AGRANI

B.A HISTORY HONS.

HISTORY OF INDIA III

Q. Describe the process of Agrarian expansion in Early Medieval

period. How was it linked to social processes of this period?
A. According to colonial historiography, the economy and society of
India were seen as static and changeless, characterised by the Asiatic
mode of production and oriental despotism. This perception of Indian
history was immensely biased and flawed, and Indian historians such
as R.S Sharma pioneered a more favourable picture that reinstated
the nature of economic and social processes as being dynamic. The
changing social and economic relations became the focal point of
study with the advent of D.D Kosambi and others in the early 20th
century. The Early Medieval period in Indian history can be placed
between the Ancient and the Medieval, from c. 600 CE – 1200 CE.
This period was marked by intense local state formations in relation to
emergence of new ruling elite with modest origins (like Rajputs),
massive agrarian expansion and urbanization occurring at different
levels such as extension of varna-jati order; emergence of sub-castes
and new groups, peasantisation of tribes. New trends in religion,
culture and art were coming up as well.
To begin with, the practice of giving land grants to brahmans and
officials of the king became a pan-India phenomenon 600 CE
onwards. Sources such as copper plates and stone inscriptions stated
that these land grants were accompanied by certain rights and
privileges being bestowed upon the recipient like exemption from
taxes. As time passed, these land grants became hereditary. The
feudal school of thought believes that this practice of giving land
grants was a manifestation of a social and political crisis (Kali age
crisis) which implied political fragmentation taking place
accompanied by decline of State power. Conversely, historians such
as B.P Sahu and B.D Chattopadhyaya argue that the land grants
were not a result of political fragmentation but they facilitated the
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process of integration and legitimation of the emerging political elite.
From the point of view of fledgling kingdoms struggling to establish
their power and legitimacy, the patronage of Brahmanas, a social
group that had traditionally enjoyed a privileged socio-religious
status, did not amount to an inordinate loss of revenue or control.
R.N Nandi describes 3 processes taking place under agrarian
expansion. First, intensification of cultivation in already settled areas
and the introduction of cultivation in new territories. Second,
improvisation in agrarian technology. and third, increase in
proliferation of crop production.
In ‘Urban Decay in India’ R.S Sharma argues that the donation of
land in a backward area created obvious possibilities for the
expansion of agriculture. A new expertise was brought by the priestly
and the other beneficiaries who migrated from the middle Gangetic
plains or similar advanced areas in search of better livelihood. For
example, they introduced the knowledge of calendar, which could
impart a good idea of the rainy, sowing seasons. etc. Much of the
material dealing with agriculture in the Arthashastra of Kautilya and
the Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira may have been diffused by these
migrants. The tribals were beef-eaters and killed the cattle
indiscriminately. The brahmanas inculcated the idea of the
preservation of the cattle wealth which naturally gave a boost to
agrarian economy. The ideological nature of the varna system also
contributed to agrarian expansion. Since the brahmanas had to
organize production themselves, they needed ploughmen and
cultivators. The idea of inferiority and superiority embedded in the
varna hierarchy could enable them to mobilize the tribals and fringe
'Hindus' for this.1
Urban contraction was an important cause of agrarian expansion.
Western India provides many examples of migrations of town-
dwelling brahmanas to the countryside where they were donated land
by the ruling class. So, in the settled villages, their advent would

1
R.S Sharma, Urban Decay in India, pp 170

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boost production because of the increasing burden of rent on the
peasants. This factor could also push production in backward regions
which would additionally benefit from the introduction of better
knowledge of agriculture by the beneficiaries. Agriculture would also
benefit from the ready availability of artisans migrating from
decaying towns.2
There are several references made to the construction of wells, tanks
and canals in the early Medieval sources. Irrigation facilities were
expanded. The law-books lay down severe punishments for those who
cause damage to tanks, wells, ponds, embankments, etc. The
araghatta was a water wheel used by peasants and this technology
was transported to other parts of the subcontinent as well. The
construction of vapi (step well) became very popular in Rajasthan and
Gujarat. Its importance is also underlined in the work of Kasyapa.
The knowledge of fertilizers improved immensely and the use of the
compost was known. The Brhadhala or big plough mentioned in a
tenth-century inscription from the Ajmer area may have been an
important instrument in breaking difficult soil in certain parts of the
country. Equally advantageous to agricultural processes may have
been the use of the pounder, which was in use in Pala times. The
increase in the number of the varieties of cereals including rice, wheat
and lentil as well as in fruits, legumes, vegetables, etc is striking.
These can be inferred not only from the Amarakosa but more so from
the Paryayamuktavali. According to the Sunya Purana, more than
fifty kinds of paddy were cultivated in Bengal. Growing references to
village markets, fairs tell us that there was expansion of trade in food
crops. R.N Nandi calls it a burgeoning rural economy. It will thus
appear that introduction of new crops, expansion of irrigation
facilities and innovation in agricultural techniques contributed to the
growth of agriculture.3

2
R.S Sharma, Urban Decay in India, pp 172.
3
This point has abo been discussed in R.S. Sharma. "How Feudal was lndian Feudalism"

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According to B.N.S Yadava and R.S Sharma, there was an
entrenchment of feudal relations in the Early Medieval period. The
practice of land grants further crystallized relations of domination and
subordination in the rural society. Due to parcellisation of power,
decline of trade and commerce and ruralisation of economy, the
landed elite had complete dominance over the peasantry. There was a
growing trend of closed mobility of peasants by tying them to the land
and forcing them to pay taxes and dues in addition to extra economic
coercion through the practice of land grants. This trend can be seen
even in law books of this period- new rules and regulations were
being imposed on peasants. There were specific punishments meted
out to runaway peasants and greater references being made to
vistikara.
Land grants not only contributed to agrarian growth but also shaped
the social configuration in the countryside. Greater proliferation of
castes was seen especially in Shudras. As mentioned earlier, there was
an extension of state society based on the brahmanical notion of state
formation. New regions and people were incorporated into the same.
Tribals such as pulindas, sabara, abhirs, medas, bhils were brought
under the fold of the brahmanical order as shudras. Consequently,
there was a rise in the practice of untouchability. According to texts
and inscriptions, references to shudras were made- Antyaja (the last
group), chandala, baruda, etc. The groups which had offered stiff
resistance and were dispossessed of their land were forced to settle
outside the village areas. The feudal historians opine that
feudalization of economy led to artisans, craftsmen and merchants
becoming jobless. They were thrown on the fringes of society and
some of them were seen as untouchables.
Vivekananda Jha has worked extensively on the origins of
untouchability. He postulates that the emergence of untouchability
can be seen in phases. In the Vedic period, there were very few
references. In the post Vedic period, there are designated names given
to new groups (peak in early medieval period due to agrarian
expansion and brahmanisation of tribal groups). Suvira Jaiswal adds
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that untouchability was not a sudden phenomenon in the early
medieval period. She agrees with the feudal hypothesis- the landed
elite needed a large class of servile peasants and this requirement was
fulfilled by the new people being incorporated under the varna order.
R.S Sharma argues that the craft groups were evolving into jatis.
Owing to decline in craft production (caused by a drop in trade and
commerce), there is a localization of craft groups; they become
closed, exclusive, endogamous social categories. For example, the
community of carpenters from north India belong to sutrakara. The
goldsmiths were called swarnakara, the kumbhara padraka were
potters. These evidences point towards the crystallization of
occupation groups into castes. Along side this, proliferation of new
sects into religious traditions was occurring. For example, by 12th
century, the lingayats in Deccan are seen as a separate caste/sub-caste
apart from the Shaivite tradition. A new caste of Kayasthas, emerged
during this period who were scribes and writers needed for record
keeping of land grants.
The early Medieval society and economy was centred around land
and land relations. In this period, the question of land ownership
comes up. Multiple forms of land ownership existed. There was a
transition from communal land ownership to private ownership of
land. The practice of land grants led to a new hierarchy of landed
elite. There were new social elements introduced due to land grants i.e
different categories of landlords came into being. Social conflicts
were prevalent due to the intensification of social hierarchy and
relations of subordination and domination in the agrarian society.
R.N Nandi remarks that the ruling elite had degrees of collaboration
amongst them. Their main objectives were to increase crop
production and revenue expansion. They joined hands in establishing
control over new by subduing the local population. In most cases it
led to great resentment among peasant groups against the fief
holders/land grantees. The peasants often tried to resist encroachment
by the latter. Hence, more incidences of rebellions, peasant protests
and everyday form of resistance are found in sources of this period.
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The social and agrarian relations had quite different ramifications in
early Medieval south India. Burton Stein remarks that the
establishment of Chola state system did not affect the agrarian order
or land relation much. Nattar was the chief of the landed elite and the
brahmans were part of the religious elite. There was an alliance
between them based on self-control and mutual benefit. They were in
constantly clashing with the tribals/nomadic pastoralists. There were 2
broad social divisions called Idangai and Valangai. The former
referred to craft and artisanal groups whereas the latter refers to the
agrarian classes. The interaction between them was marked by
hostility and conflict. Y.Subarayalu disagrees with this broad social
division. The first references to these terms were used in military
classifications of the Chola army. The Valangai were organised
together and over the course of time a solidarity emerged in this right-
hand military contingent. By c. 13th century, they turned into caste
groupings.
The political, economic, religious, and ideological processes that
pervaded much of Indian history but gained prominence in the early
historical phase were closely correlated with the major historical-
societal processes or changes that transpired during the early
mediaeval period of Indian history. Because of the diversity of the
Indian subcontinent, it is therefore best to understand each process in
relation to, and dependent upon, other processes that were
concurrently occurring as specific fundamental movements within
regional and local levels, rather than viewing them as a homogenous
phenomenon occurring at a pan-Indian level.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Jaiswal, S. 1991. “Varna Ideology and Social Change on JSTOR,” n.d.
2. Jha, V. 1997. “Caste, Untouchability and Social Justice: Early North
Indian Perspective on JSTOR,” n.d.
3. Sharma, R.S. 1987. Urban Decay in India c. 300 – c. 1000. New Delhi:
Munshiram Mnoharlal, Chapter 10: ‘Agrarian Expansion’.
4. Sharma, R.S. 2001. ‘Changes in Social Structure’. In idem. Early
Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation. Hyderabad: Orient
Longman.
5. Yadava, B.N.S. 1997. ‘Immobility and Subjection of Indian Peasantry’.
In Bhairabi Prasad Sahu (ed.). Land System and Rural Society in Early
India. Delhi: Manohar.