Bingh Etal 2022 AL Mangrove
Bingh Etal 2022 AL Mangrove
Bingh Etal 2022 AL Mangrove
Nguyen An Binh, Leon T. Hauser, Pham Viet Hoa, Giang Thi Phuong Thao,
Nguyen Ngoc An, Huynh Song Nhut, Tran Anh Phuong & Jochem Verrelst
To cite this article: Nguyen An Binh, Leon T. Hauser, Pham Viet Hoa, Giang Thi Phuong Thao,
Nguyen Ngoc An, Huynh Song Nhut, Tran Anh Phuong & Jochem Verrelst (2022): Quantifying
mangrove leaf area index from Sentinel-2 imagery using hybrid models and active learning,
International Journal of Remote Sensing, DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2021.2024912
CONTACT Nguyen An Binh nabinh@hcmig.vast.vn Ho Chi Minh City Institute of Resources Geography, Vietnam
Academy of Science and Technology, 700000 Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
© 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 N. A. BINH ET AL.
1. Introduction
Within the transition zone of land and sea of (sub)tropical coastal regions, mangroves have
carved out a distinct niche to thrive and provide vital ecosystem services including the
protection of coastal communities (Kuenzer and Tuan 2013; Brander et al. 2012). Mangroves
are among the most productive and carbon-rich ecosystems worldwide (Donato et al. 2011;
Siikamäki, Sanchirico, and Jardine 2012). Nonetheless, in many regions, mangrove forests
are under severe pressure due to forest loss and land degradation caused by overexploita
tion and land-use change driven by human development (Duke et al. 2007; Giri et al. 2011).
Remote sensing through airborne and satellite observations has become a primary instru
ment to monitor the health and dynamics of these ecosystems, especially given the
inaccessible, dynamic and extensive nature of these mangroves that complicate frequent
and extensive field visits (Hauser et al. 2020; Heumann 2011; Kuenzer et al. 2011).
Spatially explicit quantification of these ecosystems allows us to determine the extent,
cover, and fragmentation of mangrove cover across regions, and serves as a reference for
temporal comparisons (Hauser et al. 2020, 2017). While global maps of mangroves are
available (Bunting et al. 2018; Giri et al. 2011), these maps are often limited solely to the
presence or absence of mangroves (Younes Cárdenas, Joyce, and Maier 2017). To gain a
better understanding of how the ecosystem reacts to environmental pressures, it is
important to combine information on the extent and fragmentation of mangroves with
biophysical variables such as forest density, leaf area index, chlorophyll content, and other
functional attributes and vegetation characteristics (Pham et al. 2019). Mapping of bio
physical variables that inform us about vegetation characteristics of mangroves would
allow us to assess the ecosystems’ health, phenology, functional attributes, and diversity
thereof (Aguirre-gutiérrez et al. 2021; Lausch et al. 2016). However, such detailed indica
tors of ecosystem integrity are still rarely measured in mangroves at large spatial scales
(Younes Cárdenas, Joyce, and Maier 2017).
One of the key biophysical variables in monitoring vegetation is Leaf Area Index (LAI) –
defined as the area of leaf material per unit of ground surface area (Chen and Black 1992).
LAI is strongly related to several key plant structural and functional variables such as the
fraction of photosynthetically active radiation, leaf mass per area nitrogen content,
biomass, aboveground net primary productivity, and stem density (Castillo et al. 2017;
Fang et al. 2019; Yuan et al. 2015). Therefore, LAI is considered a fundamental vegetation
attribute (Fang et al. 2019), both by itself as it is directly linked to primary productivity and
competitive and complementary light use, transpiration, and energy exchange (Asner,
Scurlock, and Hicke 2003; Zheng and Moskal 2009), as well as an important characteristic
to scale up leaf traits to canopy traits (Asner, 1998). Furthermore, LAI is commonly used as
an important modelling input for biosphere processes (Baret and Buis 2008). As such, LAI
is recognized as an essential climate variable (GCOS 2011) and also proposed as an
essential biodiversity variable (Skidmore et al. 2021).
In the last five decades, a broad variety of retrieval methods have been proposed and
developed to estimate vegetation traits from earth observation data, including LAI. These
methods range from vegetation indices (Delegido et al. 2011), to data-driven parametric
and nonparametric regressions, including sophisticated machine learning methods, to
physically based radiative transfer modelling and hybrid approaches, i.e. data-driven
methods fed by Radiative Transfer Models (RTMs) (Pham et al. 2019; Verrelst et al. 2015).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 3
In this study, we aim to extend the use of RTM simulations for the training of a hybrid
model to estimate LAI from actual Sentinel-2 imagery in a typical mangrove ecosystem.
We used AL heuristics to feed our model with an optimized simulation subset for
mangrove ecosystems to overcome the mismatch between the genericity of RTMs
applied and the specificity of the ecosystem under study. To examine its performance,
we studied and mapped the spatial LAI patterns against precisely matched field data in
the mangrove-rich Ngoc Hien District, Ca Mau province in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta.
Our implemented approach uses AL-based hybrid models based on simulations originating
from two canopy RTMs: INFORM (Atzberger 2000) and PROSAIL (Jacquemoud et al. 2009). We
compare the performance of AL-based estimates against a vegetation index (red-edge NDVI),
retrieval of LAI through the pre-trained the Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) global
biophysical processor (Weiss and Baret 2016), and most importantly against in-situ hemisphe
rical field measurements of LAI. The assessments open up discussion on the potential and
challenges of AL-based hybrid models for the retrieval of canopy traits in mangrove ecosys
tems across larger scales with limited ancillary (training) data to support better ecological
monitoring of mangroves.
2. Methods
Figure 1 represents the proposed methodology for quantifying mangrove leaf area index
from Sentinel-2 imagery using hybrid models and active learning. Each step is further
detailed in the sections below.
Figure 1. Workflow for mangrove leaf area index retrieval using hybrid models and active learning.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 5
in case of the presence of sunbeams or sun fleck problems. After the field campaign, we
processed the three RGB hemispherical photographs using CAN-EYE v6.495 open-source
software to retrieve effective LAI measurements (CE V6.1) (Weiss and Baret 2010).
Table 1. Sensor information for Sentinel 2 including full width at half maximum (FWHM) and signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) (ESA 2015).
Band Min Max Center FWHM SNR
2 (Blue) 457.5 522.5 490 65 154
3 (Green) 542.5 577.5 560 35 168
4 (Red) 650 680 665 30 142
5 (Red edge 1) 697.5 712.5 705 15 117
6 (Red edge 2) 732.5 747.5 740 15 89
7 (Red edge 3) 773 793 783 20 105
8 (NIR) 784.5 899.5 842 115 174
8A (Red edge 4) 855 875 865 20 72
11 (SWIR1) 1565 1655 1610 90 100
12 (SWIR2) 2100 2280 2190 180 100
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 7
The Invertible Forest Reflectance Model ‘INFORM’ (Schlerf and Atzberger 2006) is a
combination of the forest light interaction model (Rosema et al. 1992) and SAIL (Verhoef
1984) canopy RTMs with the PROSPECT leaf RTM (Jacquemoud and Baret 1990). INFORM
considers the one-dimensional turbid medium radiative-transfer within the crowns and
the three-dimensional characteristics such as clumping of the leaves and shadows of the
crowns (Schlerf and Atzberger 2006). INFORM offers an appealing trade-off between the
realism of simulation of the forest canopy and inversion feasibility (Darvishzadeh et al.
2019a). Its effectiveness in modelling LAI has been demonstrated in both broadleaf and
conifer stands with varying levels of success (Brown, Ogutu, and Dash 2019; Schlerf and
Atzberger 2006; Yuan et al. 2015). To our knowledge, INFORM has not yet been applied to
the retrieval of plant traits in mangrove forests.
Here, we ran the RTMs models PROSAIL (PROSPECT4 and 4SAIL) and INFORM
(PROSPECT4 and INFORM) to generate a LUT training database. Its execution is largely
automated in the ARTMO toolbox (Verrelst, Romijn, and Kooistra 2012). For both models,
we established a training set of 1500 different combinations from randomly drawing all
from the ranges of the input parameters using a Latin Hypercube Sampling method. The
parameterization (e.g. input for LUT simulations) of both PROSAIL and INFORM is
described in Table 2. We used the full default ranges available in ARTMO. In addition,
fixed parameters were collected from satellite image metadata, which consist of solar
zenith angle 36.6°, observer zenith angle 3.4°, and relative azimuth angle 10°. The spectral
characteristics of the generated LUTs were adapted according to the band selection and
spectral layout of Sentinel-2 (see Table 1).
2.5. Machine learning regression algorithm (MLRA) with active learning (AL)
Sentinel-2 L2A reflectance data served as the foundation for estimating LAI. The gener
ated LUTs served a hybrid inversion approach to deduce estimated biophysical variables
corresponding from the Sentinel-2 spectra based on machine learning regression
algorithms. To train our hybrid model, we relied on Gaussian Process Regression (GPR),
which is non-parametric regression modelling framed in a Bayesian inference (Rasmussen
and Williams 2006). GPR relies on a pre-set covariance kernel functions that is optimized to
fit the given data. The model was fitted with our RTM-generated LUT training database,
i.e. biophysical variables linked with spectral reflectance data.
Despite the advantages of hybrid methods (see Verrelst et al. 2019), the inversion of
RTMs using real-world spectral data, like our Sentinel-2 observations, remains ill-posed;
multiple configurations of leaves and/or canopy variables can produce identical or similar
spectral responses (Verrelst et al. 2016a). This problem is further amplified when the
number of bands is limited or by the presence of noise (de Sá et al. 2021). Commonly, ill-
posedness is minimized through a reasonable pre-selection of expected biophysical trait
range of values, but this has an obvious implication on the generality and scalability of the
trained models (Verrelst et al. 2019, 2015). Pre-selection is difficult in situations where no
field data is available and relevant trait ranges are unknown.
Active learning (AL) methods integrate new samples based on uncertainty or diversity
criteria to improve the accuracy of the model in the context of Earth observation regres
sion problems (Berger et al. 2021). AL approaches have been shown to enhance retrieval
accuracy and mitigate some of the ill-posedness within hybrid inversion methods (Berger
et al. 2021). Hence, rather than using the full LUT, we used an AL method based on a GPR
to select the most informative spectral samples and thus develop a subset relevant for
further training, e.g. a machine learning GPR-based ‘pre-selection.’
The employed AL heuristics started with an initially annotated dataset (30 samples or
2%), which was incrementally extended by choosing from the large data pool (1500
simulations). The 2% initialization is randomly selected. Since only a few samples were
used as a starting pool (30 samples), its influence is relatively negligible as it maximizes
the role of the AL algorithm. Earlier studies demonstrated promising results when keeping
the initialization low (see Berger et al. 2021; Verrelst, Berger, and Rivera-Caicedo 2020).
The AL algorithm assumes the simulated training database as an unlabelled data pool,
and hence iteratively tests a new sample according to a pre-defined query strategy, in our
case Euclidean distance-based diversity (EBD). EBD was selected based on previous
demonstration of high accuracy with an apt running time and small number of samples
(Verrelst, Berger, and Rivera-Caicedo 2020; Verrelst et al. 2016a).
In the AL iteration, a new sample is only added when it fulfils the requirements to
improve the regression model (reduce RMSE against validation data); otherwise, the
algorithm proceeds to evaluate the next sample. Optionally, a stopping criterion can be
defined, e.g. terminating after 300 samples. Taken together, the AL algorithm using EBD
was applied, as implemented in ARTMO, to curate the simulated dataset to provide the
most informative samples as well as reduce the size of the dataset. We ran 1501 iterations
with the EBD algorithm for both PROSAIL and INFORM to ensure consistency. Detailed
information on the MLRA and AL procedures are presented in Table 3.
reduced dataset was used for training the final GPR model, and ultimately to map LAI from
Sentinel-2 data. The retrieved LAI estimates were then validated against the in-situ
measurements using hemispherical photography. For validation, we assessed its perfor
mance by comparison of the remotely sensed LAI estimates against the entirety of the in-
situ LAI measurements (n = 65).
The LAI estimated and measured values were evaluated based on four commonly
applied metrics (Richter and Hank 2021): Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient (R), mean
absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), as well as the normalized root mean
square error (NRMSE) were computed as the equation given in (1) – (4)
n
1X
MAE ¼ jy ymeasured j (1)
n i¼1 estimated
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n
1X
RMSE ¼ ðy ymeasured Þ2 (2)
n i¼1 estimated
RMSE
NRMSE ¼ (3)
maxðymeasured Þ minðymeasured Þ
0 12
Pn i
� i �
B y y y ymeasured C
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffii¼1
R2 ¼ @qffiP ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiestimated
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiestimated ffiffiffiffiffiffimeasured
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiP ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffiffi�ffi A (4)
n i n i
i¼1 yestimated yestimated i¼1 ymeasured ymeasured
where, n is the number of samples, yestimated is the LAI values estimated from satellite data
and, ymeasured is the LAI values measured in-situ.
Based on these metrics, we evaluated both AL-based hybrid RTM inversion approaches,
trained on either PROSAIL or INFORM LUT databases. Besides the AL approaches, we ran
two commonly applied and relatively straightforward alternative approaches for cross-
comparison; (1) the use of a modified NDVI (Normal Difference Vegetation Index) to derive
LAI (Delegido et al. 2011), and (2) the use of the ESA’s Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP)
biophysical processor (Weiss and Baret 2016).
Vegetation indices are among the oldest and most widely used tools to estimate LAI
(Delegido et al. 2011; Fang et al. 2019; Zheng and Moskal 2009; Zhu et al. 2017).
Vegetation indices are simple numerical indicators that reduce multispectral (two or
more spectral bands) data to a single variable for predicting and assessing vegetation
10 N. A. BINH ET AL.
characteristics. In the analysis by (Delegido et al. 2011), the authors proposed a red-edge
NDVI index. This red-edge NDVI with one band in the red-edge instead of the NIR is
sensitive to green LAI from Sentinel-2 data, as the equation given in (5):
� �
R706 R664
LAl ¼ a � (5)
R706 þ R664
where a is the experimental coefficient, R664 and R706 represent the surface reflectance
from band 4 and band 5 in Sentinel-2 (see Table 1).
In addition to vegetation indices, we compared the performance of the AL-based
inversion approaches against LAI estimates based on the SNAP biophysical processor.
SNAP too relies on a hybrid approach combining physical modelling and machine
learning. SNAP uses an artificial neural network (ANN) inversion pre-trained on a
PROSAIL simulated database including canopy reflectance and the corresponding set
of input parameters. The value, range and distribution followed for each input
parameter of the models are fixed and described in (Weiss and Baret 2016). SNAP
can be considered as the benchmark for the estimation of vegetation biophysical
variables, as it is publicly available and easily applicable without strong expertise.
SNAP includes an unreleased version of PROSPECT prior to PROSPECT-4, coupled with
the SAIL model (Fourty and Baret 1997).
Figure 3. Progress of active learning algorithm estimating LAI using EBD with PROSAIL (left) and
INFORM (right) simulations for training.
of 258 and 115 samples, respectively. The higher number of selected samples might be
indicative of the suitability of the model to the forest structure of the mangroves in the
study area.
Figure 4. Performance of measured vs estimated data: (a) PROSAIL(GRP), (b) INFORM(GPR), (c)
PROSAIL (SNAP) and (d) red-edge NDVI.
LAI map retrieval from the model trained on PROSAIL simulations shows high LAI
values (>2) in the protected core forest in the Ca Mau National Park (Figure 5a). Lower
values (<2) dominate the majority of the study region located outside the Ca Mau
National Park (Figure 5a). This includes the large part of the study area belonging to
Dat Mui region, which is characterized by integrated aquaculture (shrimp ponds) and
sparse mangrove forest production areas. These patterns are in line with what would be
expected based on biomass, forest fragmentation, protection measures and the forest use
(Hauser et al. 2017; Pham et al. 2020).
Distribution of LAI absolute uncertainty values, expressed by standard deviation (SD),
revealed substantial differences between LAI values in each pixel and mean values
calculated in the whole area. Higher SD values indicate higher uncertainty tied to a higher
amount of variation or dispersion while applying the retrieval model. The relative uncer
tainty (Figure 5c) describes the coefficient of variation (CV: SD/estimate × 100) of the LAI
map in the study area. Since the SD directly depends on LAI mean value, it is more useful
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 13
Figure 5. Maps of LAI (a), Uncertainty (b) and Relative uncertainty (c) in Ngoc Hien district, Ca Mau.
14 N. A. BINH ET AL.
to use SD to show the relative uncertainties, enabling accounting for the amplitude of
variability caused by spatially biased distributions of higher or lower LAI means. The map
of LAI’s relative uncertainty suggested that mapping LAI in core forest areas, which belong
to Mui Ca Mau National Park in the West, was done with higher confidence, while
difficulties are observed to estimate mangrove LAI in the production areas characterized
by mixed pixels of shrimp and sparse mangrove cover, which was the main practice
livelihood model in the majority of the Eastern regions of the Ngoc Hien region.
4. Discussion
Optical remote sensing approaches can provide rapid insights into mangrove ecosystems
over broad regions. Thus far, most studies have commonly focused on mangrove forest
extent and fragmentation, yet further characterization of biophysical vegetation variables
will be crucial to deepen understanding of the health, phenology, functional attributes,
and diversity thereof in mangrove ecosystems. Here, we focussed on LAI as a key vegeta
tion attribute directly linked to primary productivity and competitive and complementary
light use, transpiration, and energy exchange (Asner, Scurlock, and Hicke 2003; Fang et al.
2019; Zheng and Moskal 2009).
The few studies engaged in LAI mapping in mangrove ecosystems thus far relied on
spectral indices (e.g. Kamal, Phinn, and Johansen 2016; Mafi-Gholami et al. 2019; Manna
and Raychaudhuri 2020; Parida and Kumari 2020) and data-driven approaches to estimate
spatial patterns of LAI (e.g. Castillo et al. 2017; Pham et al. 2019; Zhu et al. 2017). We
investigated the potential of RTM simulations, combined with AL algorithms, to estimate
LAI to overcome the shortcomings in scalability of spectral indices and purely data-driven
approaches.
Significant differences were found in the performance of LAI estimates between AL
approaches versus the generic SNAP biophysical processor, as well as between different
implementations of RTMs (PROSAIL and INFORM) to simulate canopy reflectance.
Moreover, spatial patterns across the study area indicate distinct patterns aligned with
zonal management regimes (areas reserved for conservation versus integrated mangrove-
aquaculture production areas) and associated uncertainties in estimates. We discuss the
interpretation of these results and its implications for further extension of RTM simula
tions and AL to improve ecological monitoring of mangroves.
inference. Common RTMs are not designed with this kind of specific ecosystem charac
teristics in mind. For instance, PROSAIL has two main soil parameters: psoil (Dry/Wet soil
factor) and rsoil (Soil Brightness factor) (Huang et al. 2019). The combination of these soil
parameters allows us to model a wide range of different types of background spectra
including an approximation of water-like spectra. Importantly, active learning approaches
allow to optimize the use of RTM simulations by subsetting those simulations that are
relevant for training a model that fits LAI estimates for mangroves.
The optimization of the training dataset through AL heuristics likely drives the superior
performance of the presented approaches compared to SNAP when applied to mangrove
forests specifically. Furthermore, different versions of PROSPECT and 4SAIL between
SNAP’s RTM implementation and our integration of later versions in PROSAIL and
INFORM may influence the accuracy of estimates due to differences in parameterization.
Moreover, although both SNAP and our EBD-GPR approach rely on hybrid methods, the
implementation of neural networks (SNAP) versus Gaussian process regression (GPR)
leads to differences in mathematical intrinsic properties in model training.
The workflow demonstrated here deploys a hybrid approach using AL to subset RTM
simulations in order to optimize training for retrieval of LAI in mangrove ecosystems.
Through physical-based simulation, we are able to generate a training data set sufficiently
large to train a model for retrieval of LAI. These simulations help overcome the difficulty
and scarcity of acquiring high-quality and harmonized in-situ measurements. Therefore,
RTM-based approaches may present higher transferability than purely data-driven statis
tical learning methods, which heavily rely on extensive field datasets to establish empiri
cal relationships (e.g. spectral indices, partial least squares regression). Similarly, the use of
spectral indices deals with sensor-, and time-specific calibration and the non-linear
saturation of LAI, which limits transferability and scalability (Verrelst et al. 2019).
RTMs, on the other hand, are similarly subject to strong assumptions, heavy parame
terization, and ill-posedness (Combal et al. 2003; Koetz et al. 2007; Musavi et al. 2015).
Multiple configurations of the RTMs produce identical or similar spectral responses
(Verrelst et al. 2016b). This problem is further amplified when the number of bands is
limited or by the presence of noise common in satellite observations (Brede et al. 2020; de
Sá et al. 2021). This ill-posedness can be minimized through a priori selection (i.e.
optimization) of expected biophysical trait range of values (Verrelst et al. 2015). Such
pre-selection requires in-depth expertise of the trait ranges found in an ecosystem. AL
methods, as demonstrated here, can help guide to optimize a subset of RTM simulations
to improve the accuracy of the model, which may be due to mitigation of the ill-
posedness and/or a relevant optimization of a generic RTM to the specificity of mangrove
vegetation. Although based on a hybrid framework including a broad range of simulated
data, a limitation of the AL model for mangrove LAI presented remains that validation and
AL tuning were only possible against one in-situ dataset. This raises questions regarding
the independence of AL approaches from field data. Of interest would be to apply the
model to another mangrove region in Vietnam with independent field measurements to
assess its transferability. The labour-intensiveness of such campaigns currently still limits
the availability of field data of nearby mangrove ecosystems.
Taken together, the study illustrates that we can use RTM simulations to generate large
general training datasets for the retrieval of LAI or potentially other vegetation character
istics. Our AL implementation then allows us to subset these general training datasets to
16 N. A. BINH ET AL.
adapt for ecosystem-specific learning and overcome some of the ill-posedness. Here, we
demonstrated that general and relatively simplistic RTMs can be used to map LAI, even in
a distinct ecosystem such as the mangrove-dominated Ngoc Hien region in Vietnam,
when combined with AL algorithms. Further testing is needed to assess its transferability
across other mangrove ecosystems globally, across other mangrove canopy traits, and
whether physics-based active learning with general RTMs (e.g. PROSAIL) can be successful
in other niche and distinct ecosystem types.
5. Conclusion
Our study demonstrated the performance of remotely sensed LAI estimated through a
hybrid model validated against in-situ LAI measurements based on hemispherical photo
graphy. Robust hybrid approaches based on physical-based RTMs together with active
learning (AL) and machine learning appear to improve the capacities of mangrove LAI
retrieval, with significant gains in accuracy compared to the SNAP LAI model and red-
edge NDVI. AL techniques show promise in selecting the most informative data while
learning from big data sources, which seem to be the key in advanced biophysical variable
retrieval in heterogeneous landscapes. Using RTM simulations allows us to overcome the
difficulties and scarcity of obtaining large datasets of empirical observations for model
18 N. A. BINH ET AL.
training needed for machine learning. The AL algorithms facilitate an optimal subset of
RTM simulations to guide model training. This could mitigate the ill-posedness in retrieval
of biophysical variables and accommodate for the peculiarities of the ecosystem under
study. Given the demonstrated performance in this study, future research should expand
and further assess the application of AL-driven physics-based hybrid models for retrieval
of ecologically relevant plant traits at both leaf and canopy level, its transferability across
other mangrove ecosystems globally, and whether physics-based AL with general RTMs
(e.g. PROSAIL) can be successfully applied in other niche and distinct ecosystem types.
Ultimately, accurate retrieval of mangrove traits can help us better understand the
functioning and status of these ecosystems to guide conservation, rehabilitation and
the management of mangrove forests and its vital ecosystem services.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This study was supported by the project ÐLTE00.06/20-21. We thank the Vietnam Academy of
Science and Technology (VAST) for funding the research project grant number ÐLTE00.06/20-21.
The authors also would like to thank Mui Ca Mau National Park and Dat Mui Protection Forest
Management Board located in Ngoc Hien district, Ca Mau Province, Vietnam, for the support of field
survey. J. Verrelst was additionally funded by the European Research Council (ERC) under the ERC-
2017-STG SENTIFLEX project [grant agreement 755617] and by Ramón y Cajal Contract (Spanish
Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities).
ORCID
Leon T. Hauser http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1408-9942
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