Developmental Theory and THE STUDENT’S FRIENDS ARE

Research HEAVY DRINKERS.

ORGANISMIC MODEL
THE WAY THEORISTS EXPLAIN
DEVELOPMENT DEPENDS IN
THIS MODEL SEES PEOPLE AS
PART ON THEIR ASSUMPTIONS
ACTIVE, GROWING ORGANISMS
ABOUT TWO BASIC ISSUES:
THAT SET THEIR OWN
DEVELOPMENT IN MOTION THEY
1. WHETHER PEOPLE ARE
INITIATE EVENTS; THEY DO NOT
ACTIVE OR REACTIVE IN THEIR
JUST REACT. THUS THE DRIVING
OWN DEVELOPMENT.
FORCE FOR CHANGE IS
2. WHETHER DEVELOPMENT
INTERNAL. ENVIRONMENTAL
IS CONTINUOUS OR OCCURS IN
INFLUENCES DO NOT CAUSE
STAGES.
DEVELOPMENT, THOUGH THEY
CAN SPEED OR SLOW IT.
Psychologists who believe in
reactive development conceptualize
AN ORGANISMIC THEORIST, IN
the developing child as a hungry
STUDYING WHY SOME
sponge that soaks up experiences
STUDENTS DRINK TOO MUCH,
and is shaped by this input over time
LOOKS AT WHAT KINDS OF
SITUATIONS THEY CHOOSE TO
Psychologists who believe in active
PARTICIPATE IN, AND WITH
development argue that people
WHOM. DO THEY CHOOSE
create experiences for themselves
FRIENDS WHO PREFER TO
and are motivated to learn about the
PARTY OR TO STUDY? FOR
world around them.
ORGANICISTS, DEVELOPMENT
HAS AN UNDERLYING, ORDERLY
MECHANISTIC MODEL
STRUCTURE, THOUGH IT MAY
NOT BE OBVIOUS FROM
VIEWS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
MOMENT TO MOMENT
AS A SERIES OF PREDICTABLE
RESPONSES TO STIMULI. IF WE
MECHANIST THEORISTS SEE
KNOW ENOUGH ABOUT HOW
DEVELOPMENT AS
THE HUMAN “MACHINE” IS PUT
CONTINUOUS: AS OCCURRING IN
TOGETHER AND ABOUT THE
SMALL INCREMENTAL STAGES.
FORCES ACTING ON IT, WE CAN
REFINEMENT AND EXTENSION
PREDICT WHAT THE PERSON
OF EARLY SKILLS INTO LATER
WILL DO. MECHANISTIC
ABILITIES, ALLOWING ONE TO
RESEARCHERS WANT TO
MAKE PREDICTIONS ABOUT
IDENTIFY THE FACTORS THAT
FUTURE CHARACTERISTICS ON
MAKE PEOPLE BEHAVE AS THEY
THE BASIS OF PAST
DO.
PERFORMANCE.
FOR EXAMPLE, TO EXPLAIN WHY
QUANTITATIVE CHANGE—A
SOME COLLEGE STUDENTS
CHANGE IN NUMBER OR
DRINK TOO MUCH ALCOHOL, A
AMOUNT, SUCH AS HEIGHT,
MECH- ANISTIC THEORIST MIGHT
WEIGHT, OR VOCABULARY SIZE.
LOOK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES, SUCH AS
ADVERTISING AND WHETHER
QUALITATIVE CHANGE, BY SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
CONTRAST, IS DISCONTINUOUS
AND MARKED BY THE behaviorists see the environment as
EMERGENCE OF NEW the chief impetus for development,
PHENOMENA THAT COULD NOT suggests that the impetus for
BE EASILY PREDICTED ON THE development is bidirectional.
BASIS OF PAST FUNCTIONING. Bandura called this concept
reciprocal determinism—the person
Organismic theorists are proponents acts on the world as the world acts
of stage theories in which on the person
development is seen as occurring in
a series of distinct stages, like BANDURA’S (1989) UPDATED
stairsteps VERSION OF SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY IS SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 1: THEORY. THE CHANGE OF NAME
PSYCHOANALYTIC REFLECTS A GREATER
EMPHASIS ON COGNITIVE
BELIEVED IN REACTIVE PROCESSES AS CENTRAL TO
DEVELOPMENT, AS WELL AS DEVELOPMENT.
QUALITATIVE CHANGES OVER
TIME. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 3:

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 2: COGNITIVE FOCUSES ON

LEARNING THOUGHT PROCESSES AND THE
BEHAVIOR THAT REFLECTS
argued that development was the THOSE PROCESSES. THIS
result of learning, a relatively long- PERSPECTIVE ENCOMPASSES
lasting change based on experience BOTH ORGANISMIC AND
or adaptation to the environment. MECHANISTICALLY INFLUENCED
Learning theorists were not THEORIES. IT INCLUDES THE
interested in the inner working of the COGNITIVESTAGE THEORY OF
mind because those processes PIAGET, VYGOTSKY’S
could not be directly observed SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT, AND
BEHAVIORISM is a mechanistic THE INFORMATION PROCESSING
theory that describes observed APPROACH.
behavior as a predictable response
to experience. Behaviorists consider JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE-
development as reactive and STAGE THEORY
continuous. Human beings at all
ages learn about the world the same PIAGET VIEWED DEVELOPMENT
way other organisms do: by reacting ORGANISMICALLY, AS THE
to conditions or aspects of their PRODUCT OF CHILDREN’S
environment that they find pleasing, ATTEMPTS TO UNDERSTAND
painful, or threatening. AND ACT UPON THEIR WORLD.
HE ALSO BELIEVED IN
CLASSICAL AND OPERANT QUALITATIVE DEVELOPMENT,
CONDITIONING AND THUS HIS THEORY
DELINEATES A SERIES OF
STAGES CHARACTERIZING
DEVELOPMENT AT DIFFERENT CHILD CAN DISTINGUISH
AGES. BETWEEN A DOG AND A CAT.

COGNITIVE GROWTH OCCURS HOW DOES THE SHIFT FROM

THROUGH THREE INTERRE- ASSIMILATION TO
LATED PROCESSES: ACCOMMODATION OCCUR?
ORGANIZATION, ADAPTATION,
AND EQUILIBRATION. PIAGET ARGUED THAT
CHILDREN STRIVE FOR
ORGANIZATION IS THE EQUILIBRATION BETWEEN THEIR
TENDENCY TO CREATE COGNITIVE STRUCTURES AND
CATEGORIES, SUCH AS BIRDS, NEW EXPERIENCES. IN OTHER
BY OBSERVING THE WORDS, CHILDREN WANT WHAT
CHARACTERISTICS THAT THEY UNDERSTAND OF THE
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF A WORLD TO MATCH WHAT THEY
CATEGORY, SUCH AS OBSERVE AROUND THEM.
SPARROWS AND CARDINALS,
HAVE IN COMMON. LEV VYGOTSKY’S
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
SCHEMES- WAYS OF
ORGANIZING INFORMATION FOCUSED ON THE SOCIAL AND
ABOUT THE WORLD THAT CULTURAL PROCESSES THAT
GOVERN THE WAY THE CHILD GUIDE CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE
THINKS AND BEHAVES IN A DEVELOPMENT.
PARTICULAR SITUATION
LEV VYGOTSKY’S
ASSIMILATION TAKING IN NEW SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
INFORMATION AND
INCORPORATING IT INTO FOCUSED ON THE SOCIAL AND
EXISTING COGNITIVE CULTURAL PROCESSES THAT
STRUCTURES. GUIDE CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT PLACED SPECIAL
EX. A CHILD SEES A NEW TYPE EMPHASIS ON LANGUAGE, NOT
OF DOG THAT THEY'VE NEVER MERELY AS AN EXPRESSION OF
SEEN BEFORE AND KNOWLEDGE AND THOUGHT BUT
IMMEDIATELY POINTS TO THE AS AN ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR
ANIMAL AND SAYS, "DOG!" LEARNING AND THINKING ABOUT
THE WORLD.
ACCOMMODATION ADJUSTING
ONE’S COGNITIVE STRUCTURES INFORMATION-PROCESSING
TO FIT THE NEW INFORMATION. APPROACH SEEKS TO EXPLAIN
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BY
EX. A CHILD WHO ANALYZING THE PROCESSES
UNDERSTANDS THAT A FOUR- INVOLVED IN MAKING SENSE OF
LEGGED CREATURE IS CALLED A INCOMING INFORMATION AND
DOG. THEN, THE CHILD PERFORMING TASKS
ENCOUNTERS A CAT AND EFFECTIVELY: SUCH
REFERS TO IT AS A DOG UNTIL PROCESSES AS ATTENTION,
CORRECTED BY A PARENT. MEMORY, PLANNING
AFTER BEING CORRECTED, THE
STRATEGIES, DECISION MAKING, HUMANS AND APPLY DARWINIAN
AND GOAL SETTING. PRINCIPLES TO HUMAN
BEHAVIOR.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 4:
RESEARCH METHODS
CONTEXTUAL DEVELOPMENT
CAN BE UNDERSTOOD ONLY IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ON
ITS SOCIAL CONTEXT. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IS BASED
CONTEXTUALISTS SEE THE ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD,
INDIVIDUAL, NOT AS A WHICH HAS TRADITIONALLY
SEPARATE ENTITY INTERACTING CHARACTERIZED MOST
WITH THE ENVIRONMENT, BUT SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
AS AN INSEPARABLE PART OF IT.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 5: FOCUSES ON THE HOW AND
WHY OF BEHAVIOR. IT MORE
EVOLUTIONARY/ COMMONLY INVOLVES
SOCIOBIOLOGICAL PROPOSED NONNUMERICAL (VERBAL OR
BY E. O. WILSON (1975) FOCUSES PICTORIAL) DESCRIPTIONS OF
ON EVOLUTIONARY AND PARTICIPANTS’ SUBJECTIVE
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF UNDERSTANDING, FEELINGS, OR
BEHAVIOR. INFLUENCED BY BELIEFS ABOUT THEIR
DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLU- EXPERIENCES
TION, IT DRAWS ON FINDINGS OF
ANTHROPOLOGY, ECOLOGY, ETHICS OF RESEARCH
GENETICS, ETHOLOGY, AND
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCHERS SEEK TO
TO EXPLAIN THE ADAPTIVE, OR RESOLVE ETHICAL ISSUES ON
SURVIVAL, VALUE OF BEHAVIOR THE BASIS OF PRINCIPLES OF
FOR AN INDIVIDUAL OR SPECIES. BENEFICENCE, RESPECT, AND
JUSTICE.
ETHOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF
THE ADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS OF ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
ANIMAL SPECIES IN NATURAL INCLUDE THE RIGHTS OF
CONTEXTS. PARTICIPANTS TO INFORMED
CONSENT, AVOIDANCE OF
ETHOLOGISTS COMPARE DECEPTION, PROTECTION FROM
ANIMALS OF DIFFERENT HARM AND LOSS OF DIGNITY
SPECIES AND SEEK TO IDENTIFY AND SELF-ESTEEM, AND
WHICH BEHAVIORS ARE GUARANTEES OF PRIVACY AND
UNIVERSAL AND WHICH ARE CONFIDENTIALITY.
SPECIFIC TO A PARTICULAR
SPECIES OR MODIFIABLE BY STANDARDS FOR PROTECTION
EXPERIENCE. OF CHILDRENUSED IN
RESEARCH COVER SUCH
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY. PRINCIPLES AS PARENTAL
ETHOLOGISTS FOCUS ON INFORMED CONSENT AND
CROSS-SPECIES COMPARISONS, PROTECTION FROM HARM OR
WHEREAS EVOLUTIONARY JEOPARDY TO THE CHILD’S
PSYCHOLOGISTS FOCUS ON WELL-BEING
THE BEGINNING OF LIFE semen (Meigs & Meigs, 1984). The
(DEVELOPMENT) chapter 1-3 understanding of the fertile window
varies as well.
FORMING A NEW LIFE
Cross-cultural research indicates the
Development already begins when Arancanians of Chile, the Gusii of
the sperm and egg form into an Kenya, and the Tarahumarians of
individual. Genes mix and guide Mexico believed conception to be
development, and both influence and most likely during menstruation.
are influenced by an ever-changing However, the Maria Gonds of India,
environment. Risks exist: A child the Marquesas of French Polynesia,
might inherit a dangerous gene the Lepcha of India and Nepal, the
variant, a young woman might have Masai of Kenya and Tanzania, the
difficulty securing prenatal care, a Pukapuka of the Cook Islands, and
global pandemic might isolate and the Baiga of India believed the ideal
unnerve a family. conception period to be the days
immediately following menstruation
Cultural Beliefs about Conception (Montgomery, 1974).

Most people think of development as Cosmic forces were also believed to

beginning on the day of birth, when influence conception. In early
the new child, squalling and modern Europe, a baby conceived
thrashing is introduced to the world. under a new moon would be a boy;
one conceived during the moon’s
Folk beliefs about the origin of life last quarter, a girl (Gélis & Morris,
have been common throughout 1991). Among the Warlpiri people of
history and express values and Australia, a baby conceived in a
orientations important in a culture. place associated with a particular
For example, traditional religious spirit is believed to have been given
beliefs in Judaism, Islam, and life by that spirit (DeLoache &
Christianity alluded to the the Gottlieb, 2000).
implanting of a seed by a man in the
fertile soil of the mother (Delaney, Some Chinese families plan children
1991). around the zodiac calendar, and
pregnancy rates rise in auspicious
The belief that children came from dragon years (Beam & Shrestha,
wells, springs, or rocks was common 2020). In Western countries such as
in northern and central Europe as the United States, beliefs about how
recently as the early 1900s (Gélis & personality might be shaped by the
Morris, 1991). time of year in which children are
born persist—as the astrology
In the matrilineal society of the sections in many newspapers and
Trobrianders of New Guinea, magazines attest.
conception is believed to occur when
the spirit of a dead person enters a Although our modern understanding
woman’s body and mixes with her may differ from these beliefs, most
menstrual blood (Weiner, 1988). By parents worldwide view conception
contrast, the Hua of New Guinea as a momentous event. The
believe conception to be the product particular paths taken by new
of the mixing of menstrual blood and parents, however, varies in concert
with factors such as race, ethnicity, sexual climax. Deposited in the
culture, socioeconomic status, and vagina, they try to swim through the
other individual differences (see cervix, the opening of the uterus,
Research in Action for one and into the fallopian tubes, but only
example). a tiny fraction make it that far.

FERTILIZATION Fertilization normally occurs

while the ovum is passing through
Fertilization, or conception, is the the fallopian tube. If fertilization does
process by which sperm and egg— not occur, the ovum and any sperm
the male and female gametes, or cells in the woman’s body die. The
sex cells—combine to create a sperm are absorbed by the woman’s
single cell called a zygote, which white blood cells, and the ovum
then duplicates itself again and passes through the uterus and exits
again by cell division to produce all through the vagina.
the cells that make up a baby.
MULTIPLE BIRTHS
The “fertile window”— the time
during which conception is possible Dizygotic twins, or fraternal twins,
—is highly unpredictable (Ecochard are the result of two separate eggs
et al., 2015). Although conception is being fertilized by two different
far more likely at certain times, a sperm to form two unique
woman may or may not conceive at individuals. Genetically, they are like
any time during the month. siblings who inhabit the same womb
at the same time, and they can be
Fertile Window - During the average the same or different sex. Dizygotic
woman's menstrual cycle there are twins tend to run in families and are
six days when intercourse can result the result of multiple eggs being
in pregnancy. The five days before released at one time. This tendency
ovulation and the day of ovulation has a genetic basis (Boomsma,
itself. 2020).

At birth, a girl is believed to have Monozygotic twins are the result of

about 2 million immature ova in her a far different process. They result
two ovaries, each ovum in its own from the cleaving of one fertilized
follicle, or small sac. In a sexually egg and are generally genetically
mature woman, ovulation—rupture identical. They can still differ
of a mature follicle in either ovary outwardly, however, because people
and expulsion of its ovum—occurs are the result of the interaction
about once every 28 days until between genes and environmental
menopause. The ovum is swept influences
along through one of the fallopian
tubes by the cilia, tiny hair cells, Dizygotic Twins
toward the uterus, or womb. Twins conceived by the union of two
different ova (or a single ovum that
Sperm are produced in the has split) with two different sperm
testicles (testes), or reproductive cells; also called fraternal twins; they
glands, of a mature male at a rate of are no more alike genetically than
several hundred million a day and any other siblings.
are ejaculated in the semen at
Monozygotic Twins shows the location of all human
Twins resulting from the division of a genes.
single zygote after fertilization; also
called identical twins; they are SEX DETERMINATION
genetically similar.
Twenty-two pairs of our 23 pairs of
chromosomes are autosomes,
chromosomes that are not related to
sexual expression. The twentythird
pair are sex chromosomes—one
from the father and one from the
mother—that govern the baby’s sex.
Sex chromosomes are either X
chromosomes or Y chromosomes.
The sex chromosome of every ovum
is an X chromosome, but the sperm
THE GENETIC CODE may contain either an X or a Y
chromosome. The Y chromosome
The “stuff” of heredity is a chemical contains the gene for maleness,
called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). called the SRY gene. When an ovum
The double-helix structure of a DNA (X) is fertilized by an X-carrying
molecule resembles a long, spiraling sperm, the zygote formed is XX, a
ladder whose steps are made of genetic female. When an ovum (X) is
pairs of chemical units called bases. fertilized by a Y-carrying sperm, the
resulting zygote is XY, a genetic
The bases— adenine (A), thymine male
(T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)—
are the “letters” of the genetic code, DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE
which cellular machinery “reads.” INHERITANCE

Chromosomes are coils of DNA Most of the time, typical genes are
that consist of smaller segments dominant over those carrying
called genes, the functional units of abnormal traits, but sometimes the
heredity. Each gene is located in a gene for an abnormal trait is
specific position on its chromosome dominant. When this is the case,
and contains thousands of bases. even one copy of the “bad” gene will
The sequence of bases in a gene result in a child expressing the
tells the cell how to make the disorder. Among the 1,800 disorders
proteins that enable it to carry out known to be transmitted by dominant
specific functions. The complete inheritance are achondroplasia (a
sequence of genes in the human type of dwarfism) and Huntington’s
body constitutes the human disease. Defects transmitted by
genome. dominant inheritance are less likely
to be lethal at an early age than
Of course, every human has a those transmitted by recessive
unique genome. The human genome inheritance because any affected
is not meant to be a recipe for children would be likely to die before
making a particular human. Rather, reproducing. Therefore, that gene
the human genome is a reference would not be passed on to the next
point, or representative genome, that
generation and would soon ALPHA THALASSEMIA
disappear from the population.

BIRTH DEFECTS AND GENETIC

DISORDERS
HEMOPHILIA more than 90 percent of cases by an
extra 21st chromosome.

Jacob’s Syndrome XXY

- Male, acne, aggression, tall

structure, superior muscle strength,
reduced muscle coordination

Triple X Syndrome

phenylketonuria -Female, normal appearance,

menstrual irregularities, learning
disorders, intellectual disability

XXY Kinefelter

-Male, sterility, underdeveloped

secondary sex characteristics, small
testes, learning disorder

XO Turner

-Female, short stature, webbed

neck, impaired spatial disabilities, no
menstruation, infertility,
underdeveloped sex organs

Fragile X

- Minor-to-severe intellectual
disability more severe in males,
delayed speech and motor
development, hyperactivity, the most
common inherited form of intellectual
disability

HOW HEREDITY AND THE

ENVIRONMENT WORK
TOGETHER

Today many developmental

scientists see heredity and
Down syndrome, the most common environment as fundamentally
chromosomal abnormality, accounts intertwined. From conception on,
for about 40 percent of all cases of throughout life, a combination of
moderate-to-severe intellectual constitutional factors (related to
disability (Pennington et al., 2003). biological and psychological
The condition is also called trisomy- makeup) and social, economic, and
21 because it is characterized in
cultural factors help shape The canal is too deep for the water
development. to easily slosh over.
Reaction Range Many
characteristics vary, within limits, Genotype-Environment
under varying hereditary or Interaction refers to the effects of
environmental conditions. The similar environmental conditions on
concept of reaction range can help genetically different individuals, and
us visualize how this happens. a discussion of these interactions is
Reaction range refers to a range of a way to conceptualize and talk
potential expressions of a hereditary about the different ways nature and
trait. Body size, for example, nurture interact. To take a familiar
depends largely on biological example, many children are exposed
processes, which are genetically to pollen and dust, but those with a
regulated. Tall people have tall genetic predisposition are more
children, and short people have likely to develop allergic reactions
short children. Even so, a range of (Sordillo et al., 2015).
sizes is possible. In societies in
which nutrition has dramatically Genotype-Environment
improved, an entire generation has Correlation The environment often
grown up to tower over the reflects or reinforces genetic
generation before. The better-fed differences. This tendency is called
children share their parents’ genes genotype-environment correlation,
but have responded to a healthier and it works in three ways to
world. Ultimately, height has genetic strengthen the phenotypic
limits. We don’t see typically expression of a genotypic tendency
developing people who are only 1 (Bergeman & Plomin, 1989). The
foot tall or 10 feet tall. first two ways are common among
younger children, the third among
Canalization Some traits have an older children, adolescents, and
extremely narrow range of reaction. adults.
The metaphor of canalization
illustrates how heredity restricts the Passive Correlations: You not only
range of development for some inherit genes from your biological
traits. After a heavy storm, the parents, you also inherit
rainwater that has fallen on a environments. For example, a
pavement has to go somewhere. If musical parent is likely to create a
the street has potholes, the water home environment in which music is
will fill them. If deep canals have heard regularly, to give a child music
been dug along the edges of the lessons, and to take the child to
street, the water will flow into the musical events. If the child inherited
canals. Highly canalized traits, such the parent’s musical talent, the
as eye color, are analogous to the child’s musicality will reflect a
deep canals. They are strongly combination of genetic and
programmed by genes, and there is environmental influences. This type
little opportunity for variance in their of correlation is called passive
expression. Because of the deep, because the child does not control it.
genetically dug channel, it would Passive correlations are most
take an extreme change in applicable to young children, whose
environment to alter their course. parents have a great deal of control
over their early experiences. In
addition, passive correlations These nonshared environmental
function only when a child is living effects result from the unique
with a biologically related parent. environment in which each child in a
Reactive, or Evocative, family grows up. Children in a family
Correlations: Children with differing have a shared environment—the
genetic makeups evoke different home they live in, the people in it,
reactions from others. For example, and the activities family members
parents who are not musically jointly engage in—but they also,
inclined may make a special effort to even if they are twins, have
provide musical experiences for a experiences that are not shared by
child who shows interest and ability their brothers and sisters. Parents
in music. This response, in turn, and siblings may treat each child
strengthens the child’s genetic differently. Certain events, such as
inclination toward music. This type of illnesses and accidents, and
correlation is called reactive because experiences outside the home affect
the other people react to the child’s one child and not another. Despite
genetic makeup. being in the same family, the
influences are not identical. Indeed,
Active Correlations: As children get some behavioral geneticists have
older and have more freedom to concluded that although heredity
choose their own activities and accounts for most of the similarity
environments, they actively select or between siblings, the nonshared
create experiences consistent with environment accounts for most of
their genetic tendencies. An the difference (Hetherington et al.,
adolescent with a talent for music 2013).
will probably seek out musical
friends, take music classes, and go CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCED
to concerts if such opportunities are BY HEREDITY AND
available. This tendency to seek out ENVIRONMENT
environments compatible with one’s
genotype is called niche-picking; it Physical Health The risk of
helps explain why identical twins developing a wide variety of medical
reared apart tend to have similar disorders, including high blood
characteristics. pressure, heart disease, stroke,
rheumatoid arthritis, and epilepsy,
Nonshared Environmental has been found to be influenced by
Influences Although two children in genetics (Olczak et al., 2021;
the same family may bear a striking Assimes & Roberts, 2016; Dichgans
physical resemblance, siblings can et al., 2019; Okada et al., 2019;
differ greatly in intellect and Myers et al., 2019). Life span, too,
especially in personality (Plomin & seems to be influenced by genes
Daniels, 2011). One reason may be (Melzer et al., 2020).
genetic differences, which lead
children to need different kinds of Intelligence Heredity exerts a
stimulation or to respond differently strong influence on general
to a similar home environment. For intelligence, as measured by
example, one child may be more intelligence tests, and a moderate
affected by family discord than effect on specific abilities such as
another (Horowitz et al., 2010). memory, verbal ability, and spatial
ability (Plomin & Von Stumm, 2018).
Note that although specific genes usually dated from the first day of an
might contribute to intelligence, expectant mother’s last menstrual
intelligence is best described as cycle.
shaped by large numbers of genes Stages of Prenatal Development
working together.
Prenatal development takes place in
Temperament and Personality three stages: germinal, embryonic,
When babies are exposed to a new and fetal. (Table 4 gives a month-by-
experience, say riding on a train or month description.) Both before and
playing with a new noisy toy, some after birth, development proceeds
infants respond with interest and according to two fundamental
excitement, and others with principles: Growth and motor
apprehension and withdrawal. Some development occur from the top
babies are active, others less so. down and from the center of the
Some babies sleep and eat at the body outward. The cephalocaudal
same time every day, others have principle, from Latin, meaning “head
difficulty settling into a consistent to tail,” dictates that development
schedule. Right from the beginning, proceeds from the head to the lower
infants are utterly unique. part of the trunk. An embryo’s head,
brain, and eyes develop earliest and
Psychopathology There is are disproportionately large until the
evidence for a hereditary influence other parts catch up. According to
on such mental disorders as the proximodistal principle, from
schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, Latin, meaning “near to far,”
and depression. All tend to run in development proceeds from parts
families and to show greater near the center of the body to outer
concordance between monozygotic ones. The embryo’s head and trunk
twins than between dizygotic twins. develop before the limbs, and the
However, heredity alone does not arms and legs before the fingers and
produce such disorders; an inherited toes
tendency can be triggered by
environmental factors (Smoller et al., Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2
2019). Weeks) During the germinal stage,
from fertilization to about 2 weeks of
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT gestational age, the zygote divides,
becomes more complex, and is
For many women, the first clear implanted in the wall of the uterus.
(though not necessarily reliable) sign
of pregnancy is a missed menstrual Embryonic period: The third through
period. But even before that first the eighth week. At this point, the mass
missed period, a pregnant woman’s of cells is now known as an embryo.
body undergoes subtle but The beginning of the third week after
noticeable changes. Table 3 lists conception marks the start of the
early signs and symptoms of embryonic period, a time when the
pregnancy. During gestation, the mass of cells becomes distinct as a
period between conception and birth, human.
an unborn child undergoes dramatic
processes of development. The Fetal period: The time from the ninth
normal range of gestation is between week until birth. The fetal period of
37 and 41 weeks. Gestational age is prenatal develop marks more
important changes in the brain. This when the baby emerges completely
period of development begins during from the mother’s body.
the ninth week and lasts until birth. -At the end of this stage, the baby is
This stage is marked by amazing born but is still attached to the
change and growth. placenta in the mother’s body by the
umbilical cord, which must be cut and
BIRTH AND PHYSICAL clamped.
DEVELOPMENT DURING THE
FIRST 3 YEARS The THIRD Stage

THE BIRTH PROCESS -Expulsion of the placenta, lasts

between 10 minutes and 1 hour.
-Labor is an apt term for the process -During this stage, the placenta and
of giving birth. the remainder of the umbilical cord
-Birth is hard work for both mother are expelled from the mother.
and baby.
-What brings on labor is a series of Electronic Fetal Monitoring
uterine, cervical, and other changes
called parturition. -Used for tracking the fetus’s
-PARTURITION is the act or process heartbeat during labor and delivery.
of giving birth, and it typically begins -Monitoring is most commonly done
about 2 weeks before delivery. with the use of sensors attached to
the woman’s midsection and held in
Stages of Childbirth place with an electric belt.

The FIRST Stage Vaginal Delivery Versus Cesarean

Delivery
-dilation of the cervix, is the longest,
typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for a -Vaginal delivery is a natural
woman having her first child. childbirth method where the baby is
-tends to be shorter. born through the mother’s vagina.
-during this stage regular and -Cesarean delivery (C-section)
increasingly frequent uterine involves surgical delivery through an
contractions—15 to 20 minutes apart incision in the mother’s abdomen and
at first—cause the cervix to shorten uterus.
and dilate, or widen, in preparation -Each method has its own risks and
for delivery. benefits.
-toward the end of the first stage, -A cesarean delivery may be
contractions occur every 2 to 5 performed when labor progresses too
minutes. This stage lasts until the slowly, when the fetus is in the
cervix is fully open (10 centimeters, breech (feet or buttocks first) or
or about 4 inches) so the baby can transverse (lying crosswise in the
descend into the birth canal. uterus) position, or when the mother
is bleeding vaginally.
The SECOND Stage
Medicated Vs. Non Medicated
-It begins when the baby’s head Delivery
begins to move through the cervix
into the vaginal canal, and it ends For centuries, pain was considered
an unavoidable part of giving birth.
Then, in the mid-nineteenth century, otherwise carry the sensation of pain
sedation with ether or chloroform to the brain.
became common practice as more
births took place in hospitals DOULA
(Fontanel & d’Harcourt, 1997). An experienced mentor, coach, and
helper who can furnish emotional
Non Medicated Delivery support and information and can
stay at a woman’s bedside
NATURAL CHILDBIRTH throughout labor.
Method of childbirth that seeks to Research has found that women
prevent pain by eliminating the attended by doulas tend to have
mother’s fear through education shorter labor and easier deliveries.
about the physiology of reproduction
and training in breathing and THE NEWBORN BABY
relaxation during delivery.
Neonate means new born baby (4
LAMAZE METHOD weeks old). The neonatal period, the
Most common model of natural first 4 weeks of life, is a time of
childbirth. Preparation that uses transition from the uterus, where a
controlled breathing and relaxation fetus is supported entirely by the
as tools to help people reduced pain. mother, to an independent
existence.
PREPARED CHILDBIRTH
Method of childbirth that uses SIZE AND APPEARANCE
instruction, breathing exercises, and
social support to induce controlled -Boys tend to be slightly longer and
physical responses to uterine heavier than girls.
contractions and reduce fear and -Firstborn child is likely to weigh less
pain. It aims to prepare parents for at birth than laterborns. In their first
various aspects of labor and delivery. few days, neonates lose as much as
10 percent of their body weight,
Medicated Delivery primarily because of a loss of fluids.
-New babies have distinctive
A woman may be given local features, including a large head
(vaginal) anesthesia, also called a (one-fourth the body length) and a
pudendal block, usually during the receding chin.
second stage of labor. Or she can
receive an analgesic (painkiller), Fontanels allow for growth of the
which reduces the perception of pain brain and skull during an infant’s first
by depressing the activity of the year.
central nervous system.
Newborn infants also have areas on
Regional anesthesia or an their heads known as fontanels
Epidural where the bones of the skull do not
meet.
Another form of pain relief which can
be injected into a space in the spinal BODY SYSTEMS
cord between the vertebrae in the -Before birth, blood circulation,
lumbar (lower) region. This blocks respiration, nourishment, elimination
the nerve pathways that would of waste, and tem-perature
regulation are accomplished through • Youngest babies sleep the most
the mother’s body. and wake up the most frequently.
-After birth, all of the baby’s systems • Newborn’s sleep alternates
and functions must operate on their between quiet (regular) and active
own. (irregular) sleep.

MEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL PRENATAL PERIOD

ASSESSMENT (CONCEPTION TO BIRTH)
-The first few minutes, days, and -First Trimester, Second Trimester,
weeks after birth are crucial for Third Trimester
development. It is important to know -Conception occurs by normal
as soon as possible whether a baby fertilization or other means.
has any problem that needs special -The genetic endowment interacts
care. with environmental influences from
the start.
THE APGAR SCALE -Basic body structures and organs
-Developed by Virginia Apgar form; brain growth spurt begins.
-Assesses a newborn’s vital signs -Physical growth is the most rapid in
immediately after birth, focusing on the life span.
appearance, pulse, grimace -Vulnerability to environmental
response, activity, and respiration. influences is great.

THE BRAZELTON SCALE OR THE INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (1

BRAZELTON NEONATAL to 3 YEARS)
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT -Senses and body systems operate
SCALE (NBAS) to varying degrees from birth.
-Created by Dr. T. Berry Brazelton -The brain undergoes rapid growth,
-Evaluates a newborn’s neurological being highly influenced by the
and behavioral responses to various environment.
stimuli. It provides insights into the -Physical development and motor
baby’s abilities, temperament, and skills progress swiftly.
overall neurological well-being. -Early social interactions with peers
and adults play a crucial role in
The Apgar Scale and the Brazelton language and emotional
Scale are both used in Neonatal development.
Care but serve different purposes. -Independence starts to emerge as
preferences are expressed, and
STATES OF AROUSAL basic routines are formed.

Are you an early bird or a night owl? COMPLICATIONS OF

Do you work most effectively in the CHILDBIRTH
morning or in the afternoon? (We all
have internal biological clocks that LOW BIRTH WEIGHT (LBW)
regulate our states of arousal) Low-birth-weight babies (LBW) are
those neonates born weighing less
• Babies also have an internal clock than 2,500 grams (5 pounds) at
that regulates their daily cycles of birth.
eating, sleeping, elimination, and
even their moods. There are two types of LBW
babies:
those born early and those born dystocia (a condition in which the
small. baby’s shoulders become stuck
Being born early is closely behind the mother’s pelvic bone
associated, as might be expected, during delivery), meconium
with being smaller than a full-term aspiration, low Apgar scores, brain
infant. Some babies, known as damage, and death (American
small-for-date (smallfor-gestational- College of Obstetricians and
age) infants, are born at or around Gynecologists, 2014).
their due dates but are smaller than
would be expected. STILLBIRTH
They are small, not because they the sudden death of a fetus at or
were born early and did not have after the 20th week of gestation, is a
a chance to finish putting on tragic union of opposites—birth and
weight, but for other reasons, death. Sometimes fetal death is
most commonly inadequate diagnosed prenatally; in other cases,
prenatal nutrition, which slows the baby’s death is discovered
fetal growth. during labor or delivery.

Low birth weight in developing Although the cause of stillbirth is

regions stems primarily from the often not clear, many stillborn
mother’s poor health and nutrition fetuses are small for gestational age,
and difficulty securing prenatal care. indicating malnourishment in the
In wealthier countries, much of the womb (MacDorman & Gregory,
incidence of low birth weight and 2015). Fetuses believed to have
preterm births is due to delayed problems can have prenatal surgery
childbearing, multiple births, and use in the womb to correct congenital
of fertility drugs and induced and problems or be delivered
cesarean deliveries (World Health prematurely. Interventions such as
Organization, 2019). these could prevent a large
proportion of stillbirths (Bhutta et al.,
POSTMATURITY 2011).
Babies can also be negatively
affected by staying too long in the SURVIVAL AND HEALTH
womb.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Postmature babies tend to be long (SIDS)
and thin because they have kept Sometimes called crib death, is the
growing in the womb but have had sudden death of an infant under age
an insufficient blood supply toward 1 in which the cause of death
the end of gestation. Possibly remains unexplained after a
because the placenta has aged and thorough investigation that includes
become less efficient, it may provide an autopsy. SIDS accounts for 6
less oxygen. The baby’s greater size percent of infant mortality rates (Ely
also complicates labor; the mother & Driscoll, 2020).
has to deliver a baby the size of a
normal 1-month-old. This puts the In some cases, an underlying
mother at higher risk of a cesarean biological defect may make some
delivery, perineal tears, and infants vulnerable. For approximately
postpartum hemorrhage, and the 14 percent of SIDS cases, there
neonate at greater risk of shoulder appear to be genetic mutations
affecting the heart that in triggering development of vaccines that
circumstances can lead to death mobilize the body’s natural
(Baruteau et al., 2017). More defenses. Unfortunately, many
commonly, some infants appear to children still are not adequately
be born with delays or defects in the protected, and nearly 30 percent of
brain stem, which regulates child deaths worldwide are caused
breathing, heartbeat, body by vaccine-preventable diseases
temperature, and arousal (UNICEF, 2021).
(Machaalani & Waters, 2014). These
defects may prevent SIDS babies Vaccine hesitancy—defined as the
who are sleeping face down or on reluctance or refusal to vaccinate
their sides from waking or turning despite availability—is a key reason
their heads when they breathe stale many American children are not
air containing carbon dioxide trapped protected and has been named as
under their blankets (Panigrahy et one of the World Health
al., 2000). Similarly, babies who Organization’s top 10 threats to
have low levels of serotonin may not global public health (World Health
awaken under conditions of oxygen Organization, 2021). This was a
deprivation and carbon dioxide concern prior to the pandemic and
buildup and are thus at greater risk has now become an even more
as well (Duncan et al., 2010). pressing issue. Widespread
immunization across the globe is
ACCIDENTAL DEATHS vital to preventing COVID-19
Boys of all ages are more likely to be infection and transmission, as well
injured and to die from their injuries as reducing the chances another
than girls, and children from rural harmful variant emerges.
areas are at higher risk than those
from urban areas. Some parents hesitate to immunize
their children because of speculation
About 90 percent of all injury deaths that certain vaccines—particularly
in infancy are due to one of five the diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
causes: suffocation, motor vehicle (DPT) and measles-mumps-rubella
traffic accidents, drowning, (MMR) vaccines—may cause autism
residential burns or fires, and falls. or other neurodevelopmental
Suffocation deaths are most disorders. However, there is no
common in children under the age of empirical evidence that this link
a year. Among children aged 1 to 4, exists. A meta-analysis representing
drowning is the leading cause of data from more than 1.26 million
unintentional injury deaths, followed children showed no link between
by car accidents and exposure to fire autism, autism-spectrum disorders,
or smoke (Murphy et al., 2021; intellectual disability, and vaccines
Centers for Disease Control and (Taylor et al., 2014).
Prevention, 2021).

IMMUNIZATION FOR BETTER

HEALTH

Such once-familiar and sometimes

fatal childhood illnesses are now
largely preventable, thanks to the