most efficiently carry out

their functions.
SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT ✓ Supportive tissues enable a
IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS plant to maintain its correct
posture.
✓ Support-It’s the ability of ✓ Enables plants to withstand
organisms to bear their external forces such as
weight and maintain their strong winds and animals
body forms climbing on them
Movement- It’s the
displacement of parts of the Arrangement of tissues in
body of an organism e.g. stems
growth Movements of ✓ A stem plays an important
plants and limbs of animals. role in support in a plant.
✓ Locomotion- It’s This is due to the presence
Movement of the whole of support tissues which
organism. provide mechanical
✓ Necessity for support and support. These tissues are;
Movement in plants (i) Parenchyma
✓ Movement enables plants to ✓ They are spherical or
adjust to the environment elongated. They form the
e.g. growth of pollen tube major component of the
to bring about fertilization. cortex and pith.
✓ Enables the plants to obtain ✓ When turgid they become
resources from the tightly packed and rigid,
environment like light, thus enable a plant to attain
water and nutrients-Tropic an erect posture.
and nastic Movements. ✓ They provide the main
✓ Enables plants to escape or support in many herbaceous
avoid harmful stimuli such plants such as tomatoes and
as high temperature. Irish potatoes. However
✓ Supportive tissues enable a when such plants lose water
plant to hold delicate on a hot dry day, the cells
organs like leaves and become flaccid and loosely
flowers where they can packed. This causes the
Page 1 of 26
 plants to droop a ✓ It’s the main constituent of
phenomenon called wilting. wood.
✓ (ii) Collenchyma cells
✓ Not all stems develop
collenchyma.It always
occur towards the outside
beneath the epidermis.
✓ Their walls are thickened
with cellulose especially at
the corners to provide o
mechanical support. o Xylem vessels
✓ Collenchyma cells contain ✓ They are thick walled tubes
living protoplasm and their with lignin deposited
walls are not lignified. unevenly in rings, spirals or
✓ Collenchyma tissue is patches on their walls.
important in providing ✓ Their main function is
mechanical support in transport but because their
leaves, herbaceous plants walls are thick and
and young woody plants. lignified, they give strength
and support to the stem.
✓ They are found in
angiosperms.
o Xylem tracheids

o ✓ These are long cells with

✓ (iii) Sclerenchyma tapered ends .They are dead
✓ Their walls are thick and cells with thick unevenly
lignified. The lignified walls and help to
Sclerenchyma cells are strengthen and support the
often long fibres in stems stem.
such as hibiscus. ✓ Based on the nature and
✓ Sclerenchyma consists of distribution of the
dead cells thickened by strengthening tissues, there
lignin. Lignin.is a complex are two types of stems i.e.
polysaccharide. o Herbaceous stems

Page 2 of 26
✓ The tissue is relatively soft thickened or lignified walls.
and easily crushed. Plants Therefore they are referred
with this kind of stem are to as strengthening tissues.
usually small and do not These tissues are;
grow very tall. collenchyma,
✓ Mechanical strength in such sclerenchyma, xylem
stems is directly related to vessels and tracheids. Even
the turgor pressure of the when completely dry, these
living cells of which it is cells remain strong and
composed. maintain their shape.
✓ Some herbaceous plants are ✓ They develop thick, strong
known to obtain support by trunks and branches and
twinning round other plants those plants live for many
e.g. passion fruit stems and years.
morning glory e.g. ✓ Stems of woody plants
grow in height and in
diameter from year to year.
✓ Stems of woody plants
when young exhibit
herbaceous characteristics
✓ in terms of support but as
✓ Others support themselves they mature they undergo
by use of tendrils e.g. secondary growth that leads
Pumpkins to development of elaborate
tissues e.g. bark covering
their trunks.
✓ Activity1; To observe
wilting in plants
o Materials
✓ -Herbaceous plant-Irish
potatoes/Sonchus
✓ (ii) Woody stems ✓ -Woody shrub-Sodom
✓ They have support tissues apple/Mexican marigold
whose cells have stiff, o Procedure

Page 3 of 26
✓ Uproot a young herbaceous ✓ Look for mates and
plant and a woody shrub breeding grounds.
within the same span of
time. Types of skeleton
✓ Lace the two plants on the ✓ Hydrostatic skeleton.
laboratory bench for 30 ✓ Exoskeleton
minutes. ✓ Endoskeleton
✓ Observe the appearance of Exoskeleton
stem and leaves of; ✓ It’s a characteristic of
✓ herbaceous plant members of the phylum
✓ Woody shrub Arthropoda and is made up
✓ Account for the appearance of a substance called chitin.
of the shoot in the two Chitin is secreted by
plants above. epidermal cells and hardens
✓ Support and Movement on secretion.
in Animals ✓ This Exoskeleton supports
✓ Animals have a firm and and protects inner delicate
rigid framework for support tissues.
known as a skeleton. ✓ It’s waterproof and
✓ Functions of skeleton. therefore prevents
✓ Supports the weight of the excessive loss of water
animal’s body. from the body tissues.
✓ Gives the body its shape. ✓ Exoskeleton provides a
✓ Provides surface for surface for attachment of
attachment of body muscles body muscles which is
to facilitate movement essential for movement.
✓ Internal organs are attached ✓ Chitin is not evenly
onto the framework or distributed i.e. it is thin at
suspended from it. the joints to allow for
✓ -Animals move from place efficient movement.
to place to; ✓ NB Exoskeleton limits
✓ Search for food. growth. To overcome this
✓ Escape from predators or limitation it is therefore
hostile environment. periodically shed, a process
called moulting (ecdysis).
Page 4 of 26
✓ Endoskeleton ✓ They have a streamlined
✓ It is a characteristic feature body which reduces
of all vertebrates. resistance against
✓ It’s made up of living movement and enables it to
tissues i.e. cartilage or cut through the water
bones, hence these tissues easily.
grow steadily within the ✓ It has an inflexible head
animal. that enables it to maintain
o Functions forward thrust.
✓ Supports the animal’s body ✓ The scales of the fish
weight. overlap and are pointed
✓ Gives the body its shape. backwards to allow the
✓ Protects inner delicate water to pass over the fish
organs e.g. heart, lungs, easily without any
brain from mechanical obstructions.
injury. ✓ The fish also secretes
✓ It provides surface for mucus which covers the
attachment of body muscles body and this reduces
when they contract or relax friction during movement.
to bring about movement. ✓ The fish has a flexible
✓ The long and the short backbone on which
bones of the skeleton segments of muscle blocks
produce the blood cells. (myotomes) are attached.
✓ Calcium and phosphate
deposits on the bones cause
hardening of bone tissue
therefore bone acts as a
reservoir of Calcium and
phosphate ions in the body.
o Locomotion in a o
finned fish –Tilapia ✓ The fish has strong tail
✓ -The finned fish are muscles which contract and
adapted for movement. In relax to bring about
the water in the following undulating movements.
ways;
Page 5 of 26
✓ Some fish posses a swim o Paired fins- Pectoral
bladder between the and pelvic fins
vertebral column and the ✓ -They have the following
gut. It provides fish with functions;
the buoyancy and also o Maintaining balance
helps the fish to adjust its o Braking-When the
vertical position in relation Paired fins are
to depth in water. extended rapidly
✓ The fish posses a lateral forward at right
line system along the length angles to the body.
of their body that enables it o Changing direction-
to detect vibrations and Each Pectoral fin can
changes of pressure in be used independently
water thus enabling the fish of its opposite
to respond suitably. member hence act as
✓ The tail has a large surface pivots around which
area which increases the the fish can turn
amount of water that is rapidly.
displaced resulting in an ✓ Control pitching of the
increase in the forward fish i.e. the tendency of the
thrust. fish to plunge down head
✓ They have two types of fins first e.g.
i.e.;
✓ Paired fins-Pectoral and
pelvic fins
✓ (ii)Unpaired fins-Dorsal,
ventral and caudal fins

o Unpaired fins-
caudal, Dorsal ,and
ventral (anal)fins
✓ -They have the following
✓ functions;

Page 6 of 26
✓ Reduce rolling i.e. fish ✓ Note the shape of the fish’s
rolling to one side. body.
✓ Place the fish to lie on its
side on the bench. Stroke
the fish from the head to
the tail using your fingers
and from the tail to the
✓ Reduce yawing i.e. lateral head. Record your
deflection of the body. observation in relation to
the arrangement of the
scales.
✓ Draw and label the fish.
o Activity 2; To
calculate the tail
power of fish
✓ NB Caudal fin propels the ✓ Requirements
fish forward and steers fish ✓ Freshly killed finned fish in
while in motion. a tray
o Activity 1; To ✓ Means of measuring(in
examine external millimeters)
features of a finned ✓ Procedure
fish ✓ Obtain a Freshly killed
o Requirements finned fish.
✓ Freshly killed finned fish in ✓ Measure its body length
a tray. from the mouth to the tail
✓ A pair of forceps tip.
✓ Measure the length from
o Procedure the tail tip to the anus.
✓ -Examine the fish provided ✓ Calculate the percentage
and identify the following length of the tail to the rest
features; of the body.
✓ Scales ✓ Tail power is given by;
✓ Fins-caudal, ventral,
Dorsal, pelvic and Pectoral
fins

Page 7 of 26
Tail power=Length from the tail
tip to the anus ×100
Length from the mouth
to the tail tip

o Support and
Movement in
mammals
✓ In mammals the bones and
muscle work together to
bring support and
movement.
✓ The skeleton system in
mammals is divided into
two parts i.e.;
o Axial skeleton
o Appendicular
skeleton

(1) Axial skeleton

✓ This consists of the
following;
(a) Skull
✓ It consists;
(i) Cranium
✓ It encloses and protects the
brain. There are
perforations on the cranium
to allow blood vessels and

Page 8 of 26
 nerves to pass to and from a keel which gives a large
the brain. surface area for attachment
(ii) Lower jaw (mandible) of pectoral muscle (flight
and upper jaw muscle)
(maxilla) ✓ NB At the lower end, the
✓ It articulates (forms a joint) sternum and ribcage offer
with the upper jaw surfaces for attachment of
(maxilla) through a hinge muscles of the back and the
joint. abdomen.
✓ At the posterior end of the (d) Vertebral column
cranium are two smooth ✓ The Vertebral column
rounded protuberances, the consists of bones called
occipital condyles, which vertebrae. The number of
articulate with the atlas vertebrae varies from
vertebra to form a joint species to species e.g. in
which permits the nodding human there are 33
of the head. vertebrae.
✓X ✓ The vertebrae are separated
(b) Ribcage from each other by
✓ It encloses the thoracic cartilage called
cavity protecting delicate intervertebral disc which
organs e.g. heart and lungs. has various functions i.e.
✓ The cage is made of ribs ✓ Acts as cushion that
articulating with vertebral absorbs shock and reduces
column to the back and the friction.
sternum to the front. At the ✓ It makes Vertebral column
articulating points, the ribs flexible by allowing for a
have cartilage. certain degree of movement
(c)Sternum between the vertebrae.
✓ It supports the ribs and ✓ The Vertebral column has 5
protects the organs in the types of vertebrae
thoracic cavity. -Cervical vertebrae
✓ In flying vertebrates the -Thoracic vertebrae
sternum is very prominent -Lumbar vertebrae
and often modified to form -Sacral vertebrae
Page 9 of 26
 -Caudal vertebrae ✓ The vertebrae articulate
The vertebrae have got with each other anteriorly
common basic plan e.g. and posteriorly by facets
called zygapophysis.
✓ At the anterior (front) and
posterior (back) of each
vertebra is a pair of smooth
facets for articulation of
successive vertebrae.
✓ Facets at the anterior parts
are called prezygapophyses.
They face upwards and
inwards.
✓ The parts of a vertebra are; ✓ Facets at the posterior part
Centrum-It’s a solid are called
structure of the vertebra. It postzygapophyses. They
supports the weight of the face downwards and
vertebrae’ outwards.
Transverse process-Are Cervical vertebrae
lateral in relation to ✓ They are found in the neck
Centrum while the neural region. There are 7 cervical
spine is dorsal to the vertebrae.
Centrum. ✓ All Cervical vertebrae have
✓ These two are projections vertebraterial canals in the
which offer surfaces for transverse process for the
muscle and ligament passage of vertebral artery
attachment. and vertebral nerves.
Neural canal-It’s a ✓ The first two cervical
centrally running passage vertebrae called atlas and
for the spinal cord. axis are different from
Neural arch-It’s an arch of other cervical vertebrae.
bones which arises from the Atlas
Centrum. Together with ✓ Has a small neural spine.
Centrum they protect the ✓ It has no Centrum.
spinal cord.

Page 10 of 26
✓ Neural canal is wide for the
passage of the large spinal Axis
cord in the neck region. ✓ It’s the second cervical
✓ Their transverse processes vertebra on the neck region.
are broad and wing-like ✓ The Centrum is broad and
offering a large surface area projects in front to form an
for attachment of neck odontoid process/peg. This
muscles. forms a peg which fits into
✓ It has broad facets for the ventral side of the
articulation with condyles neural canal of the atlas.
of the skull. This forms a ✓ The joint between the atlas
joint which allows for up and axis allows turning
and down movement of the movement of the head
head (nodding). (rotatory movements).

Page 11 of 26
✓ It has broad neural spine.
✓ Has wide neural canal. (b) Thoracic vertebrae
✓ Has wing-like transverse ✓ They are found in the
process. thoracic region articulating
-The other 5 cervical with the ribs. In man they
vertebrae posses; are 12 in number
✓ Broad and branched ✓ They have a long neural
transverse process. These spine which offers a large
offer a large surface area surface area for attachment
for attachment of neck of back muscles.
muscles ✓ Centrum is large.
✓ Short neural spine ✓ Short transverse process.
✓ Wide neural canals and
wide Centrum.
✓ They posses the
prezygapophyses and
postzygapophyses.

Page 12 of 26
 Lumbar vertebrae
✓ They are found in the
lumbar region of the body.
In man there are 5
vertebrae.
✓ They have large and broad
✓ The ribs articulate with the Centrum to offer support.
vertebrae at two points i.e. ✓ They have broad and long
capitulum and transverse process
tuberculum.The tuberculum projecting forwards and
facet on each transverse downwards from the
process articulates with Centrum for muscle
tuberculum of the rib while attachment.
the capitular demi-facets on ✓ Have broad neural spine for
the Centrum articulate on muscle attachment.
the capitulum of the rib. ✓ Infront and on either side of
the neural spine are two
projections called
metapophyses.
✓ Also projecting dorsally
near the transverse process
are anapophyses.

Page 13 of 26
✓ In some animals e.g. rabbits
another projection the
hypapophysis arises
ventrally to the Centrum.
All these projections offer
additional surfaces for the
attachment of abdominal
muscles.

✓ NB The vertebrae in the

lumbar region are adapted
to support the weight of the
body and to withstand
strains of movement.
✓ Sacral vertebrae
✓ They are situated in the
sacral region. Man has 5
while rabbits have 4.
✓ They have large and broad
Centrum to offer support.
✓ Neural canal is narrow.
✓ Neural spine is short.
✓ The first anterior sacral
vertebra is large with wing-
like transverse process
which is fused to the pelvic
girdle.
✓ The transverse processes of
the remaining vertebrae are
not attached. They all offer
a large surface area for
attachment of back
muscles.
✓ All the sacral vertebrae are
fused to form a rigid
Page 14 of 26
 structure the sacrum. This and pelvic girdle to the
makes sacrum strong and posterior.
firm to bear the body ✓ The limbs to the anterior
weight and spread it to the part of the body are fore-
legs through the pelvic limbs and those to the
girdle. posterior are hind-limbs.
✓ The limbs of all mammals
are constructed in the same
basic plan with 5 digits
(fingers and toes) in each
limb. This is called
pentadactyl limb plan e.g.

✓ Caudal vertebrae.
✓ They are found in the tail
region. The number
depends on the size of the
tail. In man where the tail is
vestigial they are 4 and are o Bones of fore-limbs
fused to form a coccyx. o Pectoral girdle
✓ Neural spines and ✓ This is made up of two
zygapophyses are short. halves each of which
✓ Neural canal and neural consists of 3 bones i.e.
arch are absent hence the ✓ -Scapula
entire bone is Centrum. ✓ -Coracoid process
Appendicular Skeleton ✓ -Clavicle
✓ It consists of the girdles and ✓ These bones are attached to
limbs attached to them. The the upper part of the
girdles are the pectoral vertebral column. The two
girdle on the anterior side halves are not fused but are
attached firmly by muscles.
Page 15 of 26
✓ Scapula (Shoulder blade) ✓ Near the head are two
✓ It’s a flat, triangular-shaped roughened projections i.e.
bone. At its apex is a the greater and lesser
concave cavity or tuberosities. These extend
depression, called glenoid into a shaft which provides
cavity which articulates surface for muscle
with the head of humerus to attachment.
form the ball and socket ✓ Between the tuberosities, is
joint. a groove called bicipital
✓ A spine runs along the groove. It is along this
outer surface of the scapula groove that the tendons of
and at its free end, there are the biceps muscles pass.
two projections i.e. ✓ At the lower end is the
acromion and metacromion trochlea which articulates
which are both for muscle with the forearm to form a
attachment. hinge joint at the elbow.

Clavicle (collar bone)

✓ It articulates on one end
with acromion process and
the other with sternum. It’s
for muscle attachment and o Ulna and Radius
aids in movement of arms. ✓ These are two bones found
✓ Humerus in the forearm. The radius
✓ This is the bone found in is found on the side of the
the upper arm. Its head thumb.
articulates with scapula at ✓ The ulna is on the side of
the glenoid cavity of the the small finger and has a
pectoral girdle where it projection called olecranon
forms ball and socket joint. process. This has a sigmoid
notch which articulates

Page 16 of 26
 with the humerus forming a o Phalanges (Finger
hinge joint. bones) –Each digit
Functions of olecranon has 3 bones called
process phalanges singular
✓ Offers a large surface for phalanx except the
attachment of tendons, thumb that has two.
ligaments and muscles
✓ Prevents overstretching of
the lower arm
✓ Limits movement at the
joint (acts as stopper).
✓ Limits movement of radius
and ulna+
✓

o NB In cattle and goats

the fore limbs has two
digits while in the
horse there is only
one digit.
▪ Carpals, Bones of Hind limb
metacarpals ✓ These are;
and phalanges ✓ The pelvic girdle
o Carpals- They are ✓ It consists of two halves
small bones found in fused at the pubic
the wrist (wrist symphysis. Each half is
bones). They are nine made of 3 fused bones i.e.
(9) in the number. o -Ilium
o Metacarpals (Hand o -Ischium
bones) - They form o -Pubis
the skeleton of the ✓ Each half has a cup-shaped
hand and are 5 in cavity, the acetabulum.
number. This articulates with the
head of the femur to form a

Page 17 of 26
 ball and socket joint.
Dorsally, the ilium
articulates with the sacrum.
✓ The ilium provides a large
surface to which thigh
muscles are attached.
✓ *Has sacral facet that
attaches it to the transverse
process of the 1st sacral
vertebra
✓ Between Ischium and pubis
is a hole called orbiturator
foramen. This is an aperture
through which blood
vessels, nerves and muscles
pass. This design is an
adaptation to reduce the
weight of the pelvic girdle
and hence lighten the load
to be supported by the hind
limb.
✓ The pubic symphysis is
composed of flexible
cartilage which permits the
widening of the females
girdles when giving birth.
✓ The ilium, Ischium and
pubis are fused to form the
innominate bone.
o NB The size of the
pubic cavity is
important in females
in regard to childbirth.
A hormone called

Page 18 of 26
 relaxin causes the with the metatarsals (foot
relaxation of the pubis bones) on the lower end.
symphysis during ✓ The metatarsals are 5 in
birth thus expanding number and form the
the size of the pelvic skeleton of the foot. In
cavity. man, there are 5 digits
o Femur (toes) on the foot, 4 in
✓ It’s a long bone found rabbits, 2 in the cow and 1
between the hip and the in the horse. Each digit has
knee. The head of femur 3 phalanges (toe bones)
fits into the acetabulum except the big toe that has
forming the hip joint. two.
✓ At the tip of the shaft are
the greater and lesser
trochanters which are
extensions for muscle
attachment.
✓ The shaft of the femur leads
to the lower end with
expanded and rounded
knobs called condyles.
✓ The condyles articulate
with the patella (knee cap).
They also articulate with
tibia to form hinge joint at
the knee.
✓ The tibia and fibula form
the skeleton of the lower
hind limb.
✓ The heel has 7 small bones
in man called tarsals
(ankle bones). These
articulate with the tibia and
fibula on the upper end and

Page 19 of 26
 and is also called synovial
joints.
✓ Synovial joints are of two
types.
o Ball and socket
joints
✓ This is a type of joint with
two bones, one with a
round head and the other
one with a depression or a
cavity into which the head
of the first bone fits and
o JOINTS moves freely.
✓ A joint is a connection ✓ In this joint, movement is
between two or more possible in all directions.
bones. There are various o Examples; Hip and
types of joints e.g. shoulder joints
o Immovable joints ✓ This joint allow the limbs
✓ e.g. Fused bones in the to rotate through 360°,
skull and the pelvic girdle. however, they cannot bear
✓ Gliding joints e.g. at the very heavy loads.
wrist, ankle and between
vertebrae in the vertebral
column.
o Movable joints
✓ They are found at various
points of the appendages.
These joints are
characterized by bones ✓
covered with cartilages at o Hinge joint
the ends and bones being ✓ The depressions in one
held together by tough bone allow the smooth
ligaments. condyles of another bone to
✓ The joint area is filled with fit and articulate to allow
a lubricating synovial fluid movement in one direction.

Page 20 of 26
 ✓ The maximum stretch of inelastic tissue called
the limb at this joint is tendon.
180º. They are found at the ✓ A muscle is attached to two
elbow, knee and phalanges. points, the origin on an
Ulna – humerus hinge immovable bone and
joint insertion on a movable
bone.
✓ Muscles which operate
joints are in pairs and are
antagonistic.
✓ A muscle may bring about
bending at a joint. This type
of a muscle is called flexor
muscle while the other
✓ which straightens the limb
is the extensor muscle.
o Movement at the
hinge joint of the
elbow
✓ In the arm there are two
antagonistic muscles i.e.
biceps and triceps.
✓ The biceps (flexor muscles)
flex the arm while the
Movement of a joint contraction of triceps
✓ At a movable joint the (extensor muscles) extends
bones are held together by the arm. The biceps
an inelastic tissue called contract and triceps relax.
ligament. Ligaments This pulls the ulna – radius
restrain movement of the upwards hence bending the
bones thus preventing arm.
dislocation.
✓ At the joint, muscles are
attached to the bones by an

Page 21 of 26
✓
✓ While the triceps contract
the biceps relax thus
straightening ulna – radius
leading to extension of the
arm. e.g. ✓
✓ There are 3 types of
muscles i.e.
o Skeletal muscle
o Smooth muscle
o Cardiac muscle
o Skeletal/striated
muscle
✓ ✓ They are attached to the
✓ During this movement of bones/skeleton and are
the arm, the hinge joint at responsible for locomotion
the elbow serves as the and other voluntary
fulcrum with the biceps movements.
muscles providing the ✓ They are innervated by the
effort to lift the load at voluntary part of the
forearm. nervous system therefore
✓ Structure and function of known as voluntary
muscles muscles.
✓ Muscles are tissues ✓ Its fibres have stripes
specialized for contraction. running across them hence
they are also known as
striated or striped muscle.

Page 22 of 26
 They contract and fatigue mitochondria present in the
rapidly. sarcoplasm.
✓ They are made up of long ✓ Sodium ions and calcium
cylindrical cells with ions are also necessary for
multiple nuclei muscle contraction.
(multinucleated). ✓ The force created by
✓ Each fibre contains many contraction is transmitted
myofibrils running parallel onto the skeleton in the
to each other. same magnitude by the
✓ A skeleton muscle is made tendon. This brings about
up of a bundle of long the appropriate movement
fibres running the whole of the skeleton.
length of the muscle. The ▪ Smooth/viscera
covering of a muscle fibre l muscles
is called a sarcolemma. ✓ They are found in the walls
✓ The myofibrils are of tubular body structures
composed of two proteins e.g. digestive tract, blood
strands i.e. actin and vessels, urinary tract,
myosin. reproductive tract,
✓ Structure of striated respiratory tract etc.
muscle ✓ They are made of long
spindle – shaped cells with
a single nucleus.
✓ They contain myofibrils
enclosed by plasma
membrane.
✓ ✓ They lack cross striations
✓ The functional unit of the hence referred to as smooth
muscle is the myofibril muscles.
which has the ability to ✓ They are innervated by the
contract. Muscles require autonomic nervous system
large amounts of energy to and can therefore not be
contract this energy is contracted at will, hence
provided by the numerous they are also called
involuntary muscles. They
Page 23 of 26
 are capable of contracting from within the heart itself
slowly and fatigue slowly without nervous
unlike skeletal muscles. stimulation. Therefore heart
muscle is said to be
myogenic.
✓ Cardiac muscle is capable
of continuous rhythmic
contractions without fatigue
throughout the life of the
mammal.
✓ They have more
o mitochondria than skeletal
o (c) Cardiac muscle muscle to sustain the
✓ This is the heart muscle. energy demands.
Each muscle fibre consists
of short cells with centrally
placed nuclei and numerous
striated myofibrils.
✓ The ends of the cells are
marked by thickened region
called intercalated discs.
These form bridges
between fibres hence
transmit impulses rapidly
✓
throughout the heart.
✓ The contractions of the
heart muscle are generated

Page 24 of 26
(d) .

Page 25 of 26
Page 26 of 26