Chapter 5: Enzymes
Syllabus
Objectives
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:
• Learn about enzymes, and how they work as catalysts
• Investigate how temperature and pH affect the activity of enzymes
• Find out why enzymes are specific, and why temperature and pH affect them.
Getting Started
Answers
The incorrect statements are:
• In a chemical reaction, atoms of one element are
rearranged to make atoms of other elements. This is
incorrect, because atoms do not change in a chemical
reaction. Atoms can be arranged to make new
compounds, or new substances, but not new atoms.
• Products are changed to reactants. This is the wrong way
round – reactants are changed to products.
Topics
5.1 Biological catalysts:
Catalysts:
• Speed up chemical reactions
• Not consumed in the process
Enzymes:
• Control metabolic reactions in living organisms
• Ensure the necessary reaction rates for life
• Crucial in digestion for breaking down large molecules
• Specific enzymes required for digesting different nutrients (e.g., amylase for starch, protease for proteins)
Examples:
Carbohydrates
Amylase Sources:
• Pancreas
• Salivary glands
• Plants
• Certain bacteria
Amylase Function:
• Hydrolyzes dietary starch
• Converts starch into disaccharides and trisaccharides
Further Enzymatic Conversion:
• Other enzymes transform disaccharides and trisaccharides
• Resulting in the production of glucose
Proteins
Pepsin:
• Secreted by gastric juice
• Primarily functions in the stomach
Trypsin:
• Functions in an alkaline environment
• Secreted by pancreatic juice
• Primarily functions in the small intestine
Lipids
Lipase:
• Produced in the pancreas, mouth, and stomach
• Most individuals naturally produce sufficient pancreatic lipase.
Enzymes in Plants:
• Found in plants
• Important in breaking down food stores during germination
Amylase:
• Breaks down starch into maltose
• Maltose serves as an energy source for growing seedlings
Glucose Production:
• Maltose can be further broken down into glucose (Maltase)
• Glucose used in producing cellulose for cell wall formation in growing
cells
• Catalase is an enzyme found in all cells that breaks down hydrogen peroxide, a harmful
byproduct of cellular reactions, into water and oxygen.
Enzyme Functions:
• Enzymes facilitate both breakdown and synthesis reactions.
Formation of Large Molecules:
• Enzymes aid in the formation of large molecules, such as proteins, by linking amino acids together.
Ribosomal peptidyl transferase
Industrial Applications:
• Enzymes find various industrial applications.
Profitable Industry:
• Large-scale enzyme production has become a profitable industry.
Classification of Enzymes: (Not included in the syllabus)
Enzyme Classification:
• Initially named after their discoverers
• Later categorized comprehensively
• International Union of Biochemists (IUB) classifies enzymes into six functional classes based on their catalytic
reactions:
• Oxidoreductases
• Lyases
• Hydrolases
• Transferases
• Ligases
• Isomerases
Types Functions Examples
Oxidoreductases These catalyze oxidation and reduction pyruvate dehydrogenase, catalysing the oxidation of
reactions pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.
Transferases These catalyze transferring of the transaminase, which transfers an amino group from one
chemical group from one to another molecule to another.
compound.
Hydrolases They catalyze the hydrolysis of a bond. the enzyme pepsin hydrolyzes peptide bonds in proteins
Lyases These catalyze the breakage of bonds aldolase (an enzyme in glycolysis) catalyzes the splitting of
without catalysis, fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Ligases Ligases catalyze the association of two DNA ligase catalyzes the joining of two fragments of DNA by
molecules. forming a phosphodiester bond.
Isomerases They catalyze the formation of an phosphoglucomutase catalyzes the conversion of glucose-1-
isomer of a compound. phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate in glycogenolysis
Naming enzymes
Enzyme Naming:
• Enzymes are typically named after the reactions they catalyze and often end in -ase.
• Examples: Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates, proteases break down proteins, and lipases break
down lipids.
Specific Enzyme Names:
• Some enzymes have more specific names.
• Examples: Amylase for starch breakdown, maltase for maltose breakdown, sucrase for sucrose
breakdown.
Molecules General Enzymes Molecules Specific Enzymes
Carbohydrates Carbohydrases
Maltose Maltase
Proteins Proteases Carbohydrase
Sucrose Sucrase
Fats and oils (lipids) Lipases
Substrate:
• The substance an enzyme acts upon is called its substrate.
Clarity in Naming:
• It's crucial to spell enzyme and substrate names correctly and write them clearly to prevent confusion, as
similar names (e.g., maltose and maltase) can be easily mistaken.
Precision in Writing:
• It is crucial to spell the names of enzymes and their substrates accurately.
Clarity is Key:
• Writing clearly is equally important, as similar names like "maltose" and "maltase" can appear almost
identical if not written carefully.
Questions Answers
1. Explain why enzymes are called biological 1. Biological because they are made by organisms.
catalysts. Catalysts because they increase the rate of
chemical reactions.
2. You read about the enzyme lactase at the
start of this chapter. 2. a) carbohydrase
a) What type of enzyme is lactase?
b) Name the substrate of lactase. b) lactose
How enzymes work
Enzyme Specificity:
• Enzymes have specific shapes with unique active
sites.
Active Site Function:
• The active site enables the enzyme to bind with
its substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate
complex.
Complementary Shapes:
• Enzyme and substrate shapes are complementary
to each other.
Chemical Transformation:
• When the substrate binds to the enzyme, it
undergoes a chemical change and becomes the
product.
Product Detachment:
• After the reaction, the product detaches from the enzyme,
making the enzyme available to bind with another
substrate.
Versatile Catalysis:
• Enzymes can catalyze reactions that break down
substrates into multiple products or combine substrates to
form a single product.
Remarkable Speed:
• Enzymes work rapidly, with a single enzyme molecule
catalyzing millions of reactions within a short timeframe.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex:
• The temporary structure formed when the substrate binds
to the enzyme's active site is known as the enzyme-
substrate complex.
Catalase Enzyme:
• Known for its remarkable speed.
Exceptional Catalysis:
• A single catalase molecule can break down about 44 million
hydrogen peroxide molecules in just one second.
Fastest Enzyme:
• Catalase holds the record as the fastest-known enzyme.
5.2 Factors that affect enzymes
Enzyme Sensitivity:
• Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH.
•Optimal Conditions:
• Each enzyme has specific optimum temperature and pH values at which it functions most efficiently.
•Enzyme Specificity:
• The optimum temperature and pH are unique to each enzyme.
Denaturation
Optimum Temperature:
• Enzymes have an optimum temperature for maximum
Optimum Temperature
Reaction Rate:
efficiency. • The reaction occurs most rapidly at the enzyme's
optimum temperature.
•Human Body Enzymes: Two Influencing Factors:
• Human body enzymes usually work fastest at around • Rate at any temperature depends on the balance
37 °C. between two factors:
• Kinetic Energy
•Denaturation at High Temperatures: • Denaturation
• Temperatures above 60 °C can denature enzymes,
ceasing their functionality.
Temperature Adaptation:
• Enzymes from plants and certain bacteria can have varying optimum temperatures.
Organism-Specific:
• Different organisms have different optimum temperatures for their enzymes.
Evolutionary Adaptation:
• Organisms evolve enzymes adapted to the temperature of their surroundings.
Heat-Resistant Enzymes:
• Bacteria in hot springs have evolved 'heat-resistant' enzymes.
• Not denatured by temperatures as high as 100°C.
•Optimum pH:
• Enzymes have an optimum pH, typically around pH 7.
•pH Specificity:
• Some enzymes work best in acidic or alkaline conditions.
•Denaturation at Extreme pH:
• Enzymes become denatured and lose their catalytic ability when exposed to pH levels outside their
optimum range.
Example:
• Enzyme works optimally at pH 8.
• At pH 5 and 11, it undergoes a change in shape and
becomes denatured
Explaining how temperature and pH affect enzyme activity
Temperature Impact on Enzyme Activity:
• Enzyme activity is affected by temperature.
Low Temperatures:
• At low temperatures, enzyme activity is low due to slow molecular movement and infrequent collisions.
Increasing Temperature:
• Increasing temperature boosts kinetic energy, leading to more frequent and energetic collisions, resulting in higher
enzyme activity.
Optimum Temperature:
• There is an optimum temperature at which enzyme activity is highest.
Above Optimum Temperature:
• Above the optimum temperature, enzyme molecules lose shape, and the active site no longer fits the
substrate, leading to decreased enzyme activity.
Extreme High Temperatures:
• Enzymes become completely denatured.
• They cease to function.
pH Impact on Enzyme Activity:
• Enzyme activity is also affected by pH.
Optimum pH:
• Each enzyme has an optimum pH for optimal function.
Deviating from Optimum pH:
• Deviating from the optimum pH causes enzyme molecules to denature.
• Denatured enzymes are unable to bind with the substrate.
Lock and key Model of Enzyme
Active Site Specificity:
• Substrate fits precisely into the active site.
• Active site is complementary to the substrate.
Analogy:
• Substrate is like a 'key.'
• Enzyme is like a 'lock.'
Binding Mechanism:
• Substrate forms temporary, weak bonds with the active site.
Enzyme Specificity
Substrate-Enzyme Specificity:
• A specific substrate will only fit a particular enzyme.
• The active site is 'complementary' to the shape of the substrate.
Catalytic Specificity:
• An enzyme will only catalyze one reaction.
Questions Answers
3. Look at Figure 5.4. Describe what is shown on the 3. As temperature increases from 0 to 37oC, the rate of
graph. (‘Describe’means state the main points in words; reaction increases. The increase is exponential. As
give main features that you cansee. When you are temperature increases above 37oC, the rate of reaction
decreases and reaches 0 at 58oC. This decrease is
describing a graph it is a good idea to quote figures,with
steeper than the increase at lower temperatures.
units.)
4. Look at Figure 5.5.
4. a) 2
a) What is the optimum pH of the protease in the
stomach? b) 7
b) What is the optimum pH of most enzymes?
c) between pH 5.6 and 10.4
c) What is the range of pH values at which most
enzymes are ableto work?
Questions Answers
5. Look at the graph that you drew from your results in 5. Explanations should refer to:
Experimental skills 5.2 Investigating the effect of • the increase in kinetic energy of enzyme and
temperature on the activity of lipase. In your own substrate molecules as temperature increases
words, explain the shape of the graph. (‘Explain’ • therefore, an increase in the frequency of
means using your biological knowledge and collisions
understanding to give reasons for the shape of the • the loss of shape of the active site of the enzyme
graph.) as temperature increases above optimum, so that
the substrate no longer fits into it
6 Use your own words to explain the shapes of the • use of the term denaturation.
curve for most enzymes, in Figure 5.5.
6. Explanations should refer to:
• the active site of the enzyme only having its
‘correct’ shape within a narrow range around pH 7
• the loss of shape of the active site of the enzyme
as pH decreases or increases from the optimum,
so that the substrate no longer fits into it
• use of the term denaturation.
Summary
• Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts, accelerating metabolic reactions.
• Enzymes are essential for sustaining life by facilitating reactions at a sufficient rate.
• Each enzyme possesses an active site that matches the shape of its substrate.
• Binding of the substrate to the enzyme's active site forms an enzyme-substrate complex.
• The enzyme catalyzes the conversion of the substrate into product while remaining
unchanged.
• Enzymes exhibit an optimum temperature and pH for maximum efficiency.
• Deviations from the optimum temperature or pH can cause enzymes to denature,
resulting in a loss of shape and activity.
• Increasing temperature enhances kinetic energy, leading to more frequent collisions and
increased enzyme activity until the optimum temperature is reached.
• Beyond the optimum temperature, enzymes lose their shape, preventing substrate
binding.
• Extreme pH values can also induce denaturation and impair enzyme function.
