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328 views39 pagesModule 2 Physics Part 2
Uploaded by
Paulius KarūžaCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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/ 39
eh etloray
Bolte auras
SUB-MODULE 03
PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS
cemmosnoncareaonr= |B) B2.
Seh-Module 03
THERMODYNAMICS
Kaowledge Requirements
2.5 Thermodynamics
@ Temperature thermometers nd temperature sees: Celia, 2
Fahrenheit and Kelvin; Hea definion;
®
Hest apa specif eat
Heat ranser: omvecson, radiation and condution;
Volumetric expansion;
Fist and second la of thermedyoamis,
Gnes ideal gases avs specific heat constant volume and constant presse, wok done by
expanding gx;
Isothermal, adiabatic expansion and compres
prose, refigertct and het pamps,
Laret heas of fision and evapeatic, thermal energy, hea of cmbaton,
22 engin yes, constant volume and constant
Les?
‘ral tools te otal ad pti ap the et
Enlil ar ng.
Ont
(Tesla sl bse etn eat
nto fe ie
(0) Bespca eabo geee erpin
sj ug peepee
(© Themen sles tue cena ere
Aeseron ih pee ne sb ates
en ede end et
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rent ung ele cei
edule 02 Phylee a4
Tnewoorantes THERMODYNAMICS
‘Dermedynamics ie the branch of physical scence that
"se
Volume 1 x Pressure 1» Volume 2 « resure 2
oR
vps
Pa
Example: 10 fof nitrogen ie under a pressure of 500
pa. the volume is reduced to7€, what wll the new
pressure be?
vari « vae2
10(500)=_7(P2)
10(500) +7= P2
P= 714.29 psia
‘The wefl applications of Boyle's law are many and
‘aed. Some splition more common to witon ae
the eaton diode (CO) bore wed inflate lie
raft and life vests (2) the compeesied oxygen and the
etlene tanks wd in welding) the competed aie
bakes and sbock absorbers and (8) che use of exygen
tanks forhigh ata fying ad emergency we
CHARLES' LAW
“The Feench scent Jacques Chases, provided much of
“the foundation forthe moder kinetic theory of gases,
He found that all gases expand and contact in dvcce
proportion (othe chang inthe absolute temperature,
Provided the pressures bel constant.
edt 2 roe
‘As formula, this wis shown a8 follows:
Volume 1 x Absolute Temperature
‘Absolute Temperature 1
(Charles aw also works if the volume is held constant,
tnd pressure and temperature ae the variables Tn this
«ase, the formula would be as follows
PyT2=PaTI
For this second formula, presure and temperature mast
be in the absolute,
Example: A 15 £@ cylinder of oxygen is at temperture
(of 70°F anda pressure of 750 pag. The cylinders placed
in the sun and the temperature of the oxygen increases
oH0'F,
‘What would be the new pressure in pig?
70 degrees Fahrenheit» 530 degrees Rankine
140 degres Fahrenheit » 600 degrees Rankine
1764.7 (600) =P2 (530)
P2= 76437 (600) + 530
P2= 8657 psa
P2=851 pig
GENERAL GAS LAW
By combining Boyle's and Charles! laws, a single
‘expression canbe derived which state athe information
‘contained in both. The formula which is uted to express
the general gas lai follows:
Pressure 1 (Volume 1) __Presure 2 (Volume 2)
“Tempensture 1 "Tempenture 2
‘When using the general gas law formal, temperature
and pressure must be in the absolute.
3x9
“TrerwoornaMics Example 20 6 of the gas argon it compressed ro 15 fe
“The gat sat out ta temperarre of "Panda pressure
‘of 1 000 psig. After being compressed, its temperature =
90°F. What would is new peessure bein psigh
60 degsees Fahrenheit» 520 degrees Rankine
90 degrees Fahrenheit» 550 degrees Rankine
1000 psig + 14.7 = 1014.7 pai
Pa vip (12) =P (V2 CT)
10147 20) (50) = P2 (15) (520)
201431 pala
P2= 14163 pig
DALTON'S LAW
fa mincure of two oc more gies that do not combine
chemically is placed ina container, each gas expands
throughout the total «pace and the abrolute pressure of.
cach gas is reduced toa lower value, called its partial
presse. This reduction is in accordance with Boyle's
Jaw. The pressure of the mixed gases is equal the sum
WORK AND EXPANDING GASES.
‘Work canbe done by expanding gas In fet, this show
nergy fuel is extracted in internal combustion engines,
“The felis combined with sir snd burned. he expanding
«gaze from combustion in a eiprocating engine act upon
the pistons forcing them downward, This rotates the
srankshaft through the connecting rods. The rotating
czankshaft turns the propeller. In a turbine engine, the
‘expanding gues from combustion are divected through
the turbine wheels. This rorates the engine shaft with
the remaining ga pressoe expelled rearward w produce
thrust in the forward direction.
In an adiabatic, of isolated system, when work is
performed by expanding gases, the volume thatthe gases
occupy increases bu there isa corresponding decrease
in temperature and pressure. With no energy added to
ENGINE CYCLES
CONSTANT VOLUME,
“The yee through which a reciprocating engine opertes
fe known ae the Otto cycle It constant volume
cycle owing to a constant volume of fuel air mixture
being burned during each cycle (2 revolutions ofthe
crankshaf). Consider the diagram in Figure 3-16.
an
of the partial presnures. This fact was discovered by
Dalton, an Englioh physicist, and is set forth in Dalton’
law: A mine of wecral aut abich dont reac chemically
xtrts a precure equal the sum of the presures which the
sever gates would exert eparately feach were alae to
cp the entre space alone at tegen temperate”
IDEAL GAS LAW
“The ideal gas law ie ured to deteribe che este of a gt
under a given set of conditions such a8 temperature,
pressure, and volume. Scientists and designers use this
fora thorough analysis ofthe behavior of gases. The lw
sssumes that gaes are ideal, chat is that the molecules
tre perfectly uniform and simply collide with exch other
but do not interact. I considers all of the enexgy 9 be
the kinetic energy of the molecules bouncing of each
other, Therefore, ny change in energy within the system
also changes the temperare. Thi does not o¢ is ot
sctually te cae when working with ral gases.
the system since i it adiabatic, the values of pressure,
temperature and volume could be calculated using
the general gue formula shown above. Ifthe gases are
compresied instead of expanded, the phenomenon would
revere, A smaller volume would inerease the pressure of
‘he ga and inerease the temperature ofthe gas.
‘An isothermal system is one ia which temperature
remains the same. When regarding expanding gases
in auch a aystem, the pressure and volume must vary
inversely teach other. As volume increases (pansion
(of the gas), the pressure of the gas must decrease,
‘Again, the oppoite would hold that ithe volume of the
[ger decreases the pressure of the gases increase in an
isothermal stem,
Ik shows a PV (pressure-volume) graph of atypical 4
sroke, Oreo yee engin. The cycle begins at the point
labeled 1, This is the beginning of che intake suoke of
the cycle, Both the volime and the preseure ace at «
minimum near atmospheric pressure. Between points
1 and 2, the piston is drawn out of the cylinder and
the volume of air at atmospheric pressure increasee
ce 2 Phys ‘Gonvastin Process
nak stroke
Aw
Constant vue Process
Acetate Process
- Power sake
ee
teat rotn
>a
Bitast sake
v
Faure 2.16. Costant vole engineer aces neal conten erie.
ts the suction caused by drawing the piston out of
the cylinder pulls che fuel-sir mixture into it, The
compzesion stroke begins at point 2.The piston rises
‘up in the cylinder reducing the volume but increasing
the pressure ofthe gue charge significantly. At point
3 on the graph, the intake valve andthe exhaust valve
are closed. A constant volume of gas is held in the
‘combustion chamber as «spack from the spark plug,
gtes the mixture
For theshort duration tha the ful-sir charge ie burned,
the volume remains constant but the energy released by
burning the fuel causes sharp inereate in pressure
(Grom points 3 to 4). The constant volume portion of
the cycle ends when the piston paste top dead center
inthe cylinder and che power stroke begins at point 4
Between points 4 and 5, the pressure ftom the burned
fuel-sir mixture pushes the piston down transferring
‘mechanical energy to the rotating crankshaft in the
process. At point 5, the eshaut valve opens. Quickly,
the pressures reduced to atmospheric between points 5
and 6, Residual hears given off and during the exhaust
stroke berween points 6 and 1, che piston moves back
into the cylinder pushing all of the exhaust gus out thas
returning the volume (and pressure) in the engine to
‘thcie minimum vaucs wo begin the cycle agin,
Notice that there is an area on the graph created by
sraphing the cycle. This presents the work done by
the engine. For the purposes ofthis discussion, no
Mote 2 Pryce
accommodations have been made forthe inelficiencies
Inherited in engine operation duc to heat los and fiction,
“The actual wotk done by the engine would appear on the
‘raph asa smaller area if these loses were included.
CONSTANT PRESSURE
A constant pressure engine eyele occurs in a turbine
engine. The Brayton cycle is the name given to the
thermodynamic cycle ofa gue tubine engine to produce
thrust This is 2 variable volume conetant- presse cyle
of events and is commonly calle the constant pressure
cycle, A more secent term is “continuous combustion
cycle." The four continuous snd constant events are
lntake, compression, expansion (includes power), and
‘exhaust These eyles are discussed as they apply to a
sg1e-turbine engine
In the incake eyele, aic enters at ambient pressure
and a constant volume. It leaves the intake at an
increased pressure and a decrease in volume. At the
‘compressor section, ait i received from the intake at an
Increased pressure, slightly above ambient and slight
decrease in volume. Air enters the compressor where
itis compressed. Ie leaves the compressor witha large
Increase in pressure and decrease in volume, created by
the mechanical action of the comprestor. The next step
‘expansion, takes place inthe combustion chamber by
burning ful, which expands the air by heating it
316
‘Hemwoownames: “The presaure remains relatively conitant, but a marked
increase in volume takes place, The expanding gases
move rearward through the turbine assembly and are
converted from velocity energy to mechanical energy by
the turbine, The exhaust section, which isa convergent
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
“The term beat of combuaton refers tothe energy released
as heat when the fuel sir mixture i burned in an
internal combustion engine. Theis a theoretical value
that ean be calculated and is characteristic for exch
THERMAL ENERGY
[All matter not existing at absolute zero temperature
hha thermal energy. The extent of vibration or internal
‘movement of the molecules of a substance is actually
what is refered to as thermal energy. Usa, thermal
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Any study of engines and power involves consideration
of heat asthe source of power. The heat produced by
the burning of gasoline in the cylinders causes rapid
expansion of the gases in the eylinder, and this, in
tum, moves the pistons and eretes mechanical energy.
Te hat long been knovtn that mechanical work ean be
converted into heat and that a given amount of heat
contains the energy equivalent ofa certain amount
of mechanical work. Heat and work are theoretically
Ierchangeable an bear a fixed relation to each other
Heat can therefore be measused in work units (for
example, felt) as well asin heat units. The British
thermal unit (BTU) of heat isthe quantity of heat
required to rig the temperature of 1 pound of water by
1° eis equivalent ro 778 feb of mechanical work. A
pound of petroleum fuel, when burned srith enough aie
to consume it completely (heat of combustion, gives up
bout 20 000 BTU, the equivalent of 15 560.000 fel
‘of mechanical work. These quantities express the heat
‘nergy of the fuel in heat and work units, respectively.
‘The ratio of useful work done by an engine tothe hest
nergy ofthe fuel ituze,expested in work or het unis,
is called the thermal efficiency ofthe engine. If two
similar engines use equal amount of fuel, the engine
that converts into work che greater par ofthe enexgy in
the Fuel (higher thermal efficiency) delivers the grenter
duct, converts the expanding volume and decreasing
pressure ofthe gases toa final high velocity. The foree
‘rete inside the engine to ep this cycle continuous
hasan equal and opposite reaction (rust) to move the
seca forwad,
particular compound of fuel, Heat of combustion is
typically measured in mege-joules per kilogram or in
BTUs pec pound
‘energy i regued for an entre body or ester. Therefore
itis not the same as temperature. A cup of boiling water,
fo eximple, would contain less thermal energy than &
swimming pool fll of water t 25 °C.
amount of power. Furthermore, the engine that has the
higher thermal efficiency hus las waste hea wo digpose
of tthe vale, cylinders, pistons and cooling system
of the engine. A high thermal efiiency also means
low specific fuel consumption and, therefoe less fuel
fora fight ofa given distance ta given power. Thus,
the practical importance of «high thermal efficiency
threefold, and itcontirates one of the most desirable
fearaces in the performance of an sreraft engine.
(OF te tora hear produced, 25 t0 30 percent is wiized
for power ouput, 15 r0 20 percent is ost in cooling (heat
radiated from cylinder head fn} 5 t0 10 percents lestia
overcoming fieton of moving parts and 40 45 percent
is ose through the ezhaust. Anything that increases the
heat content going into mechanical work onthe piston,
‘which reduces the fiction and pumping losses, or which
reduce the quantity of unburned ficl or the heat lost to
the engine pars increases the thermal efficiency.
‘The portion ofthe total heat of combustion thats rurned
{nto mechanical wrk depends toa great extent por the
compression miti. The compression ratio isthe rato of.
‘the piston displacement plas combustion chamber space
to the combustion chamber space, as mentioned elie
(Other things being equal, the higher the compresion
‘tia ithe large the proportion af ch heat energy of
Mosse 02- Pics ‘combustion turned into useful work atthe crankshafi,
On the other hand, increasing the compression ratio
increases the cylinder head temperature. This is a
limiting factor because the extemely high temperature
created by high compression ratios causes the material
in the cylinder to deteriorate rapidly andthe fuel to
detonate instead of burning ata controlled eae
‘The thermal efficiency of an engine may be based
on either bhp or indicated horsepower (ihp) and is
represented by the formula
ih » 33.000
Weight of Pal Burnednin, x Feat Vale 778
“The formula for brake thermal efficiency isthe sume as
shown above, except the valve for bhp is inserted instead
ofthe vale fo hp
REFRIGERATION
Previously, che second law of thermal dynamics stated
tha heat energy always flows from high energy to low
energy of, from hot t cold. Since ths is the cate, a
‘means for manipulating this and other natu laws of
‘nergy transfer must be usd inorder to cool something.
Refrigeration i uch a means.
An sir conditioning system, for example cool the exbin
of an aircraft on a hot day. Since the elevated ambient
temperature outside the aircraft is what eaused the abn
tobe hotin the fist plac, simply moving the cabin sir
outsides not solution. The replacement aie comes fom
ambient air which is known to be too hot.
Vapor cycle airconditioning i wed on older transport
category airraft and on many business and general
aviation aircraft. This isthe same type ofsirconditioning
in your ea, home or eefigenitor. (Figure 3-17) Energy
can be neither created nor destroyed; however, it ean
be transformed and moved. This is what occurs during
vapor cycle air conditioning. Heat energy is moved
fiom the cabin ae ito liquid refrigerant. Due to the
additional energy, the Liquid changes into a vapor. The
‘por is compressed and becomes very hot. eis eoved
from the cabin whece the very hot vapor refrigerant
transfers its heat energy to the cooler outside se. In
doing o, the efiigerane cool nd condenses back nto
liquid. The refrigerant returns ro the cabin to repeat the
cle of energy transfer.
edule 2 - Prin
Example: An engine delivers 85 bhp for a petiod of 1
hour and during that time consumes 50 pounds af fel
‘Assuming the fel has eat conten of 18800 BTU per
‘pound, fd the chermalefcency ofthe engine:
85 hp «38.000,
£853 18 800 BTU 778
Beale thermal efficiency = 0.23 or 23 percent
= 2.805 000
12 183 791
Reciprocating engines are only about 34 percent
thermally efficient; that i, they transform only about
34 percent ofthe total heat potential ofthe burning fel
Jo mechanical energy.
Fae 3.7. apr canto, et ca
‘rom hain othe ots aby agra wd
changes tom «er and kag
‘One of the keys tothe operation ofan airconditioning
sytem isatentheat. Adding heat to asubstance does not
lays cals its temperature. When substance changes
stat, such as when aliquid changes into a vapor, heat
energy i absocbed. This heat energy abrorhed to change
sta is called latent heat. When a vapor condentes into
aliquid, this latent hea energy i given off.
air “The temperature ofa substance remains constant during
its change of state. All energy absorbed or given off
‘the latent heat, is wed forthe change of state process
“Aer the change of state is complete, heat added to +
substance eases the temperature ofthe substance
“When a liquid changes stare and becomes a vapos,
the process is known as evaporation. The heat energy
aborbed to change from liquid toa ga is known asthe
“nent heat of vaporization. Ifa substance is condensing,
that i, changing from a gs toa liquid, che heat energy
given off is omerimes known as the latent heat of
fision Substances have characteriatic amounts of energy
required to change state, They also change sate at
different temperaaret, The boiling point of substance
isthe temperature a which dhe substance changes tae
fiom a liquid to a vapor. The boiling point changes
“with the amount of pressure applied tothe substance.
Reftigerants used in air conditioning systems typical
boil at very lowe temperature.
ane
Another device that moves heat energy is a hea
pump, A hest pump i a device thar moves heat energ?
from one location to snother. Ie ie typically used fo
moderate temperature adjustments. Like a vapor eych
tir conditioner, the second law of thermal dynamics j
tured tadvanrage. A circulating refigerant absorbs hea
from a warm area and moves ito a cooler aea where i
is eleased. Usvally, heat pump is reversible so that hea
can be moved from the area that was a heatsink wher
‘hat area becomes bor and the normal area to be eoolec
equies tobe heated.
Mole 02 Pyle Question 3 7
“Thermodynamics is the branch of physic
sence that deal with the reaonshipBerween
a other frms of en.
Questions 3-2
‘What denomination() ae wed to express heat energy?
Questions 33
“What's the ainciple upon which an electric resistance
thermomete! operates?
eon 4
Set ee eee
emt
QUESTIONS
Question: 3-5
‘Wat does the second law of thermodyamics state?
Question: 3-6
What three variable of gs ate consider when
applying the general gas law? (Hin: The genera at
Ine combine: Boyle’ law and Chaska)
Questions 3-7
‘Measured in megs-joules per kilogram or BTU per
pound what term is given to the calculated theoretical
value ofthe energy released as heat in an internal
combustion engine?
Question:
“When heats added toa substance, the temperature
ses, Thisstatement is:
‘A. Tre allof the time,
B. Tr tome ofthe time
(C, Never known for certain, ANSWERS
Answer: 344
hese
Answer 32
Imperial Sytem: BTU (Brish Thermal Unis), ealoies
SI/Meti: joules, calor.
Answer 34
‘When the tempersture changes, te sesistance of
material changes,
Answers 3-4
‘Conductien.
‘Convestion
Rediaton,
a2
Answer:35
“Het always lows from high energy to low energy (oe,
‘eat always flows from hot to cod)
Answer:3-6
“Temperate.
Presture
Volume,
“The general gu aw i
Pressure 1 (Volume) | ?restre 2 (Volume 2)
"Temperature 1 "Temperature 2
Answer: 37
Hest of combustion.
Answer:3-8
‘ve some ofthe times
Meas 02 - Pye PHYSICS
ore at ee nay
SUB-MODULE 04
PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS
cenmomoncarecon = ET 52
Sob-Module 04
‘OPTICS (LIGHT)
Keowlege Reglrments
24 Optics Ligh) 2) 2
[Nature of igh ped fights
LLeweoftefecton and refraction: eflecon at plane surfices, reflection by phere minors,
‘efacon, lenses,
heaps
‘gpa ove of hehe an pai pcs te es
‘dana pp th know
biti
1) Thelin le wend tra
Fedele et
©) Titcibberigoeagr ciin ee
(Therein dhl be ito we ato malin
ruin acing te er
‘Terps a
ees tecer ni :
sew wing alelpeesne te
er 4
copnics (uci THE NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is for of electromagnetic radiation. Ie part
ofthe wide spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that
surrounds us at all times, Visible light isa relatively
small par of the spectrum, (Figure 4-1)
a type of wave. As in the cate ofall wave
‘motion, the wave moves witha definite speed. Thespeed
of light (is exactly 299 792 458 meters per second
hich s 186 282.4 miles per second. I should be noted
tht this ie the speed of light ina vacuum, The passage
of light through matter seduces this speed. Materials
have a eefacive ins () which isthe sped of light (€)
for glass. This means that ight travels slower throug.
water than alcand slower cough glass than water,
“The wavelength of visible light is usually measured i
‘unit called the Angstrom (A): 1A = 10°%m. Variou
colors of visible light have characteristic wavelength:
They also have characteristic Frequen«
frequency of light x wavelength » speed of light. Wit
symbols this is written Ph» c. Figure 41 ists variow
colors of ight and their respective wavelengths.
‘Wavelengths of visible light
ina vac divided bythe sped of igh hough the * Valet 4500» Yow 25800
satel The efatv index of irs 1.000%. The = Ble = 4500 A Orange = 6 000 A
reatve Inder of water 133 and approsiatdy 6 “Gren ©5200 A "Reds 6 400A
op Sei
< wretnecnts =>
Fwy unter two ese
Fig 4 Rado wae ae tsone of slocamagste woes dn spac
REFLECTION
Reflection isa change in direction of lightwave when
in strikes a different media than that in which it was
teaveling so thatthe wave recurs back into the orignal
media. Mirtorike reflections called specular refeton.
‘This can occur when the reflective surface ie a material
that suppresses the propagation ofthe light wave orn a
material that allows the passage flight such a water or
sss. Specular reflection is shown in Figure 4-2,
A perpendicular line dawn from the point where the
lighe strikes the mirror i called the mormal The light
striking the micror forms an angle of incidence (0)
“with the normal. The light reflested fiom the micror
also forms an angle with the normal called the angle of
reflection (It sala of eeflecton thatthe angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of election, Two further
laws of election are: the incidence ay, the reflectie ray
. ss
oe 4.2. pert,
Mote Pryce and the normal atthe point of incidence lie in the same
lane and, the reflected ay and he icidence ay ae on
‘Poste sides ofthe normal.
Reflection can occur off fa pie surface such ae 4
‘ypical Mat minor or piece of es. It ean also oceur
OF of «curved eacfnce, When reflection occurs of of
4 fat sce, ei ad 0 frm amizor image: When
occurting off ofa curved sufice the image may be
‘magni or demagrifed
Mow cued mito wet hyn ones
(bulging ourward toward the light source) or concave
Glog nar aay for the light sous) cones
‘mirtoe reflect light outward and demagnifes the image,
1k also provides a wider field of view. Convex micrors
sre commonly used ae pastenger-ide rear-vew mierors
fn automobiles, A concave mirrors focus light when
Ierefcets, The image it flects depends on the distance
sexy from the surface, Generally, «concave mirror is
‘sed so that it magnifies the image. Tecan be found in
telescopes and in make-up mirrors to gui a else look
stone's fice,
REFRACTION
Refraction is the phenomenon observed when light
changes direction due to ic pasieg through a medium
Jn which ie eavel at an altered speed. When light enters
«slower medium at an angle, its fequeney remains the
‘same. This is ertablshed atthe source of che ight. But
800m as part ofthe incoming ight ay reaches a slower
‘medium, its wavelength is shortened and che light bends
‘ovrards the normal ine. The amount oF bend depends of
the speed of lighe through the medium. The slower the
speed, the more light wil bend
‘As previously mentioned, materials havea refractive
Index which compares the epeed of light through «
‘vacuum tothe speed of light ehragh the materia, The
higher the refractive index, the slower the speed of ight
hough the mated
‘Using information about how light wil passthrough a
‘medium enables the production of optic lenses. Snell's
Law provides a mathematical equation for determining
the angle that light will refract when passing from one
‘medium through another
‘Where n isthe index of refraction of the fist medium
and ny is the index of reaction of the second median
through with the ight will pase and bend. The angles are
‘measured frm the normal,
—— See eee
LENSES
Because light can be directed at diferent angles wsing
various mediums lenses ae developed to focus light
go that ti beneficial. Eye glasses are made so thatthe
incoming light wil be cortected wo that i focses the
image ofthe object being looked atdirety onthe retina
ofthe oe.
seen eget Sm
Sst ee
Sinem
re of rays converge st tinge
‘focus because ofthe limitations o defects in the lens. Tn
addition to the material a lens e made from, the shape
ofa lens als factors in tthe diceetion and focus of ight
passing through it. (Figere 4-3)
Similar co mirrors, lenses ae often ground spherically
‘Allens thar bulges outward from the lens is conver,
Jens that curves into the len is concave. Variations exit,
‘Advanced optic manufstaring technology now allows
the creation of aspheric lenses (non-spheria),
aa
i
5 comvex Plnocoovex. _Potve
Monisous
Negative
Marisous
Panoroncave _Beoneave
Fine 43. Asano ate sued nse
FIBER OPTICS
Fibecoptiesiethe branch of optiel technology oaneerned
with the transmission of ight through fiers, Electrical
data is converted to optical signal and sent through
optical fers at the speed of light. The tranemistion of
data through optical fibers offers wie bandwidth, lghe
weight, and freedom from electromagnetic influence.
(gure)
CABLE CONSTRUCTION
‘A fiber’ cladding i wally costed with a tough buffer
layer whch may be farther surrounded by spas jacket
layer. Taese layers add strength to the fiber bur do
not contribute to its optical properties. Fiber bundles
someties pu lightabsorbing material between the
fibers to prevent light tha leaks out of ane fiber from
centeringanothes. (Figure 4-5)
Fiber cable canbe very flexible, bu optical lots increases
greatly ifthe fberis bent wa sadis smaller than around
30 mm, creating problems ifthe cable is bent around
‘comers r wound around. spool. Some fiberoptic cables
sce reinforced with glae yarn to increase strength and,
also to procect the cable cre against rodents and insets.
FIBER MODES
Singlerode (or mono-mode) fiber has a coe diameter
less than about ten times the wavelength of the
propagating light and can proces only a single signal at
atime. Most single-mode fiber ie designed fr use in the
near infeed portion ofthe light spectrum.
4
eure 44, er necting
wa, Craton oat ep
Fiber with a core diameter greater than 10 micrometers
Incalled multimode ber In multi-mode ber, mulile
rays of light are guided aloag the fiber core by the
internal reflection of the cladding surrounding the
fer. Each light pulse caries is own piece of dace and
is tansmited chrough the cable at different angles $0
15 not to interfere with other pulies traveling throwgh
the same cable. Rays tha reflect fom the cladding at
Moti 2: Pin angles greater than the critical angle are completely
teflcted. Rays that meet the boundary ata lower angle
Ae refracted into the adding and do not convey light
information slong the fiber. (Figures 4-6 and 4-7)
Arcountien i fer pti also know as tsision
losis the eduction in intensity ofthe Fgh beam a it
"eaves throogh the fer medium. Attenuation is cused
Lbybothseerng and absorption within the Be and is
29 important itor limiting the ansson of signal
Across lege distances. Mach research bas gone into
limiting atenuton I has bee sad that if ocean water
1 a clr at single-mode fiber, one coud se ll the
{tthe bottom ofthe MasansTiench nthe Paci
(Ocean, a depth of 36 000 et
TERMINATION AND SPLICING
Optical fiers are connected to terminal equipment
by optical fiber connectors (Figure 4-8) Standard
connector provide a physical eoneace where the mating
surfaces touch each other at an angled surface to achieve
the lowes possible attenuation and redced reflections.
A fiberoptic connector i basiealy a rigid cylindrical
barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds che bareel in
its mating socket. A typical connector is installed by
preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rea of
the connector body. Quickesee adhesive is uevaly weed
to hold the fiber securely, and a train reli ie secured
to the reaz Once the adhesive ects, the fiber’ end is
polished to mirror finith,Vatious polish methods are
‘wed, depending on the type of fiber and the application.
For single-mode fiber, fiber ends are polished with a
slight curvitre that makes the mated connectors touch
only a ther core. This is called a physica contact (PC)
polish. Such connections have higher loss than PC
onnection, but greaty reduce bak reflection, because
Tight tha elects for the angled eurface leaks out of
the iber core.
Opts Chet EERE sc chr by
or vor by enlelng arog en
cooscnn eeeea sm
rete nie eeellaeen a see
aoe eee
‘leetre are. For quicker fastening jobs, a mechanical
soe wo teed
Fone 4-6, Poppet lp rough mute pica
igre 4-7 Atsorboen troup ary ed msg
theelotn of tine mated pea Me
Fs 8b opt cal comets ko fa aa.
{In fusion splicing, the ro cable end ae fastened inside
splice enclosure andthe fiber ends are tipped of theit
protective coating and outer jacket. The ends are cleaved
with a precision cutter and are placed inthe eplicer, The
splice area is inspected via a magnified view sereen to
check the cleaves before and afte the splice, The epicer
then emits a small spak at the gap to burn off dt and
‘moisture. Then the splicer genertes larger apa that
fases the ends togeher permanently. The optic oes due
to the splice ie measured by directing light through the
48
copnes (uci SE
1. dus a mechanical algrment device
2. Hots the fer ands in 2 precise
‘aignes postion
3. Sil two separate fers. Not
1 Two fer andes algned ard hen
fused together wih neat or electc
2, Two bers Become contruous
pee 4-8 Macc nd kn keg chs.
cladding on one side ard mescuring light leaking fom
the cladding onthe other. splice lss af oprical cavity
under 0.1 dB is eypica
‘Mechanical splices ae designed robe quicker and easier
‘a install, but theres tll the need for sipping, careful
‘and precision cleaving. The fiber ends ace
aligned and held together by aleve, often using clear
tel that enbances the transmission of ight across the
Joint. Mechanical splisseypieally have higher optical
Tose and are less robust han fusion splice, especially if
the gel is weed. (Figure ¢-9)
Militay sieraft have used fiber optics for heads up
Aispays. (Figure 4-10). The Boring 777 uses some fer
optic transmission line for is inflight entertainment
systems and expanded use of fiber optics is promised
ur 10 Fr pte mss agp.
46
Somebasc advantages of ber optics or dara transmission
include:
* System Performance
+ Greatly Increased Bandwidth and Capacicy
+ Lower Signal Attenuation (Lot)
+ Immune to Noite (Flectomagastic Lterference)
snd Radio-Frequency Intrfererce
+ No Crosstalk
+ Lower Bit Error Rates
+ Signal Securiey
+ Difficlt To Tap
+ Nonconductve Electrical Isolation
(Does Not Rediate Signal)
+ No Common Ground Required
+ Freedom From Short Circuit and Space
+ Reduced Size and Weight of Cables
+ Environmental Protection
+ Resistant to Radiation and Corrosion
+ Resistant to Temperature Variation
“Important deterrents are high cost and the reliability of
connectors inthe harsh aviation operating environment FIBER OPTIC DATA LINK
Fiber optic data inks the ame given to the aytem of
components that use opi Sbers forthe ransission
of data, Data is inpot toa transits which converts
the lc sgoals into opi signals and diets therm
it the fer he transmit dee cut converts the
electric signal to an opal signal by varying the etre
cusren through the light source. LEDs (light emitting
odes) and laser diodes are swo common light sources
employe, A secure, liable and durable connector is
"quired to join the transmitter and the fiber. At the
feos en ofthe fiber, another conector isthe ber
to a receiver The receiver transforms the op signal
back nt an elect signal for use.
=a [—! (—
‘As ated the cort and availabilty of easy to manipulate,
reliable and durable connectors have limited the use
of fiber optics in aviation to this point. Conversely,
the demand for high performance, bandwidch and
eight saving fee from electromagnetic interference
eiving development of ber optic use in reef. While
‘many experts believe the use of copper and alumiaumn
Alongside fiber optics ha a. enduring future, developers
are hard at work addressing the shortcomings of fiber
optic transmission. Controlling primary functions of
ireeat operation ie. landing gear, flight controls,
system operations, et) may someday be performed with
‘ber optic data inks, (Figure 4-11)
ple eempoans e ope dta ok.
a7 Question: 4-4
“What ica efractive index?
Question: 42
QUESTIONS
Question: 4-4
‘Whar causes light within ber opsc cable to maintain
ies direction?
Question: 4-5
‘The change ofdizectionoflight when it lows through What rwo advantages of fusion splicing of «fiber optic
2 media enon ae,
‘Question: 43
Name three advantage of tranemisting data through
‘optical bers
Moca 02-Pysce
cable over mechanical eplicng?
Questions 4-6
fiberoptic cable inthe greateat amount
CEE “ ANSWERS
Answers 44
“The apced at which ight travels hiough a substance
divided by te speed of igh in a vacuum.
Answer: 42
‘efiaction
Answer 4-3
Wide bandwith, light weight, and freedom from
lectromagaetie influence
Answer 4-4
“The reflective cladding surrounding the fibers core
Answer 45
Les optical loes and a stronger splice
Answers4-6
“At splice joints and connection terminal.
Mode 02- Pyar PHYSICS
Dees aero Se)
SUB-MODULE OS
PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS
centmomnancareoon- ET) B2.
Sub-Module 05
WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
Knowledge Requirements
2.5-Wave Motion and Seund M2
‘Wve motion: mechan wave, inutoidal wave motion, interference phenome, sening wats
Sound: speed of sound, production of sound, inten pitch nd quay, Doppler elect.
Leia
[Agewlloonlae fe ena an pra pet ofthe jt
tally spy tt ese.
bie
(0) pice hol be he tn te
{unen ob bec
© ic a me ert he
set ing soins pal arg
(9) These tase wt te ea
‘once i aloe Searing he se
(“Theale eat he donne oh
Sewage and sonst deg ec
(© Toetecen sabe te phew a pte
nrg ee prs
Mode 02 Phyice a1 SOUND
Sound hus been defined as a series of disturbances
‘matter thatthe human ear can detec, This definition
«an alto be applied disturbances which are beyond the
range ofhumas hearing. There are thre elements which
ace necessary for the transmission and reception of
sound. These ae the soure, a medium for carrying the
sound, and the detector. Anything which moves back.
and forth vibrates) and disturbs che medium around it
may be considred 3 sound source,
‘An example ofthe production and transmission of
sound is the ring of a bell. When the belli struck
and begins o vibrate, the particles of the mediam (¢he
surrounding a) in contac with the bell also vibrate
‘The vibrations disturbance is transmitted from one
particle ofthe medium to the nex, and the vibrations
travel ina "wae" cough the medium until they reach
thecar. The earrum, acting as detectog, est in motion
by che vibrating particles of air, andthe brain interprets
‘this vibration athe sound ofthe bell
‘WAVE MOTION
Sound waves sre mechanical waves since sound is a
“wave motion inmates Irean best be understood by Sst
