fp bd a D a O / DIGITAL BRIDGE INSTITUTE ds INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES pha re Ot fos cleft C1 OO gte A Soe WAL, 1 Clements py Compute os, te Sab td ata Of He re Hen sli Led, lars OF A Umnyouse Sy sper We Vern aoe a Conapiih = ArtlTa ture : Alban AHte ius pNutl, Sh Used 2, Mt tye af Coueuteys (Pda. Th} sa hepert lon GUE Wan per lewneTn inthe Nety 19KE, fe caper? DBI website: www.dbieducation.org Necbess a DIGITAL BRIDGE INSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES Lan cleo Copa eee wil Hs Werely * Welwdes te ALU, CU, fasaiters, Memmi lates’ land Instencpion an 0 pte fi aud Sierras’ fhornse LryathnOnas + Vw tee fatenprigs of Cornputer Aarbutettur i oor ee clot Tes date tino, f Stoo pp —ederne ts as wel a4 Le) ttton Shmild bo payole. Lat vy Ke [SA DBI website: www.dbieducation.org NEC _4 Zp : DIGITAL BRIDGE INSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES Wiel press data af 5 Corpfaers, cas htrr Lo 240, Lacha_arel LaSp>-uctts se On tat, ea. Gon ipl te ntrrration on SP IE ISP do uo Sel *yesearth 04 He ole See of basa, abled Cretprper Mrchite ofurt mae eeputer Arthirelturs has | 1D pace wate Altowrb tes Chasatperctbice of be pi ~lenetahinn ond yo alryainisw (Bry auker Euste sas, Ke Qnerabinn Srrspeny curd eer fr eee ©y fins, 2 fet [2xde As Ou 21 b iA area oF ted Aird MarrperAar 2 YLE OF Compurer BROMITECTIRE ea : 5 Cathe Che are L Srtyle rte MAN rs, es age 2 | Redute f ial | DBI website: www.dbieducation.org NEC |oS DIGITAL RIDGE INSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES FAttoRs [Par Apter (irmpureR FRY. Te to Com Latter dar abfelt Conyube a Ahas'ta edi Gre > |) re chet, ee fe Ap itakinie _______—"srerer ow) Vollung trees to discrete Comp — WAbers ard td naka aged Lard isi bw Teh ni, eras Were ye otto curd faster Ly ab pk elution + avapld aber + Tn Compute Syspons, Sort Cre sé pete Capita bt es ay Nate clever — y fer P ty ye of Memrers a eed oct = enifhier Used for Toaaplen néatsacads Mee Last L pie Fansfoent weal) od ees a Aer ¢ Atte, pSlucly pres psi da Mg? iP Vp See 4 wake sented (dtu, pre yelonenpbive Ligh | oO Ce 7g | nae 4 Lay Lore) Se tur ty [re fonsy 0 78 Linh Ana Ag faibygrys turd pa eitanrts tat mabe He rp lev DBI website: www.dbieducation.org NECae J DIGITAL BRIDGE INSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES Tse boar een auder Sy spenl bysctaly wasetlinent=- oY ToS a s fe Wow 2 Late, ! fon pan aa tts wt, 60 alm Ke Sofbusa re dove-te. lardlumses tv lee Wee ewe ; “ 2 We Vadim He ino MP cle tiie hove He nye Hie andar techrr Toray lien ad Viton, Weide 7 # urrdees B dor chard pe Mult sy Arniveero ty A Siri dora DBI website: www.dbieducation.org NEC (i en ee} Definition and Introduction to Computer Network | Computer Network is defined as collection of computers and other devices that use 9 common network protocol to share resources with cach other over a network medium (wire/eable or wireless), Computer Network means s ing of information and services. Computer Networking provides the communication tools which allow computers to share information andl data ‘one another over a shared A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate necwork medium, A computer network isa collection of two or more connected computers. When these ‘computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems, printer, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. Whén networks at multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies, people ean send e-mail, share links to the global Intemet, oF conduct Video conferences in realtime with other remote users. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database management for core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly ‘more important, Computer Network Classification / Type of Networks LANs (Local Area Networks) ‘A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared nctwork medium. LANS are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs ean be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations. LAN configurations consist of: A file server - stores all of the sofware that conteos the network, as well asthe so-vare that ean be shared by the computers attached to the network > A workstation - computers connected tothe file server (Mac or PCs). These are less powerful than the file server ables/Wireless - used to connect the network interface cards in each computer or through the wireless card Intranet With the advancements made in browser-based software for the Internet, many private organizations are implementing intranets. An intranet is a private network utilizing Intemet-type tools, but available only ‘within that organization. For large organizations, an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate information for employees.* (Wide Area Networks) Me area ny tor a "Sing combines multiple LANs that are geouraphiealy separate, This is ® the diferent LANs using services suchas dedicated leased phone lines, ccomplished by dial-up phone lines, Satellit oe : sks, and data packet carer services. Wide aon netwrking can be as simple as a modem and rey OIE aceess server for employees to dial into, datete ‘r it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices ® linked using special routing protools and filers to minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances, Internet ‘The Intemet is a system of linked networks that are worlwide in scope and facilitate data communication Services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. ‘With the meteoric rise in demand for connect ty, the Internet has become a communications highway for ‘millions of users. The Intemet was intially restricted to military and academic institutions, but now itis a full-fledged conduit for any and all forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now provide Personal, educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet MANs (Metropolitan area Networks) ‘This is refers to a network of computers with in a City. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas, such as cities. Often used by local libraries and government agencies often to comect 10 citizens and private industries, YPN (Virtual Private Network) VPN uses a technique known as tunnelling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote access server on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save moncy by using the public Internet instead of making long-distance phone calls to connect securely with your private network. There are two ‘ways to create a VPN connection, by dialling an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to Internet, Network Topology A network consists of multiple computers connected using some type of interface, each having one fr more interface devices such as a Network Interface Card (NIC) and/or a serial deviee for PPP. networking. Each computer is supported by network software that provides the server or client functionality. The hardware used to transmit data across the network is called the media, ‘A topology is the characteristic of a communication network that is concern both with the physical configuration of the cabling that is used to inter connect communicating system and theway in which system yi ie nee i ‘ew the structure of the network, Topology isthe therefore physical or nt of computers. Ino i ‘Omputer networking, “opology refers to the layout of connected devices, This : 1, lopology , Tis handout invoices the tndard topologies of networking Factors to consider when selecting a topology > Cost ~ whatever : atever tansmision medium is casen fora Loeal Area Network has tobe physically installed in the building, this maybe a lengthy process including the installation cables and | Faceways. For a Network to be cost effective one would strive to minimize installation cost. This may be achieved by using the proper hardware linking the cables, good modems, cost effective computers to reduced cost > Flexibility one of the main benefit of a local Area Network is the ability to have the das Processing and peripheral nodes distributed around a given area. This means thatthe computing power and equipment can be located-close to the ultimate users. Because ‘the arrangements: y should allow for fami, iateral wall et inthe offices is ofen subst to change The topology should al nd adding new nodes easy reconstruction ofthe network which involves moving existing nodes an ee cation ofthe fault © > Reliability ~The topology ehasen for the network ean help by allowing the Ioeaton of ts be detected and to provide some means of isolating the faults ‘Topology in Network Design Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. ‘This sha 1e network. For example, the computers spe does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout ofthe devices on th ‘ona home LAN may be arranged ina crete ina family room, but it would be highly unlikely t0 ssvork topologies are categorized into the following basic types | finda rng topology there. > Bus > Ring > Star > Tree >» Mesh Bs Topology Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium,Dut only the i i ly the intended recipient actully accepts nd processes the message. Ethemet bus t bus topologies are relatively cay to install nd don require much cabling compared 10 the alternatives. 1OBase-2 ("ThinNet and 10Base- ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethemet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with @ "imited mumber of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus Performance problems will ikly result. In addition, if the backbone cable fils, the entre network effectively becomes unusable Advantages of Bus topology Cheap because ofits simplicity * Requires a short cable length °* Easy to expand the network ° Simple to setup compared to Star and Ring topology °* There is no chances of data collision since one computer transmit ata time Locating cable fault in a bus topology is relatively easy ** Bus topology is ideal for one to many data transmission ° Signal on the cable are bidirectional hence reaches all the nodes Disadvantages of Bus topology + Fault diagnosis is difficult in a bus topology ~ detection of fault may have to be performed from any point inthe network difficult + Fault isok fault inthe node is detected the node can simply be removed but if the fault is in network medium itself and entire segment of the Bus must be disconnected to isolate the fault Repeater confi ration ~ When a Bus type_ network has its backbone intended for using a repeater, configuration maybe necessary thus may involve tailoring cable length adjusting terminator + Computer nodes must be intelligence — each node on the network is drestly connected to the central Bus, This means that each node must have method of deciding and detecting its own dataRing Topology : Im a ring netw at York, every device has exacly two neighbors for communication pupost. All ge travel th i tases vough a ring inthe same direction (ether “clockwise” or “counterelckwise"). A a Any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. Ring opologi : Pologies ae found in some office buildings or school campuses. Advantages of ring Topology * The ability to achieve transmission rates of the order of 10 million bits per second * Prov + No central server which reduces the cost of establishing the ring topology of local communication via single channel Disadvantages + Failure of one node result into entire network failure 4 Detection of fault is very dint in ring topology + Isolation of fault is not easy inthis topology Star Topology Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features @ central connection point called a "bub" that may be a hub, suiteh oF router. Devices typically conncet to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethemet. This topology consist of @ central nodes to which all ther nodes are connected, star topology is used in most existing information network involvin data processing and voice communication. Star topology is also known as Radial topology and allows sufficient connection point to be provided for one sub —area, while providing flexibility in their allocation within that area Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)Advantages of *Dipocn ae Piha = of problem is easy * Failure of one eG a a : mn does not affect the entre network Usesasingle access protocols” * Provide ease of service * Is very fast Disadvantages of star topotogy * Theres central node dependency * Becomes expensive when purchasing the nodes * Always requires very long cable length when connecting many nodes Tree Topology ‘Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus, In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions asthe "root" of a tre of devices, This bus/tar hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network mach better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadeast trafic it generates) oF a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone, ' 3 Mesh Topology Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages Sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) ‘Some WANS, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. ‘A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called « full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indires y to othersNetwork Cabling Networking Cables a ' Cables ar used to connect one network device to other orto cect two or more misters to share printer, scanner ete. Though : : wireless technology is now taken the place of cabling because iti easy and fast in connection . ‘but most computer networks today still uilize ‘ables to transfer signals from one point to another. Cable isthe medium though which information usally moves fom one network device 19 ‘another, There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will uilze only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The ‘Pe of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size Understanding the characteristics of different types ofcable and how they relate to other aspects of ‘network is necessary for the development ofa successful network ‘Type of Networks cables Y Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable ¥ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable ¥ Coaxial Cable j ¥ Fiber Optic Cable Unshielded T fed Pair (UTP) Cable ‘Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshiclded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks. UTP is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest form that you can go with. The UTP has four pars of wires and all inside plastic sheathing. The biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair is (o protect the wires from interference from themselves. Each wire is only protected with a thin plastic sheath. << Unshielded twisted pair — PdThe quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference fiom adjacent pars and other electrical devices. The tighter the ‘twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. ‘The ELA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional categories are emerging). Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair Use ‘Voiee Only (Telephone Wire) LocalTalk & Telephone (Rare 3 16 Mops 1OBaseT Ethernet 4 20 Mbps [Token Ring Rarely used) 100BaseT Ethernet 100 Mbps (2 pat) 1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethemet Gigabit Ethemet Gigabit Ethernet Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector ‘The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector, This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector as shown below. A slot allows the RU-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows aLL st vat borowed fom te lepton indus. This sun desintes which wi goes with cach pin inside the connector. AS RUS connector Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable - Although UTP cable isthe least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical fiequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, Muorescent ight, et.) Ifyou ‘must plae cable in environments with lots of potential interference, o if you must place able in cxttemely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical curent in the UTP, shielded twistd pair may be the solution, Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum, stance of the cables. The diagram is shown below Shielded twisted pair (STP) STP is more common in high-speed networks. The bigest difference you will se in the UTP STP is thatthe STP vse's metallic shied wrapping to protect the wire fom interference. Shielded twisted pir cable viable in thee diferent coniguations Each pir of wies is individually shield wit ol. “Theres fil or braid shel inside the jacket covering all wires (asa group. “Thee is a shield around each individ pir, 8 wll as around the entire group of wires (refered to. double shield twisted pai), Coaxial Cable baa a a a ala oaxial cabli cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. plastic layer provides insulation ‘between the center conductor and a braided metal shield, The meal shield helps to block any outside interference that may affect signal transmission. A= Coaxial cable [Although couse cabling is difcal 1 install, itis highly resistant to signal interference, In dion, ican suppor greater cable lengths between netvork devies than twisted pair cable. The ‘wo types of coaxial ‘Thin coaxial cable is also refered to asthinnet,10Base2 refers to the specification for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethemet signals, The 2 refs tothe pprovnte maximum segment nth Kens 22090 eter natu fact the maximum segment eng is 185 meters. Thi popular in : in coanal cable bas been hi enw cable is so refered to as thisket, 1OBae5 refer 10 the spcifesons for thick coaxial eable crying Ethemet signals The 5 refers tothe maximum segment length being 500 Trt, Thick coal cable at ane pote lsc cover tt eps Keep mos away From the ener ond. Tis aks he cou a rest eoiee when mins longs Fengths in linear bas network, Conval Cable Connectors ‘The mest common typeof eometor wed with coal cables isthe ‘Bayone-Neill-Coneelman (BNC) camecor as shown below, Dien pes of apes are aa fr BNC connectors iachtng oT cones, bare constr, and termina, Comes on he cable ate the weakest pons in any newer. Top aid poems wih your nebo, hays ss the BNC connectors that canbe crimp easily BNC connector Fiber Optic CableFiber optic cabling consists of a center gla core surounded by several layers of protective materials as shown below, It ansmit ight rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference, This makes it del for certain environments that contin large amount of electrical interference, Ithas also made tthe standard for connecting networks between Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair Italo has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This eapacity twoaders communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing. and interactive services. The cost of fiberoptic eabing is comparable to copper cabling; however, itis ‘very expensive than othe network cables “The center core of fiber cables is made ftom glass or plastic fibers. plastic coating then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to stengen the cables and prevent breakage, The over insulting jacket made of teflon or PVC. ———=— Fiber optic eable “There are two common types of fiber cables ~ single mode and multimode, Multimode cable has & target diameter; however, oth cables provide high bandwith at high speeds. Single mode can ‘provide more distance, but itis more expensive. Ethernet Cable Summary Spcitat E ante Type 1ovaset | ‘Unsilded Twisted Pair 10Based_ ) Thin Coaxial sooner i Unshildd Twisted Par |1WOBaseFX | Fiber Optic | 100BaseBX | Single mode Fiber | — = Multimode Fiber \ 100BaseSX | 1OODBaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair BAF. | Fier Optic 1000BaseBX. | ‘Single mode Fiber Me fae i ooupasesX Multimode Fiber Some Guidelines on Installing Cable ‘When running cable itis best follow few simple rales Always we more cable shan you ned, Leave plenty of slack. s «Tet evry ptt of ntwor as you instal Een if is brand mew, it may have problems tht sl be clo islat ater ‘+ sayaveat’3 fc avay fom Muressent gt boxes and other sours of eletia merece «itis cess oun cable across the oor, cover the cble with cable poeta + Label hens each abl Use cable tes (not tap) to kp cables in he same losation ogee,Wireless LANs “More and more networks are operating without cables, inthe wireless mode, Wireless LANS use high fequeney radio signals, intared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the ‘workstations andthe file server r hubs. Each workstation and fle server ona wires network hs some sort of transceverfantenna to send and receive the data. Informations transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer distance, can lso take plae through celular telephone technology, microwave s relayed between less communications transmission o by satellite ‘Wireless networks ae great for allowing laptop computers or remote computes fo cannes: © the LAN, Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where ft may Be Aitfielt of possible o instal ables. The two most common types of ifared communications use in schools re Fine-of-sight and catered brondnst.Lin-oFsight commonicatin means that thee mast BE a? unblocked direst Tin beeen the workstation andthe wansceive. Ia psson walks within Uh line-of-sight while ‘here is a wansmsion the infomation would nl 1 be set again. This Kind of obstruction can stow down the wireless network, catered infrared communication is & Deoadeast of infrared rsissions ent out in mts dvesons hat bounces of walls an ings unlit eventually tits the resver. Networking commanicaons with laser ae virtually he same Tine-of sight infrared networks. ‘Wireless standards and speeds The Wit Alliance is 0 lobel,non-poftenanzaton that Helps to ensure sanders and iteroperilty for wiles networks, and wirless networks are often refered © $8 WiFi (Wiles Fein). The ovina WT stundard (EEE 87211) was aloped in 1997, Sines thea ‘many variations have emerged ( fand will continue to emerge). Wi-Fi networks use the Ethernet proto. = ee Max Speed ‘Typical Range 1s0 feet soztia |” S4Mbps |q 2 | aE EE |g, Pad Compa fates se /D re 5 Component Model computer ytem can be vied no S com esa operate entree 2 Safteare \ 3. Data 4 Procedarss 5. Peromel Im studying Computer Systems’ Architecture, ony the first 3 of these are of direct terest. Tanivare : + Proce aka, CPU /CenalPosesing Unit ° Cops ALU Arteta Un arithmei& Bolen ogc oso 2 CU/Conol Ute stein proses sequencing an cot 3. Inerie Unie tal bus ste Atte View 1 Exec Un 2 Cana Unit suena seeing an EU sbi 5 Rogol qk sees an womalnen” an "Ms 4 neal Bus neice istrcton circuits (including ALU) + Input & Output Deviees oe ee erat coal or electromnechanical 10 devices (cg Keyboards, printers, video monitor will nt te considered as significant in our study of Computer Systems’ Architectures + Input & Ovtpot Interface Extemal Bus Structure: Colleton of "wires" that carries power and signals berween different computer components Chane: é Sepa, special purpose 10 processor connecting an 10 device to the CPU (or "ain memory"); my perform signal conversion, iming conto, buffering te (Communications Direct/Indirect connection 1 ether computer systems how communication is take place based on pre-greed upon “protocol” (shared rules for + Storage /Memory ‘> (Main) Memory’ / Primary Storage byte typically 8 "bis" character ‘word opivaly 32 "bits but many different sizes are ound on different computer systems) - basic numeric unit basi uit of data transfer bits: byte Kbytes: 2" bytes (1024) Mbytes: 2” bytes (1,048,576) Gbytes: 2" bytes (1 300,109,824) sage: RAMs. ROM ROM is non-modifiable (by normal computer operation) © (Secondary) Storape + long-term (inactive) data and program storage + examples: disk, tape, CD. + nits: typically stored in "blocks" of multiple wordsbytes (physical records) 1of6REGISTERS ‘Man uenony SECONDARY ea;9——_— anmemory —_rorace fry Yat paises DURATION ee Frowsnbowntmecrlatia i it WOT ee ae dala Mainain Size — —_ Swern Pipl od wot “[aitesoay Fo A microcomputer has thre The CPU cro a bas lcs: a cenal pressing wit (CPU), a mary en, anda intnpt i es all the instructions and performs arithmetic and lagi operations on data. The CPU of the Tyerocompute i called the “microprocessr.” The miaroprocessor i typically a single VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration chip that contains all the registers, conto nit, and arith! ogc sites of te mierocomputer. ‘A tmemory unit stores both data and insrctions. The memory setion typically contains ROM and RAM chips. The ROM can only be read and is nonvoati, that i, it ans its conens when the power i tuned off. ROM is ‘ypically used to store instructions and data that donot change. For example, it might store a table of codes for outputting data toa display external to the microcomputer fr turning ona digit om 0 109. One can read from and write into a RAM. The RAM is volatile; that sit doesnot retin its contents when the ‘ower is tured off. A RAM is ued fo store programs and data that are temporary and might change daring the sourse of exccuting a program. An VO (InpudOutput) unit transfers data between the microcomputer andthe ‘external deviees via VO pots (registers). The transfer involves data stats, and control signals ‘Address Bus Control Bus Figure 1 Von Neumann model of computer architecture ‘Computer system is divided into three subunits: CPU, Memory, and InpuvOutput (V0). This refinement ofthe von Neumann model combines the ALU and the control unit into one Functional unit the CPU. The input and output Units are also combined into a single VO unit Most imporant tothe system bus model, the communications among, ‘the components are by means of a shared pathway calle the system bus, which is made up ofthe address bus data 2of6 —EEEE——————————— Ee |wy @ a 4 t 3s (which caries the information being transmitted), the control b ve mitted), the control bus (which identifies where the information is se sad he hic esr tsps oho he ifomation i bing et, and in wht manner). Ther i falso a power bus for electrical power to the components, which isnot shown, but its presence is undet me conurohtecies na) shone spec [Of one neRgwel sabe Memory The memory section usually consists of a mixture of RAM (Random Access M sts of @ mixture of RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). It may also have magnetic floppy disks, magnetic hard disks, or optical disks (CDs, DVDs). Memory has two purposes. The frst purpose is to store the binary codes forthe Sequences of instructions you want the computer to camry out. When you write a computer program, what you are rally doing is writing a sequential list of instructions for the computer. The second purpose of the memory is to store the binary-coded data with which the computer is going to be working. This data might be the inventory records ofa supermarket, for example: InpulOutpot ‘The inpu/output or UO section allows the computer to take in data fc ‘outside world. Peripherals such as keyboards, video display terminals, printer VO section. These allow the user and the eomputer to communicate with each other. The actual physical devices used 10 interface the computer buses to external systems are ofien called ports. Ports in computer function Jus as shipping port do for a count. An input port allows data from a keyboard, an A/D converte, or some olber source be read into the computer under control ofthe CPU. An output port is used to send data fom the compures 9 wane peripheral, such as a video display terminal, a printer, ora D/A converter. Physically, the simplest type of input or ‘output ports just a set of parallel D flip-flops. the outside world or send data to the rs, and modems are connected t0 the Data Bus “Tae data bus consists of 8,16, or 32 parallel signal lines. As indicated by the double-ended arrows onthe dat bos Tne in Figur tho data us lines are biicectonl This means thatthe CPU can ead data in from memory ov Fort art on thse Tins ot ean send ds om t memory er 0a port on these hes. Many deviees mn 2 9317) Wit Hebe thelr opus connected to the data bus, but only one device a a ime wil have its outputs enabled. Any vies rane om hs dat bus must ave three-state outputs so tha is outpus can be dssbled when it snot being used to put data on the bus. Address Bus eersrece bus consists of 16, 20,24, or 32 parallel signal lines. On thes lies the CPU sends ou the adress of aie ncmy locaton that it be written to or ead fom. The nmber of memory locations thatthe CPU can adress ee cemired by the numberof adress Hines the CPU has Nae ines, the ican dretly adress 2* memory Iecatgns For ramp, 2 CPU with 16 address lines can address 2 or 65.836 memory locations, 9 CPU with 20 aeons con adress 2 or 1,048,576 locations, and 2 CPU wih 24 address lines can address 2" or 16,777,216 Tbcuigns, When the CDU reads data from or writes data to «port it sends the pot address out on the address bus Control Bus Foe contol bus consists of to 10 parallel signal lines. The CPU sends out signals on the contol bus to enable the anputs of addressed memory devices or pot devies. Typical contro bus signals are Memory Read, Memory Write TO" Read, and VO Writ. To read a byte of data ffom a memory locaton, for example, the CPU sends out the tremory adress of the desired byte onthe address bus nd then sends out a Memory Read signal onthe contol bus. ‘The Memory Read signal enable the addressed memory device to output a data word onto the data bus, The data \word from memory travels along the dat bus tothe CPU, Ras ‘alu ‘Cael Une Figure 2:CPU Components Design Levels ‘Three design levels ean be defined for digital systems: systems level, logic level, and device level ‘Syutems level is the typeof design in which CPU, memory, and VO chips are interfaced o build a computer. “Logic level, on the other hand, is the design techaique in which chips containing logic gates such as AND, OR, and NOT are used to design a digital component such as the ALU. Finally, device level utilizes transistors to design logic gatesSystem Software © Operating System ©. Uiiltes (may be built nx + Applicaton Software © Application ols: word processors, 80s, spreadsheet managers, o Caro pplcaions: hae systems ielog mavgcment + Mlgh-tevel v5, Machine-level Software . © High-level: "Source™ insruction ina c ion in a language suchas COBOL © Mchnee:tnay pate wih no imme hana nearing © Highevel instructions must be convened into Machine-evel instruction before they can be proces hy a "pocesr this anvnionsacnomiy graces + Instruction Classes e pe oa © data transfer (copying data) © data transform (modifying data) © instruction flow control (changing the default sequence) ease ery amare cnmreree eee Sr acre ee cine eae Data One ofthe major requirements of any computer system isthe ability to represent and manipulate values ("data"). In general, digital computers represent values as ptterns of “ofl” and Yon” signals. Fach value requires a different pater (or, atleast a pattem which is cfferent from any other valve of the same type). Different types of values generally are represented using differen “encoding schemes". An “encoding ehicme” specifies how many “of” and “on” signals are required for each valu, and provides a nique pattern of signals foreach possible value 1005 or extemal programs) Data vs. Information ‘Two tems common in any discussion of computer systems are "data" and “information”. The difference in meaning between these two terms is based on the concept that "information" is "data" which has “meaning” o someone (oF Somthing) ouside ofthe computer system, "Information" is "data" which has meaning, The st common task of a computer system (espeially when the input source and the output destination are the same) is to transform data into information, Infact, this is sometimes used asthe basis fr altemative definitions of a computer syst. 1. The 1PO(S) Model X computer system ean be thought of a clletin of conponsns which tage are capable of 3 operations Input Processing and Outpt ATouth operation, Stag, alo requ fr til computer s)tems Nott the PO), apa Process Out Storage) mods! s aplastic 1th clleton of eupment hit make pa compar sem 2. the actos nt a conputer en cpl of ertnning i Inpa ‘A comput stom must inchde a method fr aceping "dats nd ncn fom ouside the system, Power or ena sores reeds eae operation of he computer stom ar not aps Procesing: A computer system must include th abiliy to change of “vans “tansemation" typical nde (be nl Hite 1) electing sitet ofthe data 1 couting and accumulating tots of selected data vals 4 rearnging the sequence or Tomato ta utp ‘computer ystem must nlite ability to end proses eo ose thet in a fo tht canbe used by the ousie word This "ose word” might be te hun “user ofthe omputer sem, but alemainey could be etic or mechanical onl for ora eset, othe input or some oer tem. Storage: ‘We wuld not nol consider a alton to be a computer ts ns tinted some fom of manera previo input or pocessed das For expe, system composed of an ket! power sappy, an ovo wich, x Tight bl, and aproprte wing connet he ater ee components would not normally be considered to Bea computer tem fought conan PO clements of tsi om). Replsing te ono switch wih a "ogae baton’, which woud reves the cure onofT "ae ofthe igh, woul ie us Something eiser Wa empuer syste, ata which has been input. These 4of6i —_ ersom between Dilfereat Numb er Systems ‘mumber systems eee {Autough We are accustonted to our decimal numb Co as the Egyptian number system nee nee tem, which i postions, ther ancient sunker stems, eres) 't positional, but rather used many addtional symbols to represent Ina positional number system, the value of ftir ig ei pe at The values of each position corre correspond to powers of the base ofthe number system. So for our decimal number spe, which ss bse 10 te place ales Comspond spony af ° or ur deviant 1000 100 ot 10312 oto Converting from other number bases to decimal Other number systems use different bases. The binary number system uses base 2, so the place values ofthe digits ‘of binary number eorespond to powers of 2. For example, the value of te binary number 10011 is determined by ‘computing the place value ofeach of the digits of the number: 10 0 1 tthe binary number me 2M 23 292 212M place values So the binary number 10011 represents the vale Ge 25 Gl eae, ee, (1 ee fy ty fof fy 7 D mame ao ks as a = “The same principle applies fo any number base. For example, the mumber 2132 base 5 corresponds fo 2 1 32 rumberin base S92 SM 50 place values So the value ofthe number is @tss + C492 + GIS) + ATS) Qe) + 2) + GT + AD 2000+ OS +15 “2 ~ 2 Converting from decimal other number bases In onder to convert a decimal number ino its representation in different number base, we have to be able to express the number in tenns of powers ofthe her base. For example, if we wish to convert the decimal number 100 to base 4, we must figure out how to express 100 as the sum of powers of 100 are + 216) + ana + oD ea) + @t4ay + ata + (oro) 5of6 —— ee‘Then we use the coefficients ofthe powers of 4 to form the number as represented in base 4 wo = 1210 tase 4 One way todo this isto repeatedly divide the decimal number by the bas in which it sto be converted, until the quotient becomes zero, As the numbers divided, the remainders - in reverse onder - form the digits of the umber in the other base, Example: Convert the decimal number 82 o base 6: 82/6 = 13. remainder 4 1316 = 2 remainder U6 = 0 reminder? ‘The answers formed by taking the remainders in reverse order: 2 14 base 6 Number Svstems ‘A compute, lke al digital machines, izes two states 1 rereset information. These two sates are given the symbols O and I, I is important to remember that these 0' and. 1 are symbols forthe to states and have no inherent numerical meanings of their ova. These two digits ae called binary digits (bis) and can be used to represent numbers of any magnitude. The microcomputer carries out all the arithmetic and logic operations internally using binary numbers. Because binary numbers are long, a more compact form wsing some other number system is preferable to represent them. The computer user fin it convenient to work with this compact form, Hence, its important to understand the various number systems sed with computers. These ae described in the {allowing sections In general a umber 1V canbe represented inthe falling form Ned XDP +d, RDP dy XO dX 1 #1. XB — 1 where b isthe base or radix ofthe number system, tho d's are the digs ofthe number system, pis the numberof integer digits, andg isthe number of factional digits, Ncan also be writen sa sting of digits whose integer and Fractional portions are separated by the radix or decimal point (In this fora, the number Vis represented as dndpamhdy. Ly Ia number has no factional portion, (8.4 = 0 in the Form of Equation |), then the number i called an integer number or an integer. Conversely, ifthe number has no integer potion (.g.p= 0 inthe farm of Equation 2), the number is called a fractional number ora faction, If both p andy are not zero, hen the numb sealed a mined ‘number. Decimal Number System Inthe decimal mumber system (bse la), which is most familia ous the integer number 125, an be expressed as Msgs TRIG IOES ETE pee eng In this equation, the ll shand side corresponds tothe frm given by Equation 2. The right-hand side of Equation 3 is represented by the form of equation I, where ®* Wade" adi 2b Syd s=.aed panda Now, consider he fractional decimal number 0.532This number canbe expressed as snag $3 +3 x 10442 0 inary Number System Jn tems of Equation 1, the binary number system has «base or ras of 2 and has two allowable digits, O and From Equition 2.1, «bit binary number 14 10, can bo interpreted as “This conversion from binary o decimal canbe cbse! by inspecting the binary number as follows