337

A publication of

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS

VOL. 48, 2016 The Italian Association
of Chemical Engineering
Online at www.aidic.it/cet
Guest Editors: Eddy de Rademaeker, Peter Schmelzer
Copyright © 2016, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l.,
ISBN 978-88-95608-39-6; ISSN 2283-9216 DOI: 10.3303/CET1648057

Dust Explosions in the Process Industries:Research in the

Twenty-first Century
Trygve Skjold*a, Rolf K. Eckhoff b
a
Gexcon, R&D, Fantoftvegen 38, 5072 Bergen, Norway
b
University of Bergen, Allégaten 55, 5007 Bergen, Norway
trygve@gexcon.com

Accidental dust explosions pose a threat to personnel and property in industries that produce, process, handle
or transport combustible dusts. Over the last decade, the international research community has made
significant progress towards improved understanding of the dust explosion phenomenon. This has resulted in
improved standards and best practice guidelines for safe operation, as well as increased awareness of the
inherent limitations in test procedures and methods for extrapolating results from laboratory experiments to
industrial scales. Of particular importance is the development in the field of numerical modelling of dust
explosions, and the accompanying need for reliable validation data from large-scale experiments. The
purpose of the paper is to review the development and trends in dust explosion research in the twenty-first
century, with particular emphasis on numerical modelling of flame propagation in dust clouds and the
application of advanced models for risk assessment and risk management in the process industries.

1. Introduction
Dust explosions entail rapid flame propagation through clouds of combustible dust particles, or ‘premixed
combustion with non-premixed substructures’ (Williams, 1986). The fuel can be any finely divided solid
material, capable of reacting rapidly and exothermically with a gaseous oxidizer (usually air). The
characteristic size of the fuel particle sizes is typically in the range 1-100 micrometres. The explosion
pentagon extends the classical fire triangle to fuel-air explosions, including dust explosions: dust explosions
pose a hazard whenever combustible solid material is present in the form of fine powder, there is a possibility
of dispersing a sufficient mass of the material in air to form an explosive dust cloud within a relatively confined
and/or congested volume, and there is an ignition source present. The mechanism behind the flame
acceleration process in dust explosions is essentially the same as for gas explosions: expansion of
combustion products introduces flow, which generates turbulence – enhanced heat and mass transfer in the
turbulent flow results in higher rate of combustion, which creates more expansion, which creates more
turbulence, etc. Dust explosions may escalate through the mechanisms of dust lifting ahead of the flame front
and pressure piling in complex confined geometries. The material presented here is an extract from an
extensive literature study performed in connection with the preparation of the fourth edition of the book 'Dust
Explosions in the Process Industries' (Eckhoff, 2003). Since other aspects of the dust explosion hazard have
been reviewed elsewhere (Eckhoff, 2005; Eckhoff, 2009; Eckhoff, 2012), the primary focus here will be on
experimental and numerical investigations of flame propagation in dust clouds for the purpose of estimating
the consequences of accidental dust explosions in the process industries.

2. Case histories
Dust explosions continue to cause severe losses in the process industries, and detailed reports from accident
investigations represents a valuable source of information for safety engineers. The U.S. Chemical Safety and
Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) has published detailed reports on several accidents, including three fatal
dust explosions that all occurred in 2003 (Blair, 2007) and the disaster at the Imperial Sugar manufacturing
facility in Georgia where 14 worker lost their lives (Vorderbrueggen, 2011). The 'Robert W. Schoeff
Agricultural Dust Explosions Research Collection' at Kansas State University (KSU, 2015) represents a

Please cite this article as: Skjold T., Eckhoff R., 2016, Dust explosions in the process industries: research in the twenty-first century, Chemical
Engineering Transactions, 48, 337-342 DOI:10.3303/CET1648057
338

valuable source of information for agricultural dust explosions in the US. Yan & Yu (2012) summarized case
histories from dust explosions during the past 30 years in China, and Zheng et al. (2009) analyzed 106 dust
explosion accidents in Chinese coal mines during the period 1949-2007.

3. Dust clouds
A dust cloud is a mechanical suspension, i.e. a system of fine particles dispersed by agitation, and not by the
molecular motion in the surrounding medium (colloidal suspension). For most systems encountered in
practice, this implies that the flow is inherently turbulent. Furthermore, the dynamics of the turbulent structures
create local concentration gradients. Most dust samples have a relatively wide particle size distribution, and
particles of different size react differently to variations in the flow field. Results from both laboratory- and large-
scale experiments suggest that the dispersibility of the dust has significant influence on the explosion hazard
(Siwek et al., 2004; van Wingerden et al. 2009; Klippel et al., 2013ab; Eckhoff, 2015). Knowledge about the
actual dust concentration in silos or other process vessels during filling is important for risk assessments
(Wypych et al., 2005; Klippel et al., 2014; Rani et al., 2015). Flame propagation fueled by dust lifting from
layers represents a particular hazard in industry. Several researchers have investigated this phenomenon,
both experimentally (Klemens et al., 2006; Chowdhury et al., 2015) and numerically (Zydak & Klemens, 2007;
Houim & Oran, 2015ab). Taveau (2012) reviewed the hazard associated with secondary dust explosions.

4. Flame propagation
4.1 Detailed experimental studies

The combustion mechanism for individual particles represents a convenient way of classifying dust flames
(Rockwell & Rangwala, 2013). For materials such as carbon and refractory metals, combustion entails strictly
heterogeneous reactions on the surface of the particles, so-called Nusselt flames (Goroshin et al., 1996;
Goroshin et al. 2011; Tang et al. 2009, 2011). However, most organic materials produce vapour prior to gas-
phase combustion, or so-called volatile flames. The structure of volatile flames varies significantly, depending
on processes such as pyrolysis, evaporation, heat and mass transfer, chemical reactions, etc. (Dobashi et al.,
2006; Gao et al., 2012, 2015). For most organic solid materials, external heating of the fuel particles results in
thermal degradation and liberation of volatiles through pyrolysis – the volatiles then burn in the surrounding
atmosphere. This implies that the chemical species actually taking part in the combustion reactions may differ
significantly from the overall composition of the fuel. Most combustible dust clouds encountered in industry are
not monodisperse, and the particle size distribution has significant effect on the explosion violence
(Castellanos et al., 2014). Constant pressure experiments in balloons may reveal new insights on combustion
mechanisms in dust clouds (Skjold et al. 2013; Julien et al., 2014).
4.2 Large-scale experiments

Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL) conducted a series of dust explosions tests in a vented connected vessel
system (Holbrow, 2004, 2005). The experimental program included 34 tests, with four types of dust,
particularly designed for validating the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tool DESC. The results varied
significantly between repeated tests, and only test no. 13 with coal dust produced significant pressure
enhancement in the secondary vessel. This represents a challenge for model validation (Skjold, 2010). Other
large-scale dust explosions experiments in relatively complex geometries that may be useful for model
validation include tests in bucket elevators (Holbrow et al., 2002; Roser et al., 2011), pneumatic transport
systems (Vogl & Radant, 2005), and a full-scale roller mill (van Wingerden et al., 2011). Skjold et al. (2014)
demonstrated the strong effect of repeated obstacles on flame acceleration in dust clouds in a 3.6-litre flame
acceleration tube.
4.3 Numerical modelling

Dust Explosion Simulation Code (DESC) was a project supported by the European Commission (Skjold,
2007). The main purpose of the project was to develop a simulation tool based on computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) that could predict the consequences of industrial dust explosions in complex geometries.
Skjold et al. (2005, 2006) presented simulation results obtained with DESC for large-scale dust explosion
experiments in silos. Skjold (2010) revisited the HSL experiments in the vented connected vessel system
(Holbrow, 2004; Holbrow, 2005), and demonstrated that the results are highly sensitive to modest variations in
the initial conditions. This suggests that the use of advanced modelling tools for consequence assessments
should include sensitivity analysis for variables such as vent and ignition position. Tascón et al. (2011, 2015)
simulated vented dust explosions with DESC and obtained good agreement with current standards for
 339

explosion venting. Castellanos et al. (2013) investigated the effect of vent ducts on vented dust explosions
with DESC. Other researchers have used other CFD tools (e.g. Wawrzyniak et al., 2012; Polanczyk et al.,
2013).

5. Test methods
Dust samples with a given overall chemical composition may differ widely in particle size, particle shape, and
particle surface reactivity. The strong effect of material properties on the reactivity of dust clouds implies that
safety parameters, such as the maximum constant volume explosion pressure and maximum rate of pressure
rise must be determined through testing of representative samples in standardized equipment (Beck, 2001).
From a modelling point of view, this introduces a significant complication relative to gaseous fuels. Dahoe et
al. (2001abc) investigated the transient flow conditions in the 20-litre test vessel, and Dahoe et al. (2013)
presented an elaborate technique for extracting combustion parameters from pressure-time histories
measured in constant volume explosion vessels. Proust et al. (2007) presented results that show significant
differences between the values for the size-corrected maximum rate of pressure rise values obtained in the
20-litre sphere and a 1-cubic metre vessel. Kalejaiye et al. (2010) demonstrated that the dispersion process in
the standard 20-litre vessel has significant effect on the particle size distribution in the dispersed dust cloud.

6. Risk management
Risk management refers to a coordinated set of activities and methods used to direct an organization and to
control the risks that can affect its ability to achieve its objectives (Aven & Vinnem, 2007). Management of
operational risk should take into account previous events and near misses, safety barriers, modifications and
ageing of installations, technological developments, the likelihood of natural disasters, safety training and risk
awareness, etc. The purpose of risk analysis and risk assessment is to systemize knowledge and
uncertainties about phenomena, processes and activities in a system, to describe and discuss the results of
the analysis in order to provide a basis for evaluating what is tolerable and acceptable, and to compare
different design options and risk reducing measures. Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) has proven
particularly valuable for detecting deficiencies and improving safety performance in complex technical
systems. However, a qualitative approach may suffice for simpler systems. There are inherent uncertainties
associated with most risk assessments: the hazard identification process is rarely complete, there may be
insufficient data to support precise estimates of the event frequencies, and there can be significant uncertainty
associated with the estimates for the consequences of hazardous events. The main uncertainties associated
with the consequences of flow-related accident scenarios, including dust explosions, relate to scaling and
complexity. The solution to a given flow problem depends on the initial and boundary conditions, e.g. the initial
flow field and the geometry. This poses inherent limitations to the applicability of empirical correlations for non-
trivial systems. Several researchers have presented methods and frameworks for risk assessment and risk
management related to industrial facilities where dust explosions represent a hazard (van der Voort et al.,
2007; Weirick & Manjunath, 2009; Davis et al., 2011; Abuswer et al., 2013ab; Yuan et al., 2013, 2015ab;
Hassan et al., 2014). Inherent safety is a proactive approach for risk management during process plant design
and operation (Amyotte & Khan, 2002; Amyotte et al. 2003ab, 2007, 2008, 2009).

7. Conclusions
Flame propagation and pressure loads during industrial dust explosions are extremely complex phenomena,
and comprehensive numerical models for predicting the consequences of dust explosions from fundamental
physical and chemical principles in general are, at present, beyond reach. To this end, it is not surprising that
the existing knowledge on phenomena related to flame propagation in dust clouds is somewhat fragmented.
There is nevertheless steady progress in the field, and the results obtained with CFD-based engineering
models during the last decade demonstrate the potential for practical applications to engineering design. It is
foreseen that further development of numerical methods will result in improved representation of particle-laden
flows and multiphase combustion. However, there will always be significant uncertainty associated with the
initial and boundary conditions used for the simulations, so best practice will most likely entail the use of
relatively conservative assumptions regarding the system.

Reference
Abuswer, M., Amyotte, P., Khan, F., 2013a, A quantitative risk management framework for dust and hybrid
mixture explosions, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 26, 283-289, Doi:
10.1016j.jlp.2011.08.010
340

Abuswer, M., Amyotte, P., Khan, F., Morrison, L., 2013b, An optimal level of dust explosion risk management:
Framework and application, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 26, 1530-1541, Doi:
10.1016/j.jlp.2013.08.018
Amyotte, P.R., Khan, F.I., 2002, An inherent safety framework for dust explosion prevention and mitigation,
Journal De Physique Iv, 12, 189-196, Doi: 10.1051/jp4:20020282
Amyotte, P.R., Basu, A., Khan, F.I., 2003a, Reduction of dust explosion hazard by fuel substitution in power
plants, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 81, 457-462, Doi: 10.1205/095758203770866629
Amyotte, P.R., Cloney, C.T., Khan, F.I., Ripley, R.C., 2012, Dust explosion risk moderation for flocculent
dusts, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 25, 862-869, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2012.05.007
Amyotte, P.R., Khan, F.I., Dastidar, A.G., 2003b, Reduce dust explosions the inherently safer way, Chemical
Engineering Progress, 99, 36-43.
Amyotte, P.R., Pegg, M.J., Khan, F.I., 2009, Application of inherent safety principles to dust explosion
prevention and mitigation, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 87, 35-39, Doi:
10.1016j.psep.2008.06.007
Amyotte, P.R., Pegg, M.J., Khan, F.I., Nifuku, M., Tan, Y.X., 2007, Moderation of dust explosions, Journal of
Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 20, 675-687, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2007.05.011
Aven, T., Vinnem, J.E., 2007, Risk management: with applications from the offshore petroleum industry,
Springer.
Beck, H., 2001, GESTIS-STAUB-EX - Combustion and explosion characteristics of dusts on the Internet,
Gefahrstoffe Reinhaltung Der Luft, 61, 81-83.
Blair, A.S., 2007, Dust explosion incidents and regulations in the United States, Journal of Loss Prevention in
the Process Industries, 20, 523-529, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2007.03.012
Castellanos, D., Lewandowski, A., Diaz, A., Mejia, A.F., Carreto, V., Mashuga, C., Rangwala, A.S., Cheng,
Z.D., Mannan, M.S., 2014, Influence of Particle Size and Crystalline Level on the Efficiency of Dust
Explosion Inhibitors, Industrial, Engineering Chemistry Research, 53, 11527-11537, Doi:
10.1021/ie500671
Castellanos, D., Skjold, T., van Wingerden, K., Eckhoff, R.K., Mannan, M.S., 2013, Validation of the DESC
Code in Simulating the Effect of Vent Ducts on Dust Explosions, Industrial, Engineering Chemistry
Research, 52, 6057-6067, Doi: 10.1021/ie4004943
Chowdhury, A.Y., Johnston, H.G., Marks, B., Mannan, M.S., Petersen, E.L., 2015, Effect of shock strength on
dust entrainment behind a moving shock wave, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 36,
205-215, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.02.012
Dahoe, A.E., Cant, R.S., Scarlett, B., 2001a, On the decay of turbulence in the 20-litre explosion sphere, Flow,
Turbulence and Combustion, 67, 159-184.
Dahoe, A.E., Cant, R.S., Pegg, R.S., Scarlett, B., 2001b, On the transient flow in the 20-litre explosion sphere,
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 14, 475-487.
Dahoe, A.E., Skjold, T., Roekaerts, D.J.E.M., Pasman, H.J., Eckhoff, R.K., Hanjalic, K., Donze, M., 2013, On
the application of the Levenberg–Marquardt method in conjunction with an explicit Runge–Kutta and an
implicit Rosenbrock method to assess burning velocities from confined deflagrations, Flow, Turbulence
and Combustion, 91, 281-317.
Dahoe, A.E., van der Nat, K., Braithwaite, M., Scarlett, B., 2001c, On the sensitivity of the maximum explosion
pressure of a dust deflagration to turbulence, KONA, 19, 178-195.
Davis, S.G., Hinze, P.C., Hansen, O.R., van Wingerden, K., 2011, Does your facility have a dust problem:
Methods for evaluating dust explosion hazards, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 24,
837-846, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2011.06.010
Dobashi, R., Senda, K., 2006, Detailed analysis of flame propagation during dust explosions by UV band
observations, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 19, 149-153, Doi:
10.1016j.jlp.2005.06.040
Eckhoff, R.K., 2005, Current status and expected future trends in dust explosion research, Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, 18, 225-237, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2005.06.012
Eckhoff, R.K., 2009, Understanding dust explosions, The role of powder science and technology, Journal of
Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 22, 105-116, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2008.07.006
Eckhoff, R.K., 2012, Does the dust explosion risk increase when moving from mu m-particle powders to
powders of nm-particles? Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 25, 448-459, Doi:
10.1016j.jlp.2011.11.011
Eckhoff, R.K., 2015, Scaling of dust explosion violence from laboratory scale to full industrial scale – A
challenging case history from the past, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 36, 273-282,
Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2014.12.020
 341

Eckhoff, R.K., 2003, Dust explosions in the process industries, third edition, Gulf Professional Publishing,
Amsterdam.
Gao, W., Dobashi, R., Mogi, T., Sun, J.H., Shen, X.B., 2012, Effects of particle characteristics on flame
propagation behavior during organic dust explosions in a half-closed chamber, Journal of Loss Prevention
in the Process Industries, 25, 993-999, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2012.05.015
Gao, W., Mogi, T., Yu, J.L., Yan, X.Q., Sun, J.H., Dobashi, R., 2015, Flame propagation mechanisms in dust
explosions, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 36, 188-196, Doi:
10.1016/j.jlp.2014.12.021
Goroshin, S., Tang, F.-D., Higgins, A.J., Lee, J.H.S., 2011, Laminar dust flames in a reduced-gravity
environment, Acta Astronautica, 68, 656-666, Doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.08.038
Hassan, J., Khan, F., Arnyotte, P., Ferdous, R., 2014, A model to assess dust explosion occurrence
probability, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 268, 140-149, Doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.01.017
Holbrow, P., 2004, DESC: Interconnected vented explosion tests, Report EC/04/30, Health, Safety Laboratory,
Harpur Hill, Buxton, UK.
Holbrow, P., 2005, DESC: Phase 2 Interconnected vented explosion tests, Report EC/04/72, Health, Safety
Laboratory, Harpur Hill, Buxton, UK.
Holbrow, P., Lunn, G.A., Tyldesley, A., 2002, Explosion venting of bucket elevators, Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, 15, 373-383.
Houim, R.W., Oran, E.S., 2015, Numerical simulation of dilute and dense layered coal-dust explosions,
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 35, 2083-2090, Doi: 10.1016/j.proci.2014.06.032
Houim, R.W., Oran, E.S., 2015, Structure and flame speed of dilute and dense layered coal-dust explosions,
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 36, 216-224, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.01.015
Julien, P., Vickery, J., Whiteley, S., Wright, A., Goroshin, S., Bergthorson, J.M., Frost, D.L., 2015, Effect of
scale on freely propagating flames in aluminum dust clouds, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries, 36, 232-238, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2014.12.022
Kalejaiye, O., Amyotte, P.R., Pegg, M.J., Cashdollar, K.L., 2010, Effectiveness of dust dispersion in the 20-l
Siwek chamber, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 23, 46-59.
Klemens, R., Zydak, P., Kaluzny, M., Litwin, D., Wolanski, P., 2006, Dynamics of dust dispersion from the
layer behind the propagating shock wave, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 9, 200-
209.
Klippel, A., Scheid, M., Krause, U., 2013a, Investigations into the influence of dustiness on dust explosions,
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 26, 1616-1626, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2013.07.016
Klippel, A., Scheid, M., Koperski, J., Wappler, M., Krause, U., 2013b, Influence of dustiness on small-scale
vented dust explosions, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 26, 1433-1441, Doi:
10.1016j.jlp.2013.09.006
Klippel, A., Schmidt, M., Muecke, O., Krause, U., 2014, Dust concentration measurements during filling of a
silo and CFD modeling of filling processes regarding exceeding the lower explosion limit, Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, 29, 122-137, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2014.02.006
KSU (Kansas State University), 2015, Robert W. Schoeff Agricultural Dust Explosions Research Collection,
http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/4275 accessed 17.09.2015
Polanczyk, A., Wawrzyniak, P., Zbicinski, I., 2013, CFD Analysis of Dust Explosion Relief System in the
Counter-Current Industrial Spray Drying Tower, Drying Technology, 31, 881-890, Doi:
10.108007373937.2012.736909
Proust, C., Accorsi, A., Dupont, L., 2007, Measuring the violence of dust explosions with the "201 sphere" and
with the standard "ISO 1 m(3) vessel" - Systematic comparison and analysis of the discrepancies, Journal
of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 20, 599-606, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2007.04.032
Rani, S.I., Aziz, B.A., Gimbun, J., 2015, Analysis of dust distribution in silo during axial filling using
computational fluid dynamics: Assessment on dust explosion likelihood, Process Safety and
Environmental Protection, 96, 14-21, Doi: 10.1016/j.psep.2015.04.003
Rockwell, S.R., Rangwala, A.S., 2013, Modeling of dust air flames, Fire Safety Journal, 59, 22-29.
Roser, M., Vogl, A., Radant, S., 2011, Optimizing of explosion protection by design measures for special
industrial applications, Final report G-05-0801, Research Centre for Applied System Safety and Industrial
Medicine (FSA), Mannheim, Germany.
Siwek, R., van Wingerden, K., Hansen, O.R., Sutter, G., Schwartzbach, Chr., Ginger, G., Meili, R., 2004, Dust
explosion venting and suppression of conventional spray driers, Eleventh International Symposium on
Loss Prevention, Prague, 31 May – 3 June 2004.
Skjold, T., 2007, Review of the DESC project, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 20, 291-
302, Doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2007.04.017
342

Skjold, T, (2010), Flame propagation in dust clouds: challenges for model validation, Eighth International
Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions (ISHPMIE), Yokohama, 5-10
September 2010, 11 pp.
Skjold, T., Arntzen, B.J., Hansen, O.R., Storvik, I.E., Eckhoff, R.K., 2006, Simulation of dust explosions in
complex geometries with experimental input from standardized tests, Journal of Loss Prevention in the
Process Industries, 19, 210-217, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2005.06.005
Skjold, T., Arntzen, B.J., Hansen, O.R., Taraldset, O.J., Storvik, I.E., Eckhoff, R.K., 2005, Simulating dust
explosions with the first version of DESC, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 83, 151-160,
Doi:10.1205/psep.04237
Skjold, T., Castellanos, D., Olsen, K.L., Eckhoff, R.K., 2014, Experimental and numerical investigation of
constant volume dust and gas explosions in a 3.6-m flame acceleration tube, Journal of Loss Prevention in
the Process Industries, 30, 164-176, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2014.05.010
Skjold, T., Olsen, K.L., Castellanos, D., 2013, A constant pressure dust explosion experiment, Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, 26, 562-570, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2012.08.003
Tang, F.-D., Goroshin, S., Higgins, A.J., 2011, Modes of particle combustion in iron dust flames, Proceedings
of the Combustion Institute, 33, 1975-1982, Doi: 10.1016/j.proci.2010.06.088
Tang, F.-D., Goroshin, S., Higgins, A., Lee, J., 2009, Flame propagation and quenching in iron dust clouds,
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 32, 1905-1912, Doi: 10.1016/j.proci.2008.05.084
Tascón, A., Aguado, P.J., 2015, CFD simulations to study parameters affecting dust explosion venting in silos,
Powder Technology, 272, 132-141, Doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2014.11.031
Tascón, A., Ruiz, A., Aguado, P.J., 2011, Dust explosions in vented silos: Simulations and comparisons with
current standards, Powder Technology, 208, 717-724, Doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2011.01.015
Taveau, J., 2012, Secondary dust explosions: How to prevent them or mitigate their effects? Process Safety
Progress, 31, 36-50, Doi: 10.1002/prs.10478
van der Voort, M.M., Klein, A.J.J., de Maaijer, M., van den Berg, A.C., van Deursen, J.R., Versloot, N.H.A.,
2007, A quantitative risk assessment tool for the external safety of industrial plants with a dust explosion
hazard, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 20, 375-386, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2007.04.024
van Wingerden, K., Pedersen, G., Wilkins, B., Berg, M., Nielsen, N.O.F., 2011, A Full-Scale Experimental and
Modeling Investigation of Dust Explosions in a Roller Mill, Process Safety Progress, 30, 87-96, Doi:
10.1002/prs.10434
van Wingerden, K., Skjold, T., Siwek, R., 2009, Simulation von Staubexplosionen in Sprühtrocknen,
Technische Überwachung, 50, 18-22.
Vogl, A., Radant, S., 2005, Explosionsübertragung durch dünne Rohrleitungen, FSA Report F-05-9903.
Vorderbrueggen, J.B., 2011, Imperial Sugar Refinery Combustible Dust Explosion Investigation, Process
Safety Progress, 30, 66-81, Doi: 10.1002/prs.10445
Wawrzyniak, P., Polanczyk, A., Zbicinski, I., Jaskulski, M., Podyma, M., Rabaeva, J., 2012, Modeling of Dust
Explosion in the Industrial Spray Dryer, Drying Technology, 30, 1720-1729, Doi:
10.108007373937.2012.718305
Weirick, M.L., Manjunath, K., 2009, Short Communication: Dust Explosion Scenario Identification for Layers of
Protection Analysis, LOPA, Particulate Science and Technology, 27, 89-96, Doi:
10.108002726350802612042
Williams, F.A., 1996, Lectures on applied mathematics in combustion: past contributions and future problems
in laminar and turbulent combustion, Physica, 20D, 21-34.
Wypych, P., Cook, D., Cooper, P., 2005, Controlling dust emissions and explosion hazards in powder handling
plants, Chemical Engineering and Processing, 44, 323-326, Doi: 10.1016/j.cep.2004.02.026
Yan, X.-Q., Yu, J.-L., 2012, Dust explosion incidents in China, Process Safety Progress, 31, 187-189, Doi:
10.1002prs.11482
Yuan, Z., Khakzad, N., Khan, F., Amyotte, P., 2015a, Risk Analysis of Dust Explosion Scenarios Using
Bayesian Networks, Risk Analysis, 35, 278-291, Doi: 10.1111/risa.12283
Yuan, Z., Khakzad, N., Khan, F., Amyotte, P., 2015b, Risk-based optimal safety measure allocation for dust
explosions, Safety Science, 74, 79-92, Doi: 10.1016/j.ssci.2014.12.002
Yuan, Z., Khakzad, N., Khan, F., Amyotte, P., Reniers, G., 2013, Risk-Based Design of Safety Measures To
Prevent and Mitigate Dust Explosion Hazards, Industrial, Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 18095-
18108, Doi: 10.1021/ie4018989
Zheng, Y.P., Feng, C.G., Jing, G.X., Qian, X.M., Li, X.J., Liu, Z.Y., Huang, P., 2009, A statistical analysis of
coal mine accidents caused by coal dust explosions in China, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries, 22, 528-532, Doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2009.02.010
Zydak, P., Klemens, R., 2007, Modelling of dust lifting process behind propagating shock wave, Journal of
Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 20, 417-426.