Se ese Karin H Kelder ¢ Derick Govender Jagathesan GovenderStudy Master Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book Karin H Kelder * Derick Govender Jagathesan Govender Ee) CAMBRIDGE if UNIVERSITY PRESS‘Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sto Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City Cambridge University Press ‘The Water Club, Beach Road, Granger Bay, Cape Town 8005, South Africa ‘wew.cup.co.za © Cambridge University Press 2013 publication isin copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, ‘no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2013 Cover image: dmphiviion perideaion, commonly known as the pink skunk clowafish or pink skunk anemonefish, © Geof Spiby, Underwater Photography ISBN 978.1-107-38089-9 Editor: Sanne Paarman Proofreader: Ise Badenhorst ‘Typesetter: Mellany Fick Ilustrators: Belinda Danafuss, Claudia Eckhard, Imar Krige, Tina Nel, James Whitelaw Acknowledgements (sce page 424). If you want to know more about this book or any other Cambridge University Press publication, phone us at +27 21 4127800, fax us at +27 21 419-8418 or send an e-mail 10 capetown(a.cambridge-ongContents Physical Sciences CAPS content How to use this book Introduction to Physical Sciences Term1 Module 1 Unit1 Unit 2 Module 2 Unit1 Term2 Module 1 Unit 3 Module 3 Unit 1 Module 4 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Term 3 Module 5 Unit1 Unit 2 Module 2 Unit 2 Module 4 Unit 4 Module 6 Unit1 Unit1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Glossary Mechanics Momentum and impulse Vertical projectile motion in one dimension Matter and materials Organic molecules ‘Mechanics (continued) Work, eneray and power Waves, sound and light The Doppler Effect Chemical change Rate and extent of reaction Chemical equilibrium ‘Acids and bases Electricity and magnetism Electric circuits, Electrodynamics Matter and materials (continued) Optical phenomena and properties of materials ‘Chemical change (continued) Electrochemical reactions Chemical systems Chemical industry Mechanics (Newton's Laws) Electricity and magnetism Organic chemistry Rate and equilibrium ‘Acids, bases and electrochemistry vii 30 31 52 74 5 146 147 170 m1 184 185 205 223 260 261 276 304 305 323 323 358 359 382 382 386 304 404 au 419Physical Sciences CAPS content penned 1 Momentumand — | 13 hangin momentum 2 c-2 Newtons Second Law expessedinterms | 35, of momentum Conservation ofmomentumandelasic | 40 and inelastic clisons Impulse 4 2 Vertical pojecile | 5 Representing vertical motion gapicaly | 56 ‘motion inne Serhan nen nus td 1 Organicmolecules | 16 Organicmolecular structures 7 TWPRC naming and formulae 8 ‘Stucture physical property 102 a ‘Applications of organic chemistry 107 ‘dition, cliinationand substitution | 110 Plastics and polymers 19 3 Work energyand | 10 Work and energy es The work-energy theorem 151 Conservation of mechanical energy 156 PHYSICAL SCIENCES CAPS CONTENTGarin 1 The Doppler fect | 6 The Doppler Efet m ‘Applications of the Doppler Eft 116 ‘The Doppler Efect and ight WW lait een id 1 fateandestentof | 4 Therateofaeacion 185 reaction Factors affecting the rate of rection 18 Messing rats of action 1m Mechanism oreadionandof ays [201 2 Chemical 8 205 lbiam Facosafleingeulvium psion | 207 Eula constant, zo Application of equlbvium pines 2, 3 ‘idsandbases | 8 Acid base reactions B. fovea 1 ec circts 4 Revision ofelecicrcuits 261 Intema estance| 262 Seis and parallel networks 265 2 Becvodynamics | 8 ect machines 16 AC generators 29 DC generators 282 Becticmotos A ‘Aternatingcrent 23 PHYSICAL SCIENCES CAPS CONTENTfee nn ed 2 Optical phenomena | 6 and properties of The photelecticeffet| 305) Emission and absorption specta 34 Comparing emission and absorption 319 spect borate emery ectrelyticcllsand galvanic calls Relationship of arent and potential to tate ad equim Redoxreactionsin els ‘Standard electrode potentials Equations representing redox reactions Oxidation numbers Sye/8]e) 8/8 Peiparc amd 1 Ghemicaindustry | 6 eLearn See Bec das mI 3 Organic chemistry 2 Naming organic compounds 34 1 Tateand Fi ea “oF «auld 5 Acids, bases and 1 Acids and bases 4 Seen Beectrochemistry a5 vi PHYSICAL SCIENCES CAPS CONTENTHow to use this book Welcome to Study & Master Physical Sciences Grade 12! This introduction will explain to you how this book is structured and how to use the various features. ‘Modules and This book is divided into four terms that cover six modules. Each module introduces a different Physical Sciences theme. These themes are divided into sub-themes in the various units within each module. ‘The first page of each unit summarises the content and concepts that you will be learning about in that unit. Within the units there are various features that will help you understand the topic. Look at the examples below. Examples are highlighted ———- in boxes for easy reference Activities throughout the text help you to develop your science knowledge and skill You will be able to monitor how well you have mastered the contents of the units through various assessment tasks which your teacher will give you. Activities marked in bright yellow are prescribed practical activities (PPA) for formal assessment and may include experiments and projects. Activities ‘marked in light yellow are recommended practical activities (RPA) for informal assossment. Summative assessments at the end of each module give you the opportunity to test your knowledge as you would be tested in an exam. Problem-solving strategy ————+ boxes gives you guidelines as to how to tackle particular problems step-by-step in order to solve them, Prem selenostateoy ‘se eo eens low a bbw ses. 2 fmestum nyt a gonnst 1 eae etd ppt oqatnth os ae ‘Rotel Gone eponieenatina tein howto + Gargeteinetere mia rece and nena ‘note chsansqaton iesgedctenain a3 =" + Gatdeteresesanmongat HOW TO USE THIS BOOKDid you know? boxes provide interesting J additional information that will help you relate the concepts that you are learning about to reali situations. The Case studies link science to real-life ———+ situations and include a wide variety of people and organisations active in the scientific field. Some cover interesting topics relevant to science and present balanced views on sensitive issues. The Case studies are often linked to activities suitable for assessment. sey Safety boxes tell you how to conduct cee experiments safely ar secre Sena oo Definitions, laws and formulae are — highlighted in boxes. tant Test yourself exercises can be used to —! Chet tetoers onscreen reinforce new concepts. Results tables aro tables that you will — need to copy to record the results oF ‘experiments and activities in. 2 Seimirrioa eter etemiac 4D. 5 nyse ese We one secs bomes Leena ney escine HOW TO USE THIS 800KTRODU: Skills for Physical Sciences learners ION TO PHYSIC. SCIENCES The Physical Sciences investigate physical and chemical phenomena Scientists use scientific enquiry, application of scientific models, theories and laws to explain and predict events in the physical environment. The purpose of this introduction to Physical Sciences is to equip you with the skills for investigating physical and chemical phenomena successfully. Scientific notation Sometimes scientists deal with extremely large or extremely small numbers. We use the scientific notation, or the powers of ten notation, to make it easier to work with these numbers. Scientific notation presents numbers in a compact and consistent form that simplifies calculations. In scientific notation, we express numbers as a product of two numbers in the form N x 10" where Nis the digit term and n is the exponential term. N is a number between 1 and 9,999 ... and n is a positive or negative integer. A large number has a positive exponential term; for example, the speed of light is 300 000 000 m-s~!. In scientific notation we write this as 3 x 10* ms", We must move the decimal point or comma 8 places to have a whole number between 1 and 10. A small number has a negative exponential term. The charge on an electron is =0,00000000000000000016 C and we write this number as 1,6 x 10° C Scientific notation in calculations Calculations that involve numbers written in scientific notation follow the laws of exponents. Addition and subtraction To add or subtract using scientific notation, first convert all the numbers to the same power of 10 so they have the same exponent. Then add or subtract the digit terms Example 5 x 10 + 2.x 10 = 50 x 10° + 2x 10! = 52 x 10" = 5,2 x 10° INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCES 7Multiplication and division We divide and multiply the digit terms in the normal way. We then add or subtract the exponential terms. In general for multiplication we write (aa) = a"*™ and for division we write (@) = gt". (an) Examples 5 x 10° x 2x 10 = (5 x 2) x 10°" = 10 x 10" = 1 x 108 5 x 10" + 2x 10°= (5 +2) x 10% 9 = 2,5 x 10° Powers of numbers ‘We raise the digit term to the indicated power and multiply the exponent by the indicated power. In general we write: (a")" = a". Example (5 x 108 = 5% x 108 = = 25 x 10° = 2,5 x 107 Roots of exponents Rewrite the number so that it has an even exponent. Find the square root of the digit term and divide the exponent by 2 to find the answer. Examples 18,6 x 10' = ¥36% 10° = 36 x 10% Baxi = 3x10 = 53x10? = 73x10 Using your calculator Not all calculators work in the same manner or with the same sequence of entering keys. Ask your teacher to help you if the described steps do not apply to your calculator. Very large or very small numbers can be written in scientific notation. ‘This notation reduces mistakes and can be typed in on the calculator. When you multiply 100 000 by 100 000, the answer is displayed as 1.~""” or 1."". This is the scientific notation for 10 000 000 000. To enter ‘number in scientific notation, use the a key for the power of 10 numbers and leave out the "x 10" part. The [Jggj key represents ‘times 10 to the power ... Examples 1 Toenter 6 x 10°, press (gj G9 (Gy. The cisplay shows 6" ‘To see what the ordinary form is, press [§gaj}. The display shows 6000. 2 Toenter3,5 x 104, pres i BBewe ‘The display shows 3.5 *"’"'. The ordinary form is 0,00035 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCES‘To calculate 6 x 10° x 3,5 x 10 BeBeeEBebe The display shows 2.1. The answer is 2,1. Conversion of units When we measure a quantity, we compare it with a specific standard or unit, We say or write the unit with the numerical value of the quantity, for example 45 millimetres. Remember that you must always express a quantity using a number and a unit. Each type of measurement has different units; for example, if we use the metric system we measure length in metres, kilometres, centimetres, and so on. In science we often need to convert values in various scales of measurement. To do this we need a conversion factor that expresses the equivalence of a measurement in two different units (for example, 1.cm = 10 mm). To convert within the decimal system, multiply by the correct factor and use the correct prefix according to the list of metric multiples, Conversion symbols We commonly use the prefixes and symbols listed below to form names and symbols of the decimal multiples of the SI units. Prefix Abbreviation Factor tera T 10” giga- a 10° mega- M 10° kilo- k 10° = 1.000 hecto- h 10° = 100 deca- daorD 101 =10 dex d 10° centi- © 102 milli m 10° = micro- B 10° nano- n 10” pico P 10” femto- f 10" INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCESDimensional analysis Dimensional analysis tells us the number by which we must multiply or divide. To convert 60 cm into metres, we know that 100 cm equals 1 m, so common sense tells us to divide by 100. When you are not sure if you have to multiply or divide, follow this method. 1 Write the conversion factor as a fraction: 100cm = 1m, so the conversion factor can be 1905 or 1m Tm "00cm 2 Multiply the factor with the value that must be converted: soem, 1m og, 60cm ,, 100 1 * Toocm 1 im 3. Treat the units as numbers when you multiply fractions. Cancel the cm at the top with the em at the bottom in the first option, which leaves the answer in metres (m): S22 x 77s; = 0,060 m. ‘The second option is incorrect: ecm. x soocm = eon cn Significant figures ‘The number of reliable known digits in a number is called the number of significant figures. When you multiply or divide, the answer should have no more digits than the number with the least number of significant figures used in the calculation. Example: 2K355=7 But also, 2,00 x 3,55 = 7,10 In the example, 2 has only one significant figure. It can be a rounded-off number that can range from 1,5 to 2,4. 2,00 has three significant figures. The SI system ‘When we work with laws and equations in science, itis very important to use a consistent set of units. We use the Systéme International d’Unités, abbreviated to SI, which is the international system of units for ‘measurement. There are seven basic units from which all other units are derived. The basic units are: + Iength (distance) in metres (m) + time in seconds (s) + mass in kilograms (kg) © electric current in ampere (A) + temperature in kelvin (K) + light intensity in candela (ed) ‘+ amount of matter in mole (mol). INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCESSymbols and units used in this book Quantity Position Displacement Acceleration Initial velocity Final velocity Average velocity Time Time interval Mass. Force Weight Gravitational acceleration Friction Coefficient of friction Normal force Tension (force) Wave speed Wavelength Voltage or potential difference Electric charge Electric current Resistance Work done field ic flux Magn Magn Emf Power Amount of substance Pressure Temperature Temperature Molar mass Concentration Volume Enthalpy change Standard reduction potential symbol Siunit ay metres (m) Ax, Ay ors metres (m) 4 metres per second squared (ms-?) yore metres per second (m-s-') yore metres per second (ms!) v metres per second (m-s"!) t seconds (s) at seconds (s) ™ kilogram (kg) F newton (N) w newton (N) s metres per second squared (m-s~) f newton (N) Bel N newton (N) T newton (N) y metres per second (ms"!) a metres (m) v volts (V) oq coulomb (C) I ampere (A) R ohm (2) w joule) B tesla (T) © ‘weber (Wb) e volts (V) P ‘watts (W) ” mole (mol) P pascal (Pa) t degrees celsius (°C) T Kelvin (K), M grams per mole (mol) < mole per cubic decimetre (moldm™) v cubic metre (m*) AH kilojoule per mole (kot) Ee volts (V) INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCESBailing point Normal boy Temperature Fresing pein Celsius — wt we ot Fahrenheit kelvin Indicating symbols ‘We distinguish between vector quantities, that have magnitude and direction, and scalar quantities, with only magnitude. Vectors are indicated with a bold symbol, or with an arrow on top of the symbol Force is a vector and is indicated as F. When we refer to the magnitude of the force, we use F. Indicating units We measure speed in metres per second. This means that you divide the distance in metres by the time in seconds. We can abbreviate the unit for speed to m/s, ms, ms"! or ms" Temperature In everyday life, temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. We measure the temperature according to temperature scales. ‘Three temperature scales are in current use. ‘These are Celsius, measured in degrees Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit, measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and Kelvin, measured in kelvin (K). In South Africa we use the Celsius scale for temperature readings in everyday life. The freezing point of water is 0 °C and the boiling point of water at sea level is 100 °C. Some countries, such as the United States of America, use the Fahrenheit scale. In this scale the freezing point of waters 32 °F and the boiling point is 212 °F. Scientists use the Kelvin scale for scientific temperature measurements. To convert from degrees Celsius (°C) to kelvin (K), we use the conversion T=t +273, where T stands for temperature in K and t stands for temperature in °C. To convert from kelvin to degrees Celsius we use t=T-273. — mF —|p—ink RE 310K DF mK Length ‘The SI unit for length is metres. We use the metric prefixes to show various lengths in this order: kilometre, hectometre, decametre, metre, decimetre, centimetre, millimetre. We multiply the numerical values by a factor of ten to convert between units to give the equivalent amount in a smaller decimal. We divide the numerical values by a factor of ten to convert between units to give the equivalent amount in a larger decimal x10 x10 x10 x10 x10 x10 kn hm dam. m dm cn mm 10 10 = S10 =10 =10 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCESkm = 1x 10 x 10x 10 metres = 1000 m, and 100mm = 100 + 10+ 10+10=0,1m Mass Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. We can determine the mass of an object with a balance or scale. The standard unit for mass is the kilogram. We use the decimal conversions to change the mass values to grams: 1kg= 1x10 10x 10 000 gor 1 x 10° g. Pressure Pressure is defined as the force per unit area applied to a surface. The SI unit for pressure is newtons per square metre (N-m™). This unit is also called the pascal (Pa) and 1 Pa = 1 Nem*, To convert from pascal (Pa) to kilopascal (kPa), we divide the number by 1 000, so 1 000 Pa = 1 kPa. ‘The pressure of the air varies slightly according to the weather. At sea level the average atmospheric pressure is 1,013 x 10° N-mr*or 1,013 x 10? kPa. We use this value to define the atmosphere (atm), and 1 atm = 101,3 kPa. The value of 101,3 kPa is known as standard pressure. Changing the subject of the formula ‘There are many formulae and equations in science that show the relationship between different quantities in nature. We use these formulae and equations to calculate unknown quantities. Choosing the correct formula When you need to calculate an unknown quantity, the first step is to decide what scientific principle ot formula relates the unknown quantity with the given, known quantities. Identify and list all the known quantities in the question. Then look for a formula in which all the quantities are known except for one, which is the quantity that you have to calculate. Variables and substitution We call the letters in an equation or formula variables because we can replace them with different number values. When we are given particular values for the variables in an equation, we substitute these values in the equation to work out the numerical answer. This is called substitution. ‘An algebraic equation is similar to a balance or scale. The numerical values of the expression on both sides of the equal sign must be the same. We solve the equation by working out the value of the variable that will make the sides of the equation equal. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCESChanging the subject of an equation Consider the equation as a balance. When we do something to the one side, we must always do the same to the other side Step 1 Move all the terms with the unknown symbol to the left side. Remove the unknown terms on the right side by adding the additive inverses to both sides. Step 2 Move all the known terms and numbers to the right side. Remove the known terms and numbers that are on the left by adding the additive inverse to both sides. Step 3 Simplify both sides. ‘Step 4 Divide both sides by the coefficient of the variable. When there are three quantities involved in an equation, itis often easier to use the equation triangle. In the triangle the horizontal line represents division and the vertical line represents multiplication. + Draw the triangle. + Write the quantities in the correct positions. + Use your finger to cover the quantity that you must calculate; this will tell you if you must multiply or divide the other two quantities. Equations of motion Equations of motion that were explained in Grade 10 are still in use: yay tadt or | v=utadt v, =vi+ 2adx or Eat + 2as Ax =yAt + 5aAP or s=uAtt jaar + a= (2) ar or saya INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCESWhat is rate? ‘The rate at which a change happens is the amount of change that happens over a period of time. Rate is change per second whether it is change in mass, velocity, concentration or energy. Look at these examples of rate: Power is the amount of energy delivered per unit time, energy (in joules) time (in seconds) Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity, change in velocity (in ) time (ins) Reaction rate is the change in concentration of a reagent per unit time. so power (in watt) = so acceleration (in m-s Direct and inverse proportions Proportion or variation describes certain relationships between two variables. We often want to determine the degree to which a quantity changes (dependent quantity) when the magnitude of another quantity is varied in predetermined fixed amounts (independent quantity). This degree of change enables us to determine the relationship between different physical quantities. When we compare two quantities in an experiment, we must keep all other factors constant. If we change more than one factor, this could affect the results, Direct proportionality When an increase in the independent quantity (x) leads to a constant increase in the dependent quantity (9), the two quantities are directly proportional, for example y = kx, where k is some constant value. Inverse proportionality When an increase in the independent quantity (x) results in a decrease in the dependent quantity (y), the quantities are inversely proportional, e.g.y= E, where is some constant value. Proportionality graphs ‘We can show proportionality on a graph. The variables are dependent on each other, and when one variable changes, the other will also change Graphs use a set of axes, and we describe position by referring to these horizontal and vertical lines. We find the x-value by looking along the scaxis, and the y-value by looking up or down on the y-axis, ‘The graphical representation of a direct proportionality such as y = kx, isa straight line through the origin. ‘The gradient of the line is equal to the constant k. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCESExample 2 To The temperature of an enclosed mass of gas is directly proportional to its pressure, so Tse P, or for some value of k. (Pay The araph isa straight line through the origin. ‘The graphical representation of an inverse proportionality is a hyperbola We can obtain a straight line by plotting the values of the one variable against the reciprocal of the values of the other variable. Example 3 The pressure of an enclosed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume, and the pressure is directly proportional to seit for some value of k. Pepa) Pea) Vim) + This graph is a hyperbola. This graph isa straight line. A proportion describes the relationship between two variables. We use the proportionality symbol (¢<) to indicate the proportion. We cannot use the proportion to do any calculations. We need to insert an equal sign (=) where the total numerical value on the left is equal to the total numerical value on the right. To achieve this we include a proportionality constant k. Direct proportions: yeex, 2 = k and y = kx For example, pressure (P) « temperature (‘), + =k & x Inverse proportions: yoc-4, xy = k and y Ly For example, pressure (P)e= Sptepy PV ‘The value of k will change as the variables change. Each set of variables will have their own constant. 10 INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCESSketch graphs ‘To draw a sketch graph, always use a ruler and a sharp pencil Write the labels in ink. Label all axes with the quantity and unit. In sketch graphs, axes divisions do not have to be accurate. In most cases you need to show the significant values only. Look at the example of a sketch graph. Asketch graph Accurate graphs ‘The results of many experiments can be displayed ‘graphically. Itis then easy to determine the type of relationship between the physical quantities. + Draw the graph with a ruler and sharp pencil, and write the labels in ink. * Choose the largest possible scale for the axes — the graph should fill the graph paper. + Give the graph a heading to indicate the quantities that you are plotting, You can use the word ‘against’ or ‘versus’. + The independent variable goes on the x-axis. ‘The dependent variable goes on the y-axis. Label the axes with quantities and units. + Mark the points with a pencil. You can encircle the points or use crosses to show them clearly, Use a ruler to Accurate displacement-time draw the bestfit straight ine equal numbers of points above and below graphs on araph paper the line. Do not connect the points. When the points form a curve, draw the best-fit smooth curve that encompasses as many points as possible. _y¢am) -Gr9phs of esplacement against time The use and meaning of constants in equations A physical constant is a physical quantity whose numerical value does not change. We normally measure this value through experimentation. Below is a list of the constants used in this book. Universal gravitational constant = G 6,67 x 10- Nem-kg? Speed of light in a vacuum © 3,00 x 108m Elementary charge e 1,60 10°C Coulomb’ constant k 9x 10°C? Universal gas constant R 8.315 mok-K"* Avogadro's number N 6,02 x 10? mo" A mathematical constant is a fixed number that does not directly involve any physical measurement. We use mathematical constants to make equations true INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCES 1"Models in science Tonwlmivh When scientists are trying to understand or explain a difficult concept sheeticeeeepae30 | OF Phenomenon, they often make use of models. A model is a real or isan eampl ofhow die ‘mental picture of the concept in terms of what we know. We use models sis ive cout > to explain certain observations and measurements. An example is the ourndersanding of sce wave model of light. We cannot see light waves, but we can see water Phenomena waves. We assume that light is made of waves because experiments show that light often behaves in the same way that water waves do. Models are not stagnant; we can modify and develop them as new information becomes available. When a model corresponds closely to the results from many experiments over a wide range of circumstances, we call ita theory. We can also refer to the wave theory of light in the example above. Models and theories are helpful, but we must remember that they are only a picture of what happens and nor the real phenomenon. Other scientific models are the kinetic model of matter, the atomic model, chemical bonding models and the Periodic Table. Safety data Safety is of great importance in experiments, Many of the chemicals and other ‘equipment used in a science laboratory can be hazardous. All laboratories should have a set of material safety data sheets (MSDS) for the chemicals they stock. These can be obtained from the supplier of the chemicals. Chemists use a set of symbols to inform the users of potential dangers. Study the internationally-used hazard symbols below. es) eS nsolmens | | Anciding Thesymbafartac |_| Corse sions esubsanescan |_| Same compounds thttecrials | | stsoneconsins || ststanesist cantunyoursin | | aueyourskntotum || maycsplede they hg || agen ha Shulandcostones | | andes andcan | | mdorober Caan || ce tacoma cavathieesiy | | ancasecthr because these bumboksiayour || dypowkscanmade | wha ae ot anddeuliatbelt | | sisanestobum | | absanescankil | | cates Abaysuse || youcouh Thee heat Theymay nesranopentme. || mores Sam | fyouTheymustte || afeyahseswten | | ubsannsaecakd || akoemlode deta Mesylacdgis’s | laters handed wih geat || wakingwih ese |_| tas heya ition ash aneangbeofanghy || aggen wien caeand only under | chemi Many kssdgs thn furmbledenial | | ita thesyenisinot || acthaeomive. || camsiremsei a ead stk bend wth. 12 INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCESLaboratory safety rules 1. Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes and pranks are dangerous, and are prohibited, 2. You may not enter a laboratory or a chemical store room without the presence or permission of a teacher. 3. On entering a science laboratory, do not touch any equipment, chemicals or other materials in the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so. 4, Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. Perform only those experiments authorised by your teacher. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed. 5. Do not eat, drink or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use laboratory glassware as containers for food or water to drink. 6. You may not remove any apparatus o chemicals from the laboratory. 7. The laboratory should be well ventilated. Poisonous gases must be kept and used in a fume cupboard. se) NEVER pour water into sulfuric acid. it generates a lot of heat that may spatter the mixture or break the alass. 8. Always wear safety goggles in a laboratory when chemicals, heat or ALWAYS smella substance glassware are used. by wafting its vapour gently 9. Never leave an open flame without supervision. towards your nose 10, Never smell, touch or taste chemicals unless your teacher instructs you to do so. 3 11. Never point the open mouth of a test tube in anyone's direction. 12, Never look into a container that is being heated, 1. Keep flames and flammable chemicals apart. 14. Keep electrical equipment away from water. 15. Dispose of all chemical waste properly. Never mix chemicals in Always pour sulfuric acid into sink drains. Sinks are to be used only for water. Never pour unused water very slowly and stir chemicals back into the reagent bottle. Check with your teacher for continuously. disposal of chemicals and solutions. 16, Keep your hands away from your face, eyes, mouth and body while using chemicals or lab equipment. Always wash your hands with soap and water after performing any experiment. 17, Notify the teacher immediately in case of any accident or breakage. 18. If a chemical should splash into your eye(s) or onto your skin, immediately flush with running water for at least 20 minutes. Notify your teacher immediately. Basic trigonometry skills NEVER heat thick glassware, ‘Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies triangles and the __ a it might break relationships between their sides and the angles between the sides. If one angle of a triangle is 90° and one other angle is known, you can calculate the third angle because the three angles inside a triangle always add up to INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCES 3180°. Once the angles are known you can calculate the ratios of the sides: ‘These ratios are given by the trigonometric functions. The hypotenuse is the longest side in a right-angled triangle and is opposite the 90° angle + Sine function is defined as the ratio of the side opposite to the angle to the hypotenuse: opposite _ a ypotenuse ~ © * Cosine function is defined as the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse: cos A = —iiacent_ _ hypotenuse = © + ‘Tangent function is defined as the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the adjacent side: opposite a adjacent — b sinA act a ° tanA According to Pythagoras, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides: c? = a? + b? Symbols of chemical elements and their names 1H Hydrogen 38 Sr__ Strontium 75 Re Rhenium 2 He Helium 39 -Y Yttrium 76 05 Osmium 3 Uthium 40 Zr Zirconium 77 ridium 4 Be Beryllium 41. Nb Niobium 78 Pt Platinum 5B Boron 42 Mo Molybdenum 79 Au Gold 6 € Carbon 43 Tc Technetium = 80 Hg Mercury 7 N Nitrogen 44 Ru Ruthenium = 81 T_— Thallium: 8B 0 Oxygen 45 Rh Rhodium 82 Pb Lead 9 F Fluorine 46 Pd Palladium. 83 Bi__Bismuth 10 Ne Neon 47 Ag Silver 84 Po Poloniumn 11 Na Sodium 48 Cd Cadmium 85 AL Astatine 12 Mg Magnesium 49 In Indium 86 Rn Radon 13 Al Aluminium = 50 Sn Tin 87 Fr Francium 14 Si Silicon 51 Sb Antimony 88 Ra_—-Radium 14 INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCES15 16 7 18 19 20 21 2 2B 4 25 26 py] 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 a Ar a co Mn Fe © cu Zn 2 Br kr Rb Phosphorus sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Glcum Scandium Titanium Vanadium ‘Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium 52 54 55 56 57 58 50 6 2 3 o 65 66 o Cs n n B 74 Te Xe G ce Pr Nd Pm. sm ey 1b Dy Er T™ wu Ta Tellurium, lodine Xenon Cesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium erbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Yuterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum, Tungsten 89 90 1 92 93 94 95 96 7 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 m Pa Np Pu am cm Bk co Fm, Md No u Db 8h Hs Rg Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium ‘Americiurn Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Laweencium Rutherfordium Dubrium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCES 15PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS atomic number E ~ s 2 = 3 = #2 $2 ee € — 2 os INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCESSolubility table Soluble compounds Exceptions Almost al salts of Na’, K" and NH, All salts of Cl, Brand I Halides of Ag’, Ba” and Pb ‘Compounds containing F Fluorides of Mg, Ca’, Se, Ba* and Pb" Salts of nitrate, NO; chlorate, CIO; perchlorate, ClO; potassium perchlorate, KCIO, acetate, CH,COO" Salts of sulfate, SO? Sulfates of Sr, Ba** and Pb”* Insoluble compounds Exceptions All salts of carbonate, CO} Phosphate, PO} oxalate, C0 chromate, CrO;- sulfide, $? Most metal hydroxides, OH Most metal oxides, O» Salts of NH; and alkali metal cations INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCES 7Table of cations Hydrogen He Beryllium Be” Aluminium Al | Chromium(VI) | Cre Lithium ur Magnesium Mg” ‘Chromium(II1) Cr | Manganese(VII) | Mn’ Sodium Nav Calcium: ca tron(IIl), Fem Potassium kK Barium Ba” Cobalt(III) co” ‘Silver Ag" Tin(tl) ‘Sn Mercury(l) | Hg" | Lead(ll) Por Copper(l) cur ‘Chromium(Il) cre ‘Ammonium | NH; | Manganese(Il) | Mn* front) Few Cobalt(II) Co” Nickel(II) Ne Copper(Il) cu Zine(H) Zn" Table of anions Fluoride F Oxide o Chloride a Peroxide oO Bromide 8r Carbonate coy lodide t Sulfide + Hydroxide OH Sulfite sor Nitrite NO; Sulfate so; Nitrate NO; Thiosulfate 5,07 Hydrogen carbonate. HCO; Chromate cro? Hydrogen sulfite HSO; Dichromate Cro? Hydrogen sulfate sO; Manganate Mnoz Dihydrogen phosphate | H,PO; Oxalate (COO); oF C, Hypochlorite Hydrogen phosphate | HPO; Chlorate: Nitride Nv Permanganate Phosphate Por Acetate (ethanoate) Phosphide - 18 INTRODUCTION 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCESTRODU Skills for practical investigations 1ON fs Historical development of the scientific method The timeline of chemistry below lists the important works and discoveries that are applicable to the field of chemistry studied in this textbook. It shows how the idea of the scientific method developed through the ages and where other discoveries discussed in this book fit in. A scientific discovery is seldom the work of one brilliant person, and more often the accumulation of the ideas of many people working together and applying existing knowledge. ¢. 770: Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (aka Geber) an Arab/ Persian alchemist is considered by many to be the father of chemistry. He developed an early experimental method for chemistry and isolated numerous acids, including hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid and aqua regia. ¢, 1220: Robert Grosseteste published several Aristotelian commentaries where he laid out an early framework for the scientific method. . 1267: Rogen Bacon published Opus Maius, which among other things, proposed an early form of the scientific method, and contained results of his experiments with gunpowder. ¢, 1530: Paracelsus first used the word ‘chemistry’ 1597: Andreas Libavius published Alchemia, a prototype chemistry textbook. 1605: Sir Francis Bacon published The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contained a description of what would later be known as the scientific method. 1615: Jean Beguin published the Tyrocintum Chymicum, an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first ever chemical equation. INTRODUCTION 191637: René Descartes published Discours de la méthod, which contained an outline of the scientific method. 1661: Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist, a treatise on the distinction between chemistry and alchemy. It contained some of the carliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules and chemical reactions, and marked the beginning of the history of modern chemistry. 1789: Antoine Lavoisier published Traité Elémentaire de Chimie, the first modern chemistry textbook. It was a complete survey of (at that time) modern chemistry, including the first concise definition of the Law of Conservation of Mass, and thus also represented the founding of the discipline of stoichiometry. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev published the first modern Periodic Table, with the 66 known elements organised by atomic weights. The strength of his table was its ability to accurately predict the properties of as yet. unknown elements. 1876: Josias Willard Gibbs published On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a compilation of his work on thermodynamics and physical chemistry which laid out the concept of free energy to explain the physical basis of chemical equilibria. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann established statistical derivations of many important physical and chemical concepts, including entropy, and distributions of molecular velocities in the gas phase. 1883: Svante Arrhenius developed the ion theory to explain conductivity in electrolytes. 1884: Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff publishes Etudes de Dynamique chimique, a seminal study on chemical kinetics. 1884: Henry Louis Le Chatelier developed Le Chatelier's Principle, which explains the response of dynamic chemical equilibria to external stresses 1905: Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, a milestone in industrial chemistry with far-reaching consequences in agriculture. 1907: Leo Hendrik Backeland invented bakelite, one of the first commercially successful plastics. 20 INTRODUCTIONThe scientific method All sciences use the scientific method, which is a specific approach to research and experiments. We use specific skills for researching a topic successfully. We differentiate between qualitative and quantitative analysis. ‘The components of a properly designed scientific investigation are set out in the steps below. Identify an answerable question Decide what you want to find out. Formulate a hypothesis Use prior research and understanding to predict a sensible result. Design an experiment Design an experiment to test your hypothesis. Use a procedure that will enable a fair test. Independent and dependent variables ‘When two variables change such that a change in one variable directly results in a change in the other variable, we call these independent and dependent variables. The independent variable (x) is quantities that ‘we can change, such as time and mass, For example, if we measure the velocity of an object at different time intervals, time is an independent variable. ‘The velocity is the dependent variable (9). InTRooUcTION 21Determine the independent and dependent variables. Identify control variables. These factors do not change during the experiment. Decide the values of the independent variable before you start the experiment. Then measure the values of the dependent variable during the experiment. Collect quantitative data accurately Use scientific apparatus such as a thermometer, balance, metric ruler, graduated cylinder, pipette and burette correctly. Collect and record your observations and measurements in a systematic way using the correct scientific units. ‘We use thermometers to measure temperature in degrees Celcius. Thermometers available in school laboratories might contain mercury, which is the most accurate, but red filled thermometers are available and they do not contain poisonous and hazardous mercury. The temperature range of thermometers used in school is usually ~20 °C to 110°C. Use a graduated cylinder when the volume needed does not have to be precise, Read the volume at the bottom of the meniscus. pipette is used for measuring and transferring an accurate and precise volume of a solution. The solution must be drawn up into the pipette. This is done by using a pipette filler. Never use your mouth to suck up a solution. Before using the pipette, make sure itis clean and rinse it with the solution that you want to transfer. Pour slightly more solution in a beaker and fill the pipette. Never fil a pipette directly from the reagent bottle. A burette is used to dispense solutions in precisely- measured amounts, primarily in the process of titration, Make sure the burette tap is greased ‘and can tur easily. Clean and rinse the burette before filing it with the required solution. Clamp the burette vertically to a retort stand. Fill the burette with the solution by using a small funnel. Open the tap to set the burette to zero. Read the bottom of the meniscus. Make sure there are no air bubbles in the tip of the burette. 22 INTRODUCTIONWeighing scales, mass meters and balances are used to measure the mass of solid compounds. There are many different types and they vary in accuracy. Most schoo! laboratories will have a top-loading electronic scale ‘that can measure to 0,1 gram. Turn on the balance and wait for the display to read 0,0 g. Place a container on the balance pan and push the TARE button to set the reading to zero. Add the solid substance to the container and record the mass. Be careful not to spill on the balance pan. Interpret data Organise, analyse and synthesise your data in tables, graphs and diagrams. When we plot a graph to illustrate the relationship between two variables, the independent variable is plotted on the x-axis. Check if your hypothesis is valid. Verify results Conduct more experiments to make sure your results can be repeated. If accepted values are known, calculate the percentage error for your experiment. Determine the accuracy and the precision of experimental results. Analyse experimental results and identify possible sources of bias or experimental error. In most experiments there are two types of errors: systemic errors and random errors. Systemic errors can be due to faulty measuring instruments, eg. if a clock is running too fast or too slow. A reading is accurate if the systemic error is made as small as possible. Conclusion Recognise, analyse and evaluate alternative explanations for the same set of observations, Write a conclusion for your experiment that confirms your hypothesis, or adjust your hypothesis to fit the results Formulate results Interpret the results and reach a consistent explanation of known observations. Design a model based on the correct hypothesis that you can use for further investigation. ‘The final conclusion can be in the form of a theory, a principle or a law. We will use a chemical and a physical investigation to apply the scientific method. INTRODUCTION 23Investigate the effect of temperature Activity 1_ on the rate of reaction 1. Choose an experiment and identify an answerable question. Calcium carbonate (marble chips) react with hydrochloric acid to release carbon dioxide gas. The volume of gas released in a certain time period can be used to measure the rate of the reaction. How does the temperature of the acid affect the rate of the reaction? 2. Formulate a hypothesis to guide the scientific investigation. ‘An increase in the temperature of the acid increases the rate of the reaction. 3. Design a simple experiment including appropriate controls. Here we design an experiment that will enable us to test the hypothesis. When designing the experiment we need to consider how we will measure the rate of reaction. The rate of reaction can be measured qualitatively by observing how fast CO, bubbles are produced, or quantitatively by ‘measuring the amount of gas liberated in each consecutive time period. Start off by drawing up a list of the apparatus that will be needed for this experiment. A diagram helps to clarify the experimental set-up. You will need: + aconical flask a delivery tube + 250. cm? measuring cylinder filled with water and inverted in a trough with water + a predetermined volume of hydrochloric acid at room temperature and the same volume heated to 40 °C and 60°C + three marble chips of similar size + astopwatch or side-arm and stopper; the side-arm is connected to measing cinder conical ask elie be male chip ha ‘ough with water INTRODUCTIONHow will we ensure that the experiment isa fair test? You only want to change one thing (the independent variable) to see how it affects another thing (the dependent variable). In this case, temperature is the independent variable, as we try to show that rate depends upon temperature. The volume of gas produced is an indication of the reaction rate and is the dependent variable. ‘There are other variables that could also affect the rate of a reaction, for example, the concentration of the acid, and the size and shape of the marble chip. Make sure to keep alll other variables constant and use exactly the same apparatus and method for each experiment. How will we change the temperature of the acid safely? Hydrochloric aci a very corrosive acid and causes burns. Heat the acid with care over a burner to the required temperature. Always wear safety glasses and handle the hot beaker with a pair of tongs. Design the experimental method: Step 1. Place a marble chip in the flask and connect the apparatus as in the diagram on the previous page. Step 2. Add the acid at room temperature and immediately stopper the flask. Step 3. Place the inverted measuring cylinder over the delivery tube and start timing as soon as the first bubbles appear. Measure the volume of gas in the measuring cylinder after 5 minutes. Step 4, Repeat the procedure for acid at 40 °C and 60°C. Collect and interpret data. Record observations and data using the correct scientific units. A table is a Useful tool for recording data. The table must have suitable headings and correct units. An example of a table for these experiments is given below. ounetciew Tepenumetiarg The data can now be used to interpret the results of the experiment. Draw a graph of volume of gas produced against temperature. A graph similar in shape to the graph alongside 20°C will be obtained. Time (min INTRODUCTION 255, Analyse the data. There isa direct proportionality between the reaction rate and the temperature — an increase in temperature results in more bubbles being formed in the same time period, so reactions happen faster at a higher temperature. 6. Determine the accuracy of experimental results. Recognise, analyse and evaluate alternative explanations for the same set of observations. Repeat the experiment with other temperatures, amounts of acid and for other time periods. Try to identify possible sources of bias or experimental error when analysing your experimental results. Evaluate your method to ‘make sure that you used exactly the same procedure each time and that external factors, such as the temperature of the room, air currents and wind, or the timing device did not change during the course of the experiments. Random errors in readings and inaccurate graphs might be due to human error or the nature of the experiment. For example, gas bubbles might get trapped underneath the marble chip or not move at a constant rate through the delivery tube. 7. Design a model based on the correct hypothesis that can be used for further investigation. ‘An analysis of the results and graphs show that an increase in temperature of the liquid reactant increases the rate of the reaction. Similarly, a decrease in temperature will decrease the rate of a reaction. We use this knowledge when we cook food in hot water, or place food in the fridge to reduce decay. Investigate the relationship of temperature Activity 2 _and the internal resistance of a battery 1. Choose an experiment and identify an answerable question. Some people place a battery in sunlight or a warm oven in order to make it last longer. People living in cold climates often have difficulties starting their cars in the morning. They usually pour hot water on the terminals of the battery to solve the problem, What is the relationship between temperature and the internal resistance of a battery? 2. Formulate a hypothesis to guide the scientific investigation. ‘An inctease in the temperature at which a battery operates results in a decrease in its internal resistance. 3. Design a simple experiment including appropriate controls. Here we perform laboratory procedures directed at testing a hypothesis. ‘The design of the experiment must enable us to test the hypothesis. When we design the experiment we need to consider: + how we will measure the internal resistance of a battery + how we will change the temperature of the battery. 26 INTRODUCTIONWe can design the experiment using the circuit diagram below. 1v ‘heosat The theostat changes the voltage and current readings in the circuit. The voltmeter and ammeter provide accurate readings of the external voltage and current. When you select ammeters and voltmeter, ensure that the range and scale on the meters are appropriate. We need to find the internal resistance of the battery at different battery temperatures. We can select one temperature as room temperature. Another temperature (hot) can be obtained by placing the battery in a beaker and then placing the beaker in some hot water. The battery is then removed from the beaker and placed back in the circuit. The third temperature (cold) can be obtained by placing the beaker with the battery in some ice water. Keep other factors constant. Ensure that all other factors that could influence the result of the experiment are kept constant. For example, use the same ammeters and voltmeters. 5. Collect and interpret data. Record observations and data using the correct scientific units. A table is a Useful tool for recording data. The table must have suitable headings and correct units. Typical readings for our investigation are shown in the table below. This data is then exported into a format that allows us to interpret the results. InTRooUcTION 7A graphs is the most suitable method of illustrating the relationship in this experiment. 6. Analyse the data. We use the slope of the graph to determine the internal soon resistance, gee ‘The current and voltage readings are related by the a equation ¢=V,,+ Ir os caldbatery from which we get -ly_ vor Te Meet W046 081) _12 ‘Comparing this expression with that of a straight line graph, Yotage() y= ke+ ¢,we can see that the slope (k) must be given by hat is the inverse of the internal resistance of the p battery. Analysing the graphs, we notice that the hot battery has the largest slope and therefore the smallest internal resistance. 7. Determine the accuracy and the precision of experimental results. ‘Systematic errors in the voltmeter and ammeter can be minimised by calibrating them with accurately known voltages and currents. Random, errors arise when repeated measurements of the same reading are taken. ‘The precision of the voltmeter and ammeter readings are maximised ifthe correct scales on these meters are used, In our investigation, the random errors in the voltmeter and ammeter readings are 0,05 V and 0,05 A respectively. For example, a reading of 0,20V + 0,05 V, means that the reading is precise within the range of 0,15 and 0,25 V, and the percentage error in the reading is 0,05 = (Gig) x 100 = 25% 8, Recognise, analyse and evaluate alternative explanations for the same set of observations. Determine the relationship between internal resistance and temperature for other types of batteries to see if this relationship is unique or can also be applied to other batteries. 9. Design a model based on the correct hypothesis that can be used for further investigation. ‘An analysis of the graphs shows that the battery at the highest temperature has the largest slope, and the one at the lowest temperature has the smallest slope. The internal resistance of the battery is decreased by an increase in temperature. The conclusion that the internal resistance is affected by the temperature of the battery is free of bias since itis based on empirical evidence, Our findings explain why people living in cold climates have difficulties starting their cars in the morning. The low temperatures have increased the internal resistance of the battery, and therefore the battery does not supply sufficient current for the starter motor. When hot water is poured onto the terminals of the battery, this decreases the internal resistance of the battery. 28 INTRODUCTIONTERM ONE MODULE 1 Mechanics 30 Unit Momentum and impulse 31 Unit 2 Vertical projectile motion in one dimension 52 MODULE 2 Matter and materials 74 Unit 1 Organic molecules 75Mechanics In mechanics we study the effects of forces acting on matter. In Grade 10 and 11 you were introduced to the equations for horizontal motion. In this module we introduce the concepts of momentum and impulse. ‘Momentum measures the effects of the mass and velocity of an object on its motion, When objects collide we use this concept to explain what happens to each object after the collision. We will use our knowledge of momentum to derive the concept of impulse. The effect of a net force is determined by the amount of time thatit is applied. We will use this concept to discuss safety in cars We will also use the principles of motion from Grade 10 and 11 to discuss and predict the vertical motion of objects. In this module you will work your way through the following units: Unit 1 Momentum and impulse Unit 2 Vertical projectile motion in one dimension. Physical constant used in these units: Gravitational acceleration: g = 9,8 ms? Key questions: + What is momentum and how do we determine this quantity? + How can we verify the conservation of linear momentum? + What is the difference between an elastic and an inelastic collision? + How can we use the principles of conservation of momentum to determine the velocities of objects before and after a collision? + Whatis impulse and how do we use this concept to improve safety in cars? + Whatis a free falling body and why does it fall freely? + How can we describe the motion of a free falling body? + How can we illustrate graphically the relationship between position, displacement, velocity and acceleration against time for a free falling body? 30 TERM ONE ~ MODULEvy i 13 hours Momentum and impulse ‘We are familiar with many of the quantities that we encounter in 219, physics. Often we have a sense of what they mean, For example, we can picture a man whose mass is 100 kg, or car that travels at 120 km-h! However, we may not yet have a picture of a car that has a momentum, of 1500 kg-m's *. In this unit we will investigate momentum and develop a sense of this concept. Consider two balls rolling on a smooth horizontal surface at the same constant velocity. One ball has a large mass and the other a small mass. 104g ‘Which ball is easier to stop? To answer this question, you probably considered the mass of the 1.1.1 Iris easier to stop the balls. A ball with a small mass is easy to stop. The large ball is more ball wth the senall mass than difficult to stop. This is because the large ball has a greater (quantity of the ball with the large mass. motion) than the small ball. ‘This combination of mass and velocity determines the ‘quantity of motion’ of an object. We can increase the quantity of motion by increasing + the mass of the object, or + the velocity of the object, or * both the mass and the velocity of the object. ‘This ‘quantity of motion’ is called momentum. where # is the momentum (kg-m-s"), m is the mass (in kg), and ¥ the velocity (in m-s"). Mass isa scalar quantity. Velocity is a vector quantity so momentum is also a vector quantity. The direction of the momentum of an object is always in the same direction as the velocity of the object. ‘The unit for momentum is the product of the units for mass and velocity, fe. (kg) x (ms), or kms! UNIT ~ TERM ONE 32 Example 1 ‘AS kg block is moving in a straight line at 2 ms" towards the left. Determine the momentum of the block. Solution Let the direction to the left be positive. =| Bem kg x (42m 10 kgs" The momentum of the block is 10 kg:m-*to the left. Example 2 Anathlete has a mass of 60 kg and a constant momentum of 96 kg-m-s*in an easterly direction. Determine the velocity of the athlete. Solution Let the easterly direction be positive. The velocity of the athlete is 1,6 m-s* in an easterly direction. Change in momentum 2hours ‘The vector nature of velocity determines the vector nature of momentum and the velocity and the momentum of an object are always in the same direction. When the mass and velocity of an object remain constant, the momentum of the object also remains constant. The mass of most objects remain constant during their motion. When the velocity of an object changes, the momentum also changes. The change in momentum (Ap) is the difference between the initial momentum (f)) and the final momentum (f,). Both the initial and the final momentum are vector quantities and have magnitude and direction. We write the relationship in the following equation: AB = Boat Pranat & AB = By— B, ‘We can illustrate the relationships between the initial momentum, the final momentum and the change in momentum by vector diagrams. Vectors show relative magnitude and direction We can write the above equation as P= Pia, + AB ie. the final momentum is always the vector sum of the initial momentum and TERM ONE ~ MODULE?the change in momentum. If, for example, a we want to draw a vector to represent the change in momentum, draw vectors for the initial momentum and the final momentum in their exact direction with relative magnitudes (relative lengths of the arrows). Finally draw the change in momentum so that the final momentum is the resultant of the initial momentum and the change in momentum. Examples 3, 4 and 5 illustrate how this is done. Example 3 A car with a mass of 600 kg travels in an easterly direction along a straight, horizontal road at a constant velocity of 20 ms". The driver suddenly increases his velocity to a constant velocity of 24 m-s-', and continues to drive in the original direction. __ Sata _ TE, a) Determine the change in momentum of the car. b) Drawa vector diagram to illustrate the relationship between the initial momentum, the final momentum and the change in the momentum of the car, Solution a) Take easterly direction as positive. B= Mm, = 600 kg (+20 ms") = +12 000 kg ms", B= M¥, = 600 kg (+24 ms") = +14 400 kam", AB= B,- B= +14 400 karmss* - (+12 000 kam 1) = +2400 kgs ‘The change in momentum of the car is 2400 kq:m--" in an easterly direction. Db) = » I oF —__)»—_»> B ——_ Example 4 Isms! horizontal: inless path. - J (ABin the diagram) at aconstant inst, velocity of 1,5 ms ina straight line. It passes over a small rough patch BC. The box then 4 : re continues in its original direction Ins along the frictionless path CD at a constant velocity of 1 ms". UNITY « TERM ONE 33‘a)_Determine the change in momentum of the box. b) Use a vector diagram to illustrate the relationship between the initial, final and change in momentum. Solution a) Take the original direction of the motion of the box as posi B= mv,=3 kg (+1 ms AB =3,- B= +3 kams'- (4,5 kgms")=-1,5 kas" The change in momentum of the box is 1,5 kgm-s' to the opposite direction of the original motion b) Ba+loms igs! Ag =—15toms! Example 5 A 100g tennis ball strikes a wall at 10 ms, and bounces backin the opposite direction at 8 ms" a) Calculate the change in momentum of the ball b) Use vector diagrams to illustrate this change. ts : Solution ‘a) Take the direction towards the wall to be positive. 0,1 kg (+10 ms) = +1 kgs. 0,1 kg (-8 ms") = -08 kg-m- Ap=3,-f.=-08kgms*—1kgms? =-1.8kgms? 4 TERM ONE ~ MODULE?‘When we study the vector diagrams in the three examples, we see that the final momentum, fis always the vector sum of the initial momentum, j, and the change in momentum Aj. We can represent this statement by the equation: p, =p, + Ap Test yourself 1 1. Andile is jogging at a constant velocity of 2 ms" along a straight road. He speeds up to a constant velocity of 3 ms" while crossing at an interse« Andile's mass is 50 kg. a) Calculate his change in momentum. (50 kom" in the original diection of motion) b)_ Use vector diagram to represent the change in momentum. 2. Abowler bowls a 100 g cricket ball toa batsman. The ball approaches the bat with a constant velocity of 34 ms. The bat strikes the ball and the ball undergoes a change in momentum of 5,4 kg-m-s" in the opposite direction. a) Drawa vector diagram to show the initial momentum and the change in momentum of the ball. b) Complete the vector diagram by drawing the final momentum of the ball in its correct direction. Without doing any calculations, predict the magnitude of the final momentum. Calculate the final momentum by using an appropriate equation, and ‘compare your answer to the prediction you made in b). 2koms" opposite to original direction of ball) Newton's Second Law expressed in terms of momentum 2hours In Grade 11 we considered the effect of several forces acting on a body simultaneously. That single force that has the same effect as all the other Noe eter oracson forces acting together is the resultant force or the net force. Considera | ‘pensiner cintrenocoal person pushing a box along a horizontal surface. diction. Weassume ta the applied force doesnot change the mass of the box. UNIT ~ TERM ONE 35Inthe frebody diagrams below isthe fictional force and EF the orce applied by the by onthe box. Ss Newton's Laws help us to understand the action and consequences of forces. The following three laws apply at the same time: + The net force changes the motion of the box. In the absence of this net force, the box will remain in its position of rest. This is explained by Newton’s First Law, which states that an object will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by a net force. + When a force is applied, two bodies are involved. Forces act in pairs and each body exerts a force on the other. The person exerts a force on the box. This is the action force. The box in turn exerts a force (the reaction force) equal in magnitude but opposite in direction on the If the frictional force has the same magnitude as that of the applied force, the net force is ro, and the object moves at constant velocity or not at all Here the applied force is bigger than the frictional force, and so the box will accelerate proportional to the frictional force. 5, person. This is a statement af Newton’s Third Law — if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal force on body A, but in the opposite direction. When a force is applied it can change the state of motion of the box. The box can speed up, slow down, or change direction. The box undergoes an acceleration. ‘This acceleration is directly proportional to the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the box. ‘The acceleration is in the direction of the net force. This is Newton’s Second Law, which states that whenever a net force acts on an object, it produces an acceleration in the direction of the net force. This acceleration is directly proportional to the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. This law is represented by the equation F.= mit ‘The box, in the example, has an initial velocity v, ‘When a force is applied the box attains a new velocity v, after a certain time At. If we assume that the mass of the box does not change, then we can determine the acceleration that the box undergoes from the equation ¥,+4At, ord ma = M=¥) 36 TERM ONE ~ MODULE‘This equation tells us that the net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum. In this form, the momentum of an object changes if either the net force, or the interaction time At, or both changes. When we represent Newton's Second Law by the equation F.,, = mid for the motion of an object, we are assuming that the mass of the object remains constant during the acceleration caused by the net force. Newton's First Law can also be extended to a more general form. We know that the motion of an object can only change if a net force acts on the object, and that no change in motion is possible in the absence of a net force. We can now state that the momentum of an object can only change if a net force acts on the object. We can also say that a change in momentum is not possible if no net force acts on the object. Explaining the relationship between net force and change in momentum Let us now revisit the three examples on pages 33 and 34 where we calculated the change in momentum and used vector diagrams to determine the direction of the change. Now that we know that a change in momentum is only possible if a net force acts, let us locate the net forces and their directions for each example. In example 3, the change in momentum (Af) was in the forward direction. For the short period of time (At) when the engine of the car exerted a larger force, a net force acted on the car in the forward direction. ‘This net force increased the momentum of the car. If Atis kept constant, a larger net force would bring about a larger change in momentum While the box in example 4 was sliding over the rough patch for a period of time At, a frictional force acted on the box opposite to the direction of motion of the box. This decreased the momentum of the ‘box. In this example, Ap was opposite to the direction of motion of the box. If the rough patch exerted a langer force in the same time At, the box would have slowed down further, and Ap would have been larger. In example 5, upon striking the wall, the wall exerted a force on the ball opposite to the direction of the original motion of the ball. This force only acted for a short time At while the ball was in contact with the ‘wall. It reversed the direction of the momentum of the ball. Hence the change in momentum Aj was opposite to the original direction of the all's motion. If the wall exerted a larger force on the ball in the same time At, Ap would be larger. Inall three examples, the relationship between the net force and the change in momentum is the same i.e. the direction of the change in momentum is always in the direction of the net force, and an increase in the net force always increases the change in momentum when the time UNITY « TERM ONE 7for which the force acts is constant i.e. Fe AB when AL is constant. ‘The direction of a net force is always in the direction of the change in momentum. Example 6 Acar of mass 500 kgis traveling at a constant velocity of 30 ms“' when the driver realises that she is exceeding the speed limit. She decides to slow down. She applies her brakes for 4 seconds. Ifa constant net force of 1.000 N slows down the car during 4 seconds, calculate: a) the change in momentum of the carafter 4 seconds. b) the velocity of the carafter 4 seconds. Solution Take the ori al direction of the car’s motion to be positive. Therefore, the net force is opposite to the motion, and is negative Ay a B= 3 1 000N = AE as Ap=-4000 Ns The change in momentum of the car after 4 seconds is 4 000 N-s (or 4.000 kg-ms-') opposite to the direction of the cars motion. b) Ap=mi,— my, 4.000 kg:mss ' = 500 kg X ¥,—500kg X 30ms = The velocity of the car after 4 seconds is 22 ms "in its original direction. Case study Rocket motion A rocket is a self-propelled device that carties its own fuel. Rockets burn fuel and expel hot exhaust gases. The force of the hot gases shooting out in one direction causes the rocket to move in the opposite direction. All rockets — whether small or large, simple or complex - work by the principle of action and reaction. The expulsion of exhaust gases from the rear is the action, and the forward movement of the rocket is the reaction. ‘We can compare the motion of a rocket toa balloon losing air. When a balloon is sealed, the air inside pushes on the entire interior surface of the balloon with equal force. When we open the balloon and allow the air to escape, the backward movement of the air causes the forward movement of the balloon, Rockets produce the force that moves them forward by burning thei fuel inside a chamber in the rocket and then expelling the hot exhaust gases. The rocket exerts a force on the exhaust gases, the gases in turn 38 TERM ONE ~ MODULErace propelled exert a force on the rocket. The net force acting on the rocket changes the ‘pats momentum of the rocket. If the net force propels the rocket forward, the change in momentum is also in the forward direction. Rockets carry their own fuel and the oxygen used for burning fuel. In liquid-fueled rockets, the fuel and an oxygen-bearing substance (called the ‘oxidiser) are in separate compartments. The fuel is mixed with oxygen and ignited inside a combustion chamber. Rockets have an opening called a nozzle from which the exhaust gases exit. A rocket nozzle is a cup-shaped device that flares out smoothly like a funnel inside the end of the rocket The nozzle directs the rocket exhaust gases and causes it to come out faster, increasing the thrust and efficiency of the rocket. Some people stil believe that rocket exhaust gases need something to push against (such as the ground or the ait) in order to move the rocket. Rockets traveling in the vacuum of space, however, demonstrates that this belief is not true. In fact, rockets produce more thrust in the vacuum of space ‘than on Earth. Air pressure and friction with the air reduce a rocket’s thrust by about 10 percent on Earth as compared to the rocket's performance in space. A single rocket is very powerful, but to move a rocket into an orbit, itis often more efficient to use several rockets. Launch vehicles often use more than one rocket engine, or stages, during a mission. Stages are stacked on top of each other. The stage on the bottom of the stack is the first one to fire. In some stage rockets the first stage has additional rockets attached to the outside. These act as boosters to further increase the thrust. Rockets can theoretically use any number of stages, but itis dificult to coordinate the 1.1.2 The rocket exerts a firing times of too many stages. The huge Saturn V rocket that sent Apollo force on the exhaust gases, astronauts to the moon had four stages, including the Apollo spacecraft’s egos our ever a own rocket. The first and most powerful stage lifts the launch vehicle into the upper atmosphere. This stage separates from the rest of the racket and falls toward Earth. The rocket now has less mass so when the second stage ignites the rocket reaches a much higher velocity. The second stage also uses up its fuel and drops off. The third stage fires and places the spacecraft into orbit. © 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved, gusesexgled from nazze UNIT ~ TERM ONE 39Test yourself2 1. Read the case study Rocket motion and explain: a) why the fuel and the oxidiser are in separate compartments b) why the nozzle would direct the exhaust gases downwards when a rocket is launched ©) what a’booster 2. Amodel rocket is made up of a shuttle of mass 20 kg, and a fuel tank which has a mass of 4 kg when itis empty. When the rocket attains an upward velocity of 10 mss", all ofits fuel is used up. At this point, the empty tank is fired downwards at a velocity of 5 ms". This causes the rocket to increase its, upward velocity to 13 m-s". Calculate the change in momentum of a) the rocket without empty fuel tank (60kgm-" upward) b) the empty fuel tank. (60 kam downward) 3. Explain why the velocity of a rocket increases when a fuel tankis fired downwards. 4, The application of Newton's Laws to rockets and rocket propulsion has made it possible for human beings to explore Earth and beyond. Discuss the impact of space navigation on human beings. Conservation of momentum Shours Isolated systems In science, a system refers to a set of objects, and their e % interactions with each other. It is a small part of the universe that we consider when trying to understand a particular phenomenon, or solving a particular problem. ‘The objects that are located outside of the system make - up the environment. ° We often need to study a limited number of objects ata time. This limited number of objects is referred to as 4 coment Foatedsptem cgmeny System. The objects in the environment clo exert forces on the objects within the system. 1.13 There are no externa forces en an An external force is a force that originates from a isolated system. source outside of the system i.e. not from the objects 40 TERM ONE ~ MODULEand interactions within the system. If there are no external forces acting on the system, or if these external forces are balanced by other external forces (ic. the net external force acting on the system is zero), we refer to this system as an isolated system. ‘The objects within the system do exert forces on each other (eg. when they collide with each other). These forces are referred to as internal forces. Friction is considered to be an external force when acting on objects in a system. This is because friction reduces the momentum and the energy that moving objects have. For a system to be considered as an isolated system, one can make friction small enough so that it has negligible influence on the objects in the system, and hence can be ignored. Consider the collision between two balls on a billiards (pool) table. ‘The collision occurs in an isolated system as long as friction is so small that its influence upon the momentum of the billiard balls can be neglected. If so, then the only unbalanced forces acting upon the two balls are the contact forces that they exert on one another. These contact forces (F'_,,) are considered internal forces since they result from a source within the system (the collision between the two balls). Collisions When two bodies are in motion in an isolated system, they maintain their total momentum if no external forces act on them. ‘That is when we add up the magnitude and direction of the momenta of each body in the system at any given time, the sum is constant. When objects A and B collide, A exerts a force on B (F,,,), which acts for a short period of time, At. B exerts an equal and opposite force on A (F.,,), which acts for the same period of time, At. Action-reaction forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction so F,, = -F,,. Note that these forces arise from within the system, There are no external forces on the bodies so the net force on the system is still zero. ‘What happens after a collision in an isolated system? The force stops acting once the bodies separate from each other. Since no forces act on the bodies, they maintain their new velocities until another collision occurs within the isolated system. Objects A and B. ‘now move in opposite directions. Objects A and B have undergone a change in momentum as a result of the collision. Because F,, = —F,,, and the time of contact 1.14 Action-teaction forces are AB, + Ap, = (equation 1) equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. UNITY « TERM ONE aAn explosion soften treated and refered asa colision a2 ‘This means that the decrease of object A’s momentum is equal to the increase in object B’s momentum (or vice-versa) or the total momentum. is conserved. Principle of conservation of linear momentum ‘The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant. So the total linear momentum before a collision is equal to the total linear momentum after the collision We can write equation 1 as: hn t+ By By =O But Ba = Bea + Po MP + MH = Ty + MDa Bor (before the collision) = p,,,, (after the collision) Example 8 Car A travels west at a constant velocity of 28 m-s". It collides into the back of car B traveling in the same direction at 16 ms" After the collision, car B moves west at 24 ms. The mass of car A is 600 kg and that of car B is 900 kg. Ignore the effects of fiction. Determine the velocity of car A after the collision. Solution Select west as positive direction. Since momentum is conserved: f,,, (before) = f,. (after) MB y+ Mydig = MT + Py 600 kg (+28 ms") + 900 kg (+16 ms" 3,=+16ms", The velocity of car A after the collision is 16 m-s' west. = 600 kg (,) +900 kg (+24 ms) Explosions An explosion occurs when objects separate as a result of a net force that pushes them apart in opposite directions. The objects can be stationary, or moving together with the same velocity. Momentum is also conserved during explosions in an isolated system. The separating masses have the same initial velocity, but different final velocities. The equation for the conservation of momentum then becomes: TERM ONE ~ MODULE?Example 9 A\1kg trolley and a 2 kg trolley are connected with a compressed spring. ‘They are held in a stationary position and released simultaneously. The trolleys separate. After the explosion, the first trolley has a velocity of 5 ms"'to the left. The second has a velocity of 2,5 ms“'to the right. Show that the momentum is conserved during the explosion. Solution Select the direction to the right as positive. Pron = M8, +m, = 0 (since both trolleys are initially stationary) Bare = Mh + 8, = (1 KQ)-S ms") + (2 kg 425 ms") =0 SINCE Poe ~ Byrwe MOMentum is conserved. Momentum is always conserved during an explosion in an isolated system, We can verify the principle of conservation of linear momentum in an experiment. Prescribed experiment for 1 formal assessment Verify the conservation of linear momentum In this experiment, we explode two trolleys. The trolleys are spring loaded and placed close together with the spring in a compressed state. The trolley spring is released, to eject a rod that pushes the trolleys apart. The trolleys experience equal forces away from each other as a result of the release of the spring. We assume that the trolleys experience no friction during this explosion, so the forces exerted by the spring is the net force on each trolley. This net force changes the momentum of each trolley. The aim of this experiment is to prove that the momentum is conserved when the trolleys undergo changes in their momenta. You will need: Two spring loaded trolleys, a metre stick (or measuring tape), two barriers (wooden bumpers), long smooth runway Method 1. Set up the trolleys in the middle of a long smooth runway. Mark the starting position of each trolley. Ez = UNITY = TERM ONE2. Copy the table below. Measure and record the mass of each trolley. 3. Place the trolleys at the starting point and release the spring. 4, Set the position of the wooden bumpers so that the trolleys reach them at exactly the same time. 5, Measure and record the displacements 2, and X, from each trolley’s starting position to the bumpers. Remember that if displacement in one direction is , then displacement in the opposite direction is negative. Repeat the experiment for a few values of x, and x,. 6. Repeat the experiment a few times using different masses on the trolleys 7. Record the data of each experiment. 3 Questions 1. What is the momentum of each trolley before the Explain. 2, The momentum of each trolley is given by the equation f= mt. In this experiment we take the product of mass and displacement as a measure of momentum for each trolley after the spring is released. Explain why. 3. Calculate the sum of the momenta of both trolleys after the explosion for each set of readings. How does this sum compare to the sum of the momenta of both trolleys before the explosion? What conclusion can you arrive at for this experiment? Give one reason (related to the design of this experiment) why readings may be inaccurate. ve Elastic and inelastic collisions All collisions in an isolated system conserve momentum. Kinetic energy, however, is only conserved in certain collisions. In these collisions, no energy is transferred as sound, heat or any other form of energy. We say that a collision is elastic if kinetic energy is conserved. ‘This means that the total kinetic energy before the collision is equal to the total kinetic energy after the collision. 1 1 1 For two blocks colliding elastically: 3 mv’, +5 mvt, = my2, +4 mvt, We say that a collision is inelastic if the total kinetic energy before the collision is not equal to the total kinetic energy after the collision. 44 TERM ONE ~ MODULE?For two blocks colliding inelastically: m,v3 +} my*, # 5 myi, +5 my, ‘To determine whether a collision is elastic or inelastic we compare the total kinetic energy before the collision to the total kinetic energy after the collision to establish whether they are equal. Example 10 Determine whether the collision between the two colli 8 is elastic or inelastic. ing cars in example Solution Before the collision: }im,v3, +4 my, = 5 (600 kg)(28 ms"? + 3 (900 kg)(16 ms" = 350-400) After the colli Jm.y2, +} m,v7, =} (600 kg)(16 ms")? + 3 (900 kg)(24 ms")? = 336 0003 The collision is inelastic as the total kinetic energy before the collision is not equal to the total kinetic eneray after the collision. ion Example 11 An astronaut of mass 75 kg carries a pack of mass 25 kg. He accidentally separates from his space craft and floats in space toa distance of 15 m from the craft. The astronaut knows that the only way to get back to the space craft isto push away his pack. a) Determine the direction and velocity (relative to the space craft) that EY the astronaut must push away his pack in order to return to the space ov craftin 305. b) Is the collision between the astronaut and his pack elastic or inelastic Me Support your answer with relevant calculations. (fy 1.15 An astronaut pushes his pack Solution away tollow him 70 return tothe a) The astronaut needs to push the pack aay so that his velocity ,) space craft allows him to cover the 15 m to the space craft in 30 sat constant velocity Ax _15m ‘At > 30s ‘When the astronaut pushes the pack away from himself, momentum is conserved, Taking motion towards the space craft as positive: (mm, +, = mg, + my =05 ms? (75 kg + 25 kgN(0) = 75 kg(0,5 ms") +25, ¥,=-15ms! The astronaut must push his pack with a speed of 1,5 ms"! away from the space craft. UNITY « TERM ONE 451.1.6 A 5-ball Newtons Cradle system, 46 b) Since the astronaut and the pack are stationery relative to the space craft initially, the total kinetic energy before the collision is zero. Afterwards both are moving and have non-zero kinetic energy. So we can deduce that it is an inelastic collision since kinetic energy is not conserved. dmvi+ mv, 3175 kaNO.5 ms") +3 (25 kg)(1,5 ms"? = 37.5) Since E,,., (before the collision) # E,,_. (after the collision), the collision is inelastic. Egy (after the collision) 1 Recommended demonstration for Activity 2 informal assessment Newton's Cradle We can demonstrate the conservation of momentum and kinetic energy by using a Newton's Cradle. A Newton's Cradle consists of a series of identical metal balls suspended in a metal frame. They are placed so that they just touch each other at rest. Each ball is attached to the frame by two wires of equal length angled away from each other. This restricts the pendulums’ movements to the same plane. fwe pull one ball away and allow it to fall, it strikes the next ball in the series and comes to a stop. The ball on the opposite side acquires most of the velocity and almost instantly swings in an arc that is almost as high as the release height of the first ball. This shows that the final ball receives most of the energy and momentum of the first ball. In a Newton’s Cradle, all the balls have similar mass, so we can explain that when a pair of balls collide, the‘moving’ ball stops relative to the’stationary’ one, and the stationary one picks up the velocity (and therefore the momentum and energy). If we assume that no energy is transferred to heat or sound when the balls collide, then the collisions are elastic. This means that the balls at the ends will continue to reach the same height, and they will continue to swing. Method 1. Pull one ball away first and allow it to fall. Describe your observations. Then pull two of the balls away simultaneously and allow them to strike the other three. Describe what you observe. 2, Now pull three of the balls, and release them. What do you observe? Questions 1. Discuss two possible reasons why the balls will eventually come to rest. 2. Ina 2-ball Newton's Cradle, the momentum of the colliding balls is conserved. The initial velocity of ball 1 just before it strikes ball , is ¥, TERM ONE ~ MODULE?a) Determine the velocity of ball 2 just after the collision in terms of ¥, 3. Newton's Cradle is considered to be an executive toy’ It has no significant y. apart from demonstrating a principle of physics. Discuss this statement by researching the origins of this device, and its value to humankind, Test yourself 3 1. Aboy moves on a skateboard at a constant velocity of 3 ms. The combined mass of the boy and the skateboard is 40 kg. He catches a bag of flour of mass 5 kg that is thrown to him horizontally at 6 mss". Determine the velocity of the boy after catching the bag of flour. (2m in his original direction) 2. Two trolleys, A of mass 0,2 kg and B of mass 0,4 ka, are moving to the left at 3 ms" The trolleys are attached by a compressed spring. The spring is released and immediately after this trolley A moves to the left at 4 m-s )_ State the principle of conservation of linear momentum, b) Calculate the velocity of trolley B immediately after the spring is, 1.1.7 The boy onthe skateboard released. (2,5 ms" to the left) moves at a constant velocity. ©) _ Is the above collision elastic or inelastic? Explain your answer. ‘See question 1. Impulse hours ‘The principle of conservation of momentum shows that the total ‘momenta before and after a collision or an explosion in an isolated system are equal. In this section, we will discuss what happens during a collision, and what brings about a change in the momentum of an object. 2 A Earlier, we derived the equation = 5b. From this equation we see that the net fore + changes the momentum of an object + acts on the object for a period of time, At + is defined as the rate of change of momentum of the object + isin the direction of the change in momentum of the object, a P._Atis the product of the net force and the time for which the net force acts on an object. This is called impulse. The equation shows that impulse is also the change in momentum of an object. Since net force is a vector quantity, impulse is also a vector quantity, and is always in the direction of the net force. ‘We can rearrange the equation to; F,At = UNITY « TERM ONE a‘The relationship F, At = Ap is known as the impulse-momentum theorem. This theorem states that impulse is the change in momentum. It provides us with two methods for finding the impulse. Method 1: The product of the net force and the time for which the net force acts (unit: N's), and Method 2: The change in momentum, or the final momentum less the initial momentum (unit: kg-ms"). ‘These units are the same, N's = kgms* =kgms*. Example 12 A taxi (together with its occupants) has a mass of 1 000 kg. The driver slows down the taxi from 25 ms" to 15 ms" in 5 seconds. Determine the average net force acting on the taxi during these 5 seconds. Solution Take the direction in which the taxi was moving initially as positive. F,,At= AB= mv, — mi, F_(5 8) = 1.000 kg (+15 ms") ~ 1.000 kg (+25 ms") ‘ae =-2000N The net force that acts on the taxi during the five seconds is 2000 N opposite to the original direction of the taxi Example 13 Zanele investigates the motion of a2 kg trolley along a frictionless horizontal track. She applies a constant horizontal force of 10 N, so that the trolley, which was initially at rest, attains a velocity of 4 m-s" Calculate for how long she applies this force. Solution Take the direction in which the trolley moves as positive. FAt= Ap = ne, mi, 2kg (+4 m-s")-2 kg (Oms") Example 14 A football of mass 500 g approaches a player's foot at 4 mss". The player kicks the ball back along its original path, exerting an average force of 451N opposite to the direction of the approaching ball. The players foot is in contact with the ball for 0,2:s. Ignore the effects of friction. a) Calculate the impulse of the ball b) Determine the velocity with which the ball leaves the players foot. 48 TERM ONE ~ MODULESolution The force exerted by the foot on the ball changes the momentum of the ball. Thiss the only horizontal force acting on the ball while itis being kicked, hence its the net force. ‘Take the original direction of the ball to be the positive direction, a) F,At=—45 N(0,2s)=-9 Ns The impulse of the ball is 9 Ns opposite to the original direction of the ball. b) F, At = Ap = my,- my, (0,5 kg)'4 ms") The ball leaves the player's foot with a velocity of 14 ms opposite to its original direction (away from the foot), What happens to the magnitude of the impulse if the contact time between the foot and the ball in example 14 is doubled (i.e. 0,4 s instead of 0,2 8)? How will this change the velocity with which the ball leaves the player's foot? If we repeat the calculations in Example 14 with the contact time doubled we see an impulse of magnitude 18 N's (twice the original impulse), anda final velocity of magnitude 32 m-s", Note that in this example F,,, remains constant. This leads us to an important conclusion: ‘When a constant net force acts over different periods of time At, Apis proportional to At. So Apce Atwhen F,,, is constant. An increase in AB ‘always leads to a bigger final velocity. Example 15 During a road safety demonstration to show the effectiveness of airbags, a crash-test dummy of mass 60 kg sits in the passenger seat of a car. There are no airbags fitted to the car. The car crashes against a wall, unseating the crash-test dummy. It collides with the dashboard of the car at 30 m-s",and comes to rest in 0,6 seconds. Calculate the net force on the dummy. Solution Take the direction in which the car was moving (towards the wall) as positive, F.,At= Ap= memo, F.,(0.6 s) = 60 kg (0 ms") - 60 kg (+30 ms!) ‘ae = 73 000 N ‘The net force on the dummy is 3 000 N opposite to the direction of the cars motion (away from the wall). UNITY « TERM ONE 49Anarrestr bedi a patch of youd thatissoter than theroad. Tucks use these when they ave tomke an emergency stop. ‘Suppose the demonstration is repeated under similar conditions, except that the cars fitted with airbags. During the crash the airbags are inflated, so that the dummy collides with the inflated airbag instead of hitting the dashboard of the car. The airbags increase the collision time to 1,8. What is the net force on the dummy now? If we repeat the calculations in Example 15 with thrice the contact time (1,8 s instead of 0,6 s) we see a net force of magnitude 1000 N (a third of the original force). It is the smaller force acting on the dummy that reduces the damage to the dummy, or the injury to a passenger. Note that in this example the change in momentum remains constant. “This leads us to another important conclusion: Ifan object undergoes the same change in momentum (Ap is constant) under the action of different forces, then the net force is inversely proportional to time. ol Free (AB constant) Example 16 Explain why: 1. Agolfer follows through with the club after teeing off. 2. Acricketer pulls his hands towards his body while catching a ball. 3. Arrestor beds can slow down or stop a truck whose brakes have failed. Solution 1, Whether the gotfer follows through or not, he exerts the same force. Now Apo: At(F,_, constant). When the golfer follows through, he, increases the contact time between the club and ball. Hence, Ap increases and the ball leaves with a larger velocity. This means that the ball can travel further. 2, Whether the cricketer pulls his hands towards his body or not, the change in momentum is the same, Fc (Ap constant). When the cricketer pulls his hands towards his body while catching the ball, he increases the contact time for the collision between the ball and his. hands. Hence, the net force that the ball exerts on his hands decreases so that catching the ball is less painful. 3, When a truck reaches an arrestor bed the time interval over which the momentum is changed is increased. This decreases the force and causes the truck to slow down with little damage. Test yourself 4 1. A150g cricket ball moves at a constant velocity of 54 kmh” towards a batsman. The batsman strikes the ball straight back towards the bowler at 36 kmm-h’, The ball is in contact with the bat for 0,1 s. 50 TERM ONE ~ MODULE)_ Calculate the impulse of the ball. (13,5 kam" opposite to the origina direction ofthe ball) b)_ Determine the average force exerted by the bat. (37,5 N opposite to the original dtection ofthe ball) 2. Explain, using physics principles, why itis advisable to bend your knees upon landing when you jump off a ch: 3. Abullet of mass 40 g strikes a stationary wooden block of mass 6 kg horizontally at 500 ms. The bullet goes through the block, and emerges from the other side at 200 ms". a) Calculate the velocity of the block once the bullet emerges from it. {(2ms* in the original ditection ofthe bullet) b) Calculate the time taken for the bullet to pass through the block if the force exerted by the bullet on the block is 480 N. (0,025 s) Case study Road safety Importance of wearing seatbelts Newton's First Law states that any moving object will keep on moving at the same velocity until a force causes the object to change its motion. When you get into a car or bus, a force is required to change your motion. As the car accelerates, you accelerate with the car and you feel the back of the seat pushing you forward. When you (and the car) reach a constant velocity, you no longer feel the seat pushing you from behind. You move at the same velocity as the car. Ifthe car stops abruptly, you still continue to move forward at the same velocity. If you are not wearing a seatbelt, you will be thrown forward and hit the dashboard and windscreen. This can cause serious injuries, and even death. Seatbelts stop your motion and keep you in your seat. This protects you from your own inertia. They provide a safe unbalanced force to stop your forward motion and protect you from injury. Test yourself 5 1. Acar travels at a constant velocity of 31 ms", when the driver notices a stationary truck on the road in front of him. He applies the brakes to slow down at a constant rate. The driver is alert, and his reaction time is 0,677 s a) How far does the driver travel before he reacts to apply the brakes? (20.99) b) The mass of the car is 600 kg, and the time taken to bring the car to rest is 645 5, Use the impulse-momentum theorem to determine the force required to stop the car. (2883,721N opposite tothe direction ofthe cars motion) 2. Road accidents kill and injure many people in this country every year. a) Design a poster that can be used in a road safety campaign to inform drivers and pedestrians about the safer use of the roads. b)_ By applying principles of physics, list some of the precautions that can be taken to avoid deaths and injuries in motor vehicle accidents. UNITY « TERM ONE1.2.1 The arrows represents the acceleration vector at each point in the path of the projectile thrown into the air. Note that this acceleration is always downward, andit has a constant magnitude. Ator near thesurface of Eth, theacceleraton due to gravity is equal toapproximatey9.8 ms? owas Vertical projectile motion in one dimension Imagine throwing a cricket ball straight up into the air. Now describe its path. ‘When we project or throw an object vertically into the ais, it follows a linear path in the absence of other forces. The only force acting on the object is the gravitational force, so we say that the object is in free fall. Any object that moves through the air is referred to as a projectile. An object moving vertically through the air undergoes vertical projectile motion. ‘We apply the equations for linear motion for free falling bodies. If the only force acting on the object near the surface of Farth is the gravitational force, this force is then the net force. The gravitational force produces a net acceleration in the direction of the net force (downwards), regardless of the direction in which the object is moving, Since the gravitational force is constant near the surface of Earth, the acceleration (the gravitational acceleration, ) is also constant. ‘The magnitude of g is approximately 9,8 m’s®, and is always directed downwards, irrespective of whether the projectile is moving upward, downward or is at its maximum height. We can illustrate the acceleration vector of a free falling object at various positions along its path as shown in the diagram on the left. It is important to note the following about free falling bodies + In the absence of air friction, a body thrown upwards, downwards or released from rest is in free fall. + Asthe body moves upward from A to B, itslows down. The velocity decreases because the acceleration is downward. At B, the velocity of the body is zero. The body reaches its maximum height. Here it changes direction and begins to move downward. The velocity increases again from B to C. The fact that the velocity at the maximum height is zero will be verified when we draw the graphs for the motion. + The velocity of a frve falling body changes direction, but the acceleration does not. The acceleration of the body (g) remains constant throughout its fall + In the absence of air friction, any two bodies (regardless of their ‘masses) will hit the ground at the same time if they are dropped from the same height simultaneously. 52. TERM ONE ~ MODULE+ When you project or throw an object upwards, the time it takes to complete the upward motion is equal to the time it takes to complete the downward motion. This is known as time symmetry. * When you project an object, the magnitude of the velocity at which the object leaves your hand () is equal to the magnitude of the velocity at which the object returns to your hand @,).¥, is directed upward, while ¥, is directed downward, Hence ¥, and ¥,are equal in magnitude, but opposite in disection ie. 9, Recall that we can apply the kinematic equations for linear motion when the acceleration of the moving object is constant. In Grade 10, we applied the equations for horizontal motion in a straight line. Since the gravitational acceleration, ¢, is constant in both magnitude and direction near the surface of Earth, we can describe the motion of a free falling body by using the same set of equations. For a free falling body, the acceleration always acts downwards. When you solve problems involving free falling bodies, select upward or downward motion as positive. Since the motion is vertical, the position of the object changes along the vertical aais (y-axis). We can therefore use the symbol j to represent the position of the object at different times. The displacement of the object is then given by the following equation AV= 5,3, To differentiate vertical from horizontal motion, use Aj for vertical displacements and Ax for horizontal displacements. For vertical motion, velocity and displacement values depend on the choice of direction as shown in the table below. If downward motion is taken as positive: Ag=vAr+ Saar ve + 2A @ +9) “7 1.22 Equations for horizontal motion in a straight line. Table 1.23 Signs for velocity and displacement as, determined by the choice of direction of motion If upward motion is taken as positive: + g=498ms? + g=-98ms? + Foran object moving upward: the sign of the + For an object moving upward: the sign of the velocity must be negative. velocity must be positive. + For an object moving downward: the sign ofthe + For an object moving downward: the sign of the velocity must be positive. velocity must be negative. + Foran object at its highest position: the velocity + For an object at its highest position: the velocity iszero. iszero. + Foran object at any position above its starting position: the sign of the displacement must be negative. + For an object at any position below its starting position: the sign of the displacement must be positive + Foran object at its starting position, the displacements zero. Foran object at any position above ts starting \n: the sign of the displacement must be positive. Foran object at any position below its starting position: the sign of the displacement must be negative. For an object at its starting position, the displacements zero. UNIT2 ~ TERM ONE 531.24 Acticket player throws a ball straight up into the air. Iris important to note that ‘he ist method applied the equation forthe entire motion (upward and downward), Since the accelerations constant for the motonin bath dictions it isnot necessary to beak up the motion into two pats, Hence the entire motion can be described bya single equation. Howeve, sometimes itis necessary to breakup the motion Thisisthe case fr method 2 To illustrate how to use the equations of motion for free falling bodies we will use some examples. Example 1 Acricket player throws a cricket ball straight up into the air at 14.7 ms". Take upward motion as positive. Ifair friction is negligible, 1. determine the time taken for the ball to return to the player's hand. 2. determine the maximum height reached by the ball. 3. determine the velocity of the ball when it is 8 metres above the player's hand. 4, after how many seconds is the ball 8 metres above the player's hand? 5. where, relativeto the player's hand, is the ball when its speed is 10 ms"? Solution 1. Thisis an example of time symmetry. Method 1 Motion from A to Cis the time it takes for the ball to returns to the player's hand. Fas47ms! a=-98ms? ¥=147 ms! At=? The magnitude of the velocity of the upward motion of the ball is the same ‘as the downward motion. These velocities are in opposite directions, hence +147 ms" for the upward launch, and -14,7 ms" for the downward return. F744 “147 ms1=414,7 ms! +(-9,8ms)At At=3s It takes 3 seconds for the ball to return to the player's hand. Method 2 ‘We can also determine the time by considering the motion from A to B. Ba+147 ms? Ar=? The time taken for the ball to reach its maximum height = the time taken to return to its starting position. Therefore, the time taken for the ball to travel from B to Cis also 1,5 seconds. The time taken for the motion from A to B to Cis 3 seconds. 54 TERM ONE ~ MODULE2. The displacement of the ball from A to Bis the maximum height reached by the ball. Y=+147 ms! 9.8 ms? Ay: p= 92+ 2dAy (oP = (14,7 ms)? + 2-98 ms7Ay A=+11,0m Maximum height reached by the ball (at B) is 11,0 metres. 3. Velocity of the ball when itis 8 metres above the player's hand: ¥, 9.8 ms? Y=? We assign a value of zero (0) to the initial position (A) of the ball in the player's hand. All other positions of the ball are relative to this position Remember that upward direction is positive. When the ball is 8 m above the player’s hand, its position is ¥, Hence A¥=¥,—¥,=+8m—Om=48m. eave + 2Ay 97 =(147 ms) + 2-98 msA48 m) ¥,=47,7 ms or-7,7 ms? As the ball was 8 metres above the player's hand the velocity was 7.7 mvs" while it was moving upward, and -7,7 ms" wi moving downward. 14,7 ms? 8m, 4, Determining the time when the ball is 8 metres above the player's hand. Y=t147ms' — @=-98ms? AY=J,-3,=48m-Om=+8m ay=tats Saar 48m=14,7 mst x ars 4-98 ms) AP ‘At=0,7 sand 2,35. The ball is 8 metres above the player's hand at 0,7 seconds and at 2:3 seconds 5. When the ball has a speed of 10 ms’, it could be traveling upward or downward, i. its velocity could be +10 m-s" or -10 ms".To find the position of the ball, we first need to find the displacement of the ball. We take the motion of the ball from A toa point P where the velocity is +10 ms", or—10 ms! =+47ms" @=-98ms? 1Omstor-10ms' —Ay=? tt UNIT2 ~ TERM ONE 55Representing vertical motion graphically We can describe the motion of an object in words and with equations. Another useful way to describe vertical motion is by drawing graphs. A graph shows the relationships between quantities. We illustrate the motion of the cricket ball from Example 1 by drawing the following graphs: 1. position vs. time (vs. 2) 2. velocity ws. time (# vs. 1) 3. acceleration ws. time @vs. t) Position vs. time graph A position ys. time graph indicates the position of an object at different times during its motion. We choose a point as zero position (9 = 0). This point can be the same as the starting position of the object. We also select a positive and negative direction. Take the initial position of the ball as the zero position and upward as 1) Position vs. time graph of the cricket ballin Example 1 56 TERM ONE ~ MODULEWe can determine the instantaneous velocity of the ball at a specific time, 1, from the gradient of a position vs. time graph. To obtain the gradient from the graph, draw a tangent to the graph at time ¢. The gradient of this tangent is the instantaneous velocity of the ball at time t. The gradients at some points on the graph (represented by the gradients of the tangents at these points) is illustrated below. yi) tt) Note that the gradients of the tangents shown in the graph changes with time ie, the instantaneous velocity changes with time + ‘The gradient is positive between 0 and 1,5 seconds, hence the velocity is positive (the ball moves upward). Also the gradients of the tangents are getting smaller, hence the velocity is decreasing as the ball moves upward. + The gradient is negative between 1,5 and 3 seconds, hence the velocity is negative (the ball moves downward). In this time interval, the gradient of the tangents are getting bigger, hence the velocity increases as the ball moves downward. + ‘The gradient is zero at 1,5 seconds (the tangent is horizontal, hence the velocity is zero at 1,5 seconds (the ball turns at its highest position). This confirms that the velocity of a projectile is zero at its maximum height above the ground (refer to page 52). + The magnitude of the gradient is largest at t = 0 seconds, when the ball was thrown upward and at t = 3 seconds, when the ball returned to the player's hand. Since the magnitude of the gradients is the same at these two points, the magnitude of the velocity of the ball is the same at these two points. The signs of the gradients at these two points are opposite to each other. This means that the magnitude of the velocity of the ball is the same at these two points. The ball is moving in opposite directions at these two points. UNIT2 ~ TERM ONE 7