions
 Memory
 Storage space
Working in Uncertainty
 Networks come and go

cases newer, more powerful mobile devices can even completely replace PCs. And
when the devices are used together, work done remotely on a mobile device can be
synchronized with PCs to reflect changes and new information while away from the
computer.
Much like the Linux or Windows operating system controls your desktop or
laptop computer, a mobile operating system is the software platform on top of
which other programs can run on mobile devices.
A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating
system that is specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile
phones, smartphones, PDAs,tablet computers and other handheld devices.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

COMMERCIAL MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEM

Many people have ample knowledge about different mobile phones and their
companies, but a very few of them know something about operating systems. It is
vital to learn about different mobile OS used by many companies so that you can
know that what is behind your smartphone‘s smooth and colorful touchscreen.

Above is the popularity graph, which represents last 12 months trends. It is

apparent that Android is beating up all other operating systems, even the IOS.
Symbian, which was once an industry leader, is also observing a diminishing
slope. IOS might continue tocompete Android, and with the release of Windows
Phone 8, we might see some healthy competition in future.
Comparison Of Top Mobile OS
Symbian
Symbian OS is officially the property of Nokia. It means that any other
company will have to take permission from Nokia before using this operating system.
Nokia has remained agiant in the low-end mobile market, so after Java Symbian was
the most used in the mobile
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

phones till a couple of years ago. Still Symbian is widely used in low-end phones but
the demand rate has ben continuously decreasing. By upgrading Symbian mobile OS,
Nokia has made it capable to run smartphones efficiently. Symbian ANNA and
BELLE are the two latest updates that are currently used in Nokia‘s smartphones.
Overall, the Symbian OS is excellently designed and is very user-friendly.
Unfortunately, Symbian OS graph is going downwards nowadays due to the
immense popularity of Android and iOS. Some of the phones currently running on
Symbian OS are Nokia C6-01, Nokia 603, Nokia 700, Nokia 808 Pure View, Nokia E6
(ANNA) and Nokia 701 (BELLE). Symbian is a popular choice among Nokia dual sim
mobile phones as well.

Android
th
September 20 , 2008 was the date when Google released the first Android
OS by the name of ‗Astro‘. After sometime next upgraded versions ‗Bender‘ and
‗Cupcake‘ were also released. Google then adopted the trend of naming Android
versions after any dessert or a sweet in alphabetical order. The other releases are
Donut, Éclair, Froyo, Gingerbread, Honeycomb, Ice Cream Sandwich and Jelly
Bean.Marshmallow (Android 6.0) is so far the latest Android version from Google.
Since the platform is not closed like iOS, there are too many great Android
apps built by developers. Just after stepping into the smartphone and tablets market
Android gained immense popularity due to its beautiful appearance and efficient
working. Many new features were introduced which played a significant role in
Android‘s success. Google Play is an
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

official app market that contains millions of different apps for Android devices.
Samsung, HTC, Motorola and many other top manufacturers are using Android in
their devices. Currently, Android is one of the top operating systems and is
considered serious threat for iPhone.
Some of the smartphones operating on Android are HTC Desire, Samsung
Galaxy Gio, Motorola Droid Razr, Samsung Galaxy S3 and HTC Wildfire.

Apple iOS
th
iOS was introduced in 29 June 2007 when the first iPhone was developed.
Since then iOS has been under gone many upgrades and currently the latest one is
the iOS 9. Apple has still not allowed any other manufacturer to lay hands on its
operating system. Unlike Android, Apple has more concentrated on the performance
along with appearance. This is thereason that the basic appearance of iOS is almost
the same as it was in 2007. Overall it is very user-friendly and is one of the mobile
best operating systems in the world. So far iOS has been used in all iPhones, iPod &
iPad.
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Blackberry OS
Blackberry OS is the property of RIM (Research In Motion) and was first
released in 1999. RIM has developed this operating system for its Blackberry line of
smartphones. Blackberry is much different from other operating systems. The
interface style, as well as the Smartphone design, is also different having a trackball
for moving on the menu and a qwerty keyboard.
Like Apple, Blackberry OS is a close source OS and is not available for any
other manufacturer. Currently, the latest release of this operating system
isBlackberry OS 7.1 which was introduced in May 2011 and is used inBlackberry
Bold 9930. It is a very reliable OS and is immune to almost all the viruses.
Some of the smartphones operating on Blackberry OS are Blackberry Bold,
Blackberry Curve, Blackberry Torch and Blackberry 8520.
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Windows OS
All of you will be familiar with Windows OS because it is used in computers all
over the world. Windows OS has also been used in mobile phones, but normal
mobile phone usersfind it a bit difficult to operate it but at the same time it was very
popular among people who were used to it.
This was the case until Nokia and Microsoft joined hands to work together.
The latest Windows release by Microsoft is known as Windows 7 which has gained
immense popularity among all kind of users. With its colorful and user-friendly
interface, it has given Windows OS a new life and is currently in demand all over the
world. Another reason behind its success is that this latest OS is used in very
powerful devices made by Nokia. The computer like look has totally vanished from
the windows phones with the release of Windows 7. Samsung and HTC also released
some Windows-based phones, but they could not many places in the market.
Nokia Lumia series is completely windows based. Some of the latest Windows
Phones are Nokia Lumia 800, Nokia Lumia 900, Samsung Focus and HTC Titan 2.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

BADA
Like others, Samsung also owns an operating system that is known as BADA. It is
designed for mid-range and high-end smartphones. Bada is a quiet user-friendly and
efficient operating system, much like Android, but unfortunately Samsung did not
use Bada on a large scale for unknown reasons.
th
The latest version Bada 2.0.5 was released on March 15 , 2012. There are only three
phones that are operating on Bada. These three smartphones are Samsung Wave,
Samsung Wave 2 and Samsung Wave 3. I believe that Bada would have achieved
much greater successif Samsung had promoted it properly.

Palm OS (Garnet OS)

Palm OS was developed by Palm Inc in 1996 especially for PDAs (Personal
DigitalAssistance). Palm OS was designed to work on touchscreen GUI. Some Years
later it was
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

upgraded and was able to support smartphones. Unfortunately, it could not make a
mark on the market and currently is not being used in any of the latest top devices.
It has been 5 and half years since we saw the latest update of Palm OS in
2007. Palm OS was used by many companies including Lenovo, Legend Group,
Janam, Kyocera and IBM.

Open WebOS
Open WebOS also known as Hp WebOS or just WebOS which was developed
by Palm Inc but after some years it became the property of Hewlett-Packard. WebOS
was launched in 2009 and was used in a number of smartphones and tablets.
Hp promoted WebOS at a very high level by using it in high-end smartphones
and tablets. The latest device working on WebOS was the Hp Touch Pad. With the
introductionof Android in the market sales of Hp WebOS, based tablets got very less.
At last Hp announced to discontinue WebOS-based devices, but the existing users
were assured that they will get regular updates of the operating system.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Maemo

Nokia and Maemo Community joined hands to produce an operating system

for smartphones and internet tablets, known as Maemo. Like other devices, the user
interface of Maemo also comprised of a menu from which the user can go to any
location.
Like today‘s Android the home screen is divided into multiple sections that
show Internet Search bar, different shortcut icons, RSS Feed and other such things.
Later in 2010 atthe MWC (Mobile World Congress) it was revealed that now Maemo
project will be merged with Mobilin to create a fresh operating system known as
MeeGo.

MeeGo
MeeGo was called a mobile platform, but it was designed to run multiple
electronic devices including handhelds, in-car devices, television sets, and net books.
All the devices on which MeeGo can have the same core but the user interface is
entirely different according to the device.
In 2010, Moorestown Tablet PC was introduced at COMPUTEX Taipei, which
was also a MeeGo powered device.Most of you will have heard the name Nokia N9,
but you will not be aware of the fact that this large selling device is operating on
MeeGo.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Verdict
These ten are not the only mobile operating systems out there; there are tons
more, and we shall be seeing one by Firefox mobile OS <Source> in future as well.
Firefox, which once dominated the internet browser market, is in the process of
building their web OS for mobiles, so in the future mobile OS market might get even
more competitive.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT KIT:iOS, ANDROID,BLACKBERRY,WINDOWSPHONE

iOS
iOS (originally iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system created and developed
by Apple Inc. and distributed exclusively for Apple hardware. It is the operating
system that presently powers many of the company's mobile devices, including the
iPhone, iPad, and iPodtouch. In October 2015, it was the most commonly used mobile
operating system, in a few countries, such as in Canada, the United States, the United
Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Japan, and Australia, while iOS is far behind
Google's Android globally; iOS had a 19.7% share of the smartphone mobile operating
system units shipped in the fourth quarter of 2014, behind Android with
76.6%.However, on tablets, iOS is the most commonly used tabletoperating system in
the world, while it has lost majority in many countries (e.g. the Africa continent and
briefly lost Asia).
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

Originally unveiled in 2007, for the iPhone, it has been extended to support
other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch (September 2007), iPad(January 2010),
iPad Mini (November 2012) and second-generation Apple TV onward (September
2010). As of January 2015, Apple's App Store contained more than 1.4 million iOS
applications, 725,000 of which are native for iPads. These mobile apps have
collectively been downloaded more than 100 billion times.
The iOS user interface is based on the concept of direct manipulation, using
multi- touch gestures. Interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and
buttons. Interaction with the OS includes gestures such as swipe, tap,pinch, and
reverse pinch, all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS
operating system and its multi-touch interface. Internal accelerometers are used by
some applications to respond to shaking the device (one common result is the undo
command) or rotating it in three dimensions (one common result is switching from
portrait to landscape mode).
iOS shares with OS X some frameworks such as Core Foundation and
Foundation Kit; however, its UI toolkit is Cocoa Touch rather than OS X's Cocoa, so
that it provides the UIKitframework rather than the AppKit framework. It is therefore
not compatible with OS X for applications. Also while iOS also shares the Darwin
foundation with OS X, Unix-like shell access is not available for users and restricted
for apps, making iOS not fully Unix-compatibleeither.
Major versions of iOS are released annually. The current release, iOS 9.1, was
released on October 21, 2015. In iOS, there are four abstraction layers: the Core OS
layer, the Core Services layer, the Media layer, and the Cocoa Touch layer. The current
version of the operating system (iOS 9), dedicates around 1.3 GB of the device's
flash memory for iOS itself. It runs on theiPhone 4S and later, iPad 2 and later, iPad
Pro, all models of the iPad Mini, and the 5th-generation iPod Touch and later.
Android
Android is a mobile operating system (OS) currently developed by Google,
based on theLinux kernel and designed primarily for touch screen mobile devices such
as smart phones and tablets. Android's user interface is mainly based on direct
manipulation, using touch gestures that loosely correspond to real-world actions, such
as swiping, tapping and pinching, to manipulate on-screen objects, along with a virtual
keyboard for text input.
In addition to touch screen devices, Google has further developed Android TV
for televisions, Android Auto for cars, and Android Wear for wrist watches, each with a
specialized user interface. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

consoles, digital cameras, and other electronics. As of 2015, Android has the largest
installed base of all operating systems.
Initially developed by Android, Inc., which Google bought in 2005, Android was
unveiled in 2007, along with the founding of the Open Handset Alliance – a consortium
of hardware, software, and telecommunication companies devoted to advancing open
standardsformobile devices. As of July 2013, the Google Play store has had over one
million Android applications ("apps") published, and over 50 billion applications
downloaded. An April–May 2013 survey of mobile application developers found that
71% of developers create applications for Android, and a 2015 survey found that 40%
of full-time professional developers seeAndroid as their priority target platform, which
is comparable to Apple's iOS on 37% with both platforms far above others.
At Google I/O 2014, the company revealed that there were over one billion
active monthly Android users, up from 538 million in June 2013. Android's source code
is released by Google under open source licenses, although most Android devices
ultimately ship with a combination of open source and proprietary software, including
proprietary software required for accessing Google services. Android is popular with
technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable
operating system for high-tech devices.
Its open nature has encouraged a large community of developers and
enthusiasts to use the open-source code as a foundation for community-driven
projects, which add new features for advanced users or bring Android to devices
originally shipped with other operating systems. At the same time, as Android has no
centralised update system most Android devices fail to receive security updates:
research in 2015 concluded that almost 90% of Android phones in usehad known but
unpatched security vulnerabilities due to lack of updates and support.
The success of Android has made it a target for patent litigation as part of the
so-called "smartphone wars" between technology companies.
BlackBerry
BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by
BlackBerry Ltdfor its BlackBerry line of smart phone handheld devices. The operating
system provides multitasking and supports specialized input devices that have been
adopted by BlackBerry Ltd. for use in its handhelds, particularly the track wheel,
trackball, and most recently, the trackpad and touch screen.
The BlackBerry platform is perhaps best known for its native support for
corporate email, through MIDP 1.0 and, more recently, a subset of MIDP 2.0, which
allows complete wireless activation and synchronization with Microsoft Exchange,
Lotus Domino, or Novell
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

GroupWise email, calendar, tasks, notes, and contacts, when used with BlackBerry
Enterprise Server. The operating system also supports WAP 1.2. Updates to the
operating system may be automatically available from wireless carriers that
support the BlackBerry over the air software loading (OTASL) service.
Third-party developers can write software using the available BlackBerry
APIclasses, although applications that make use of certain functionality must be
digitallysigned. Research from June 2011 indicated that approximately 45% of
mobile developerswere using the platform at the time of publication. BlackBerry OS
was discontinued afterthe release of BlackBerry 10, but BlackBerry will continue
support for the BlackBerry OS. Windows Phone
Windows Phone (WP) is a family of mobile operating systemsdeveloped
by Microsoft for smart phones as the replacement successor to
WindowsMobile and Zune. Windows Phone features a new user interface derived from
Metro design language. Unlike Windows Mobile, it is primarily aimed at the consumer
market rather than the enterprise market. It was first launched in October 2010 with
Windows Phone 7.
Windows Phone 8.1 was the last public release of the operating system, released
tomanufacturing on April 14, 2014

Work on a major Windows Mobile update may have begun as early as 2004
under the codename "Photon", but work moved slowly and the project was
ultimately cancelled. In 2008, Microsoft reorganized the Windows Mobile group
and started work on a new mobile operating system. The product was to be
released in 2009 as Windows Phone, but several delays prompted Microsoft to
develop Windows Mobile 6.5 as an interim release.

Windows Phone was developed quickly. One result was that the new OS
would not be compatible with Windows Mobile applications. Larry Lieberman,
senior product manager for Microsoft's Mobile Developer Experience, told eWeek:
"If we'd had more timeand resources, we may have been able to do something in
terms of backward compatibility." Lieberman said that Microsoft was attempting
to look at the mobile phone market in a new way, with the end user in mind as well
as the enterprise network. Terry Myerson, corporate VP of Windows Phone
engineering, said, "With the move to capacitive touch screens, away from the stylus,
and the moves to some of the hardware choices we made for the Windows Phone
7 experience, we had to break application compatibility with Windows Mobile 6.5.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

M-COMMERCE
The phrase mobile commerce was originally coined in 1997 by Kevin Duffey at
the launch of the Global Mobile Commerce Forum, to mean "the delivery of
electronic commerce capabilities directly into the consumer‘s hand, anywhere, via
wireless technology." Many choose to think of Mobile Commerce as meaning "a
retail outlet in your customer‘s pocket."
Mobile commerce is worth US$230 billion, with Asia representing almost half
of the market, and has been forecast to reach US$700 billion in 2017. According to
BI Intelligence in January 2013, 29% of mobile users have now made a purchase with
their phones. Walmart estimated that 40% of all visits to their internet shopping site
in December 2012 was from a mobile device. Bank of America predicts $67.1
billion in purchases will be made from mobile devices by European and U.S.
shoppers in 2015. Mobile retailers in UK alone are expected to increase revenues up
to 31% in FY 2013–14.
The Global Mobile Commerce Forum, which came to include over 100
organisations, had its fully minuted launch in London on 10 November 1997. Kevin
Duffey was elected as the Executive Chairman at the first meeting in November 1997.
The meeting was opened by Dr Mike Short, former chairman of the GSM Association,
with the very first forecasts for mobile commerce from Kevin Duffey (Group
Telecoms Director of Logica) and Tom Alexander (later CEO of Virgin Mobile and
then of Orange).
Over 100 companies joined the Forum within a year, many forming mobile
commerce teams of their own, e.g. MasterCard and Motorola. Of these one hundred
companies, the first two were Logica and Cellnet (which later became O2). Member
organisations such as Nokia, Apple, Alcatel, and Vodafone began a series of trials
and collaborations.
Mobile commerce services were first delivered in 1997, when the first two
mobile- phone enabled Coca Cola vending machines were installed in the Helsinki
area in Finland. The machines accepted payment via SMS text messages. This work
evolved to several new mobile applications such as the first mobile phone-based
banking service was launched in
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

1997 by Merita Bank of Finland, also using SMS. Finnair mobile check-in was also a
major milestone, first introduced in 2001.
The m-Commerce(tm) server developed in late 1997 by Kevin Duffey and
Andrew Tobin at Logica won the 1998 Financial Times award for "most innovative
mobile product," in a solution implemented with De La Rue, Motorola and Logica. The
Financial Times commended the solution for "turning mobile commerce into a
reality." The trademark for m- Commerce was filed on 7 April 2008
(http://www.trademarkia.co.uk/uk/mcommerce- 56494.htm).
In 1998, the first sales of digital content as downloads to mobile phones were
made possible when the first commercial downloadable ringtones were launched
in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj). Two major national commercial
platforms for mobilecommerce were launched in 1999: Smart Money
(http://smart.com.ph/money/) in the Philippines, and NTT DoCoMo's i-Mode Internet
service in Japan. i-Mode offered a revolutionary revenue-sharing plan where NTT
DoCoMo kept 9 percent of the fee users paidfor content, and returned 91 percent to
the content owner.
Mobile-commerce-related services spread rapidly in early 2000. Norway
launched mobile parking payments. Austria offered train ticketing via mobile device.
Japan offered mobile purchases of airline tickets. In April 2002, building on the work
of the Global Mobile Commerce Forum (GMCF), the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) appointed Joachim Hoffmann of Motorola to develop
official standards for mobile commerce. In appointing Mr Hoffman, ETSI quoted
industry analysts as predicting "that m- commerce is poised for such an exponential
growth over the next few years that could reach US$200 billion by 2004".
The first book to cover mobile commerce was Tomi Ahonen's M-profits in
2002. The first university short course to discuss mobile commerce was held at the
University of Oxfordin 2003, with Tomi Ahonen and Steve Jones lecturing. As of 2008,
UCL Computer Science and Peter J. Bentley demonstrated the potential for medical
applications on mobile devices.

PDAs and cellular phones have become so popular that many businesses are
beginning to use mobile commerce as a more efficient way to communicate
with their customers. In order to exploit the potential mobile commerce market,
mobile phone manufacturers such as Nokia, Ericsson, Motorola, and Qualcomm are
working with carriers such as AT&T Wireless and Sprint to develop WAP-enabled
smartphones. Smartphones offer fax, e-mail, and phone capabilities.
 lOMoARcPSD|26960503

"Profitability for device vendors and carriers hinges on high-end mobile devices
and theaccompanying killer applications," said Burchett. Perennial early adopters, such
as the youth market, which are the least price sensitive, as well as more open to
premium mobile content and applications, must also be a key target for device
vendors.
Since the launch of the iPhone, mobile commerce has moved away from SMS
systems and into actual applications. SMS has significant security vulnerabilities and
congestion problems, even though it is widely available and accessible. In addition,
improvements in the capabilities of modern mobile devices make it prudent to place
more of the resource burden on the mobile device.
More recently, brick and mortar business owners, and big-box retailers in
particular, have made an effort to take advantage of mobile commerce by utilizing a
number of mobile capabilities such as location-based services, barcode scanning, and
push notifications to improve the customer experience of shopping in physical stores.
By creating what is referred to as a 'bricks & clicks' environment, physical retailers can
allow customers to access the commonbenefits of shopping online (such as product
reviews, information, and coupons) while still shopping in the physical store.
This is seen as a bridge between the gap created by e-commerce and in-store
shopping, and is being utilized by physical retailers as a way to compete with the lower
prices typically seen through online retailers. By mid summer 2013, "omni channel"
retailers (those with significant e-commerce and in-store sales) were seeing between
25% and 30% of traffic to theironline properties originating from mobile devices. Some
other pure play/online-only retail sites (especially those in the travel category) as well
as flash sales sites and deal sites were seeing between 40% and 50% of traffic (and
sometimes significantly more) originate from mobile devices.
The Google Wallet Mobile App launched in September 2011 and the m-
Commerce joint venture formed in June 2011 between Vodafone, O2, Orange and T-
Mobile are recent developments of note. Reflecting the importance of m-Commerce, in
April 2012 the Competition Commissioner of the European Commission ordered an in-
depth investigation of the m-Commerce joint venture between Vodafone, O2, Orange
and T-Mobile. A recent survey states that 2012, 41% of smartphone customers have
purchased retail products with their mobile devices.

STRUCTURE OF M-COMMERCE
The traditional Web interaction model evolved on desktop computers, making
its user interface assumptions uniquely suited to a desktop or laptop computer.
Mobile Web services
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span a range of capabilities. Mobile appliances can display many lines of text and
graphics in a single screen. Accessing Web information on these tiny appliances falls
into three categories. This approach employs manually authored page templates for
each device type and populates these templates with content from a database.
Because of the labour required, only a small fraction of Web content in Europe
and Japan is manually authored for any particular device. In Japan, the i-mode service
provides many Web phone users with access to specifically authored compact HTML
pages. Automated techniques for re-authoring Web content have become popular
because they are cost-effective and they allow access to content that providers have
not manually authored for very small devices.
Transforming system Making Web content compatible with device formats,
transforming systems modify content to transform the structure of interacting with the
content. The Digestor system, for example, attempts to imitate an expert Web
designer faced with the task of re-authoring Web pages for PDAs . This study also
modifies the Web page layout, splitting it into multiple sub-pages and adding
navigation links so that the user can navigate the sub-pages. z Multipurpose system M
-Links is a representative of this category. Figure shows the m-Links architecture
proposed by Intel.
The three main processing components are the link engine, which creates the
navigation interface; the service manager, which creates the action interface, and the
user interface generator, which converts the interfaces into forms suitable for the
requesting device and browser. Formats include HTML, Wireless Markup Language
(WML), Handheld Device Markup Language (HDML) and Compact HTML (CHTML).
M-Commerce Framework
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Figure illustrates an m-commerce system architecture that shows how this

study combined advance technologies according to the previous works. The
architecture consists of the Web client, XML server, and back-end processing modules.
Figure 5 is depicts the operation scenario between tiny wireless devices and servers,
based on WS technologies.
Web Client WS technologies describe the specific business functionality
exposed by a company, through an Internet connection, to provide a way for another
company to use business services. WS consists of many software building blocks
that can be assembled to construct distributed applications. They are in particular
defined by their interfaces about how they describe their functionality, how they
register their presence, and how they communicate with other WS. Restated,
individuals wanting to use WS could connect to the UDDI center to search for the
required services.
The information described by the WSDL can be acquired. The users could also
use the SOAP to transfer the required information and receive the real service. This
study adopts the mobile agent technology into the architecture to mobilize this
information . WS procedures can be mastered with mobile agents. Users only need to
send simple commands of their requirements. The mobile agents perform the actions
according to these commands and interact with WS technologies.
All users must wait for the response from the service provider and then enjoy
the services. z QoS consideration An m-commerce service could be successful; the
QoS will be one of the ultimate criteria. For example, location awareness, data burst
control, and unpredictable bit error rate. Additionally, QoS combines several qualities
or properties of a service, such as availability, security properties, response time and
throughput.
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Many providers compete to offer the same WS, implying that users can decide
to select providers based on the QoS to which they can commit. This observation
suggests that users and providers must be able to engage in QoS negotiation. The
interaction between users and WS providers occurs via XML-based SOAP messages.
z SOAP security Several service scenariosin which security function is provided by the
transport layer are insufficient. SOAP security is useful for application developers.
Their functionalities include end-to-end security, application independence,
transport independence, and stored message security . The code translator module
ensures that the module with correct coding for device. The security goal of a service-
oriented architecture attempts to enable trusted interactions among the roles. If
security is defined as protection against threats, a WS identifies its set of perceived
threats and propose methods of preventing threats to WS interactions.
Two parties can establish trust when they understand the risks, having
identified the threats and vulnerabilities and conferred on a set of countermeasures
and safeguards for protecting themselves in doing business. A WS architecture
implementation should allow for incremental security and QoS models facilitated by
configuring a set of environmental prerequisites to control and manage the
interactions. In addition, users can access their personaland services folders once they
have logged into the system using a pass phrase (Certificate Authority; CA).
The client also has other functions, including changing the pass phrase;
customizing the appearance of information in the personal folder, and specifying when
the client should lock information. Web Services Flow Language (WSFL) is an XML
language describing WS compositions. WSFL considers two types. The first type
specifies the appropriate usage pattern of a collection of WS, such that the resulting
composition describes how to achieve a particular business goal; typically, the result
describes a business process.
The second type specifies the interaction pattern of a collection of WS; in this
case, the result is a description of the overall partner interactions. Object Store creates
a ‗proxy‘ object, which communicates with the actual service to process the
application request. The proxy creation and usage is transparent to the client and its
complexity shielded by the underlying WS.
XML server includes the following functionalities: transforming data in the
database into XML data; making many different XML documents according to different
Document Type Definition (DTD); and receiving requests from web server and
producing HTML files corresponding to the back-end processing modules. The study
develops a user interface
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generator, which uses a combination of screen template substitution and program

inheritance toproduce the appropriate markup interface for each device.
It begins by identifying the device making the request, and then determines the
appropriate type of response markup and dispatches to a markup handler. The handler
subsequently uses a screen template to help generate the content appropriate for the
device. The generator uses the same process for both the navigation and the action
interfaces, as well as a few associated screens.
Figure illustrates the operation scenario, described in the following. 1) A mobile
device sends a request to Filter and Filter relays the request to the WS via HTTP
protocol. 2) The filterauthenticates the identity of the user and device, relays the user's
request to the WS and forwards authentication data to the style generator at the same
time. The style generator then determines the style-sheet to be used according to
verify received data with user data and device data. 3) When receiving the request, the
WS generates the appropriate XML documents and style sheet to send to the
rendering module. 4) When receiving the XML documents and XSLT, the rendering
module generates documents with the XML parser and XSL engine.
PROS AND CONS OF MOBILE COMMERCE
Pros:
 Increased access to user data (e.g. by requesting Facebook login).
 Better use of the screen (not inside the browser window).
 Better use of smartphone features / tools (e.g. camera, GPS).
 Can access without an internet connection, using 3G for example.
 More control on how it is being shown.
Cons:
 Apps need to be downloaded.
 Apps need to be upgraded.
 There is a low repeated usage of apps.
 Needs to be built for each platform (iOS, Android, Windows).
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 Needs to be right the first time – reviews stay ―forever‖.

MOBILE PAYMENT SYSTEM AND SECURITY ISSUES

The development of smartphones has gone and replaced a few things we
grew up with: the watch, the alarm clock, the tape recorder, music players, and it
seems that very soon, we can add cash and wallets to that list. It‘s hardly a surprise.
Payment methods have been morphing through various channels: from cash to
cheques, to credit cards and debit cards, and now to online banking and mobile
commerce.
Close to 10 million mobile subscribers in Japan are already paying for
purchases with their smartphones by the end of 2010, and reports are saying that
the more than $200 billion dollar mobile payment industry willl be worth a trillion by
2015.
There are 6 billion mobile phone subscriptions in the world, and more than a
billion smartphones already in the market. Perhaps it‘s just a matter of time before
we embrace the idea of losing that wallet and opting for a digital one to buy flight
tickets, lunch, coffee or even to pay the rent.
Digital Wallets
The verdict is still out on what to call these cashless wallets: digital wallet,
electronic wallet, e-wallet, virtual wallet etc but they all work the same way. By
downloading an app onto your phone, you can link the service or app account to your
bank account or payment card. With that done, you can start paying for your wares
with your digital wallet.
Paying is a Breeze
If your digital wallet is an NFC enabled Android phone, you can tap your
smartphone atthe card terminal at the checkout counter, like you would your debit card.
But let‘s face it, not all Android phones carry NFC technology and it‘s hardly a strong
reason for you to consider when it comes to picking your next smartphone. But fret not,
other e-wallets, like Square Wallet, let you pay just by saying your name to the cashier.
Systems like ERPLY allow you to check in at a store, and let the cashier identify
you by facial recognition; your purchases are then auto-deducted from your PayPal
account.
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Restaurants and pubs would love platforms like Tabbedout, which lets their diners
check in when they arrive, and pay for their meal anytime without needing to wait for
the bill or to bring their wallets along. All of this is made possible with smartphones
and the right apps.
Digital Wallets not only carry payment details to allow their owners to make
purchases,they also help them to better manage their loyalty cards. If your really want
to go full digital (wallet) then it only makes sense that you need not carry around your
loyalty cards either.
To cater for this, there are also apps that let users scan the information on the
barcodes of their loyalty cards, then store them up in the phone. At the checkout
counter, they can let the cashier scan the barcode displayed on their mobile screen to
ensure that they don‘t miss out on any rewards.
Loyalty Apps and Programs
But then other apps take it up a notch and become the reward platform itself.
Loyalty platforms like LevelUp, Perka and rewardjunkie! give business owners the
flexibility to customize reward programs for their loyal, paying customers, and to
engage new customers for their booming business.
For the rest of us, this means that we don‘t have to carry around stacks of brand-
specific loyalty cards that are used probably once every couple of months. Everything is
in our smartphone, including new offers, discounts and deals offered by participating
merchants.
Alternative Payment Methods
If however you are cautious with your spending and prefer to not put all your
chicken eggs in the same basket (i.e. what if you lose your smartphone?), then there
are other online payment methods to use.
Carrier or Mobile Billing
The idea is to charge all your online purchases to your phone bill and clear
that at the end of the month. The good thing with this method is that you need not
even own asmartphone to start making online purchases. Having a mobile phone is
enough as you can pay via sms. There are confirmation codes or authorization pins
or text to punch in they are intended for security purposes.
Is it Secure?
Ultimately, the security of these mobile payment systems is always at the
back of our heads. What happens if I transfer all my payment card details into the
smartphone and the unthinkable happens: someone else gets hold of my lost or
stolen smartphone?. Well, it‘s a good thing that most of these accounts, as well as
your smartphone, can be remotely deactivated or wiped out. It is a good idea to have
a passcode lock, at least to give your phone
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an extra layer of protection. Also, before you start linking your sensitive data to any
mobile payment platform, do take a look at customer reviews or coverage of the
platform from reliable sources first.
Resources for accepting mobile payment
To wrap up, here is a small list of resources developers can adapt to their
online business to start accepting mobile payments from their online customers.
Card io
Tired of having to punch in line after line of credit card details? You can skip
through all that with Card.io by taking a photo of your credit card, then punching in
the CVV code manually. This help reduce fraud and developers can easily join the
program by grabbing the SDK for card.io at the site.
Jumio
Here is another app that lets you take photos of your credit card as a payment
method via Netswipe. It also has a similar online ID verification tool calledNetverify,
which lets yourcustomer‘s computer work in your favor as an ID scanning tool.
BancBox
BancBox is an all-in, one-stop solution for businesses that cater to the online
marketplace. With the payment portal in place, the business owner can receive credit
card payments, wire transfers and checks, among others. It also has a relatively low
fee of 0.5% + 30 cents per transaction for its services.
Stripe
Stripe helps developers take care of credit card payments online with a simple
JS script. It lets you build your own payment forms, and avoid PCI requirements.
Embedding the codes in the site lets Stripe to handle all your online payment needs
at 2.9% + 30 cents per successful charge.
Zooz
ZooZ gives developers 3 lines of code, which they can integrate into their
mobile applications. There is also a sandbox environment to let developers test out
transactions at no charge. Prices are locked in at 2.8% + 19 cents per transaction.
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QUESTION BANK

ONE MARKS
1. What kind of Protocol is used to provide Internet access from mobile?
A. TCP/IP B. ISD C. WAP D. HTTP
Answer: C
2. An average latency is a wireless network is around ……..but can be as high as ….
A . ½ second, 10 seconds B. 1 second, 12 seconds C. 1 minute, 5 minutes D. 1 hour, 12
hours
Answer: A
3 .What is the full form of SIM?
A. Station Identity Module B System Identity Module C. Subscriber Identity Module D. None of the
above
Answer: C
4 .What language is used in Mobile computing?
A. XML B. WML C. DHTMLL D. XHTML
Answer: B
5. The main aim of the file system is to support________
A. Transparent access to data B.Efficient access to data C .Consistent access to data
D .All of the above
Answer: D
6. In a distributed system, a client sends the request, and the server provides_____
A. Data B. Service C. Information D. All of the above
Answer: B

7. Which of the following can be considered as the primary function of snooping TCP?
A. To buffer data close to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission in case of packet loss.
B. Congestion control
C. Flow control
D. None of the above
Answer: A
8. Mobile Computing allows transmission of data from one wireless-enabled device to another_
A. Any device B.Wired device C. Wireless-enabled device D. one of the above
Answer: C
9 .Which of the following is a fundamental principle of wireless communication?
A. Electromagnetic waves B. Microwaves C. Both A and B D. None of the above
Answer: A
10. Which of the following is supported data rates of 4G Networks?
A. 1024kbps B. 100mbs C. 200mbps D. None of the above
Answer: B
11. Which of the following mobile platform support hundreds of thousands of third-party applications?
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a) iPhone b) Symbian c) Windows Mobile Phone d) None of the mentioned

Answer: a
12. Which of the following applications are processed locally on the phone?
a) Google Earth b) Google Maps c) Google Voice d) None of the mentioned
Answer: d
13. Point out the wrong statement.
a) When you develop an application for the cloud, you need multiple type of developer and then all the
connected phones can use that application
b) When you develop an application for the cloud, you need just one of developer and then all the
connected phones can use that application
c) The codec that compresses the video content uses a block-oriented scheme
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
14. Mobile Lite is an extension of the __________ cloud service.
a) Salesforce.com b) Google.com c) aol.com d) None of the mentioned
Answer:a
15. ________ is slated to add both the Opera Mini 5 and Opera Mobile 10 browsers to the Brew mobile
platform.
a) Snapdragon b) Qualcomm c) Quadrangle d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
16. Which of the following are essential characteristics of smartphone in cloud?
a) A smartphone offers advanced calling features such as video calls or conferencing
b) A smartphone has a recognizable operating system
c) A smartphone comes with a touchscreen
d) All of the mentioned
Answer: b
17. Which of the following factors needs to be considered while moving from smartphone execution to a
virtual machine running in the cloud?
a) Network bandwidth b) Memory c) Processing power d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
18. Which of the following was built to serve as a mobile platform for Internet computing?
a) Windows Phone b) Android c) Symbian d) All of the mentioned
Answer: b
19. Which of the following can be considered as the primary function of snooping TCP?
A. To buffer data close to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission in case of packet loss.
B. Congestion control
C. Flow control
D. None of the above
Answer: A
20. Mobile Computing allows transmission of data from one wireless-enabled device to another_
A. Any device
B.Wired device
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C. Wireless-enabled device
D. one of the above
Answer: C
21 .Which of the following is a fundamental principle of wireless communication?
A. Electromagnetic waves
B. Microwaves
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: A

10 MARKS:

1.MOBILE PAYMENT SYSTEM AND SECURITY ISSUES

2. COMMERCIAL MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEM

5MARKS:
1.M COMMERCE
2.SPECIAL CONSTRAINTS AND REQUIREMENTS

UNIT-V FINISHED