Parts of Speech

There are eight parts of speech in English that are: nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

A part of speech is a category into which one places a word depending on how it
functions in a sentence.

1. NOUNS – person, place, thing, or idea / The (noun) smiled.

Nouns can be common or proper

- Common nouns: man, book, city, team

- Proper nouns: Justin, Lord of the Flies, New York, New York Giants

Nouns can be concrete (things you can see or touch) or abstract (things you can’t
see or touch)

- Concrete nouns: dishes, desks, discs, doorknobs

- Abstract nouns: love, justice, guilt, anxiety

Nouns can be subjects or objects

- A subject noun names the person, place, thing or idea that is doing the action or is
being talked about.

Our family loved spending afternoons in the park.

- An object noun is used as the direct object, indirect object, or object of the
preposition.

We would often eat our lunch there.

2. PRONOUNS

The pronoun is a word substituting for a noun or another pronoun.

For Example: Mark said that Mark would be late.

Mark said that he would be late. (The pronoun “he” substitutes for the noun)
Number: Like nouns, pronouns can be singular (I, one, he, she, it) or plural (we,

they).

Gender: Like nouns, pronouns have natural gender, meaning that the pronouns
and nouns have a gender based on the sex of the person or thing to which they
refer:

Masculine pronouns denote males (he, him, his);

Feminine pronouns denote females (she, her, hers);

Neuter pronouns denote inanimate or non-human things (it, its);

Common gender pronouns refer to males, females, and inanimate objects (they,
them, one).

Person: The concept of person in verbs and pronouns refers to which role the

verb or pronoun identifies in the act of communication.

FIRST PERSON (I, me, my, we, us, our, ours) denotes the speaker when

referring to himself.

SECOND PERSON (you, your, yours) denotes The person being spoken to.

THIRD PERSON (he, she, one, it, they, him, her, them) denotes the person(s) or
thing(s) being spoken about.

Types of Pronouns:

- Personal: refer to the three persons involved in communication (I, you, he,
she, it, etc.)
- Impersonal: refer to non-humans ( it, they)
- Relative: refer to a person or thing, begin a dependent clause, and relate that
person or thing in the dependent clause to a noun or pronoun in the rest of
the sentence (who, whom, whose, which, what that) (Example: My doctor
whom I trust fell out of bed and died.)
- Possessive: denotes a person’s possession of an object (his, her, hers, its,
their, theirs, our, ours).
 - Demonstrative: point to something (this, these; that, those)
- Interrogative: ask questions (who? which? what? whose? whom?)
- Reflexive: repeat or intensify the antecedent (I myself; he himself; she
herself; you yourself; they themselves; we ourselves).

3. ADJECTIVES
The adjective describes, modifies, alters, specifies our understanding of a noun
or pronoun. For Example:
- Brilliant birds fly together. (“Brilliant” describes and specifies the birds.)
- The children are sad. (“Sad” describes the children.)

In English, the normal position of the adjective is before the noun it modifies:

The broken window let in the cold air.

Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives have three degrees

-Positive (an adjective describes one thing and offers no comparison): sweet,
fine, intelligent, beautiful.

-Comparative (an adjective compares two things only): sweeter, finer, more
intelligent, less beautiful

(Use “more” or “less” in the comparative degree if the adjective has more than
two syllables; sometimes, either form is acceptable: costlier, more costly.)

-Superlative (an adjective compares more than two things): sweetest, finest,
most intelligent, least beautiful

(Use “most” or “least” in the superlative degree if the adjective has more than
two syllables.)

Irregular Comparatives: good, better, best

well, better, best

bad, worse, worst

little, less, least

 4. ADVERBS

An adverb is a word, phrase, or clause describing a verb, adjective, or adverb.

Modification of a Verb: occurs when we require an information about the verb and
it is expressed by: how, when, where, why, how much, to what extent, under what
condition or circumstances?

Jim swam rapidly. (swam how?)

Jim swam yesterday. (swam when?)

Jim swam in the river. (swam where?)

Jim swam for exercise. (swam why?)

Jim swam extremely for short distance. (swam how much, to what extent?)

Jim swam despite the chilly weather. (swam under what condition?)

Note: Usually, adverbs end in –ly, but not always (He spoke fast.)

Usually, one can form an adverb by adding the suffix –ly to the adjective:

beautiful (adj.) = beautifully (adv.)

quick (adj.) = quickly (adv.)

willing (adj.) = willingly (adv.)

sad (adj.) = sadly

deserved (adj.) = deservedly (adv.)

Note1: Surly grammarians insist that all words ending in –ly are adverbs. But

“surly” is an adjective, as are “holy,” “silly,” and “wooly.”

Note 2: Some words works as both adjectives and adverbs (fast, hard, late):

For Example: Jack is a very fast runner: he can run very fast.

Kate is a hard worker: she works hard.

 I was late, cause I got up late this morning.

5. VERBS

Verb is the only essential word in the sentence. If your sentence lacks a verb, the
sentence is not a sentence. The verb expresses action or state of being.

Types of Verbs:

a) Action Verbs: express a physical, mental,. emotional, or spiritual action.

For example: We hope for better weather.

We wish you a Merry Christmas!

b) Linking or State of Being Verbs: connect a subject to a noun or adjective or

pronoun.

The most common linking verbs are forms of the verb to be: (am, is, are, was,
were, being, been).

For Example: William is excited about his promotion.

He was a brave man.

Other Linking Verbs: seem, appear, look, taste, sound, feel, become (when these
verbs show no action):

Examples: The child seems tired.

You look terrible.

She appears upset.

Look the difference:

He tasted the soup (Here, “tasted” is an action verb.)

The soup tasted awful. (Here “tasted” is a copulative verb, expressing the state of
the soup)
c) Modal auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs): are used with action or copulative
verbs to form some tenses, voices, or moods.

Common Modal Auxiliaries: be, do, have, can, may, will, shall, must, ought,
might, could, should, would.

Examples: You may submit your essay tomorrow.

I should have met you at the station.

d) Transitive verbs pass the action on to a receiver (person, place, orthing)/object

The receiver is the object. For example: I threw the pen.

e) Intransitive verbs don’t pass the action on to a receiver.

For example: It really hurts.

6. PREPOSITIONS

The preposition is a word “pre-posed” or places before a noun or pronoun to relate

that noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. Many, but not all,
prepositions show a relationship of space or time.

Examples: Give the grain to the birds. (“To” shows the relationship between
“give” and “birds.”)

The girl in the bus is a student. (“In” shows the relationship between “girl” and
“bus”)

The book on the shelf is old. (“On” shows the relationship between “book” and
“shelf”)

Common Prepositions: in, of, between, beside, over, around, through, near, by,
within, among, according to, above, off, with, without, against, before, ,beyond,
behind, into, under, about, across, during, toward, at, up/upon, down, instead of,
for, below, except, because of, since, on ….
Object of the Preposition:

The noun or pronoun that the preposition relates to another word in the sentence is
called the object of the preposition

Examples: The pussycat on the sofa swallowed the goldfish.

(“sofa” is the object of the preposition “on.”)

Willy ate the banana ice cream with spoon.

(“spoon” is the object of the preposition “with.”)

Prepositional Phrase:

The prepositional phrase = the preposition + its object + whatever modifies the
object:

Examples: over the river

through the woods

to grandmother’s house

without doubt

7. CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions link words, or phrases, or clauses, or sentences. There are two kinds
of conjunctions:

- Coordinating Conjunctions: connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences

of EQUAL grammatical rank, of EQUAL importance. There are only six: and, yet,
but or, nor, for. (“so” is sometimes listed.)

Examples:

-They played classic and jazz music.

(“classic” and “jazz” are of equal grammatical rank).

-Sally bought a new hat, but she dropped it in the mud when she left the shop.

“Sally bought a new hat” and “she dropped it in the mud when she left the shop”
are independent clauses; they are equally important).

- Subordinating Conjunctions: connect clauses that are of UNEQUAL

grammatical rank, of UNEQUAL importance.

Here are some: although, since, if, when, where, how, why, while, whereas,
whether, until, because, after, before, as, unless… etc.

Examples: After she left, we felt sad.

Molly smiled when her front tooth fell out.

If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

We found the key where you put it.

I know well why you blame him.

He will not forgive you unless you apologize.

8. INTERJECTIONS

The interjection is a word or phrase to express surprise, anger, glee, or other

emotions. It is bearing no grammatical relationship to other words in a sentence.

The interjection, if strong, is usually followed by an exclamation mark.

A quiet or mild interjection in formal prose is followed by a comma.

Examples: Ouch! That slap hurt!

Wow! I thought that you died!

My Lord! You look so good!

Well, the situation never improved.

 Electronic Lecture of English Language, arranged by Assistant Prof: Ihsan Mudhar Mahmood
‫م احسان مضر محمود تدريسي كلية اآلداب جامعة تكريت‬.‫ أ‬:: ‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتية محاضرة الكرتونية محاضـرة لـغـة أنـكـليـزية‬

*** ‫أقسام الكالم في اللغة اإلنكليزية‬ *** Parts of Speech In English ***

Example Parts of Speech in English Sentence ‫مـثـال عن مكونات أقسام الكالم في الجملة االنكليزية‬
A young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher and then she quickly disappeared, oh my God
A young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher
‫صفة‬ ‫اسم‬ ‫فعل‬ ‫ضمير‬ ‫ظرف‬ ‫صفة‬ ‫اسم‬ ‫جار ومجرور‬
adjective noun verb pronoun adverb adjective noun preposition

and then she quickly disappeared Oh my God!

‫أداة ربط‬ ‫ظرف‬ ‫ضمير‬ ‫ظرف‬ ‫فعل‬ ‫كلمات تعجب‬
conjunction adverb pronoun adverb verb Interjection
 ‫‪Electronic Lecture of English Language, arranged by Assistant Prof: Ihsan Mudhar Mahmood‬‬
‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتية محاضرة الكرتونية محاضـرة لـغـة أنـكـليـزية ‪ ::‬أ‪.‬م احسان مضر محمود تدريسي كلية اآلداب جامعة تكريت‬

‫‪ Tenses‬ما هي األزمنة‬
‫لكل جملة في أي لغة بالعالم زمان‪ ،‬حيث يعبر للمستمع او القارئ زمان حدوث هذه الجمله و‬
‫تفصيل حدوثها ليتم استيعابها و فهمها‪.‬‬
 ‫‪Electronic Lecture of English Language, arranged by Assistant Prof: Ihsan Mudhar Mahmood‬‬
‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتية محاضرة الكرتونية محاضـرة لـغـة أنـكـليـزية ‪ ::‬أ‪.‬م احسان مضر محمود تدريسي كلية اآلداب جامعة تكريت‬

‫نبدأ بشرح ازمنة اللغة االنجليزية البسيطة‪ .‬ينقسم الزمن البسيط في اللغة اإلنجليزية إلى المضارع‬
‫‪:‬والماضي والمستقبل‬

‫الزمن المضارع البسيط ( ‪:: ) Present simple tense‬‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫هو عبارة عن الفعل بشكله األصلي وإذا كان الفاعل مفرداً‪ ،‬تتم إضافة حرف “‪ ”s‬في‬
‫نهاية الفعل‪ .‬يستخدم هذا الزمن لإلشارة إلى األفعال التي تحدث حالياً‪ ،‬مثل اإلشارة إلى‬
‫فعل يحدث في زمن ذكر الفعل‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬الولد يكتب مقالة = ‪The boy writes an essay‬‬
‫‪ ‬األمهات يشرفن على دراسة أبنائهم= ‪Mothers supervise their children’s‬‬
‫‪studies‬‬
‫يمكن استخدام هذا الزمن أيضا ً لإلشارة إلى األفعال التي تحدث يوميا ً أو بشكل مستمر‪ ،‬كالمهنة‬
‫أو الهواية‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬أذهب إلى المدرسة كل يوم= ‪I go to school everyday‬‬
‫‪ ‬أخي يعزف الغيتار=‪My brother plays the guitar‬‬
‫يمكن استخدام هذا الفعل أيضا ً لإلشارة إلى األفعال التي ستحصل في المستقبل‪ ،‬عادة مع ذكر‬
‫الزمن المحدد في المستقبل‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬القطار ينطلق بعد ساعة = ‪The train departs in an hour‬‬
‫‪ ‬يصل ضيوفي بعد قليل= ‪My guests arrive in a little bit‬‬

‫‪ -2‬الزمن المضارع المستمر (‪)Present Continuous‬‬

‫يتألف من فعل “‪ ”to be‬بزمن الحاضر (‪ )am, is, are‬يليه الفعل المضارع البسيط للفعل الذي‬
‫أضيفت إلى نهايته أحرف “‪ .)Present Participle( ”-ing‬يشير هذا الزمن إلى فعل يحدث‬
‫حاليا ً (في وقت ذكر الفعل)‪ ،‬أو إلى فعل يحدث باستمرار‪ ،‬مثل وظيفة أو هواية أو دراسة‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬تساعد األم ابنها على حل واجبه = ‪The mother is helping her son solve his‬‬
‫‪homework‬‬
‫‪ ‬نحن ندرس درس اللغة االنكليزية االن = ‪we are studying English class now‬‬
‫يمكن استخدام هذا الزمن أيضا ً لإلشارة إلى فعل سيحصل في الستقبل‪ ،‬غالبا ً مع اإلشارة إلى‬
‫الوقت المترقب لحدوث الفعل‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ستسافر هند إلى إيطاليا هذا الصيف= ‪Hind is travelling to Italy this summer‬‬
 ‫‪Electronic Lecture of English Language, arranged by Assistant Prof: Ihsan Mudhar Mahmood‬‬
‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتية محاضرة الكرتونية محاضـرة لـغـة أنـكـليـزية ‪ ::‬أ‪.‬م احسان مضر محمود تدريسي كلية اآلداب جامعة تكريت‬

‫‪ -3‬الزمن الماضي البسيط (‪)Past Simple tense‬‬

‫يتألّف من الفعل مع إضافة حرف ّي “‪ ”-ed‬في نهايته‪ .‬توجد بعض األفعال التي ال تتبع‬
‫هذه القاعدة‪ ،‬والتي تتغير كتابتها لدى تصريفها من الحاضر إلى الماضي (مثال ‪to‬‬
‫‪ .)write, to teach, to drink, to read‬يستخدم هذا الزمن لإلشارة إلى األفعال التي‬
‫حدثت وانتهت في الماضي‪ ،‬غالبا ً مع ذكر وقت حدوث الفعل‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬تخرجت في العام ‪I graduated in 2011 =2011‬‬
‫‪ ‬كتب أخي روايته األولى منذ عامين= ‪My brother wrote his first novel two‬‬
‫‪years ago‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Yesterday‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Last week | Last month | Last year‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Ago‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Once‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Once upon a time‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪In those days‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪One day‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Then‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪In 1980s / 1985 / like this | In olden days | In ancient times | In‬‬
‫‪early days | In my childhood | In my boyhood days‬‬
‫…‪ Today morning‬‬

‫‪ -4‬الزمن المستقبل البسيط (‪)Future simple tense‬‬

‫يتألف من فعل “‪ ”will‬او "‪ "Shall‬يليه الفعل بشكله المضارع‪ ،‬مع إزالة حرف ‪ s‬إن وجد‪.‬‬
‫يشير هذا الزمن إلى فعل سيحدث في المستقبل‪ .‬عادة ما يرافق هذا الزمن ظرف زمان يشير‬
‫إلى الوقت المترقب أو المخطط لحدوث الفعل‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬سأسافر إلى المانيا في الصيف= ‪I will travel to Germany in the summer‬‬
 Electronic Lecture of English Language, arranged by Assistant Prof: Ihsan Mudhar Mahmood
‫م احسان مضر محمود تدريسي كلية اآلداب جامعة تكريت‬.‫ أ‬:: ‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتية محاضرة الكرتونية محاضـرة لـغـة أنـكـليـزية‬

Exercises ‫متارين‬
When I (arrive) ------------ home last night, I knew that Mom (cook) ------------ a
delicious dinner.
arrived, had cooked

have arrived, had cooked

had arrived, cooked

arrived, was cooking

It (snow) ------------ all the day. I hope it stops by tonight because I want to go to
my friend home.
has been snowed

has been snowing

is snowing

snows
If Khalid (keep) ------------ smoking, he (damage, eventually) ------------ his lungs.
keep, eventually damages

will keep, will eventually damages

keeps, will eventually damage

keep, will eventually damage

Ali's English (improve, really) ------------ , isn't it? He (listen) ------------ English
radio programs and (watch) ------------ English movies without a subtitle. Soon he
will be totally fluent.
is really improving, has been listening, watching

was really improving, have been listening, was watching

really improves, listens, watches

really improved, listened, watched

I am sick of going to work! Hopefully, when I (travel) ------------ to USA after a
year, I (run) ------------ my own business.
travel, will be running

traveled, will be running

have traveled, will be running

had travel traveled, will be running

 Electronic Lecture of English Language, arranged by Assistant Prof: Ihsan Mudhar Mahmood
‫م احسان مضر محمود تدريسي كلية اآلداب جامعة تكريت‬.‫ أ‬:: ‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتية محاضرة الكرتونية محاضـرة لـغـة أنـكـليـزية‬

Omar (live) ------------ in Sydney for more than one year. In fact, He (live) ---------
--- there when Tsunami hit its beaches.
lived, was living

had lived, was living

live, live

lived, is living
A: What do you call people who live in Jordan?
B: They (call) ------------ Jordanian.
are called

call

had called

are calling

If he (come) ------------ this weekend, we (go) ------------ to beach and have a

barbecue party
come, is going to go

comes, is going to go

come, are going to go

comes, will go

Shhhhh! Be quiet! Hanan (study) ------------ .

are studying

will study

studies

is studying

We ———————— (play) football last night.

Play

Did play

Played
 Lecture English Sentences , ‫محاضـرة أوواع الجمل األوـكـليـزيت‬
‫ التدريسي احمد خالد حسون ذذريسي كليح اآلداب جامعح ذكريد‬Lecturer Ahmed Khalid Hassoon::‫مركز الحاسوب والمعلوماتيت محاضرة الكرتوويت‬
The Four Types of Sentences according to their Structure )‫أنواع الجملح اإلنكليزيح وفقا (للرركية‬
The Four Types of Sentences according to their Function )‫أنواع الجملح اإلنكليزيح وفقا (للوظيفح‬
1- Grammatical Notes ‫مالحظاخ نحويح‬
Use of (How many –how much)(Any – Some) ‫اسرخذاماخ تعض األدواخ واألسماء المعذودج وغير المعذودج‬
2- Adjectives ‫الصفاخ وأدواخ الرفضيل‬
3- Preposition (at – on – in) ‫احرف الجر‬

The English sentence ‫تـعــريـــف الجملة اإلنكليزية‬

- It is a group of words ‫ مجموعة كلمات‬that are put together to mean something.
- It is the basic unit of language ‫وحدة أساسية في اللغة‬
which expresses a complete thought. ‫تعبر عن فكرة تامة المعنى‬
Phrase ‫عبارة غير كاملت المعىى‬ Clause or Sentence ‫جملت مستقلت كاملت المعىى‬
dependent ‫تابعت واقصت المعىى‬ independent ‫مستقلت كاملت المعىى‬

The Four Types of Sentences according to their Structure

‫هىاك أربعت جمل تقسم وفقا ً لتركيبت الجملت اإلوكليزيت‬

1- Simple Sentence Structure ‫ الجملت البسيطت‬consists of ‫ تتكون مه‬one independent clause ‫عبارة او‬
‫ (* جملت تابعت واحدة‬a subject ‫ فاعل‬and verb ‫ )فعل‬and expresses (a complete thought. )‫)ذعثر عن معنى او فكرج كاملح‬
e.g. The earth goes round the sun.

2- Compound Sentence Structure ‫ الجملت المركبت‬is two (or more) independent clauses joined by
a conjunction ‫ اداة ربط‬. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone. ‫عبارتيه أو جملتيه مستقلتيه‬
e.g. Mary went to work but John went to the party.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions:‫ادواث الربط‬
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

3- Complex Sentence Structure ‫ الجملت المعقدة‬consists of ‫ تتكون مه‬an independent clause plus a
dependent clause. )‫ عبارتيه( مستقلت وتابعت‬It starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun,
and contains a subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.)
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions: ‫احرف العطف الراتعح‬
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till,
until, when, where, whether, while
Here are the five basic relative pronouns: ‫ضمائر وصل‬
that, which, who, whom, whose
e.g. He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
e.g. Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?

4- Compound-Complex Sentence Structure ‫ الجملت المركبت المعقدة‬consists ‫ تتكون مه‬of at least two
independent clauses )‫ (عبارتيه مستقلت‬and one or more dependent clauses.‫عبارة تابعت لو اكثر‬

e.g. John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
e.g. He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.
 Types of English Sentences according to their Function
‫أنواع الجملة اإلنكليزية وفقا ً لوظائفها‬
1. Declarative Sentences (statements) ‫الجمل الخبرية التصريحية‬
They make a statement. They tell us something. They give us information ‫تخبرنا عن شيء‬
‫ما او تعطينا معلومات‬, and they normally end with a full-stop/period.‫تنتهً بنقطة‬
The usual word order for the declarative sentence is:
Subject + verb...
e.g. I went to the shop today / My name is Ali
2. Interrogative Sentences (questions) ‫الجمل االستفهامية‬
ask a question.‫ تستفهم عن سؤال‬They ask us something. They want information‫ معلومات‬,
and they always end with a question mark. ‫تنتهً بأداة سؤال‬
The usual word order for the interrogative sentence is:
(wh-question +) auxiliary + subject + verb...
e.g. What time do you go to your work? / Where do you live?
3. Imperative Sentences (command) ‫الجمل األمرية‬
They give a command. They tell us to do something, ‫ تأمرنا لنفعل شيء ما‬and they end
with a full-stop/period (.) ‫ تنتهً بنقطة‬or exclamation mark/point (!). ‫عالمة تعجب‬

The usual word order for the imperative sentence is:

base verb.
Note that there is usually no subject ‫ ال يوجد فاعل‬- because the subject is understood,
it is YOU. ‫الفاعل هو انت‬
e.g. Don't smoke Stop. Don't speak Give him tea
4. Exclamative Sentences (exclamations) ‫الجملة التعجبية‬
They express strong emotion/surprise ‫تعبر عن مشاعر عمٌقة او مفاجأة للتعجب‬
—an exclamation—and they always end with an exclamation mark/point (!).‫عالمة تعجب‬
The usual word order for the exclamative sentence is:
What (+ adjective‫ ) صفة‬+ noun‫ اسم‬+ subject ‫ فاعل‬+ verb ‫فعل‬
How (+ adjective ‫ صفة‬/adverb ‫ )ظرف‬+ subject‫ فاعل‬+ verb‫فعل‬
e.g. What a liar he is! What an exciting movie it was! How exciting the movie was!

Exercise ‫تمرين‬
Identify ‫ حدد أو م ّيز‬whether the following Statements are True or false ‫صح أو خطأ‬
1- You do not like her. The form of the sentence is imperative.
2- Do you drink coffee? The form of the sentence is interrogative.
3- Stop! The form of the sentence is declarative.
4- What a lair he is! The form is declarative.
5- Stay home. The form is interrogative.
6- Open the door. The form is imperative
1-F 2-T 3-F 4-F 5-F 6-T
The Use ‫ استخدام‬of How much, How many
When we want to know the quantity ‫ كمٌة‬or amount of something ‫مقدار شًء ما‬,
we ask questions ‫ نسأل سؤال‬starting with How much and How many.
- HOW MUCH...? - (Quantity) ‫كمٌة‬
- HOW MUCH is used with (uncountable nouns) ‫لألسماء ؼٌر المعدودة‬
HOW MUCH + UNCOUNTABLE NOUN )‫لألسماء ؼٌر المعدودة ؼٌر ملموسة (معانً محسوسة‬
How much time ‫ وقت‬do we have to finish the test?
How much money ‫ مال‬did you spend?
How much sugar ‫سكر‬
ُ would you like in your coffee.
How much paper ‫ ورقة‬will I need?
How much milk ‫ حليب‬is in the fridge?
(How much, How many) traffic ‫ حركة المرور‬was there on the way to work?
HOW MUCH...? – )‫( قيمة الشراء (ليس كمية النقود او نوع العملة‬Price) ‫سعر‬
How much can also be used when we want to know the PRICE of something.
In this case, we can use how much with countable nouns ‫( لألسماء المعدودة‬both singular and
plural nouns).
How much is that painting? ‫لوحة او طالء‬
How much are those shoes? ‫احذٌة‬
How much did your jacket cost? ‫تكلفة السترة‬
How much is the dress on display in the window?‫الفستان المعروض فً النافذة‬
How much will it cost me?
(How much, How many) does it cost? ‫تكلفة‬
HOW MANY...? - (Quantity‫) كمٌة‬
How many is used when we want to know the QUANTITY‫ كمٌة‬of something.
It is only used with plural countable nouns.‫لألسماء المعدودة الجمع‬
HOW MANY + PLURAL NOUN
How many days are there in January?
How many people work in your company?
(How many, How much) cousins do you have?
How many books did you buy?
How many countries are there in the world?
How many students are in the class right now?
How many chairs are there in this room?
(How many, How much ) pieces of chocolate would you like?
Omitting the noun ‫االسم المحذوف‬
Often the noun is omitted in the question ‫ سؤال‬when it is clear what we are talking
about.
A: I would like to buy some cheese.‫جبنة‬
B: How much (cheese) would you like?
The noun cheese is not necessary after ‫ بعد‬how much since we already know we are
talking about cheese ‫ نتحدث عن الجبنة‬. In fact, it is normally omitted to avoid sounding repetitive. ‫لتجنب‬
‫التكرار الواضح‬
More examples:
A: I need some coins. ‫ عمالت معدنٌة‬- B: How many do you need?
A: I need some sugar. -B: How much do you need?
Some Vs. Any ‫استخدام‬
Some is used with affirmative sentence ‫ جملة مثبتة‬.It is used with countable and uncountable ‫للمعدود وؼٌر المعدود‬
NOUN: ‫ أسماء‬some sugar, some books
e.g. There are some vegetables in the fridge. ‫خضروات فً الثالجة‬
I have some money in my bag. ‫نقود فً الحقٌبة‬
Would you like some more water please? Offering ‫عرض‬
Could I have some water please? Requesting. ‫طلب‬
Any is used with negative sentence and interrogative sentence: ‫مع جملة منفٌة واستفهامٌة‬
e.g. She does not have ( any, some) money.
Does she have (any, some) sister?
Note: ‫مالحظة‬
Any is used with uncountable noun ‫ مع األسماء ؼٌر المعدودة‬when the sentence is negative. ‫منفٌة‬

Countable Nouns vs. Non-Countable Nouns ‫األسماء المعدودة وؼٌر المعدودة‬

Countable nouns ‫األسماء المعدودة‬
Can be counted as one or more.
pen, computer, bottle, spoon, desk, cup, television, chair, shoe, finger,
flower, camera, stick, balloon, book, table, comb, etc.
Take an s to form the plural.
pens, computers, bottles, spoons, desks, cups, televisions, chairs, shoes,
fingers, flowers, cameras, sticks, balloons, books, tables, combs, etc.
Work with expressions such as (a few, few, many, some, every, each, these, and
the number of).
a few pens, a few computers, many bottles, some spoons, every desk, each
cup, these televisions, the number of chairs, a few shoes, a few fingers,
many flowers, some cameras, every stick, each balloon, these books, the
number of tables, many combs, etc.
Work with appropriate articles (a, an, or the).
a pen, the computer, a bottle, the spoon, a desk, the cup, a television, the
chair, a shoe, the finger, a flower, the camera, a stick, the balloon, a book,
the table, a comb, etc.
Do NOT work with much (for example, you would never say much pens or much computers).
Non-countable nouns ‫األسماء ؼٌر المعدودة‬
They cannot be counted. They usually express a group or a type.
water, wood, ice, air, oxygen, English, Spanish, traffic, furniture, milk,
wine, sugar, rice, meat, flour, soccer, sunshine, etc.
Generally cannot be pluralized.
Work both with and without an article (a, an, or the), depending on the context of the sentence.
Sugar is sweet. The sunshine is beautiful.
I drink milk. He eats rice. We watch soccer together.
Work with expressions such as (some, any, enough, this, that, and much).
We ate some rice and milk. I hope to see some sunshine today.
This meat is good. She does not speak( much, many) Spanish.
Do you see any traffic on the road? That wine is very old.
Do NOT work with expressions such as (these, those, every, each, either, or neither).
(Quiz)
Choose all of the uncountable nouns in the following list:
wine, student, pen, water, wind, milk, computer, furniture, cup, rice, box, watch, potato,
Singular and Plural Nouns ‫األسماء المفردة والجمع‬
A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Usually, the first page of a grammar book tells you
about nouns. Nouns give names of concrete or abstract things in our lives.
As babies learn "mom," "dad," or "milk" as their first word, nouns should be the
First topic when you study a foreign language.
For the plural form of most nouns, add s.
bottle – bottles cup – cups pencil – pencils
desk – desks sticker – stickers window – windows
For nouns that end in ch, x, s, or s sounds, add es.
box – boxes Cup…Cups Watch ……….. watch – watches
moss – mosses (‫(طحالب‬ bus – buses
For nouns ending in f or fe, change f to v and add es.
wolf – wolves wife – wives leaf – leaves life – lives
Some nouns have different plural forms.
child – children woman – women man – men
mouse – mice goose – geese
Nouns ending in vowels like y or o do not have definite rules.
baby – babies toy – toys ( baby …babies) kidney – kidneys
potato – potatoes memo – memos stereo – stereos
A few nouns have the same singular and plural forms.
‫بعض األسماء لها نفس صيغ المفرد والجمع‬
sheep – sheep deer – deer series – series species – species
Choose the correct form of the noun in each sentence.
‫اختر الشكل الصحٌح لالسم فً كل جملة‬
1)I have three (child, children).
2) There are five (man, men) and one (woman, women).
3) (Baby, Babies) play with bottles as toys.
4) I put two big (potato, potatoes) in the lunch box.
5) A few men wear (watch, watches).
6) I put a (memo, memos) on the desk.
7) I saw a (mouse, mice) running by.
8)There are few (bus, buses) on the road today.

Adjectives ‫الصفات‬
Adjectives describe or modify nouns. ‫الصفات توصؾ أو تؽٌر األسماء‬
Adjectives generally appear immediately before the noun. ‫ تأتً الصفات قبل االسم مباشرة‬،‫بشكل عام‬
A pretty girl Red flowers A long stick Heavy boxes Warm weather
Commonly, adjectives of opposite meaning are formed by adding a prefix such
as un, in, or dis. ‫ تصاغ الصفات ذات المعنى النقٌض عن طرٌق إضافة بادئة‬، ‫بشكل عام‬
clear – unclear, important – unimportant, predictable – unpredictable,
believable – unbelievable, common – uncommon, aware – unaware,
ambiguous – unambiguous, conventional – unconventional, certain – uncertain
definite – indefinite, correct – incorrect, comparable – incomparable,
complete – incomplete, evitable – inevitable, expensive – inexpensive
able – disable, assemble – disassemble, content – discontent, similar – dissimilar
When using a string of adjectives, they should appear in a set order:
: ‫ ٌنبؽً أن تظهر بترتٌب معٌن‬، ‫ عند استخدام سلسلة من الصفات‬:‫قاعدة‬
Size /shape age color origin Material
‫ الشكل‬/ ‫الحجم‬ ‫العمر‬ ‫اللون‬ ‫األصل‬ ‫المادة‬
A big brown house
A small old English desk
A beautiful black Italian leather purse
Write opposite adjectives using the appropriate prefix.
‫اكتب الصفات المعاكسة باستخدام البادئة المناسبة‬
1) Clear –
2) Definite –
3) Correct – incorrect
4) Expensive –
5) Complete –
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ‫الصفات المقارنة والتفضيل‬
Comparative adjectives compare two things. Superlative adjectives compare more
than two things.
.‫ الصفات مقارنة أكثرمن شٌئٌن‬.‫الصفات المقارنة تقارن شٌئٌن‬
Commonly, adjectives that contain only one syllable or end in 'y' use 'er' to form
comparatives and 'est' to form superlatives. For adjectives ending in y, change the
'y' to 'i' before adding the 'er' or 'est'.
old – older – oldest young – younger – youngest
pretty – prettier – prettiest long – longer – longest
short – shorter – shortest bright – brighter – brightest
close – closer – closest happy – happier – happiest
Adjectives with two or more syllables do not change but instead add more to form
comparatives and most to form superlatives.
‫ال تتؽٌر الصفات التً تحتوي على مقطعٌن لفظٌٌن أو أكثر ولكنها تضٌؾ المزٌد إلى صٌؽة المقارنات واألكثر لتكوٌن صٌػ التفضٌل‬
respectable – more respectable – most respectable
beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
preferable – more preferable – most preferable
hardworking – more hardworking – most hardworking
Some adjectives have different forms of comparatives and superlatives.
‫بعض الصفات لها أشكال مختلفة من المقارنة وصٌػ التفضٌل‬
good – better – best bad – worse – worst little – less – least
much (many) – more – most far – further – furthest
The word than typically appears in comparative sentences.
.‫الكلمة مما ٌظهر عادة فً جمل المقارنة‬
Amy is smarter …than……… Betty. ( than,more)
Chad is stronger than Dan.
Greg is more diligent than his brother.
I have more apples than he.
She likes him more than me.
 ‫أحـــــرف الـجــر‬Prepositions "On," "At," and "In"
Time ‫زمان‬ Place ‫مكان‬ Transportation ‫مواصالت‬
In ‫حرف الجر‬
‫األشهر‬ In January ‫لوصؾ وضع الشًء‬ In this room ‫لوصؾ نسٌان شًء فً وسٌلة‬ In my car
‫المواسم‬ In Winter ‫داخل مكان معٌن او‬ In this country ‫نقل صؽٌرة‬ In a taxi
‫السنوات‬ In 1999 ‫العٌش فً بلد‬ In this book )‫(تكون وضعٌة جلوس فٌها فقط‬
On ‫حرف الجر‬
‫ألٌام االسبوع‬ On Sunday ‫لوصؾ وضع الشًء‬ On the floor ‫لوصؾ وسٌلة نقل كبٌرة (وٌكون‬ On ship / boat/ plane /
‫فوق سطح او مكان‬ )‫الوضع واقؾ وجالس فٌها‬ train / bus
On the ground
On the table
At‫حرف الجر‬
‫لوصف لساعات‬ At 6:00 P.M. ‫لوصف مكان محدد جدا‬ At home
‫او وصف وقت‬ At night / at ‫او معروف بشكل‬ At the college school /
‫محدد او معلوم‬ weekend ‫بديهي‬ cinema / library
Christmas
Example
1- The weather is cold…….. winter a- in b-on c- at 4- of a- in ‫تستخدم للزمان المواسم‬
2- I put my books …… the table a- in b-on c- at 4- above b- on ‫تستخدم للمكان فوق سطح شيء‬

[Quiz ]
Choose a correct preposition in the sentence.
1) I want to lose 5 kilogram (on, at, in) one month.
2) Could you get me this dress (on, at, in) a larger size?
3) She seems to be interested (on, at, in) Psychology.
4) I will come to pick you up (on, at, in) 2 pm tomorrow.
5) This class will be held (on, at, in) Mondays.

‫لمعلومات إضافية عن استخدامات الحرف الجر يمكنك التدرب على التمارين التالية‬
*************************
Prepositions "With," "Over," and "By" ‫الجر‬ ‫استخدامات احرف‬
With
Used to indicate being together or being involved :‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى التواجد معً ا أو المشاركة‬
I ordered a sandwich (with, by, over) a drink.
He was with his friend when he saw me.
She has been working with her sister at the nail shop.
The manager will be with you shortly.
Ali ordered a sandwich ( by, with, over)
Used to indicate "having": ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى التملك‬
I met a guy with green eyes.
Were you the one talking with an accent?
People (with, over, by) a lot of money are not always happy.
Used to indicate "using": ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى األستخدام‬
I wrote a letter with the pen you gave me.
This is the soup that I made with rice and barley.
He cut my hair with his gold scissors.
Used to indicate feeling: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى المشاعر‬
I am emailing you with my sincere apology.
He came to the front stage with confidence.
Used to indicate agreement or understanding: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى الموافقة او الفهم‬
Are you with me?
Yes, I am completely with you.
She agrees with me.
Over
Used to indicate movement from one place to another: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى الحركة من مكان إلى آخر‬
Come over to my house for dinner sometime.
Could you roll over?
They sent over a gift for his promotion.
Used to indicate movement downward: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى الحركة نزوال‬
The big tree fell over on the road.
Can you bend over and get the dish for me?
He pushed it over the edge.
Used to indicate more than an expected number or amount: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى عدد متوقع أوكمٌة‬
This amount is over our prediction.
Kids twelve and over can watch this movie.
The phone rang for (over, by, with) a minute.
Used to indicate a period of time: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى فترة زمنٌة‬
I worked there over a year.
She did not sleep there over this past month.
By
Used to indicate proximity: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى القرب أو النسبة التقرٌبٌة‬
Can I sit by you?
He was standing by me.
The post office is by the bank.
Used to indicate the person that does something in a passive voice sentence:
‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى الشخص الذي ٌفعل شًء معٌن فً جملة مبنً للمجهول‬
The mechanic fixed the microwave.
The flowers were delivered by a postman.
The branch office was closed by the head office.
Used to indicate an action with a particular purpose: ‫ٌستخدم لإلشارة للحدث لؽرض معٌن‬
You can pass the exam by preparing for it.
I expressed my feeling toward her by writing a letter.
She finally broke the record (by, with, over) pure effort.
Used to indicate a mean or method: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى وسٌلة أو طرٌقة‬
Please send this package to Russia by airmail.
I came here by subway.
[Quiz ]
Choose the correct preposition in each sentence. ‫اختر حرؾ الجر الصحٌح فً كل جملة‬
1) If she left at 4 p.m., she should be here (with, over, by) now.
2) Go (with, over, by) there and catch my ball.
3) (With, Over, By) your determination, you will be able to
achieve your dream.
4) I just found it! It was (with, over, by) the radio on my desk.
5) I knocked him (with, over, by) accidentally.
6) She was (with, over, by) me when the accident occurred.
For
Used to indicate the use of something: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى استخدام شًء معٌن‬
This place is for exhibitions and shows.
I baked a cake for your birthday.
I put a note on the door for privacy.
She has been studying hard for the final exam.
Used to mean because of: )‫تستخدم لتعنً (بـسبب‬
I am so happy for you.
We feel deeply sorry for your loss.
For this reason, I’ve decided to quit this job.

Used to indicate time or duration: ‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى الوقت أو الفترة‬

He’s been famous for many decades.
I attended the university for one year only.
This is all I have for today.

‫لك األمنيات لكم باتلوفيق وانلجاح‬

Good Luck
 Singular and Plural Nouns
‫المفرد والجمع في اللغة اإلنجليزية‬
1. We form the plural by adding -s to the singular of the noun.

‫أقالم‬ pens pen

‫طالب‬ students student

‫مقاعد‬/‫طاوالت‬ desks desk

‫أقالم رصاص‬ pencils Pencil

2. By adding es to the last nouns ending in: s, ss, sh, ch, x :

Dishes dish ‫طبق‬ buses bus ‫باص‬

Brushes brush ‫فرشاة‬ glasses glass ‫كأس‬

Churches church ‫كنيسة‬ classes class ‫صف‬

Benches bench ‫مقعد طويل‬ boxes box ‫صندوق‬

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. By adding es to the nouns ending with the letter O:

volcanoes Volcano ‫بركان‬ heroes hero ‫بطل‬

Negroes Negro ‫زنجي‬ potatoes potato ‫بطاطا‬

There are nouns ending with the letter O, but they take s when they are plural
because they are of foreign origin. Example:

radios Radio ‫راديو‬ pianos piano ‫بيانو‬

photos photo ‫صورة‬ solos solo ‫عمل منفرد‬

1
4. Nouns ending with a consonant and y, omit the letter y, then add ies to the end
of the word:

Ladies lady ‫سيدة‬ babies baby ‫طفل‬

Armies army ‫جيش‬ stories story ‫قصة‬

With the exception of proper names:

Stansbury ⇒ Stansburys:

But if the word ends with a vowel + y, then it is changed into plural by adding an
s to the end:

Boys boy

Keys key

Days day

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Most nouns ending with the letter f or fe, omit the letter f or the fe, then add ves
at the end of the word.

Wolves wolf ‫ذئب‬ thieves thief ‫لص‬

Loaves loaf ‫رغيف‬ wives wife ‫زوجة‬

There are some irregular nouns:

-‫رئيس‬
roofs roof ‫سقف‬ chiefs chief
‫مدير‬

handkerchiefs handkerchief ‫منديل‬ gulfs gulf ‫خليج‬

2
 6. Irregular nouns in English

Some nouns are turned into the plural by making a change inside or at the end of
it. Example:

women Woman ‫امرأة‬ men man ‫رجل‬

mice mouse ‫فأر‬ feet foot ‫قدم‬

pence penny ‫قطعة نقدية‬ children child ‫طفل‬

oxen ox ‫ثور‬ teeth tooth ‫سن‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7. Some nouns remain in the singular and plural form. Example:

fish fish ‫سمك‬ deer deer ‫ غزالة‬-‫ظبي‬ sheep sheep ‫خروف‬

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8: Material Nouns

Under these names are liquids, minerals, foodstuffs, etc. Some of these names are:

brass ‫نحاس‬ money ‫نقود‬ rice ‫أرز‬

water ‫ماء‬ bread ‫خبز‬ sugar ‫سكر‬

tea ‫شاي‬ iron ‫حديد‬ coffee ‫قهوة‬

glass ‫زجاج‬ gold ‫ذهَب‬ milk ‫حليب‬

These names are not countable because we cannot take a number of them,
but rather take a quantity of them. Do not say:

milks, coffees, moneys, rices

Lets use them in sentences:

3
 ‫المال هو مصدر كل شر‬ -
- Money is the source of all evil.
‫ تُشرب القهوة عادة ً بعد الوجبات‬-
- Coffee is usually drunk after meals.

However, some of these nouns have a plural if its singular is a general noun in
addition to being a material name. For example:

‫اسم مادة‬: ‫ زجاج‬. ‫انكسر زجاج هذه النافذة بعد االنفجار‬ -

- The glass of this window broke after the explosion.
‫ اسم عام‬:‫ كأس‬.‫ يوجد كأسين من الماء على الطاولة‬-
- There are two water glasses on the table
‫ اسم مادة‬:‫ خشب‬.‫ اشترى النجار بعض الخشب ليصنع طاولة‬-
- The carpenter bought some wood to make a table
‫ اسم عام‬:‫ غابات‬.‫يوجد الكثير من الغابات في بالدي‬ -

-There are many woods in my country

‫ اسم مادة‬:‫ حديد‬.‫ الحديد أثقل من الخشب‬-

-Iron is heavier than wood -

‫ اسم عام‬:‫نحتاج مكواتين لنكوي كل هذه المالبس( مكواة‬

- We need two irons to iron all these clothes.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. There are nouns that do not have a singular form and they are always in the
plural, because they consist by nature of their formation from more than one part,
and the verb comes with them are in the plural form. From these words:

arms /weapons ‫أسلحة‬ scissors ‫مقص‬

statistics ‫احصاءات‬ clothes ‫مالبس‬

contents ‫المحتويات‬ trousers ‫بنطال‬

4
 - Majed’s clothes are always clean
‫ مالبس ماجد دائما ً نظيفة‬-
- These scissors are blunt
‫ هذا المقص غير حاد‬-
- The enemy’s arms are very modern
ً ‫ أسلحة العدو حديثة جدا‬-

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10 .There are words that have two plural forms. The first plural has the meaning of
the singular and the second plural has a different meaning. For example:

‫أرواح‬ spirits
Spirit ‫روح‬
‫مشروبات كحولية‬ spirits

ُ
‫ط ُرق‬ manners
Manner‫طريقة‬
‫أخالق‬ manners

‫دقائق‬ minutes
Minute ‫دقيقة‬
‫وقائع اجتماع‬ minutes

‫عادات‬ customs
Custom ‫عادة‬
‫جمارك‬ customs

‫بوصالت‬ compasses
Compass ‫بوصلة‬
‫فرجال‬ compasses

‫قوى‬ forces
Force ‫قوة‬
‫جيوش‬ forces

5
 Relative Pronouns in English
‫ضمائر الوصل في اللغة اإلنكليزية‬

Relative pronouns in English is an important topic for the frequent

use of these pronouns. The relative pronouns are called so because they
connect two sentences that speak about the same person or thing.Relative
pronouns are used at the beginning of an adjective clause (a dependent
clause that modifies a noun). The benefit that we get from using the relative
pronouns is to save time and effort, so we summarize what we want to say in
a shorter sentence and avoid repetition. Example:

- Ali used to come late to school. -

‫ اعتاد علي ان يأتي متاخرا الى المدرسة‬-
-Ali is now clever

‫ علي االن نشيط‬-

These are two separate sentences, but they talk about (Ali), so we can join
them by using an appropriate relative pronoun namely: who

.‫ بمعنى ( الذي) لوصل الجملتين السابقتين‬who ‫سوف نستخدم الضمير‬

Ali who used to come late to school is now clever

.‫على الذى اعتاد أن يأتي متأخرا الى المدرسة هو اآلن نشيط‬
Therefore, the relative pronouns are used to join two clauses, and this results
in providing additional information about the noun that precedes the
conjunction.

6
 ‫?‪What are the relative pronouns‬‬
‫الذي‪ ،‬التي‪ ،‬الذين‪ ،‬اللواتي‪ ،‬اللتين‪ ،‬اللذان‬ ‫‪Who‬‬
‫الذي‪ ،‬التي‪ ،‬الذين‪ ،‬اللواتي‪ ،‬اللتين‪ ،‬اللذان (في‬
‫حالة المفعول به)‬
‫‪Whom‬‬

‫الذي‪ ،‬التي‪ ،‬الذين‪ ،‬اللواتي‪ ،‬اللتين‪ ( ،‬لغير العاقل)‬ ‫‪Which‬‬

‫الذي له‪ ،‬الذين لهم‪ ،‬اللواتي لهن‪ ،‬التي لها‬ ‫‪Whose‬‬

‫حيث‬ ‫‪Where‬‬
‫الوقت الذي‬ ‫‪When‬‬

‫‪1. who. This relative pronoun is used for people.‬‬

‫الذي ‪ /‬التي ‪ /‬الذين ‪ /‬الالتي ( تحل محل الفاعل العاقل )‬
‫‪This is my brother . He works in a hospital .‬‬
‫‪ -‬هذا يكون أخي ‪ .‬هو يعمل في مستشفى ‪.‬‬
‫‪- This is my brother who works in a hospital .‬‬
‫‪ -‬هذا يكون أخي الذي يعمل في مستشفى ‪.‬‬
‫‪- People who practice sports live longer‬‬
‫‪ -‬الناس الذين يمارسون الرياضات يعيشون أطول‪.‬‬
‫‪- The boy who runs fast is my brother‬‬
‫‪ -‬الولد الذى يجرى بسرعة هو اخى‪.‬‬
‫‪- The boy who got the first prize in memorizing the Glorious Qu'ran is‬‬
‫‪brother.‬‬
‫‪ -‬الولد التي حصلت على الجائزة األولى في حفظ القرآن الكريم يكون اخي‪.‬‬

‫‪7‬‬
2. whom

It is the object form of the relative pronoun ‘who’ and is utilized almost
in written and formal English for persons. In spoken and informal English, the
pronoun ‘who’ is preferred to ‘whom’:

‫ و يستخدم مفعول به‬.‫ الالتي) للعاقل المفرد والجمع‬،‫ الذين‬،‫ التي‬،‫وهو ضمير وصل بمعنى (الذي‬
(him, her, them). ‫لألشخاص بدال من‬

Is that the man? ‫االسم الموصوف‬

You saw him last year? ‫جملة الوصف التي تصف االسم‬

‫ بين الجملتين ونضع عالمة االستفهام في نهاية الجملة لتصبح‬whom ‫ ونضع‬him ‫سنقوم بحذف‬
:‫الجملة بهذا الشكل‬

- Is that the man whom you saw last year?

- The man was wearing a white shirt.
- I gave the letter to him.
- The man whom I gave the letter to was wearing a white shirt.

3- which
Which is used for animals in general or things.
) ‫ ( تحل محل الفاعل أو المفعول به غير العاقل‬/ ‫ الذين‬/ ‫ التي‬/ ‫الذي‬
- This is my car . I use it to go to my work .
. ‫ أنا أستخدمها لكي أذهب إلى عملي‬. ‫ هذه تكون سيارتي‬-

8
 - This is my car which I use to go to my work .
. ‫ هذه تكون سيارتي التي أستعملها لكي أذهب إلى عملي‬-

- This is the watch which I bought.

‫ هذه هي الساعة التي اشتريتها‬-
- This is the house which Ahmed lives in.
.‫ هذا هو البيت الذي يعيش فيه احمد‬-
- The book which I bought yesterday is interesting
.‫ الكتاب الذي اشتريته البارحة ممتع‬-
- The bag which I bought last Friday cost 10 dollars.
.‫ دوالرات‬10 ‫ الحقيبة التي اشتريتها الجمعة الماضية كلفتني‬-
4. Whose

It is a possessive relative pronoun and refers to persons as well

as things and animals. It is followed by a word that belongs to the one before
it.

" my / his / ‫' " " وبدالً من صفات الملكية‬s / s' ‫ تُستخدم للتعبير عن الملكية بدال من‬/ ‫عند الملكية‬
her / its / your / our / their "

- This is my friend . His father is a doctor .

. ‫ والده يكون طبيبًا‬. ‫هذا يكون صديقي‬
-This is my friend whose father is a doctor .
. ‫ هذا يكون صديقي الذي والده يكون طبيبًا‬-
Ahmed helped Ali . Ali ' s room was untidy .
. ‫ حجرة علي كانت غير ُمرتَّبة‬. ‫ أحمد ساعد عليًا‬-

9
 - Ahmed helped Ali whose room was untidy .
. ‫ أحمد ساعد عليًا الذي حجرته كانت غير ُمرتَّبة‬-
- This is the boy whose phone was lost.
.‫ هذا هو الولد الذي هاتفه قد فقد‬-
5- where ‫حيث‬
"Where" is used to introduce a relative clause that describes a certain
situation.
-I visited France . I saw a lot of monuments there .
. ‫ أنا رأيت الكثير من اآلثار هناك‬. ‫ أنا زرت فرنسا‬-
-I visited France where I saw a lot of monuments .
. ‫ أنا زرت فرنسا حيث رأيت الكثير من اآلثار‬-

Which can be used instead of where, but here we have to add a preposition
that is suitable with the verb :.
-I visited France in which I saw a lot of monuments .
- I visited France which I saw a lot of monuments in .
. ‫أنا زرت فرنسا التي رأيت فيها الكثير من اآلثار‬

- I like my city. The city I was born in it.

- I like the city where I was born.
. ‫ هذه هي المدينة حيث ولدت‬-
. ‫منعا للتكرار‬ where ‫( ووضع‬the city) ‫الحظ إننا حذفنا‬

- This is the city. I was born in it.

10
- This is the city where I was born.
Notice that we joined the two sentences by omitting the preposition in in the
second sentence. We can keep the preposition if we want to use the join
pronoun which:
- This is the city which I was born in.

- This is the village where my friend Ahmed lives.

..‫ هذه هي القرية حيث يعيش صديقي احمد‬-
- This is the place where the crime happened.
.‫هذا هو المكان حيث حدثت الجريمة‬
- The building where Ahmed lives is very old.
.‫البناية حيث يعيش احمد قديمة جدا‬

6- when ) ‫ هو الوقت الذي ( تدل على الوقت‬/ ‫عندما‬

-July is a month when we take a holiday .

. ‫ تموز هو الشهر الذي نأخذ فيه إجازة‬-
- Spring is the season when the flowers bloom.
.‫ فصل الربيع هو الفصل الذي تتفتح فيه األزهار‬-
- 7: 30 is the time when my plane arrives.

.‫ السابعة والنصف هو الوقت الذي تصل فيه الطائرة‬-

11
The Structure of English Sentence: Prof. Dr. Shifaa Hadi Hussein
English sentences usually starts with the subject unlike the
Arabic sentence which starts with the verb. The structure of the
English sentence is determined by the type of the verb in the
sentence. The main English structure has the following form :
SV(O)(O)(C)(A) where S refers to the subject of the sentence; i.e.
the doer of the action , V refers to the verb of the sentence' i.e. the
action, O refers to the object of the sentence; i.e. the participant
upon whom the action is conducted, C the compliment of the
sentence ; i.e. an attribution related to the subject or the object, and
A refers to the circumstances where, when and how the action takes
place.
However, this does not imply that all the elements referred to
above should exist in the same sentence. As the brackets referred to
above in the form, some elements may not be included in the
structure like O,O, C, A, but the obligatory elements S,V should be
included in every sentence. The existence and/or absence of the
element , however, depends on the type of verb exists in the
sentence. And accordingly, the existence and absence of the
elements determine the type of structure of the sentence.

The followings are the different types of structure that all the
sentences in English follows in one way or another:
1. SV This structure determines that only the subject and the verb
are obligatory elements in the sentence and other elements if exist in
the sentence , they are optional ;i.e. can be omitted without any
12
change in the meaning or the grammaticalization of the sentence.
This means that the sentence after omitting the optional elements is
still grammatically correct.
e.g. The kite flies. SV
S V
If we add , for instance, an adverbial like "happily" to have the
sentence :
The kite flies happily.
S V A
The adverb " happily" is optional , if omitted , nothing is going to be
changed as far as grammar is concerned though the meaning is going
to miss something in the sentence.
2. SVO This structure determines that the subject, the verb and the
object , all are obligatory elements in the sentence and omitting one
of them may cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.
e.g. He ate an apple.
S V O
If " an apple" is omitted, the sentence would be ungrammatical
and wrong. But if an adverbial is added , then it becomes optional
and can be deleted without any change in grammar,
He ate an apple last night.
S V O A

13
3. SVC e.g. She is a teacher.
S V C
e.g. He is handsome.
S V C
Also, if other elements like adverbials are added, then they are
optional and can be omitted without any change in the
grammaticalization of the sentence.
e.g. He is so handsome.
S V A C
4. SVOO e.g. She gave me a gift.
S V O O
The first object is called the indirect object and the second object is
called the direct object. Both of them can be used in making the
passive sentence:
I was given a gift. A gift was given to me.
The difference between the two objects is that the indirect object can
be transformed into a prepositional phrase ( to + noun phrase) , but
the direct object cannot. So, we can say: She gave a gift to me, but
not : She gave me to a gift.
Also, the indirect object should be animate ( but not necessarily human :
I gave the cat some meat). Also, physically, the indirect object is closer
to the subject than the indirect. If we imagine the process of giving the
indirect object is going to be more closer to the doer of the action (i.e. S)
14
than the direct object. In the same way if any element from the sentence
is omitted , this will leave the sentence ungrammatical. But , if other
elements are added like A, then such an element is optional and can be
omitted without any change in the grammar of the sentence.
e.g. She gave me an apple happily.
S V O O A
5. SVA : She is in London.
S V A
6. SVOA : I put the book on the shelf.
S V O A
All the elements in this structure are obligatory and cannot be
omitted. But other optional elements can be added , e.g. I put the
book on the shelf carefully.
"Carefully" can be omitted since it is optional but " on the shelf"
cannot be omitted.
7. SVOC 1.e.g. I made him happy.
S V O C
2. e.g. She made her husband a good wife.
S V O C
(i.e. she became a good wife for her husband).
In the first sentence, the C is an attribute for the O so, it is , thus,
object complement because it describes the object. In the second

15
sentence it is attribute of the subject because it describes the subject,
so it is subject complement.
What determines the type of the structure is the type of the verb in
the sentence. Two main types of English verbs can be established
here : The Intensive and the Extensive Verb. If the structure is SV ,
then the verb is intensive. The Extensive verb can be divided into :
Transitive and Intransitive . If we have the structure SVA, then we
are going to have an intransitive verb. The Transitive verb is either,
mono-transitive ( where we have one object), Di- Transitive (where
we have two objects), and Complex transitive ( where we have
object and object complement). The following table shows these
divisions in relation to the types of the verb:
Table (1) : Types of the verb in relation to types of structure
Types of the Verb Type of the Structure Examples
Intensive SV The Kite Flies.
Extensive

Transitive
-Mono Transitive SVO She puts a plan
- Di Transitive SVOO She gave me a book.
-Complex Transitive SVOC She made him happy.

SVOA She puts it there.

Intransitive SVC She is happy.
SVA She is at home

16
Types of English Verbs According to Meaning:
English verbs are of two types : Dynamic and Stative. Dynamic
verbs are those verbs which can show movement and dynamicity .
For example :
The kid ran quickly to the farm.
Here, the verb " ran" shows movement , so it is a dynamic verb.
Also, within the meaning of the dynamic verbs, there exist the
intension of the agent ( who conducted the action ) to do the action
presented in the verb. Whether this intension is positive or negative;
i.e. whether the agent want or does not want to do the action. In the
negative intention consider the sentence again :
The kid did not run quickly to the farm.
Because of this dynamicity and movement, the dynamic verb usually
accept the continuous perfect or the progressive perfect . So, we can
say :
The kid is running quickly to the farm.
Stative verbs (also known as state verbs) are verbs that describe a
static condition, situation, or state of being. They are contrasted
with dynamic verbs, which describe an active, dynamic action that
can be performed by a person or thing.
Stative verbs can be in the present, past, or future tense; however,
because they describe static conditions, they are usually unable
to progress through time, and they therefore cannot be used when
forming the continuous or progressive forms of verb tenses. For this

17
reason, they are sometimes referred to as non-continuous
verbs or non-progressive verbs.
However, some stative verbs can be used in a continuous tense in
certain situations, as when describing a temporary state that has
begun and will end. This is becoming more common in modern
English, and the prescriptive rule that stative verbs can never be
continuous is becoming less strict. We’ll look at some of these
exceptions in the sections below.
Types of stative verbs
1. Linking Verbs
are usually used as stative verbs; these include the verb be and
the verbs of the senses. Other verbs that are considered stative are
those that express emotions, possession, cognition, and states or
qualities.
Below, we’ll look at common examples of different types of stative
verbs. As we will see, certain verbs can be either dynamic or stative,
depending on their use and context in a sentence.
(It’s important to note that the sections below do not contain
exhaustive lists of stative verbs; they are only meant to provide
illustrative examples.)
To be
The verb be is the most common linking verb. It is used for
describing general characterizations, sensations, measurements,
location, or to rename the subject.
For example:

18
 • “You are wrong.”
• “It was hot yesterday.”
• “I am not hungry.”
• “They were confused.”
• “I can tell that you are upset.”
• “Our daughter is one week old.”
• “She is five feet tall.”
• “John is in the other room.”
• “This is a lost cause.”
Using the continuous form
However, the linking verb be can function as an action verb when it
is used to mean “to behave.” We can test whether be is acting as a
stative or action verb by putting it into one of the continuous tenses.
For example:

• “The children are being too noisy.” (Correct—it is an action

verb.)
• “The children are being outside.” (Incorrect—it is a stative verb.)
Sense verbs
Verbs of the senses, or “sense verbs” for short, are used to indicate
perceptions based on physical or mental sensations. The sense verbs
are:

• taste
• smell
• sound
• seem
• feel
• look
• appear

19
When sense verbs are used as linking verbs, they merely relate the
means by which the speaker has arrived at such a sensation about the
subject. We pair them with adjectives
For example:

• “I feel terrible today.”

• “You sound tired.”
• “She didn’t sound Irish.”
• “You look fabulous today.”
• “He doesn’t look very happy.”
• “This doesn’t seem right.”
• “The car appears OK, but I’ll have to drive it to be sure.”
• “That smells nice.”
• “This milk tastes strange.”
Using the continuous form
Note, however, that some of the sense verbs can take the continuous
tense to describe a temporary state in some contexts; they are more
common in more casual speech and writing. For example:

• “You are looking great, Suzy!”

• “It is seeming less likely by the day that we will succeed.”
The sense verb feel is unique, though, in that it is very often used in
the continuous form when talking about one’s or someone else’s
health, as in:

• “I’m not feeling well at all.”

• “Are you feeling OK, John?”
Certain sense verbs also function as dynamic verbs in other contexts,
and these can take the continuous form. For example:

20
 • “I was feeling gently around the table in the dark.”
• “The guards are sounding the alarm!”
• “What’s that delicious food I am smelling?”
• “He was looking across the table at me.”
• “Birds have been appearing out of nowhere.”
• “He is tasting the soup to decide whether it needs salt.”
Verbs of emotion
Verbs that describe our emotions about something are also
considered stative. These transitive verbs take nouns and noun
phrases as their objects. Here are some common examples using
stative verbs of emotion:

• “She likes old movies.”

• “My son loves to read.”
• “I enjoy walking along the beach.”
• “I hate to eat dinner alone.”
• “The kids dislike sharing their toys.”
• “I prefer salad to French fries.”
• “I don’t mind eating vegetables.”
Most of the time, a verb of emotion can take either a gerund or an
infinitive with little to no difference in meaning. However, an
infinitive sometimes refers to a potential activity, while a gerund
refers to an activity in general.
Other verbs of emotion, such as enjoy or don’t mind, can’t take the
infinitive at all:

• “I enjoy playing tennis.” (correct)

• “I enjoy to play tennis.” (incorrect)
• “I don’t mind working on my own.” (correct)

21
• “I don’t mind to work on my own.” (incorrect)
Using the continuous form
As with the sense verbs, we can sometimes use verbs of emotion in
the continuous form to describe an ongoing but temporary sensation.
However, such uses are generally quite informal. For example:

• “We are loving this neighborhood.”

• “I’m liking our chances of winning the championship.”
• “I’m hating the second season of this show.”
Although enjoy is a verb of emotion, it is often used in the
continuous form and is not considered informal. For instance:

• “He is enjoying his newfound wealth.”

• “Are you enjoying your meal?”
However, there are still some verbs of emotion that generally do
not take a continuous form, as in:

• “She is preferring her old school.” (incorrect)

Verbs of possession and attribution
Possession and attribution are static actions, not dynamic ones.
Verbs that refer to ownership are considered stative and do not take
the continuous form. For example:

• “I have a large house.”

• “She owns three cars.”
• “That stereo belongs to me.”
• “They have a large family.”
• “He holds several postgraduate degrees.”
• “She possesses a great wealth of knowledge.”
22
Using the continuous form
We often find some of these verbs used in the continuous forms, but
their meanings are different and they are functioning as action verbs
instead, as in:

• “You’re not holding on to the hammer tight enough!”

(Hold means “to grip with one’s hands” in this context.)
• “He thinks that a ghost is possessing him.” (Possess means “to
gain control or power over” in this context.)
• “She’s having a baby in a few months.” (Have means “to give
birth to” in this context.)
• “They’re having a party next door.” (Have means “to arrange or
carry out” in this context.)
However, if the verb is indicating possession or attribution, we
cannot use it in a continuous form:

• “I am having a large house.” (incorrect)

• “She is owning three cars.” (incorrect)
• “That stereo is belonging to me.” (incorrect)
• “They are having a large family.” (incorrect)
• “He is holding several postgraduate degrees.” (incorrect)
• “She is possessing a great wealth of knowledge.” (incorrect)
Verbs of cognition
Verbs of mental cognition, such as understand, know, recognize,,
or think, are generally used as stative verbs and do not take
continuous forms. For example:

• “I understand the issue.” (correct)

• “I am understanding the issue.” (incorrect)
• “She knows Janet very well.” (correct)
23
• “She is knowing Janet very well.” (incorrect)
Using the continuous form
Some verbs of cognition can be stative or dynamic, depending on the
context. If they can correctly be used in a continuous form, they are
expressing a dynamic action. For example:

• “I consider my options before I make a decision.”

• “I am considering my options before I make a decision.”
(correct—action verb)
• “I consider myself a rational person.”
• “I am considering myself a rational person.” (incorrect—stative
verb)
•“They thought of an answer.”
• “They were thinking of an answer.” (correct—action verb)
The stative verb understand, however, has some informal uses in
which the continuous form is often considered acceptable, as in:

• “I’m sorry, I’m not understanding your question.”

• Am I understanding you correctly?”
Verbs of states or qualities
Besides the linking verb be and the verbs of the senses, we can use
other verbs, such as weigh, depend, involve, owe, or consist, to
describe the state or qualities of something. For example:

• “He weighs 160 pounds.” (correct)

• “He is weighing 160 pounds.” (incorrect)
• “This report involves multiple sites across the world.” (correct)

24
• “This report is involving multiple sites across the world.”
(incorrect)
• “Your happiness depends on doing something you enjoy.”
(correct)
• “Your happiness is depending on doing something you enjoy.”
(incorrect)
• “John owes me 20 dollars!” (correct)
• “John is owing me 20 dollars!” (incorrect)
• “The book consists of research from several prominent
scientists.” (correct)
• “The book is consisting of research from several prominent
scientists.” (incorrect)
Using the continuous form
Some of these verbs can be dynamic or stative, depending on the
context and the way they are used. When the verb is describing an
attribute of the subject, it functions as stative verb (as we saw
above). When the verb describes an action taken by the subject,
though, it is functioning as an action verb, as in:

• “He is weighing each bag before delivery.”

• “I am involving a number of people in this project.”

25
 Tikrit University

Lecturer: Waqas Saadi Ismael

If Clauses or Conditional Clauses

There are three kinds:
1. Likely to happen:
shall
If + subject + verb (present simple) subject + will + verb (base)
can
may
example: If he asks me, I can answer.

If it rains tomorrow, I shall stay at home.

If you eat too much, you will become fat.

2. Unlikely to happen:
would
If + subject + verb (past simple) subject + should + verb (base)
could
might

example: If I visited him, I should give him the letter.

If he went to the party, he would see his friends.

3. Impossible to happen:
would have
If + subject + had+ verb (past participle) subject + should have + verb (past participle)
could have
might have

If I had gone yesterday, I should have seen him.

If she had studied hard last week, she would have passed the exam.
Definite and Indefinite Articles

‘ a ‘ and ‘an’ they are used in front of singular countable nouns.

- ‘a’ before singular that begins with a consonant sound
example : a pen a man a bus a key a book a girl a door

- ‘an’ before singular that begins with vowel sound u,e,o,a

example :an egg an orange an umbrella an ant
a university a uniform a European a useful
/h/ is not pronounced an honest an hour
We don’t use a, an before plural

- ‘the’ before countable and uncountable nouns

example: the boy the milk
before the unique things: the earth, the moon, the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile
 Subject verb agreement (Concord)

1. The verb is plural when nouns are connected by and

e.g. A man and woman ………coming. (is , are)

2. The verb is singular when a noun is followed by ‘with’ or ‘as well as’

e.g. A man as well as a woman …… singing. (is , are)

A woman with her two sons…….crossing the road.(is, are)

3. The verb is singular because the noun following each, every, either, neither is

singular

e.g. Each girl ……. wearing a veil. (is, are)

Every girl and boy ……happy.(is, are)

4. The verb is singular after the number

e.g. The number of the audience ……. Not known.(is, are)

5. The verb is plural after ‘a number’

e.g. A number of men ….. coming.(is, are)

6. The name of a book is singular.

e.g. Romeo and Juliet ….. a famous story (is, are)

7. The verb agree the nearest subject with either …..or and neither…….nor

Either Ali or his brother ……. coming.(were, was)

Either you or I …..wrong.(is, are, am)

Neither Ali nor his friends …..coming.(is, are)

8. The verb agrees the real subject.

Reading books ….useful.(is, are)

Books of reading ……interesting.(is, are)