Mathematics and Foreign Language:

Authentic Texts in Mathematics

A Thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Mathematical Sciences in the Graduate School of The Ohio
State University

By

Sarah Bergen, B.S.

Graduate Program in Mathematical Sciences

The Ohio State University

2017

Master’s Examination Committee:

Bart Snapp, Advisor
Rodica Costin, Advisor
Michael Battista
c Copyright by

Sarah Bergen

2017
 Abstract

Within mathematics education research, various authors have described mathe-

matics as a language and emphasized the importance of educators developing stu-

dents’ ability to communicate mathematically. In this paper, we discuss how foreign

language education methods and research can inform mathematics education. We

give a definition of mathematical communicative competence and provide a frame-

work for developing this competence through the use of authentic mathematics texts,

which we also define. We describe potential benefits of authentic texts and provide

example activities using authentic texts.

ii
This is dedicated to my mother and sister, who have continuously supported me

through their words and actions.

iii
 Vita

2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.S. Mathematics, Minor in Spanish

2015-present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graduate Teaching Associate,

The Ohio State University.

Fields of Study

Major Field: Mathematical Sciences

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 Table of Contents

Page

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Vita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Communicative Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3. Authentic & Contrived Texts in Foreign Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1 Contrived Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.2 Authentic Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 A Case for Contrived Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 A Case for Authentic Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4. Authentic & Contrived Texts in Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.1 Contrived Mathematics Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.2 Authentic Mathematics Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 Semi-Authentic Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 A Case for Contrived Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 A Case for Authentic Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

v
5. Designing Authentic Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.1 Selecting Authentic Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.2 A Model for Activity Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.1 Pre-reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2.2 During-Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.3 Post-reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6. Proposed Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.1 Activity: Pizza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.2 Activity: Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.3 Activity: Simpson’s Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.4 Activity: Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

7. Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7.1 Conclusions of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7.2 Implementation of Proposed Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.3 Implications of Mathematics as a Foreign Language . . . . . . . . . 40

Appendices 42

A. List of Authentic Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

B. Pizza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

B.1 Pricing Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

B.2 Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
B.3 Don’t Cut Corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

C. Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

C.1 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

C.2 How Far? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
C.3 Customers Talk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

D. Simpson’s Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

D.1 An Average Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

D.2 Numbers Don’t Lie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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 D.3 Digging Deeper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
D.4 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

E. Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

E.1 Data Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

E.2 Reading Between the Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
E.3 What’s the Curve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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 List of Tables

Table Page

2.1 Mathematical Communicative Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.1 Contrived and Authentic Texts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.1 Three part model for activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

viii
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Communication permeates our lives, from our interactions at home or in the work-

place to exchanges within corporations and among nations. When one is immersed

in a foreign culture, communication is unavoidable. While travelling in Paris, I made

sure to know the phrase “Parlez vous anglais?” (“Do you speak English?”). This

phrase indicated my lack of competence to communicate efficiently in French. I

may have been able to use my understanding of English and Spanish to comprehend

pieces of the French language, but communication became much more efficient when

the other individual spoke my native language.

In another situation, back in the United States, I was out to dinner with two of

my friends. We received one bill that we were going to split three ways. Knowing I

was a mathematics major, the two friends handed me the bill to determine the tip.

Although they were each fully capable of determining the tip, they assumed someone

with more “competence” in mathematics could complete the task more efficiently.

These stories reflect the situation some of our students face when asked to com-

municate in what may seem like a foreign language. One of the goals of mathematics

education is to teach students to communicate using mathematics, a goal which the

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) emphasizes in its process stan-

dards:

1
 Mathematical communication is a way of sharing ideas and clarifying un-
derstanding. Through communication, ideas become objects of reflection,
refinement, discussion, and amendment. When students are challenged to
communicate the results of their thinking to others orally or in writing,
they learn to be clear, convincing, and precise in their use of mathematical
language [22].

If mathematics is a language, then strategies used in foreign language education can

inform mathematics education. Dara Wakefield approaches mathematics education

from a linguistic perspective, exploring the implications of second-language acqui-

sition on mathematics education. He argues that “math is enough like a language

to warrant an exploration of second-language acquisition for possible applications in

math education.” [31]. In a similar spirit, our goal in this paper is not to defend

the claim that mathematics is a language, but to investigate the possibilities such a

statement can have for mathematics instruction. We can state this assumption as the

math as a foreign language hypothesis:

Math as Foreign Language Hypothesis: Mathematics, like foreign

language, is a means of communicating ideas and information. There-
fore, foreign language education methodologies and research can inform
mathematics instruction.

Using this assumption, we investigate the following questions:

1. What strategies do foreign language educators use that can inform mathematics

education?

2. How can mathematics educators incorporate strategies from foreign language

education into mathematics instruction?

Wakefield offers suggestions for teaching mathematics as a second language, in-

cluding engaging learners in mathematics activities at a young age, allowing for

2
“fuzzy” logic and approximation in assessment, and focusing on relevant, real-life

situations [31]. He also discusses the idea of “immersing” students in mathematics

at a young age by engaging in dialogue about mathematical topics [30]. We extend

the discussion of teaching mathematics as a foreign language by exploring the use of

authentic texts as a means of developing communicative competence in mathematics.

We structure our discussion as follows. In Chapter 2 we discuss communicative

competence in foreign language and mathematics. Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 describe

authentic texts in foreign language and the analogous concept of authentic mathemat-

ics texts, citing potential benefits of their use in mathematics instruction. Chapter 5

provides a model for selecting and using authentic texts in mathematics, while Chap-

ter 6 describes proposed activities using authentic mathematics texts. The conclusion,

Chapter 7, summarizes the research presented in this paper and offers suggestions for

further work in this area.

3
 Chapter 2: Communicative Competence

In this section we focus on the idea of communicative competence in language

learning. Two categories of foreign language education methodologies are skills ori-

ented and communicative oriented approaches. The skills oriented approaches to lan-

guage learning focus on abstract, normative systems of language. These approaches

emphasize grammar translation and rote learning. However, such approaches may

fail to provide students sufficient practice comprehending functional language and

communicating in conversational situations [27].

In the latter half of the twentieth century, trends in foreign language education

shifted towards a more communicative based definition of language learning [29].

These communicative oriented approaches of language learning focus on concrete,

communicative uses of the language and interpretation of textual messages for mean-

ing. Although some researchers have accused these approaches of “failing to fine tune

for formal accuracy” [27], communicative oriented approaches encourage students’

understanding of language concepts and functional language use. Communicative ac-

tivities, spoken or written, allow learners to “realize that they can express construct

meaning through the conceptual properties of the new language rather than behaving

as if there were right or wrong ways of saying things in this language” [20]. While

grammar exercises focus on “formal or conscious knowledge of the target language,”

4
communicative exercises emphasize “gaining acquired or subconscious knowledge”

[17].

Among the goals of the communicative oriented approaches is communicative

competence in students. Language education researchers have defined communicative

competence in a variety of ways. Canale and Swain give a four-part definition of

communicative competence on which we will focus [24, 7]:

1. Grammatical competence or accuracy: degree to which language user has mas-

tered linguistic code, including vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, spelling,

word formation.

2. Sociolinguistic competence: extent to which utterances can be used or under-

stood appropriately in various social contexts (persuading, describing, etc.)

3. Discourse competence: ability to combine ideas to achieve cohesion in form and

coherence in thought, above the level of a single sentence.

4. Strategic competence: using strategies like gestures and “talking around” an

unknown word to overcome limitations in language knowledge.

We will define communicative competence for mathematics using an analogous four-

part model. In our definition of mathematical communicative competence, we refer

to the strands of mathematical proficiency given by the National Research Council

[16].

• Conceptual understanding: comprehension of mathematical concepts, opera-

tion, and relations

• Procedural fluency: skill in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, effi-

ciently, and appropriately

5
 • Strategic competence: ability to formulate, represent, and solve mathematical

problems

• Adaptive reasoning: capacity for logical thought, reflection, explanation, and

justification

• Productive disposition: habitual inclination to see mathematics as sensible,

useful, and worthwhile, coupled with a belief in diligence and one’s own efficacy

For our purposes in discussing communicative competence, we focus on three of the

five proficiencies—procedural fluency, strategic competence, and adaptive reasoning—

as these reflect the communicative aspects of mathematics. Individuals with these

proficiencies are able to communicate mathematics via carrying out procedures (pro-

cedural fluency), formulating and representing problems (strategic competence), and

explaining and justifying their reasoning (adaptive reasoning). Using the three above

mentioned proficiencies and the definition of communicative competence in language

learning, we formulate a definition of mathematical communicative competence.

Grammatical competence or accuracy: degree to which user has mastered

symbolism and terminology of mathematics. The NRC proficiency of proce-

dural fluency corresponds to the first two components of communicative competence.

We distinguish between carrying out procedures accurately and efficiently (grammati-

cal competence) and recognizing when these procedures are appropriate based on the

context (sociolinguistic competence). Students with grammatical competence can

carry out procedures efficiently and accurately, although they may need assistance

6
determining the appropriate formula to use for a given real world context. An exam-

ple of a task assessing grammatical competence is to evaluate a given function at a

specified value (i.e. given f (x) = x + 3, find f (5)).

Sociolinguistic competence: the extent to which students use mathemat-

ical terminology and symbolism in appropriate contexts. A student with

sociolinguistic competence is able to relate mathematical terminology and symbolism

to real world situations. For example, a student demonstrates this competence when

recognizing a proportional situation in a real world context and setting up an ap-

propriate equation using mathematical symbolism. Sociolinguistic competence does

not presuppose grammatical competence, and a student can have varying degrees of

each. A student with a higher degree of sociolinguistic competence than grammatical

competence may be able to set up an appropriate equation for a given context, but

may have difficulty carrying out the procedure of solving the equation accurately.

Discourse competence: ability to combine ideas and make a logical mathe-

matical argument. This competence corresponds to the NRC proficiency of adap-

tive reasoning. Students with discourse competence are able to explain mathematical

reasoning in a logical manner with sufficient detail. Examples of tasks requiring dis-

course competence include completing a formal mathematical proof and justifying a

formula chosen to model a situation.

Strategic competence: ability to use appropriate strategies to overcome

limitations in mathematical knowledge. This competence corresponds with

the NRC proficiency of strategic competence. It includes the ability to determine an

7
 Competence Description
Grammatical understanding mathematical
symbolism and terminology
Sociolinguistic using terminology and symbolism
in appropriate contexts
Discourse combining ideas to
make logical arguments
Strategic using appropriate strategies
in problem solving

Table 2.1: Mathematical Communicative Competence.

appropriate problem solving strategy and to use this strategy to solve mathematical

problems. This category also includes using metacognitive strategies to monitor one’s

own problem solving processes.

Table 2.1 summarizes mathematical communicative competence and the associ-

ated NRC proficiencies. Like NRC mathematical proficiencies, the four components of

mathematical communicative competence are interdependent, and the development

of any one competence can assist in the development of others. As noted above, stu-

dents can have varying degrees of each competence within one domain. Students can

also have varying degrees of any one competence for different mathematical content

areas. For example, a student may have a higher degree of discourse competence in

algebra than in geometry.

Having identified a connection between communicative competence and estab-

lished mathematics proficiencies, we accept mathematical communicative compe-

tence, as defined above, as reflective of mathematics education learning goals. Follow-

ing the math as a foreign language hypothesis, we consider the potential relationship

8
between instruction in the two subjects, specifically methods for developing commu-

nicative competence. How can the methods by which foreign language education

achieves communicative competence inform mathematics instruction directed toward

achieving similar goals? One method foreign language educators use to achieve com-

municative competence is authentic language and exposure to authentic texts.

9
 Chapter 3: Authentic & Contrived Texts in Foreign
Language

Here we consider the use of authentic texts in language learning and the analogous

concept of authentic problems in mathematics. To begin a discussion of authentic

texts in foreign languages, we first discuss the definitions of authentic and contrived

texts as provided in foreign language education literature. We can define authentic

and contrived texts by their author, purpose, and language.

3.1 Contrived Texts

Contrived texts are texts created for an educational purpose to teach language

features. Readings and text most often encountered in a foreign language textbook

are considered contrived texts. These texts have the following characteristics.

Author: Contrived texts are written by textbook authors.

Purpose: Contrived texts are written to teach language structure, linguistic fea-

tures and vocabulary [28]. These texts are designed for non-native speakers of the

language. The purpose of the text is to offer practice with a specific language feature

that may have been recently covered in a textbook.

10
Language: Contrived texts contain controlled language. The language of these

texts contains controlled vocabulary and altered rhetorical organization. There may

also be a lack of discourse markers which would appear in authentic language use

[27]. The language may be simplified based on standards of readers’ current language

knowledge.

3.2 Authentic Texts

Authentic texts are texts used in communication among native speakers. These

texts have the following characteristics:

Author: Authentic texts are written by and for native speakers. The author and

original intended audience of an authentic text are native speakers of the language.

That is, authentic texts are written by native speakers for other native speakers. As

such, authentic texts “mirror the aspirations and value systems of their respective

society” [27].

Purpose: Authentic texts have a communicative purpose. A text by native authors

for native readers is written to communicate information for a purpose in the language

community [9]. Authentic texts are written with a specific intent such as to inform

or persuade [27].

Language: Authentic texts contain minimal glossing and editing. The language

used in authentic texts reflects the language used by the author. There is little

or no editing of the language by a textbook author or instructor. As a result the

11
organizational and text patterns may be unfamiliar to the foreign language learner

[12].

A further characteristic of authentic texts is that these texts allow readers to an-

alyze message systems for themselves [27]. Students can develop and use strategies

to interpret the message system and communicative purpose of the text rather than

decoding or translating each component. Examples of authentic texts for foreign

language instruction include newspaper and magazine articles, interviews, advertise-

ments, novels, poems, handbooks and manuals, recipes, postcards, travel brochures,

and tickets [9]. Language learners can also utilize authentic materials from web pages,

radio and television. When used appropriately, authentic texts can be a useful asset

for the development of communicative competence.

3.3 A Case for Contrived Texts

There is some disagreement among linguists regarding the use of authentic and

contrived texts in foreign language education. Among the benefits of contrived texts

are the following:

Contrived texts exclude distractions. Because their language is edited and

controlled, contrived texts often exclude unnecessary and distracting language, while

maintaining communication features of real texts [9]. Authentic texts, on the other

hand, may contain distracting or confusing language. The language of authentic

texts could even contradict rules taught by language teachers [13]. For example,

advertisements and slogans may contain incorrect language use (i.e. the advertisement

slogan “Got Milk?”), contradicting the grammatical rules students learn in school

contexts.

12
Contrived texts can be edited for length and difficulty. One of the disad-

vantages of using authentic texts is that the material of authentic texts may be too

difficult for lower-level students or too long to read in their original forms [13]. Con-

trived texts can be created or altered so that students can more easily manage the

material.

Contrived texts reflect and extend current knowledge. Advocates of con-

trived texts have claimed that these texts reflect a learner’s current language knowl-

edge and have the capacity to extend this knowledge [9, 10].

3.4 A Case for Authentic Texts

One learning goal of foreign language education is for students to “read and under-

stand simple, authentic texts” [8]. Communicative competence seems an impossible

goal without exposing students to authentic language. Furthermore, “to learn to ap-

prehend authentic language, students must have exposure to and practice in decoding

the message systems of authentic texts” [27]. A desire for the use of authentic text is

interlaced with pedagogical considerations regarding how and if such authentic lan-

guage facilitates learning. Advocates of authentic texts cite the following benefits,

among others, of authentic materials over contrived materials.

Authentic texts use natural forms of language. Advocates of communicative

approaches for language teaching support the use of authentic materials since these

materials introduce students to real contexts and functional language, allowing stu-

dents to “see language in its entirety” [9]. Contrived texts, on the other hand, with

13
their focus on lexical characteristics of the text, do not represent natural uses of the

language and may fail to communicate new information to the reader [12].

Some theories of language learning, such as Krashen’s input hypothesis theory,

suggest that authentic texts are more comprehensible and have more communicative

value than contrived texts [9, 17]. Rhetorical elements of authentic language such

as repetition, redundancy, cohesive devices and discourse markers can help language

learners comprehend the text. In contrived texts, absence of such natural rhetorical

elements can result in higher reading difficulty [27, 9]. Simplifying languages in a

text might complicate the message since modifications of contrived texts can “result

in extended utterances and grammar that can be more complex than those of the

original because they formulate hypotheses about language that are approximations

or overgeneralizations of the actual rules” [9].

An additional benefit to using natural language of authentic texts is that these

texts do not patronize learners by making assumptions about their language ability

or knowledge [13]. Unlike contrived texts, which are written specifically for language

learners, these texts are not edited for the language level of the learner.

Authentic texts can increase student interest. To increase student engage-

ment, language educators can select authentic texts according to the interests of the

students. Authentic texts can help to encourage “pleasure reading,” reading stu-

dents select based on personal interest, outside of the classroom [27]. O’Keeffe et

al. describe how authentic data in foreign language can “provide more grounded

motivation” because the text is a “real” example of how the language is used. [23].

14
Authentic texts can increase the opportunity for transfer Authentic texts

can aid transfer between one’s native language and a second or foreign language

by allowing students to juxtapose situational content and use existing knowledge.

Swaffar describes this advantage of authentic text on language comprehension:

When authentic materials reflect comparable situational content in the

two languages, situational content which reflects student experiences .
. . learners can capitalize on their existing perceptual scheme for such
situations in order to comprehend probable message implications [27].

For example, when reading a letter written in a foreign language, students can predict

language features, including recognizing salutations and conclusions, based on their

understanding of a similar text in their native language. In addition to assisting with

language transfer, authentic texts increase the opportunity for transfer of language

from classroom contexts to real world situations. Authentic texts bridge the gap

between classroom and real world experience, exposing students to language “how it is

really used” rather than the language of the “‘safe’, controlled learning environment”

[3].

Among the desired learning outcomes for mathematics education is students’ abil-

ity to transfer their understanding of concepts to unfamiliar situations. One possible

way to achieve this goal is through the use of what we will define as authentic math-

ematics texts.

15
 Chapter 4: Authentic & Contrived Texts in Mathematics

Teaching via authentic contexts has received attention in mathematics education

literature, specifically in the domain of situated cognition. The premise of situated

cognition as described by Brown, Collins, and Duguid is that “knowledge is situated,

being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed

and used” [4]. From the situated cognition perspective, it is important to involve

students in genuine, authentic mathematical practices and approaches to instruction

which “embed learning in activity and make deliberate use of the social and physical

context” [4]. Brown discusses cognitive apprenticeship and Schoenfeld’s teaching of

problem solving as methods for involving students in authentic mathematics activity.

We present the use of authentic texts as a way to involve students in practitioner

activity, giving students exposure to linguistic features involved in authentic mathe-

matical communication.

We describe mathematics texts in general as texts “written in mathematics.”

Mathematics texts include equations and formulas, graphs, tables, and images as

well as native language texts describing mathematical content. Within the category

of mathematics texts, we can distinguish between authentic and contrived mathemat-

ics texts. By understanding the distinction between the two types of mathematics

16
texts and the benefits associated with authentic mathematics texts, we hope to in-

form mathematics education and the instruction of communicative competence in

mathematics.

4.1 Contrived Mathematics Texts

Here we define contrived mathematics texts. Contrived mathematics texts, similar

to contrived texts in foreign language, have the following characteristics:

Author: Contrived mathematics texts are written by textbook authors, instructors

or curriculum writers.

Purpose: Contrived mathematics texts are written to teach specific concepts or

procedures. Contrived mathematics texts typically accompany textbook problems or

exercises aimed at solidifying concepts or procedures recently covered in the textbook.

These texts may provide unrealistic information or omit information that is readily

available in a similar realistic situation.

Language: Contrived mathematics texts contain controlled language. As in foreign

language, contrived texts contain simplified language. If the texts contains contextual

terminology, it is either irrelevant for completing the task at hand or completely

explained within the text or problem. Extraneous information and contextual details

may be excluded, while any data included in the text may be simplified for ease of

computations.

Contrived mathematics texts could refer to information within the problem it-

self or information provided in text separate from the problem or task given. The

17
application sections of most mathematics textbooks contain examples of contrived

texts. The task of interpreting contrived mathematics texts and completing the ac-

companying task often requires little more than decoding mathematical jargon and

applying dictated procedures. Authors of math-language literature offer suggestions

to help students read and decode mathematical jargon. While these suggestions can

help students interpret textbooks tasks and exercises, they may fall short of providing

the instruction needed to fully engage all four parts of communicative competence in

mathematics. If we want students to develop sociolinguistic competence to use math-

ematics appropriately in various contexts, it seems natural that we would expose

students to texts from these authentic contexts.

4.2 Authentic Mathematics Texts

Here we define authentic mathematics texts by following the same criteria used

to defined authentic texts in foreign language. Authentic mathematics texts have the

following characteristics.

Author: Authentic mathematics texts are created by “native speakers” of math-

ematics. Defining a native speaker of mathematics presents some challenges, since

mathematics is a cross-cultural domain and is not associated with any one culture

or place of origin. For our purposes, a “native speaker” of mathematics is a mathe-

matician or a professional in an area in which mathematics is used. Authentic texts

should be originally created by these professionals or experts in the area for which

the text is used.

18
Purpose: Authentic mathematics texts have a specific, communicative purpose.

Authentic mathematics texts are created by native speakers to communicate infor-

mation to other members of the mathematics language community. This information

can be communicated in a variety of forms, including visual, textual and symbolic

representations. The communicative purpose of authentic texts contrasts the sheer

educational purpose of contrived texts.

Language: Authentic mathematics texts contain minimal editing. Authentic math-

ematics texts are not edited for instructional use or to accommodate for the mathe-

matics level of the students. They are not glossed: there are no footnotes or guides

for readers that would not be a part of the authentic situation. Unknown vocabulary

and language is expected.

Using this definition, authentic mathematics texts are necessarily separate from

the problem or task given to the student. In mathematical word problems the math-

ematical message can be considered to be embedded in the interplay among words,

numerals and symbols [1]. Similarly, authentic texts communicate information via

multiple representations, from symbols and numerals to words and visual displays,

such as graphs. Examples of authentic mathematics texts include magazine or news-

paper articles, scientific literature, texts used in a profession (i.e. blueprints, financial

documents), and historical texts demonstrating original mathematics. A list of some

authentic mathematics texts is provided in Appendix A. We summarize the differences

between authentic and contrived mathematics texts in Table 4.1.

19
 Category Contrived Texts Authentic Texts
Author Textbook writer Native speaker
Purpose Teach a procedure Communicate information
Style Textbook style Natural context
Language Edited, annotated, simplified Minimal editing

Table 4.1: Contrived and Authentic Texts.

4.3 Semi-Authentic Texts

Foreign language educators have used the term semi-authentic text to refer to an

authentic text which has been adapted for educational purposes. This can include

texts which are altered to exclude difficult language [13]. We can similarly define

semi-authentic mathematics texts as texts which are based on authentic mathematics

texts, but created or adapted for instruction. This category would include data given

in a textbook that is derived from an authentic source but adapted for use in the

textbook.

4.4 A Case for Contrived Texts

As extensions of contrived foreign language texts, contrived mathematics texts

may experience similar benefits to contrived texts in foreign language education. We

describe some of these potential benefits here.

Contrived texts exclude distractions. One of the advantages of contrived texts

cited in foreign language literature is that contrived texts exclude unnecessary and

distracting language [9]. This may also be the case in mathematics. In their analysis

20
of the claims of situated learning, Anderson et al. argue that “often real-world prob-

lems involve a great deal of busy work and offer little opportunity to learn the target

competences” [2]. When designing contrived texts in order to teach a specific math-

ematical concept, authors can exclude unnecessary information and edit the text for

students to use without adding extra “busy work” that could be needed to interpret

the text.

Contrived texts can be edited for length and difficulty. Contrived texts

often exclude distractions and contextual information, including only the information

necessary to complete the task at hand. This allows the text to be shorter and more

manageable. Authors of contrived texts can also control the text difficulty.

Contrived texts reflect and extend current knowledge. Contrived texts can

provide students opportunities to directly connect prior knowledge to new concepts.

Since contrived mathematics texts are constructed to teach specific features of the

mathematics language, they can be created to reinforce learned procedures and con-

cepts, directly and immediately.

If among our educational goals in mathematics is for students to competently

communicate mathematics both inside and outside of the classroom, then it is worth

considering how to best incorporate situational contexts into instruction. Accept-

ing the “math as foreign language” hypothesis and use of authentic texts in foreign

language urges us to consider potential benefits of situational context provided by

authentic mathematics texts.

21
4.5 A Case for Authentic Texts

Here we recall the advantages cited for authentic texts in language learning and

present the analogous advantages of authentic mathematics texts. Where applicable,

we support these claims with situated cognition research regarding authentic activity.

Authentic mathematics texts use natural forms of the language. In her

article on authentic texts in foreign language, Swaffar addresses the need for language

educators to incorporate authentic language into instruction:

...we need to free ourselves from the notion that students must read in-
formationally sanitized and linguistically normed language...we need to
accept that our responsibility is not to make sure students understand
a written message in terms of its formal detail or formal features but,
rather, our responsibility is to enable students to experience quantities of
authentic language as comprehensible input. [27]

In mathematics, the “linguistically normed language” of textbook tasks can be con-

trasted with the language of authentic tasks. Textbook and classroom tasks often

contain contrived, unnatural forms of language exclusively used in classroom con-

texts. Typical mathematics problems fail to provide authentic language features and

“are generally encoded in a syntax and diction that is common only to other math

problems” [4]. The result is a lack of exposure to mathematics language used outside

of the classroom. Authentic mathematics texts, on the other hand, use language

reflective of authentic situations.

One of the differences between authentic and contrived mathematics texts is that

texts in the latter category have been edited for educational purposes. This includes

editing of the data or information provided to the language leaner. In her discussion

22
of situated cognition, Hennessy notes the discrepancy between information given in

problems within the classroom contexts and those outside of the classroom.

In school, almost all problems are pre-formulated and accompanied by

the requisite data, whereas, outside school, problems are seldom clearly
defined initially and the information necessary for solving them must be
actively sought form a variety of sources [14, 18].

Unedited, authentic texts reflect the nature of activities outside the classroom, where

necessary information is not prepackaged and self-evident.

Authentic mathematics texts increase student interest. Since authentic texts

are not part of the textbook or dictated curriculum, they can be selected based on

student interest. In foreign language, authentic texts have been cited as means of

encouraging “pleasure reading” in the foreign language. Similarly, authentic mathe-

matics texts can encourage students to “read” the world with a more mathematical

mindset. This is one of the goals of Schoenfeld’s teaching of problem solving, in which

he has students bring problems to class and the class works collaboratively to solve

and discuss the problems [4]. A similar approach could be used to have students

select and discuss authentic texts they encounter.

From the situated cognition perspective, motivation is cited as a difference between

problems within the classroom environment and those encountered outside of the

classroom.

The incentives outside school lead to learning that is self-motivated or

commercially driven and the problems encountered are hence authentic
and relevant to the learner rather than artificially constructed, as, for
instance, computation exercises are. Hence, everyday learning is goal-
directed and often incidental or effortless, whereas much academic learn-
ing is deliberate, effortful and decontextualized [25] An apparent lack of
purpose and of explicit criteria for success divorces classroom learning

23
 from readily understandable goals such as the play goals of childhood or
the work activities of adulthood [14, 5].

Authentic mathematics texts increase the opportunity for transfer. One

of the potential benefits of using authentic texts in mathematics is that they, like

authentic texts in foreign language, have the potential to increase the opportunity

for transfer of knowledge. In foreign language, the situational content of authentic

texts allows students to utilize their understanding of similar situations in their na-

tive language to predict message implications. In mathematics, students are required

to continuously juxtapose native language with mathematical language, since almost

all authentic mathematics texts contain native language and mathematical language

features. To encourage understanding of mathematical language and vocabulary,

educators can make explicit the connections between everyday language and math-

ematical language, especially when vocabulary carries multiple meanings depending

on the context [1].

Authentic texts can increase contextual transfer of mathematics from a classroom

context to contexts outside of the classroom. As noted above, the language of con-

trived texts is often restricted to classroom and textbook contexts, and “viewed from

outside, where problems do not come in textbooks, a dependency on such school-

based cues makes the learning extremely fragile” [4]. When using contrived texts, the

potential for transfer to authentic situations is limited. Allowing students to navi-

gate through the unfamiliar language and extra information of authentic texts may

increase the potential that they will be able to transfer classroom understanding to

a similar situation outside of the classroom. The need for methods to encourage this

transfer is evident in situated cognition research.

24
 No longer do informed educators expect the ad hoc, informal, economi-
cally functional mathematics of work and out-of-school context to relate
to formal school mathematics by transfer in or out. Application of math-
ematics is now seen more clearly as a highly complex, socially developed
process necessarily mediated through use of physical, symbolic and dis-
cursive tools...Mathematics holds increasingly important roles in economic
and political activity, making it imperative to question the processes of
learning to have access to, and control of, these uses [33].

We can also note the importance of authentic texts in developing opportunities

for transfer of students’ knowledge of everyday contexts to classroom environments.

Instruction can guide students to recognize how numerals and symbols carry different

meanings depending on the context in which they are presented, as when Adams en-

courages her elementary students to recognise numerals in their natural environments,

such as zip codes and gas prices, and uses this recognition to guide their understanding

of numerals within mathematics contexts [1]. Activities accompanying authentic texts

can guide students to identify the strategies they use when interpreting mathematics

in everyday contexts and can use this understanding to guide their interpretation of

mathematics in the classroom.

In mathematics, as in foreign language, authentic texts contain “symbolic and dis-

cursive tools” evident in authentic activity. We recognize that “the amount of transfer

depends on where attention is directed during learning or at transfer. Training on

the cues that signal the relevance of an available skill should probably receive more

emphasis in instruction than it now typically receives” [2]. For this reason it is im-

portant to consider how to select appropriate authentic texts and design appropriate

activities to accompany authentic mathematics texts.

25
 Chapter 5: Designing Authentic Activities

In her book on literacy strategies for mathematics education, Kenney describes

how “if we intend for students to understand mathematical concepts rather than

to produce specific performances, we must teach them to engage meaningfully with

mathematics texts” [15]. Likewise, if we intend for students to learn to communicate

in authentic situations, we must teach them how to engage with texts from those

authentic situations. This involves selecting appropriate authentic texts and designing

activities to encourage meaningful engagement with the texts.

5.1 Selecting Authentic Texts

Authentic mathematics texts satisfy the criteria in the definition above. When

selecting authentic texts, we ask the following questions of the text:

• Author: Is the text written by a native speaker of mathematics?

• Purpose: Is the text written to communicate information?

• Language: Is the language of the text unedited?

Based on our definition, these questions comprise the minimum criteria for a text

to be authentic. Additional questions to consider when selecting reading materials

26
include those Berardo mentions in a discussion regarding the selection of authentic

reading materials [3]:

• Suitability of Content: Does the text interest the student? Is it relevant to the

student’s needs? Does it represent the type of material that the student will

use outside of the classroom?

• Exploitability: Can the text be exploited for teaching purposes? For what

purposes should the text be exploited? What skills/strategies can be developed

by exploiting the text?

• Readability: Is the text too easy/difficult for the student? Is it structurally

too demanding/complex? How much new vocabulary does it contain? Is it

relevant?

• Presentation: Does it “look” authentic? Does it grab the student’s attention?

Such questions can and should also be considered when selecting authentic texts for

use in a mathematics classroom. These texts can be selected from a variety of contexts

including daily activities, work-related scenarios and academic sources. Appropriately

designed activities can guide students through the reading of the selected text.

5.2 A Model for Activity Design

In foreign language education, activities that accompany authentic texts provide

motivation for the use of the authentic text and present tasks appropriate for the

students’ mathematical language level. Medley describes how “unless students expe-

rience some personal satisfaction as a result of carrying out an assigned task, they

are unlikely to accept the language as personally viable or desirable medium of real

27
communication” [19]. Selecting authentic texts and providing them to students is

of little significance without presenting a motivating task for which the student will

need to use the text.

Activities that accompany authentic foreign language texts can be adapted for

the language level of the students, allowing instructors to use the same authentic

text for a variety of language levels. As Medley states, “it is the design and focus

of the task, rather than the language sample itself, that both defines understanding

and determines the effectiveness with which the students ‘understand’ the materials.

Hence it is the task and the subsequent guidance that the task provides—not the text

itself—that must be tailored to the level of the students” [19]. Similarly, activities

using authentic mathematics text should guide students in a way that is appropriate

for their level of mathematical understanding.

In this section we describe a three part model adapted from foreign language

models provided by Swaffar [27] and Medley [19], which provide suggestions for in-

corporating authentic texts in foreign language. A similar three part framework for

language texts is also described by Berardo [3]. Using these foreign language frame-

works, we describe three types of tasks that can comprise activities accompanying

authentic mathematics texts: pre-reading, during-reading and post-reading.

5.2.1 Pre-reading

Pre-reading questions provide expectancy and a basis for reading the text. Med-

ley notes in the student’s native language environment, “expectancy is conditioned

by experience” [19]. Based on our experiences in native language environments, we

know what types of communication to expect in various contexts. For example, when

28
purchasing groceries at the store, we have an expectation of the conversation that

will take place with the cashier. Or when reading a newspaper we expect factual

information rather than fictional anecdotes. In the classroom context in which the

authentic text is presented, the environmental cues that could help to condition ex-

pectation may not be present. Pre-reading questions and tasks provide students some

expectation of the natural context in which the authentic text would be encountered.

During this stage, students can identify the environment or context in which the text

would be found and the intent of the author in constructing the text [27]. This stage

is also used to “activate existing schemata” [3].

In mathematics activities, this stage can involve questions or tasks which intro-

duce the context in which the text appears. This stage could also include questions

requiring students to recall and use prior knowledge, which they’ll need to complete

the following tasks. In foreign language acquisition research, it has been noted that

“prior knowledge impacts heavily how well a text is comprehended or presented in

a student composition” [28]. Similarly, prior knowledge plays a key role in problem

solving and interpretation of mathematical tasks [14].

5.2.2 During-Reading

In foreign language, questions or tasks at this stage confirm the purpose for which

students are reading the text. The task could involve students reading for general

information or for specific details in the text. During this stage, students can confirm

the narrative logic of the text and identify local factors of information and language

[27]. Berardo describes how while reading tasks “encourage the learners to be a

flexible, active reader” and “promote a dialogue between reader and writer” [3].

29
 In mathematics, during-reading tasks can play a similar role to those in foreign

language. In addition to connecting the information in the text to their expectations

developed in the pre-reading questions, during-reading tasks guide students to identify

important vocabulary and information. Tasks given while reading can help students

to navigate the potentially unfamiliar language of authentic texts. At this stage

students can also be made aware of mathematics vocabulary with multiple meanings.

Adams discusses identifying unknown terminology and words with multiple meanings

as integral parts of making sense of and reading mathematics. Among her suggestions

to address difficulties with mathematics vocabulary, Adams encourages instructing

students to “indicate the vocabulary they do not understand and collaborate in small

groups to discuss these terms and share their understanding of other terms” [1]. At

this point the instructor may guide students to seek information from additional

resources as necessary. We include in the during-reading stage mathematics tasks

such as analyzing data, selecting appropriate models or formulas, and performing

computations.

5.2.3 Post-reading

Post-reading tasks are those tasks requiring students communicate using the lan-

guage. In foreign language activities, this could be compositions, personal observa-

tions, or opinions about the topic at hand. Students can summarize the text or extend

the ideas presented to novel situations. This is also an opportunity for students to

discuss cultural and sociolinguistic themes present in the text [19].

30
 Task Category Example Tasks
Pre-reading Establish context expectation
Activate prior knowledge
During reading Confirm purpose of text
Analyze information
Identify unfamiliar or confusing language
Research additional information
Select appropriate models and formulas
Post-Reading Communicate Information
Reflect on learning
Extend knowledge

Table 5.1: Three part model for activities.

In most mathematics activities, the post-reading stage then allows students to

use the language of mathematics to synthesize and communicate information. Post-

reading activities include, but are not limited to, writing about the learning process

or explaining mathematical ideas. Writing in mathematics class allows students to

“reflect on their own learning and to explore, extend, and cement their ideas about

the mathematics they study” [6]. Other post-reading tasks include designing a model

for a situation, creating a visual display or preparing a report. These tasks attend to

discourse competence in mathematics, providing practice in formulating mathematical

arguments and communicating mathematically. A summary of the three stages of

mathematics tasks is given in Table 5.1.

31
 Chapter 6: Proposed Activities

In this section, we provide examples of activities utilizing authentic mathematics

texts. For each activity, we identify the corresponding authentic material, mathemat-

ical content, and a brief description of the activity. The activities are included in the

appendices.

6.1 Activity: Pizza

Authentic Material: The authentic texts used in this activity are pizza menus

from local pizza shops. These materials qualify as authentic texts since they were

originally created not for educational use, but to communicate information (pizza

prices). The menus have not been altered or edited for use in the activity.

Mathematical Content: This activity addresses proportional reasoning. In this

activity the students will:

• recognize and apply proportional reasoning in an authentic context

• compare areas of different geometric shapes

Summary In this activity, students investigate the pizza prices using menus from

local pizza shops. The pre-reading question asks students to consider whether pizza

32
prices should be proportional to the diameter of the pizza. Students then use a menu

to investigate how pizza really is priced. In the during-reading tasks, students exam-

ine different pricing scenarios, including pricing all sizes equally and comparing prices

to a competitor. A post-reading task in this activity asks students to give their rec-

ommendations for pricing. Another post-reading task is an extension where students

use geometry to determine the size of a square pizza that would be approximately

equal to a given circular pizza.

Part of the motivation for designing this activity was the following item given by

the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).

A pizzeria serves two round pizzas of the same thickness in different sizes.
The smaller one has a diameter of 30 cm and costs 30 zeds. The larger
one has a diameter of 40 cm and costs 40 zeds. Which pizza is better
value for money? Show your reasoning. [21]

The authors of this task describe how this item, set in a personal context, demon-

strates “every day terms from the real world [which] must be interpreted mathemati-

cally (round, same thickness, different sizes)” [21]. However, when actually purchasing

pizza, students rarely are given such explicit information in these terms. The unit

of currency is the imaginary zed, which PISA uses in some of its assessment items.

Authentic menus more accurately reflect how pizza prices are communicated outside

of the classroom. Furthermore, authentic data rarely involves such “nice” numbers

as those presented in the PISA item above. The activity “Pizza” provided here main-

tains the same learning goals as the PISA item above while providing students with

authentic uses of the mathematical language.

6.2 Activity: Television

33
Authentic Material: The data provided to the students in this activity is from

the web page “TV Size to Distance Calculator and Science” [11]. The purpose of this

web page is to communicate information much like the information students are asked

to communicate through this activity. This information can be used by individuals

purchasing televisions for their homes or interior designers determining the placement

of a client’s television.

Mathematical Content: The content of this activity includes proportional rea-

soning and trigonometric ratios. In this activity the students will:

• recognize and apply proportional reasoning in an authentic context

• use aspect ratios to determine width of a rectangle given the length of diagonal

• apply trigonometric ratios

Summary In this activity students use data for television sizes and a given angular

resolution to determine the ideal distance between the television and the viewer. The

first part of this activity serves as a set of pre-reading tasks, allowing students to

become familiar with angular resolution and aspect ratios. In the second part of the

activity includes both during-reading and post-reading tasks. Students use given tele-

vision size data to compute ideal distances and communicate their results graphically.

The final component of the activity, “Customers Talk,” has both during-reading and

post-reading components. Interpreting customer questions involves analyzing infor-

mation (during-reading), while responding to these questions involves communicating

information and extending knowledge (post-reading).

34
 The context in this activity, purchasing a television, is one with which students

likely will be able to relate. This activity situates mathematical concepts in such

a context, providing motivation for their use based on the context. The data table

provided to the student is identical to that which is found in the website mentioned

above, providing an authentic, unedited use of mathematical language.

6.3 Activity: Simpson’s Paradox

Authentic Material: The authentic text used in this activity is a portion of a

chapter from the book Math on Trial [26]. The text in the chapter used includes

data from the University of California. Each chapter in this book is devoted to a

real situation or court case in which mathematics was used, both accurately and

inaccurately. The authors provide a synopsis of each situation and a discussion of the

mathematics involved.

Mathematical Content: This activity addresses the interpretation of statistical

topics such as p-value and average values. In this activity the students will:

• describe the difference between mean and median of a data set

• identify the significance of p-value in a real world context

• analyze an authentic data set

• describe Simpson’s paradox and how it can occur

Summary In this activity students will investigate Simpson’s paradox as evidenced

from data from the University of California. The pre-reading tasks provided in the

activity allow students to activate prior knowledge of the mean and median of a

35
data set, which can be used in the analysis of the authentic data in the activity.

Students then read through the text in three parts, with questions following each

part. During-reading tasks involved in the first part require students to identify and

describe what is meant by the p-value. Other during-reading tasks require students

to scrutinize data to determine what is actually happening in the situation. Students

communicate information via verbal explanations and graphs. The final question

of the activity can serve as a post-reading task, asking students to generalize the

situation by determining when this paradox will occur.

The reading given in this activity embeds mathematical content within prose.

Although the reading is much more extensive than typically word problems, it presents

information in a format similar to a mystery novel, which could increase student

interest. In this activity, the students are guided to discuss how statistical information

can communicate meaning about a situation. Students can discuss how statistical

information in various societal and political contexts can communicate information.

6.4 Activity: Obesity

Authentic Material: The authentic text used in this activity is a portion of the

article “Will All Americans Become Overweight or Obese? Estimating the Progres-

sion and Cost of the the US Obesity Epidemic” [32]. The authors of the paper use

national survey data to predict the future prevalence of obesity. Students will also

use obesity and overweight statistics from the National Institutes of Health website.

Mathematical Content: This activity addresses applications of linear modeling.

In this activity the students will:

36
 • interpret patterns in data

• identify the affects of applying a linear model to data

• identify types of models appropriate to model given situations

Summary In the pre-reading task of this activity, students identify whether given

relationships are linear or not. This gives students an opportunity to investigate

different types of relationships. The during-reading questions in this activity ask

students to interpret the information given in the article. For the post-reading task,

students will describe what type of relationship they think should be used. At this

point, students will also look at more recent data and interpret the results.

In this activity, students discuss an authentic situation in which a mathemati-

cal model counters intuition. Students use their understanding of the situation to

interpret mathematical results. The text students read contains some technical, po-

tentially confusing language. Instructors can encourage students to identify unknown

vocabulary and use the context to infer possible meanings.

37
 Chapter 7: Conclusions and Future Work

7.1 Conclusions of Research

In many ways, mathematics can be thought of as a foreign language, with its own

unique terminology and symbol system. If mathematics is a language, then foreign

language instruction can inform mathematics instruction. In this paper, we consider

the possibility of developing a framework for mathematics education based on foreign

language education research and practices.

Foreign language researchers advocate for the use of authentic texts as a means

to increase communicative competence. We give definitions of mathematical com-

municative competence and authentic mathematics texts based on the corresponding

definitions in foreign language education research. We describe potential benefits for

the use of authentic texts in mathematics and offer a model for the use of authentic

texts in mathematics. Finally, we provide proposed activities using authentic texts.

One of the main goals of this paper is to encourage the use of authentic texts

as a means of developing mathematical communicative competence. In contrast to

the contrived texts provided in textbook tasks, authentic texts take advantage of

the natural ways in which mathematics is communicated outside of the classroom.

The use of authentic texts is consistent with research in situated cognition, which

38
advocates situating learning in natural, everyday contexts. In summary we echo the

words of O’Keeffe et al. in their description of authentic texts in language learning.

Our basic position is that for most pedagogic purposes in most contexts
of teaching and learning a language, it is preferable to have naturally-
occurring...examples than contrived or unreal examples, but always in the
context of freedom of choice and careful mediation by teachers and/or
materials writers who know their own local contexts [23]

. The activities we include in this paper are examples of ways to guide students

through these “naturally-occurring” mathematics texts.

7.2 Implementation of Proposed Activities

Further research is needed to determine the effect of activities incorporating au-

thentic texts, such as those included here. We hope to refine the activities included,

create more activities, and develop methods for assessing their use in classroom sce-

narios. We encourage instructors to look for ways to incorporate authentic mathe-

matics texts in the classroom. This can be done in multiple ways, whether as a part

of a weekly assignment, an extended project, or a motivating example in instruction.

As a part of implementation of authentic texts in the mathematics classroom, in-

structors would need to develop an assessment framework to use with these activities.

A linguistic model of mathematics does not come without its complications for assess-

ment. Assessing communicative competence can be a difficult task, even in language

courses, as “confusion about overall progress is made worse by the academic grading

system, which generally rewards discrete-point rule-learning rather than communica-

tive competence” [24]. In following the math as a foreign language hypothesis, we

can consider assessments which mirror assessments of a foreign language. This could

include more free response items, and diverse communicative tasks.

39
7.3 Implications of Mathematics as a Foreign Language

Considering the parallels between mathematics and language education can pro-

vide avenues for development of linguistically supported methods of instruction. In

this paper, we consider one method used in language education, using authentic

texts, and its analogous interpretation for mathematics education. Other methods in

language instruction could similarly be analyzed to inform mathematics instruction.

Wakefield discusses how various maxims of language learning can inform mathemat-

ics education [31]. Our discussion of communicative competence and authentic texts

addresses one of these maxims: Language must be taught in context. Future research

could elucidate the practical implications of the remaining maxims for mathematics

education. We give possibilities for further research on three remaining maxims of

particular interest.

Jump in deep water to learn to swim: cultural immersion gives the learner

no alternative but to learn. Language education supports immersion as a method

for language learning. Wakefield discusses how immersion is beneficial for multiple

learning styles, as it allows the learners to “experiment with the way(s) he or she

chooses to learn” [31]. In future research, we could investigate what practical ways

foreign language educators suggest for incorporating language immersion in classroom

contexts.

Learn to speak before learning to write. In everyday communication, “the end

of language is communication; the means is speech” [31]. When learning a second

language, students practice speaking the language prior to or in conjunction with

40
learning to write. However, mathematics education methods often place emphasis on

writing mathematics and focus little on encouraging proficiency in speaking mathe-

matics. Lack of proficiency to speak mathematics could indicate a lack of conceptual

understanding. For example, students may say “f x” for the function f evaluated at

x or “three square root” for the cubic root. Both of these occurrences may signify

that the student is incorrectly interpreting the situation as indicating multiplication.

Further research can focus on methods foreign language educators use to solidify the

connection between speaking and writing language and the types foreign language

educators use to develop written and oral communication skills.

Second-language fluency involves intuitive thinking. Intuitive thinking in

language involves being able to “intuit meaning and structure” [31]. Intuitive think-

ing is undoubtedly part of mathematical proficiency. However, this mathematical

intuition may not be something that is easy to teach. Research on the ways foreign

language educators encourage the development of intuitive thinking in language could

inform methods for mathematics instruction aimed toward similar goals.

Expanding upon these questions and other principles of foreign language education

can help to develop and refine a framework for teaching mathematics as a foreign

language. We hope that such a framework can inform mathematics education in this

ever more connected Information Age in which communication, via mathematics and

language, is of utmost importance.

41
 Appendix A: List of Authentic Texts

Here we provide a list of some authentic texts that can be used in mathematics

instruction.

• Advertisements
• Bank Statements
• Blueprints
• Data sets
• Financial Documents
• Floor Plans
• Historical Mathematics Texts
• Maps
• Mathematics Novels
• Mathematics journals
• Menus
• News Articles
• Periodicals
• Receipts
• Recipes

42
 Appendix B: Pizza

B.1 Pricing Investigation

You have been hired by Hounddog’s Pizza to assist with price analysis. Before

beginning, answer the following question.

Problem 1. If the diameter of a pizza doubles from the original (smaller) pizza,

should the price double? Explain.

Pricing Investigation Begins The owners wants you to investigate some different

pricing scenarios. For each problem below, provide all your calculations and any

necessary explanation.

You will be using the menu for the pizza shop provided here:

http://www.hounddogspizza.com/menu/

Your task is to help analyze the prices found in the left column of the menu for pizza

with Smokin’ Joes crust. Begin by answering some questions about the current prices.

Problem 2. Which size of cheese pizza is the best deal?

Problem 3. How much is the pizza shop currently charging for each topping? Do

these prices makes sense or would you recommend a change?

43
Problem 4. What would the prices be if all sizes of cheese pizza are the same deal

as the 1200 size?

44
B.2 Competition

Recently an article was published in which your pizza shop was ranked #21, right

behind #20 Dante’s Pizza. The owner of your pizza shop wants to do some analysis

of the competitor’s prices. The menu for Dante’s Pizza is found here:

http://dantespizzainc.com/columbus-oh-pizza.htm.

Answer the following questions about Dante’s Pizza.

Problem 5. Which size of cheese pizza is the best deal?

Problem 6. About how much is the pizza shop currently charging for each topping?

Do these prices make sense?

Problem 7. What would the prices for cheese pizza at your pizza shop be if you used

pricing comparable to Dante’s Pizza?

Problem 8. Despite the article writer’s opinion, you and your owners still think

you’re better than Dante’s Pizza. Use pricing comparable to Dante’s Pizza (as in the

problem above), but include a 2% increase. What are the revised cheese pizza prices?

Problem 9. What are your recommendations for the pricing? Should all the pizza

sizes be priced equally? Should the pizza shop adopt prices similar to Dante’s Pizza?

45
B.3 Don’t Cut Corners

You have done some excellent work in pricing analysis for the pizza shop! They

have come to you for some more help.

Problem 10. Square pizzas are becoming more the rage these days. After all that

pricing analysis, the pizza shop does not want to create new prices for square cheese

pizzas. Using the sizes from the original menu, what size should the square pizzas be

if they are going to be approximately the same size (same price) as the corresponding

circular pizzas? Explain your answer.

Problem 11. The pizza shop will likely want to analyze prices again, so they have

asked you to give a summary of your work that can be given to future analysts. Your

summary should include the following

a. Give a summary of the processes you used to compare and analyze prices.

b. Describe some key ideas you would want another analyst to know.

46
 Backyard Dog (Veggie Lovers)

47
 Columbus, OH Pizza
Dante's Pizza

© 2017 hibu,Inc. (http://hibu.com/) All Rights Reserved | Privacy Policy (http://www.yellowbook.com/privacy­policy/)

48
 Appendix C: Television

C.1 Getting Started

When purchasing a television, what is the ideal size to purchase? One way to

investigate this question is to consider how far the television will be from the viewer.

You have been hired by a technology company to help create an informative web

page that will communicate to customers the relationship between television size and

distance.

Angular Resolution Angular resolution of the human eye describes the ability of

the eye to distinguish between objects in space separated by an angular distance. The
1
basic resolution of the human eye is about one arcminute, which is equal to of a
60
degree. A person with this visual accuracy can distinguish between pixels that are
1
of a degree apart.
60

Problem 12. Using the angular resolution described above, determine the number of

pixels per degree, x. Determine the viewing angle, A, (in degrees) needed to achieve

49
this angular resolution.

Problem 13. If the person moves closer to the television, the viewing angle will

increase. Determine the number of pixels per degree, y, in the following situation

Why could this cause issues for the viewer?

Aspect Ratio The aspect ratio of an image is the ratio of the width to the height.

Answer the following questions about aspect ratios.

Problem 14. The television resolutions of 1080p and 720p describe the vertical pixels.

Use the aspect ratio of 16:9 to determine the horizontal pixels for these two resolutions.

Problem 15. Suppose you are viewing a program that was originally recorded with

the aspect ratio 4:3 on your television that has an aspect ratio of 16:9. How would

this affect the image?

50
C.2 How Far?

For your assignment, you are given the following information about televisions

your company sells.

Use this information to complete the following for both 1080p and 720p resolutions.

51
 Size Distance (1080p) Distance (720p)
32
37
42
46
50
55
60
65
70
75

Problem 16. For each size, determine the ideal distance (in inches) from which a

television should be viewed. Assume the angular resolution of one arcminute given

above. You only need to consider the horizontal resolution.

Problem 17. Use the values you determined above to graph the distances for each

television size. Graph the information for both resolutions on the same axes (given

below).
240
220
200
Distance (inches)

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
32 37 42 46 50 55 60 65 70 75
Size (inches)

Problem 18. In addition to the graph you provided, your company wants you to

provide an easy way for customers to estimate the distance without having to look

52
up the graph each time. Given the size of their television (including sizes not on the

original list), how can customers easily estimate the distance? Explain.

53
C.3 Customers Talk

Problem 19. Your company includes your table, graph, and method of estimation

on their web page. After the web page is posted, customers are able to comment with

questions. Write a brief (one-two sentence) answer to each of the following customer

questions.

• What is the minimum and maximum distance for a 40” 1080p HD TV? I find

7.8 FT too close in my room.

• I will be sitting seven feet away and am thinking of buying a 50 inch TV. Does

that size/distance sound good?

• My living room is 25’ long. Which is the best sized TV for that distance? I was

thinking a 70 inch 1080p. In your opinion, will that make for good picture?

• Couple questions: 1) What is the optimal height on the wall for a 70 and 75

inch TV? 2) What is the optimal distance in feet from a 70 and 75 inch TV?

• I have a long rectangular room, which is 22ft by 12ft and has the TV in one cor-

ner. My lounge occupies two thirds of the length of the room, with the remaining

third being the dining table/area. My current TV is an old-style 42 inch TV

with a thick two inch bezel, but I am looking to go bigger. I like the 46” with

thin bezel, but have found that the outer measurements are exactly the same as

my existing TV, and am therefore thinking that I wont be able to distinguish

much difference. The closest sofa to the TV is about five feet away, and the

furthest sofa is 14 feet away. The dining table is 18 feet away, although 90% of

54
 the viewing is done in the lounge. Which size TV is best - 46 or 50, given the

close proximity of the nearest sofa?

• What do you think would the best choice, considering I will watch both 720P

and 1080p video on my TV (Blu-ray will be in 1080p but Videotron will be in

720p)? Will it be better to choose 720p and lose the detail in 1080p or to choose

the 1080p optimal size but see the pixels in 720p?

Problem 20. As a part of the creation of the web page, your boss asks you to sum-

marize your work. This summary will be helpful for other employees working with the

web page. Provide an explanation addressing each of the following.

a. How did you determine the distances given above?

b. How can customers use the graph and the factor you provided?

c. What mathematics was involved in this process?

1
The data and customer comments above are from the following website:
http://www.rtings.com/tv/reviews/by-size/size-to-distance-relationship

55
 Appendix D: Simpson’s Paradox

D.1 An Average Investigation

Problem 21. In your group, take the following poll:

Do you prefer cats or dogs?

Use the data from within your group to give an estimate of whether the entire

class prefers cats or dogs.

Problem 22. Explain what is meant by the mean, median, and mode of a set.

Problem 23. Give a set of data consisting of 6 values (not all equal!) such that the

mean, median, and mode are all equal. Plot your data in some reasonable way.

Problem 24. Give a set of data consisting of 6 values such that the mean is larger

than both the median and mode which are equal. Plot your data in some reasonable

way.

Problem 25. Give a set of data consisting of 6 values such that the mode is larger

than both the mean and median. Plot your data in some reasonable way.

Problem 26. Suppose you’re analyzing the average of a recent exam. Explain why

using the median is best for exam analysis.

56
D.2 Numbers Don’t Lie

You will be investigating a scandal which arose in the 1970’s at the University of

California, Berkeley. The text you will be reading is in three parts.

Read Part 1 and answer the following.

Problem 27. What do you think are some possible causes for the apparent gender

bias in admitted students?

Problem 28. The text gives a description of p-value on page 216:

The number that gives the probability of such a skewed result happening
naturally in a pool where everyone has equal chances is called the p-value.

On page 117, we see the following statement:

The p-value is the probability that you will select at least 3, 738 black mar-
bles and at most 1, 494 white ones.

Explain how these two descriptions of p-values are related.

Problem 29. Why is it important to determine the p-value?

57
D.3 Digging Deeper

Now, read Part 2 and complete the following.

Problem 30. Imagine you have joined the committee responsible for this investiga-

tion. You are preparing notes for discussion at the next committee meeting. Make a

list of some possible causes for the apparent discrepancy between the aggregate statis-

tics and the individual department statistics. If there is no gender bias, what is

actually happening?

Problem 31. In order to help the committee, you want to make some graphs that

might elucidate the situation. Create the following scatter plot graphs using the given

axes. Include both men and women on the same graph, but clearly distinguish these

points (i.e. with different colors) and provide a legend.

a. Percent Accepted by Department (include the mean and median values)

100
90
80
Percent Admitted

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
A B C D E F an n
me edia
m
Department

b. Number Applied by Department (include mean and median)

58
 900
800
700

Number Applied
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
A B C D E F an n
me edia
m
Department

c. Number Admitted by Department (include mean and median)

Number Admitted

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
A B C D E F an n
me edia
m
Department

Explain what this information demonstrates.

59
D.4 Resolution

Read Part 3 and complete the following.

Problem 32. Describe the paradox in your own words. Can you explain when this

will happen?

Problem 33. Recall the data you used in your dogs vs. cats survey from “Statistics

Don’t Lie.” Create a set of dog vs. cat survey data (you can make up the values)

which demonstrates Simpson’s paradox. Explain how you determined what values to

use. Explain why this is a case of Simpson’s paradox.

Problem 34. Can you think of any other real world situations in which this paradox

could arise?

60
 Part 1
1 of 3

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 115.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=128
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

61
 Part 1
(2 of 3)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 116.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=129
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

62
 Part 1
(3 of 3)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 117.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=130
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

63
 Part 2
(1 of 3)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 117.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=130
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

64
 Part 2
(2 of 3)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 118.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=131
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

65
 Part 2
(3 of 3)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 119.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=132
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

66
 Part 3
(1 of 2)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 119.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=132
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

67
 Part 3
(2 of 2)

Schneps, Leila; Colmez, Coralie. Math on Trial : How Numbers Get Used and Abused in the Courtroom.
New York, NY, USA: Basic Books, 2013. p 120.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mcgill/Doc?id=10665296&ppg=133
Copyright © 2013. Basic Books. All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
copyright law.

68
 Appendix E: Obesity

E.1 Data Dependence

Problem 35. Determine if the following relationships are linear.

a. Money invested in a bank over time (using compound interest).

b. Exam score depending on amount of time studied.

c. The value of a car over time.

d. The price of gas over time.

e. Price of television depending on the size.

f. The area of a circular pizza depending on the diameter.

Problem 36. Consider the relationships above that you determined were not linear.

How might you describe these relationships? (Graphing the relationships could be

helpful.)

69
E.2 Reading Between the Lines

Applying linear models to data can be a powerful tool that allows us to make

predictions about future values. However, as with any model, we want to make sure

our predictions are reasonable. You will be investigating data from an article that

attempts to use a linear model to answer the question “Will all Americans become

overweight or obese?”

Problem 37. Read the abstract and the result section of the included paper. Do these

results make sense to you? Explain.

Problem 38. According to the graph, 100% of US adults will be obese before 100%

of men. Why is this statement misleading and inaccurate? What might actually be

happening?

70
E.3 What’s the Curve?

Problem 39. If the relationship is not linear, what might the graph of obesity preva-

lence with respect to time look like? Explain.

Problem 40. Some more recent statistics on weight and obesity can be found here:

https: // www. niddk. nih. gov/ health-information/ health-statistics/ Pages/

overweight-obesity-statistics. aspx# b .

In this information we see the graph below. What does this graph show?

Problem 41. What are some other relationships that may be “falsely linearlized”?

Problem 42. One of your friends, who is not in your math class, overheard you

talking about an obesity article and wants to know what that it is all about. Provide

a summary of your work for your friend.

71
nature publishing group ARTICLES
EPIDEMIOLOGY

Will All Americans Become Overweight or

Obese? Estimating the Progression and Cost
of the US Obesity Epidemic
Youfa Wang1, May A. Beydoun1, Lan Liang2, Benjamin Caballero1 and Shiriki K. Kumanyika3

We projected future prevalence and BMI distribution based on national survey data (National Health and Nutrition
Examination Study) collected between 1970s and 2004. Future obesity-related health-care costs for adults were
estimated using projected prevalence, Census population projections, and published national estimates of per
capita excess health-care costs of obesity/overweight. The objective was to illustrate potential burden of obesity
prevalence and health-care costs of obesity and overweight in the United States that would occur if current trends
continue. Overweight and obesity prevalence have increased steadily among all US population groups, but with
notable differences between groups in annual increase rates. The increase (percentage points) in obesity and
overweight in adults was faster than in children (0.77 vs. 0.46–0.49), and in women than in men (0.91 vs. 0.65). If these
trends continue, by 2030, 86.3% adults will be overweight or obese; and 51.1%, obese. Black women (96.9%) and
Mexican-American men (91.1%) would be the most affected. By 2048, all American adults would become overweight
or obese, while black women will reach that state by 2034. In children, the prevalence of overweight (BMI r 95th
percentile, 30%) will nearly double by 2030. Total health-care costs attributable to obesity/overweight would double
every decade to 860.7–956.9 billion US dollars by 2030, accounting for 16–18% of total US health-care costs. We
continue to move away from the Healthy People 2010 objectives. Timely, dramatic, and effective development and
implementation of corrective programs/policies are needed to avoid the otherwise inevitable health and societal
consequences implied by our projections.

Obesity (2008) 16, 2323–2330. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.351

INTRODUCTION 78.5 billion US dollars (10). Expenditures will continue to rise

Obesity has become a public health crisis in the United States. particularly due to the increases in obesity prevalence and in
Nationally representative survey data show that the prevalence the cost of related health care (11).
has steadily increased over the past three decades although This study aims to provide a thorough analysis to illustrate
there are large disparities between population groups and con- potential future trends in obesity and the related health-care
tinuing changes in the associated patterns (1–3). Current evi- costs were current trends to continue, based on nationally rep-
dence suggests that the prevalence is likely to remain on the resentative survey data collected over the past three decades, to
rise (1,4,5), and it will not be possible to meet the objectives characterize the need for national polices and programs. Such
set for Healthy People 2010 of reducing obesity prevalence information will help the United States and perhaps other pol-
in adults to 15% and in children to 5% (6). Obesity has many icy makers, health professionals, and the general public to be
health, social, psychological, and economic consequences for better prepared to face the related challenges, and motivate the
the individuals being affected and for the society (7). The cur- development of public health and clinical programs to address
rent US generation may have a shorter life expectancy than the obesity epidemic in order to avoid the many adverse health
their parents if this obesity epidemic cannot be controlled (8). and social consequences that will otherwise ensue.
The economic impact is especially evident in health-care costs
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
(9–13). A recent study estimated that medical expenditures Overview
attributed to overweight and obesity accounted for 9.1% of Our projection analyses were based on prevalence data from the
total US medical expenditures in 1998 and might have reached National Health and Nutrition Examination Study (NHANES)

1
Center for Human Nutrition, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; 2Center for Financing,
Access and Cost Trends, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, Maryland, USA; 3Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of
Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Correspondence: Youfa Wang (ywang@jhsph.edu)
Received 8 January 2008; accepted 15 March 2008; published online 24 July 2008. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.351

OBESITY | VOLUME 16 NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2008 2323

72
ARTICLES
EPIDEMIOLOGY

Table 1 Average annual increase in prevalence of obesity and overweight among US adults and children and future projections
based on NHANES 1976–1980 to 2003–2004 (Continued)
Average annual increase Prevalence projections: prevalence (%)
(percentage points) (OLS) and projection interval
Current
Age Gender Ethnicity (1999–2004) Rate (β) s.e. R2 2010 2020 2030
Adolescents, Boys and All 17.4 0.492 0.016 0.99 21.1 (19.7–22.5) 26.0 (24.4–27.6) 31.0 (29.2–32.8)
12–19 years girls
Boys All 18.3 0.528 0.018 0.99 21.1 (19.3–22.8) 26.4 (24.4–28.4) 31.6 (29.0–34.1)
Overweight Girls All 16.4 0.449 0.022 0.98 18.8 (17.2–20.4) 23.3 (21.5–25.0) 27.8 (25.4–30.1)
(BMI r 95th
Boys Non-Hispanic 19.1 0.526 0.108 0.88 20.0 (13.9–26.1) 25.2 (17.9–32.4) 30.5 (21.5–39.5)
percentile)a
white
Non-Hispanic 18.5 0.537 0.129 0.85 22.1 (14.8–29.3) 27.4 (18.8–36.0) 32.8 (22.2–43.4)
black
Mexican 18.3 0.589 0.226 0.69 25.3 (12.7–37.8) 31.2 (16.1–46.3) 37.1 (18.5–55.7)
American
Girls Non-Hispanic 15.4 0.391 0.058 0.94 16.9 (13.7–20.0) 20.8 (16.9–24.7) 24.7 (20.0–29.4)
white
Non-Hispanic 25.4 0.581 0.096 0.92 29.5 (24.2–35.8) 35.3 (28.8–41.8) 41.1 (33.3–48.9)
black
Mexican 14.1 0.36* 0.154 0.64 20.4 (11.8–29.0) 24.0 (13.6–34.4) 27.6 (14.8–40.3)
American
Ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regression models included prevalence as a function of time as the independent variable. The β coefficients can be interpreted as the
annual change in prevalence. Note that time periods for each National Health and Nutrition Examination Study (NHANES) survey (1976–2004) were represented by the
mid-point of the survey period. For Mexican American, only NHANES data collected between 1988 and 2004 were adequate and used in our projection. The projections
were conducted assuming no population distribution changes regarding age, sex, and ethnicity after 2004. Prediction intervals were estimated after estimating the predicted
projection s.e. for each projection year. 95% confidence intervals were estimated as predicted prevalence ± 1.96 × s.e.
a
Based on the 2000 CDC Growth Charts.
*P > 0.05 for null hypothesis that β = 0; all the others P < 0.05.

All analyses were conducted using STATA Release 9.0. We have con- a 100 Overweight and obesity (BMI ≥ 25)
b100 Obesity (BMI
30)
sidered other projection methods, but felt the presented approaches are Observed Projected Observed Projected
95
appropriate and provide straightforward and interpretable results. Our 90
90
linear models had excellent fit as shown by the high R2 values. Our pro- 85
80
jected results based on year-specific prevalence (linear models) and those 80 70
based on BMI distribution are consistent. Even though prediction inter- 75
60
vals were estimated in our study, literal prediction of the future scenario in 70
the United States would be affected by many possible uncertainties includ-
%

50
%

65
ing policy-, environmental-, and behavioral changes that would require 60 40

many more assumptions and more complex models than were applied 55 All 30 All

here. Rather we aimed to show in a relatively straightforward manner 50 Men

20
Men
Women Women
what the future would be if the trends observed in the past continue. 45
10
40
35 0
RESULTS 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 2070 2090 2110
Year Year
Projected prevalence of overweight and obesity from
2010 to 2030 Figure 1 Prevalence of obesity and overweight among US
On average, the prevalence of overweight and obesity has adults: Observed during 1976–2004 and projected. The projected
increased steadily among all US population groups over the prevalence presented here are those based on our linear regression
models.
past two to three decades (P < 0.05), but some noticeable dif-
ferences exist in the average annual increase (percentage point) of increase overall; and in men, the prevalence was similar, but
across sex-, age-, and ethnic groups (Table 1 and Figure 1). white men had the highest increase rate. The patterns in chil-
In general, US adults saw a faster increase in obesity than the dren and adolescents were complex.
increase in overweight in children and adolescents (0.68 vs. Our projection models show that by the year 2030, ~90%
0.46 and 0.49, respectively); women had a faster increase than (86.3%) of all American adults would become overweight or
men (0.91 vs. 0.65 for combined prevalence of overweight and obese and 51.1% of them would be obese. Black women (com-
obesity). Girls had a slower increase in overweight than boys bined prevalence 96.9%) and MA men (91.1%) would be the
(0.41 vs. 0.49 in children and 0.45 vs. 0.53 in adolescents). groups most affected. In children and adolescents, prevalence
White men and women had the highest increase rate in the of overweight would increase 1.6-fold (to ~30%) by 2030. MA
combined prevalence, compared with African Americans and young boys and black adolescent girls would have the highest
Mexican Americans (MAs), within gender. Regarding obesity, prevalence (both 41.1%), a level that would be 10 percentage
African-American women had the highest prevalence and rate points higher than the national average. Further, the prevalence

2326 VOLUME 16 NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2008 | www.obesityjournal.org

73
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