Chapter 3 Dynamics Kinematics describes the motion of bodies without being concerned with why a body moves exactly in a given way, and not in a different one. Dynamics studies the motion of bodies in connection with its causes resulting in the occurrence of a special kind of motion. 3.1 Principia In 1687, Isaac Newton published one of the greatest scientific works of all time, his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (or Principia for short). The Latin t tle translates as The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. In the Principia, Newton stated three laws of motion that form the basis of classical mechanics. To- gether with his law of universal gravitation, Newton's laws showed for the first time that the motion of the heavenly bodies (the Sun, the planets, and their satellites) and the motion of earthly bodies can be understood using the same physical laws. New- ton’s laws were the result of generalizing a great amount of experimental facts. Their correctness is confirmed by the agreement of the corollaries following from them with experimental results. For this reason the axioms of classical mechanics are different from the axioms of mathematics. Newtonian mechanics achieved such great successes during two centuries that many physicists of the 19th century were convinced of its per- fection. It was considered that the explanation of any physical phenomenon required its reduction to a mechanical process obeying Newton’s laws. With the development of science, however, new facts were uncovered for which no place could be found within the confines of classical mechanics. These facts were explained in new theories —theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. It is worth emphasizing that the development of science has not eliminated classical mechanics, but has ouly shown its limited applicability. 3.2. Newton's First Law (Law of inertia) Aristotle had formulated his view that the natural state of an object is rest; and, for an object to remain in motion, a foree would have to act upon it continuously. Gi lileo 273.3. NEWTON'S SECOND LAW CHAPTER 3, DYNAMICS conjectured that, in the absence of friction and other resistive forees, no continued force is needed to keep an object moving. However, Galileo thought that the sustained motion of an object would be in a great cirele around Earth. Descartes claimed that the motion of an object free of any forces should be along a straight line rather than a circle Newton's first law is formulated as follows: every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by external forces to change that state, A reference frame in which Newton's first law is obeyed is called an inertial one. The law itself is often called the law of inertia. A reference frame in which Newton's first law is not abeyed is called a non-inertial reference frame. There is an infinite multitude of inertial reference frames. Any reference frame moving uniformly in a straight line relative to an inertial frame will be also an inertial one. ‘The Earth moves relative to the Sun and the stars along a curvilinear trajector having the shape of an ellipse, Curvilinear motion always occurs with a certain accel- eration. The Earth also rotates about its axis. For this reason, the Earth’s surface is not inertial. The acceleration of such a frame, however, is so sinall that it may be con- sidered practically inertial in a great mumber of cases. But sometimes the non-inertial nature of the reference frame associated with the Earth is observable (Fouceault’s pendulum) Every body resists attempts to change its state of motion. This property of bodies is called inertia. It is characterised quantitatively by a physical quantity called the ‘mass of the body. 3.3 Newton’s Second Law Newton's second law states that the mute of change of the momentum of « body equats the force F acting on the body: dq Por (3.1) substituting mv for p we get a(mv) a rho +m (3.2) know from kinematics that # = a Hence, dime) dt =rhwtma (33) ‘There are several problems in the framework of classical mechanics where the mass changes during the process: avalanche, a falling raindrop, the motion of a rocket, the motion of leaking oscillator, the motion of the tip of a whip. If the mass is assumed to be constant vii = 0 we can write the equation (3.3) in the familiar form Fr ma (3.4) 28CHAPTER 3, DYNAMICS 3.3. NEWTON'S SECOND LAW Equation has called forth and is continuing to call forth many controversies among, physicist. ‘To date, there is no generally adopted interpretation of this relation. ‘The complication consists in that there are no independent ways to determining the quan- tities m and F. First of all, let us deal with a common mental mistake made by beginners, It is perhaps tempting to read Newton's second law as a literal identifi tion of force with mass times acceleration, ‘This is not the way to think of it, The acceleration is a property of a given body’s state (of motion) and is only defined on a given curve, The mass is an intrinsic property of the body. The force is an external field quantity characterizing the environment and the body’s interaction with it. Don’t think of F = ma as an identification of two quantities. ‘Think of it as expressing the response (acceleration) of a body to an external influence (force), The right hand side of F = ma refers to the body; the left hand side refers to its environment, It matheratically states the cause and effect relationship between force and changes in motion. We must underline the fact that Newton's second law is an experimental one. It took shape as a result of generalization of the data of experiments and observations, One question immediately arises; “What de we mean by a force?” We define a force as the push ar pull exerted by one body on another body. ‘This definition is not quantitative but emphasizes the fact that we are entitled to speak of a “force” only when we ean identify the body which is exerting the force and the body on which the force is being exerted. 3.3.1 The Superposition of Forces ‘There is a tacit assumption we make when using Newton's laws that really should get a law all its own, It is often called as the superposition principle. This is just the postulate, that when two or more forces act on a particle, the resulting net force is just the vector sum of the individual force vector x Fou = Fit Fi tet Fn= Fu (3.5) = Tt need not be true that forces combine as vectors, or even that forces combine in a linear fashion, In fact, there are situations where the superposition principle is not valid, For example, strong gravitational fields don't behave this way. As usual, for a wide range of physical situations the superposition principle does hold with extremely good accuracy, so we take it as given. 3.3.2 Inertial Frames Now that we know what we mean by a force, we can ask: “With respeet to whieh axes is it true that a particle subject to no forces moves with constant velocity?” A set of axes is frequently called a “frame of reference”, and those axes with respect to which Newton's first law is true are called inertial frames. 293.3, NEWTON SECOND LAW CHAPTER 3, DYNAMICS An inertial reference frame is axes which are non-rotating with respect to the distant stars and whose origin moves with uniformly along a straight line. For most purposes, axes attached to the earth appear to be in inertial frame. However, while a reference frame (the train) is accelerating, the passenger has the feeling that something is pushing her back into her seat. Nevertheless, we do not acknowledge that there is any force pushing the woman toward the back of the car since we cannot point to any piece of matter which is exerting such a force on the passenger. In this case the train is considered as a non-inertial reference frame. 3.3.3 The Equation of Motion ‘The relationship between the particle’s motion, r = r(t) , and the applied force can be viewed as a differential equation, Mathematically we present: the force as some given function of position, velocity and explicitly of time, F = F(r,v,t). We get in general a coupled system of 3 second-order, ordinary differential equations. These are called the equations of motion. m# — F(r(t),v(t),¢) = 0 (36) Solving of the set of this kind of equations is among the most difficult problems in mathematics. One of the most famous problems in classical mechanies is the so called three-body problem, ‘The three-body problem is the problem of taking an initial set of data that specifies the positions, masses, and velocities of three bodies for some particular point in time and then determining the motions of the three bodies, in accordance with Newton's laws of motion and of universal gravitation, which are the laws of classical mechanics, Unlike two-body problems, there is no general closed-form solution for every condition, and numerical methods are needed to solve these problems ‘The mathematician Henry Poincaré showed that there is uo general analytical solution for the three-body problem given by algebraic expressions and integrals. The motion of three bodies is generally non-repeating, except in special cases. However, the mathematicians have pointed out that some kind of solutions always exist and the solutions are not unique in general, There are many solutions. This is good because, given a force field, we know that infinitely many motions are possible. Finally, the solutions are uniquely determined by their initial position and initial veloc- ity. ‘This is a strong physical prediction of Newtonian mechanics, one which is readily born out by experience and experiment. 3.3.4. Formal Solution of the Equation of Motion In this case, the force being given by F = F(t) implies that it is an explicit function of time; hence Newton's second law may be written as (3.7)CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS: 3.3, NEWTON'S SECOND LAW which on integration gives, assuming that v= at t = tos (3.8) (3.9) Integrating again r=% vur-tae [(E/ eo) at (3.10) Since there are two integrations, we may use two variables f’ and ¢” and write equations (3.11) as © =t0 + (t—to) +5 far pf renae (3.11) However this integration usually can not be performed (with some exceptions). Hence most of the practical problems are treated differently. 3.3.5 Constant Applied Force We are interested in studying the motion of a particle when the applied force acting on the particle is constant in time. Since F is constant, so will be the acceleration a, and we may write Newton de dv F Fe LE Lg = constant 3.12 ea im usta a) The equation may be solved by direct integration provided we know the initial con- lar result obtained in elementary mechanies, as we will show now. Let us assume that at {= 0, the initial velocity, and at time ¢ the velocity is vp, ‘Thus, from the equation (3.12), fom fae (3.13) Ef o ug + at (3.14) Substituting v = d/d¢ in the equation (3.13) and again assuming the initial con that x =a at ¢ = 0, we get by direct integration which on integration yielels r Zot unt+ SP (3.15) 313.4. NEWTON'S THIRD LAW, CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS By eliminating ¢ between equations (3.12) and (3.13), we get v7 = up + 2a(a = 29) (3.16) Equations (3.12), (3.13), and (3.16) are the familiar equations that describe the trans- lational motion of a particle in one dimension. One of the most familiar examples of motion with constant force is the motion of freely falling bodies. In this case, a is replaced by g, the acceleration due to gravity, having the value g 9,81 m/s. 3.4 Newton’s Third Law Any action of bodies on one another has the nature of mutual interaction: if body 1 acts on body 2 with the force Fx, then the body 2, in tum, acts on body 1 with force Fj. Newton's third law states that the forves exerted by interacting bodies on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Using the former notation for such forces, the third law can be expressed in the form of the following equation: Fy =-Fu. (3.47) It follows from Newton’s third law that forces appear in pairs: for any force applied to a body there is another force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction applied to the second body interacting with the first one.* 3.5 Forces Four kinds of fundamental interactions are distinguished in physics 1) gravitational, 2) tromagnetic, 3) strong or nuclear (ensuring the binding of particles nucleus), and 4) weak interaction (responsible for many processes of elementary particle decay) Within the confines of classical mechanics, we have to do with gravitational and electromagnetic forces, and also with clastic and friction forces. The forces of inter- action between molecules have an electromagnetic origin. Consequently, elastic anc friction forces are electromagnetic in their nature. Gravitational and electromagnetic forces are fundamental up to now they cannot be reduced to other simpler forces. Elastic and friction forces, on the other hand, are not fundamental. an atomic Newton's third law i not always correct. As an example of the violation of Newton's third law, we can take a system of two charged particles g) and g, moving at the given moment. Tt can lhe proved—in eleetrodynaiies—that the magnetic forces acting on the particles are not oppositely directed. 323.5.1. Gravitational, Electric and Magnetic Forces Lot us consider asystem of two electrically ueutrally particles m, and my at the distance rr from each other. Owing to universal gravitation, these particles attract each other with the farce (3.18) where G = 6.674: 10-" Nm?/ke? is the universal gravitational constant. The magnitude of the force with which two point charges 4, and gp at rest interact is determined by Coulomb's law: (3.19) where k is a constant of proportionality depending on the units chosen. In SI system k=9-10? m/P, If the charges are moving, then magnetic forces act ou them in addition to the electric force in the presence of external magnetic field. ‘The magnetic force acting on a point charge q moving with the velocity v in a magnetic field of magnetic flux density B is determined by F=qlvxB). (3.20) 3.5.2 Elastic Forces Any real body becomes deformed (changes its dimensions and shape), under the action of forces applied to it. If the body regains its initial dimensions and shape after the action of the forces stops, the deformation of strain is called clastic. Elastic deformation is observed when the force producing the deformation does not exceed a definite limit, called the elastic limit, for each concrete badly. Let: us consider an ideal massless spring which has equilibrium length L. The spring is horizontally oriented and the left end of the spring is attached to a wall, At a given moment a force is exerted on the right end of the spring. Let the actual length of the spring at a given instant be L +. It is assumed that in equilibrium the coils of the spring are partially open so that x can be positive or negative. If «is positive the spring exerts a force to the left and, if x is negative, the spring exerts a force to the right. ‘An “ideal” spring is one which obeys Hooke's Law, which says that the magnitude of the force is proportional to the magnitude of x. The quantitative statement of Hooke’s Law is F(t) = ke (3.21) where & is a constant of proportionality called the spring constant. The minus sign ensures that if x is positive (negative) the force is directed to the left (right). Hooke's Law is not a fundamental law of nature, but most springs obey Hooke's Law if « is small enough. Every spring will deviate from Hooke’s Law if it is stretched or compressed too far. Homogeneous bars behave in tension or uniaxial compression like a spring. ‘The statement that the elastic force and the deformation are proportional to each other is 33,| FORCES CHAPTER 3._ DYNAMICS o=Ee (3.22) where ¢ = F/Ais the normal stress, © = Al/ly the relative elongation (strain) and E is called the modulus of clasticity or Young’s modulus. It is measured in pascals (N/m). 3.5.3 Friction Forces Forces of friction appear when contacting bodies or their parts move relative to each other, The friction occurring in the relative movement of two contacting bodies is called external; the friction between the molecules of the fluid is called internal. Friction between the surfaces of two solids in the absence of any intermediate layer, for instance, a lubricant between them, is called dry. Frietion between a solid and a fluid, and also between the layers of a fluid, is called viscous, ‘Two kinds of frietion are distinguished: sliding and rolling. Forces of friction are directed along a tangent to the surfaces (or layers) in contact so that they resist the relative displacement of these surfaces. In dry friction, a force of friction appears not only when one surface slides over another one, but also when attempts are made to set up such sliding motion. As it can be seen in Fig.(3.1) the static friction acts to Static Friction - Figure 3.1: The magnitude of the static friction can vary, Reaching a critical value turns into sliding frietion, prevent objects from starting to slide, As time goes by the magnitude of the static friction is increasing up to a critical value. At time moment ¢ = 7 the body begins to move and the magnitude of the sliding friction force drops significantly. The foree of sliding friction slightly depends on the relative speed, but this dependence can be neglected. The maximum force of static friction, and also the force of sliding frietion do not depend on the area of contact between bodies and are approximately proportional to the magnitude of the normal force pressing the contacting surface together. F = figFy static, (3.23) F=—-juFy™ sliding. (3.24) ‘The dimensionless proportionality constant yi is called the coefficient of friction. Tt is commonly thought (from daily life) that. the static coefficients of friction are higher aCHAPTER 3._DYNAMICS. 3.6,_ APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS than the dynamic or kinetic values ju > j.2 It depends on the nature and state of the contacting surfaces, on their roughness and on their contamination. Friction forces play a very great part in nature, Friction is often a great help to us in our everyday life. Nonetheless, in case of friction in bearing or between the hubs of a wheel measures have to be taken to reduce it as much as possible, The most radical way of reducing forces of friction is to replace sliding friction with rolling friction Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction, where 1 is the normal force, Cr, is the force needed to push (or tow) a wheeled vehicle forward (at constant speed on a level surface, or zero grade, with zero air resistance) per unit force of weight. If railroad steel wheels are rolling on steel rails the rolling resistance coefficient is Cy = 0.001. 3.5.4 Constraints From a dynamical point of view any material system can be regarded as a collection of material particles. The relationship between the quantities determining the posi- tion and the velocity of the system of particles is referred to as a constraints. These relationships must hold regardless of the initial conditions and the forces acting on the system, A constraint is a geometric kinematic condition that restricts the motion of a body. The constraints are usually given as equality and/or inequality. Here are a few examples of geometric constraints for a partiele: the body is constrained to move on a certain curve, on a certain surface, or inside a given volume. ‘A constraint can be assimilated with a constraint force. The forces of constraint determine the body to move on a certain eurve, a certain surface, or in a.certain volum A constraint of a system is a property of the external environment which reduces the degrees of freedom of that system, 3.6 Applications of Newton’s Laws To compl we must first of all establish what forees act om the body being considered, It is necessary to determine the action of other bodies on the given one that must be taken into account. For example, for a body sliding down an inclined plane, the action exercised by the Earth is important, The gravitational force characterized by the foree mg. Also important the action exercised by the plane which is characterised by the force of the reaction. an equation of moti of friction is often siguificantly lower than the dynamic value, 7 With many brake materials the static eoefli dynamic value, It cat be as low as 40 - 50% of th3.6. APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS CHAPTER 3, DYNAMICS Constraint Fimetion Tiealization pulling distant bodies massless ee only exerts pulling force _| undeformable pushing distant bodies massless rod it can exert undeformable pulling and pushing rotation of the line massless pulley of action, not able undeformable changes the forces Dlock the normal movement | surface frictionless exerts only normal force hinge) Conects two solid objects E allows rotation frictionless about a fixed axis. + The most commonly used constraints in mechanics. 3.6.1 Movable and Fixed Pulley Let us consider a mechanical system consist of two blocks are connected by a light weight, flexible cord that passes over a fixed and a moving pulley (see figure (3.2) ‘The centres of both pulleys are connected to a massless rigid rod. The friction is negligible. Let us describe the motion of the system. rigid rod mg 2: Mechanical system behaves as a simple machine 36CHAPTER 3._ DYNAMICS 3.6,_APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS i) We start by drawing a separate free-body diagram for each block. it) Using the free-body diagrams, we write Newton law for each block. We get a system of linear equations. iii) Determine the constraint relationship. It generally reduces the number of unknowns. iv) Each equation of motion must contain new information about the variables. We must have at least ax many equations as unknowns. v) Solve the system of equations. vi) Discussion: are the results reasonable? second, Solving an equation means using algebraic operations to isolate one variable, Many students tend to substitute numerical values into an equation as soon as possible. In many cases that is a mistake. On the one hand symbolic algebra is much easier to follow than a series of numerical calculations. Plugging numbers tends to obscure the logic behind your solution. Ou the other hand symbolic algebra lets you draw conclusions about how one quantity depends on another. Simultaneous equations are a set of N equations with V unknown quantities In case of massless rope, rod or pulley they must be in mechanical equilibrium, ‘This means that the net force acting on them must be zero. For this reason we do not apply equation of motion for such objects, even though they are accelerated, A rope, or a rod is always under tension According to Newton's second Is and taking into account the notation of Fig.(3.2) img —T= man (1) 2 = Man (2) ‘We have two equations and three unknown quantities (7, am, and ay;). We have an additional constraint equation as follows: (3) ‘The origin of the constraint relation is based on the fact that if we exert T’ force on the vertical rope the machine exerts twice as much force (27") on the horizontal object ‘A simple machine uses a single applied force to do work against a single load force, Ignoring friction losses, the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the applied force. The machine can increase the amount of the output force, at the cost of a proportional decrease in the dlistanee moved by the load. al ae Ss (3.25) copa | ‘The ratio of the output to the applied force is called the mechanical advantage. Using our simple machine as an example, if the fource is doubled, this leads toa 50 % deerease3.6._ APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS: CHAPTER 3._DYNAMICS in the horizontal displacement. Finally, we obtain two independent equations mg-T =man (a) oT = 1m (5) After multiplying both sides of the first equation by 2 and adding the two equations we climinate T and get one equation with one unknown quantity, 2mg — 27 = 2mam (6) r=Me 7) 2mg = (2 m+M 3) an (8) Hence, the dj, acceleration of the suspended body is ___2mg ding ~Im+M/2 Im+M From equation (5) we get the tension forces T exerted by the rope sections as follows: ptm — (MY _ dng Mmg T=MP= (¥) Im+M Im+™M It is useful to check whether we get reasonable results. If Mf = 0 the suspencect body is falling freely, for this reason a,, must be g and the tension force (T)) becomes wero, lir mg aoa" ~ Tm Omg 7 ry ms 4m+0 al (3.28) 3.6.2. Fixed Inclined Plane ‘A Dlock of mass m is held motionless on a frictionless plane with an angle of inclination 6. The inclined plane is fixed to the ground (see figure (3.3). The block is released. What is the acceleration of the block? In the example we are considering, it is good to resolve the force of the gravitation force mg into two components—the normal force ‘img cos(«) aud the tangential foree mgsin(a). Having determined the forces acting on a body, we write an equation of Newton’s second law. In our example it has the form ma=mg + Fy + Fr ‘To perform calculations, we must pass over from vectors to their projections onto the correspondingly chosen direction. Let us project the vectors onto the direction and 38CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS 3.6._APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS Fu mgsin(a) mgcos(«) Figure 3.3: A fixed inclined plane and a block. y shown in figure (3.3). The projections of the vectors are a, =a, mg, = mgsin(a), and Fj, = mgcos(a). Since the body does not accelerate along the y direction the net force must be zero, hence F, —mgcos(@) =0 (3.27) Fy, = mgcos(#) (3.28) Consequently, we arrive at the equation mg sin(a.) ~ jt Py = ma () sary sin(a) — prtg cos(a) = era a= gsin(a) — gosta} 3.6.3 Moving Inclined Plane A block of mass m is held motionless on a frictionless plane of mass M and angle nation 8, As it can be seen in figure (3.4) the plane rests on a frictionless horizontal surface so it is uot fixed anymore. ‘The block is released. What is the horizontal acceleration of the inclined plane? Instead of the normal force F,, we will use a simplified notation NV, It is useful to introduce vertical and horizontal components of the forces and the accelerations as well. () (2) Ne = Maw (3) The former equations can be written in a more detailed form mg — N cos(#) = m ay sin() () =N sin(@) = m (aay — ag cos(9)) (2) Nsin(6) = May (3) 393.6. APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LA’ CHAPTER 3. DYNAMI ay moving inclined plane and a block Figure 3.4: Frei It is useful to multiply the first equation by sin(#) and multiply the second one by cos(0). Adding up these equations we ean eliminate the normal force N. "The solutions of the system of equations are the following _ gsin(@) (rm + M) o- an(O+ Mt ’ mg cos(@) sin(0) msin(O)2 +” ay = Mmgcos(0) masin(@)? + M We ca check whether our results are reasonable or not. In the special case if M is much more massive compared to m the incline is practically fixed (ayy = 0), hence the acceleration of m is ysin(@) and the normal farce exerted by the incline is mg cos(@). gsin(@) (3 +1) on = in and NCO ay = im Mam sin(O) mg cost0) 3.6.4 Sliding on a Non-ideal Surface According to figure (3.5) a massive blocs is moving at initial speed (yp) in an ideal horizontal surface until it reaches a fixed platform. The surface of the platform is not ideal, it can be characterized by 1. How far does the block go? According to Newton's second law only the sliding friction force will change the 40CHAPTER 3._ DYNAMICS 3.6. APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS. Figure 5: Slowing down on a fixed surface. motion of the block. ma HE, = ma jung = 200 ug=a ‘The direction of motion and the acceleration is oppositely direeted, hence a <0, hence 11g <0 (deceleration). ‘The relation a = yig shows that the block slows down with a constant: acceleration, hence one of our kinematic formula applies ty)? = 2lal (x ~ 0) vw — 2298 298 ms om) 3.6.5 Sliding on a Moving Platform ‘The problem is more intricate in case the platform can move horizontally in an ideal surface (see figure (3,6)), The platform has mass, Now we have to take into account the reaction force of the friction force as well. This reaction force is accelerating the movable platform. How much distance (S*) does the block take on the platform? During the sliding process the block is slowing down with a constant acceleration (yg), while the movable platform is aceclerating with a different value (ugm/M). At that time instant (r) when the speed of both objects is the same the friction force vanishes. Then both objects move at the same 1 speed __m “ln MP ‘This result is completely analogous to the conservation of linear momentum (Laws vation), Without detailed calculations the displacement of the block on the 413.7. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM CHAPTER 3 DYNAMICS m Figure 3.6; Slowing down om a movable platform, movable platform is (3.29) If the mass of the platform is much greater compared to the mass of the block the platform is practically immobile, In this case S* must be as great as S. Let us check it out. M m+ M M 1 m+M . L ge ($)- da lag = 3.7 Work-Energy Theorem For the sake of simplicity we will study the motion of ein 1D. We assume that the force acting on the particle is constant. For this reason one of our kincmatic formula applies: v? = no? + 2a(x—y). Instead of 29 and x we have introduced 7 and :r notations. (3.30) (3.31) (3.82) (3.33) ‘This quantity is called the kinetic energy of the particle. Multiplying the mmerator and the denominator by m and taking into consideration that the product mw equals 42CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS 3.7, WORK-ENERGY THEOREM Figure 3.7: Force versus displacement of an ideal spring. the momentum p of a body, the expression for the kinetie energy can be given the form i a= (334) It is clear from the above that work characterizes the change in energy due to the action of a force on a moving particle. The right hand side of the equation 3.32 is called work. Although, work is energy transfer there is a fundamental difference between work and enerqy. Energy characterizes the instant state of a system, the work is an energy transfer between two states of the system. The FAx form only applies when the magnitude of the force is constant and the direction of the displacement vector is parallel with F. This latter requirement is always true for one-dimensional motion, however, the magnitude of F can be altered during the motion. Let us calculate the work done during deformation of an ideal spring. In F—r plane the work is numerically equal to the area under the F(z) fimetion. In accordance with figure (3.8) the area under the graph (in this special case) forms a rectangular triangle. Hence, the required work for deforming an ideal spring by an arbitrary value of is 1 we She © When F(x) is a general function (F(x) = 6-2") the area (Work) under the graph can be calculated by the following, integral: We Equation 3.32 can be rewritten as: Ky - 1=We (3.35) where we introduced a new notation A’ for kinetic energy. Equation 3.35 is called work-energy theorem and in certain cases it is an extremely powerful tool for solving problems. It can be proven that the Equation 3.35 can be written in differential form as follows: «(2) = Fla)de (3.36) 433.7, WORK-ENERGY THEOREM CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS We assume that F(:r) is a smooth and integrable function, Let us integrate it from position 1 to positon 2 2 2 mu? = fa (=) 7 [rou (3.37) 1 i ‘The left-hand side is the difference between the values of the kinetic energy at position Qand 1 . ‘ mu? _ mv “ é mua" _ mM _ G(2)—- 91), 38 > 5 = G2) 0), (3.38) where G is a primitive function (antiderivative) of the integrable function F(a) over the interval [1,2] hence F(x) = dG/de. Ky— Ki = G2 (3.39) Introducing V the potential energy as V = —G Ko- Ky, =-Va—(-V)) (3.40) K+ = hit (3.41) The equation 3.41 is referred to as the conservation of mechanical energy. One of the most important notions in the framework of classical mechanics. In this section the relationship between work and potential energy is presented in more detail. Recall the definition of the potential energy avin) dx F(z) = ‘The potential energy in the Earth’s gravitational field: V(y) =mgy (GB = —mg/ ‘The potential energy in the elastic field of a spring: 3.7.1 Work and Potential Energy in Higher Dimension Ifa particle moves in a plane the force may depend on e— and y~ coordinates as well. If the force F(x, y) acts on a particle on a plane, its kinetic energy does not remains constant, The quantity dW = F-ds (3.42) is called the work done by the force F over the path ds. ‘The scalar product can be represented as the product of the projection of the force onto the direction of the displacement F, and the elementary displacement ds, Consequently, we can write that dW = F,ds = |F\lds|cos() (3.43) 4aCHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS 3.7. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM If we know the components of the force (Fy, Fy) and the displacements (dr, dy) the result of the sealar prodets reads as: aw F, de + Fy- dy (3.44) In higher dimensions it consists of energies of interaction of the particles in pairs. ‘The definition of potential energy in higher dimension is Play, UV (xu, where the so-called “nabla operator” denotes the vector differential operator. The notation gradV is also commonly used for the gradient. In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the differential operator is given by Oo. .0 a tia te ‘The gradient of the potential energy reads as: ov ov av ji +k=— Or 1? by "Gs where i, j, & are the standard unit vectors in the directions of the x, y and = coordi- nates, respectively. Let us cousider, in particular, the case of a particle of mass m moving under the gravitational influence of a point mass M. ‘The position M is held fixed. Then x Mm, where r is the distance between M and m, and e, is a unit vector pointing from M to m ‘The Work-Energy Theorem, asserts ; ‘ rn ym - yet = fi Fedr rn where the right hand side is the total work done on the particle as it goes from to ro. The path travelled by am is some curve which can be broken up into many small steps being represented by the vector Ar. We can decompose Ar into two pieces, one parallel to e, and the other perpendicular to ¢,. When we calculate the work F- Ar, only the piece of Ar parallel to e, contributes to the dot product. If we introduce polar coordinates, then the vector Ar goes from the point whose polar coordinates: are 6,@ to the nearby point (r+ Ar,@+ 0,6 + Xe). The piece of Ar along the radial ection is (Ar)e,, and thus we find r di3.7. WORK- VERGY THEOREM CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS x ri Figure 3.8: Work done by gravity. since e,+e, =1 Letting Ar > 0 and adding up the contributions from all the steps, we find Mm T _Mm n ‘This calculation shows that the work done by gravity depends only on the end points of the path, and is therefore the same for all paths between those end points, In accordance with the Work-Enetgy Theory we find or equivalently In this ease we eall -GMm/r the gravitational potential energy since the sum of this quantity and the kinetic energy remain constant ‘The property of the gravitational force which enabled us to define a potential energy is the following: the work done by gravity on a particle travelling between two points does not depend on the path. 3.7.2. Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy ‘The conservation of mechanical energy theorem is true if and only if fre dr =0 When friction forces are present in a system, the total mechanical energy of the sys- tom diminishes (dissipates), transforming into non-mechanical forms of energy (heat) Forces leading to the dissipation of energy are called dissipative, According to Equa- tion 3.41 the total mechanical energy of a systern of bodies on which only conservative forces act remains constant. If non-conservative forces, for example, forces of friction, 46.CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS. 3.7. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM act in a closed system in addition to conservative ones the total mechanical energy is not conserved, however, the work-energy theorem can be used in such eases. Consequently, if all the forces which do work are conservative, the work-energy theorem yields Mt Ea mou} — Sm 3 ¥ (rx) -V (ra) which implies ; ym +V (r) = constant (3.45) The funetion V(r) is called the potential energy and eqn. (3.45) is the statement of the Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy, Ifa particle moves under the influence of a conservative force with associated poten- tial V and also under the influence of a non-conservative force, then the work-energy theorem yields Ky +V =k +Ve+W" (3.46) where WW" is the work done by the non-conservative forces as the partiele moves from 7 to rp. if the non-conservative force is a frictional drag directed opposite to the motion, then W? > 0. We can pick some fixed point R called reference point, The reference point R is arbitrary. A change in the reference point causes potential energy at all points to change by an additive constant in V will not change anything 3.7.3 Power The work done in unit time is called power, If the work dW is done in the time dt, then the power is dw id f : aga het rs If F is. a constant force P=Fv ‘There are machines, which have long been known, which can multiply the power of the human anuscles, For example, the traditional bows and arbalests do the same work as the human body ean do but much faster. These machines produce instantaneous power The instantaneous power of certain laser J/s peak power. The steam turbines ean produce 1.5 GW power, ystems can reach as high as 1PW=10"* 15+ 10" J/s contimious 3.7.4 Applications of the Work-Energy Theorem As it can be seen in figure (3.9) we consider a system which consists of an ideal (mass- Jess) spring and a linked body, At the initial time moment the spring is undistorted, and the velocity of the joined body is zero, At a given moment a constant force is a73.7. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM CHAPTER 3._ DYNAMICS applied to the body. ‘The friction force is ignored. How far does the body go compared to the initial position? ‘The typical misleading argument is the following: “Since the net force decreasing function a linearly F(a) =F kr in that: position when the net force is zero the object is stopped.” However, this conclusion is erroneous. For this reason it is very important to emphasize that the net force determines the net aeceleration and not the velocity. Figure 3.9: On the left: the spring-body system, On the right: the net force as a function of Sinee both the initial and the final speeds are zero, the changing of the kinetic energy must also be zero, According to the work-eneray theorem the total work must be equal to the kinetic energy changing. mez! m sr u mo 7 7 0 ‘The net force during the interval (0, 7/4] is parallel with the displacement, hence the work has also positive sign. However in the interval [F/A, max] the net foree and the displacement are oppositely directed. For this reason the sign of the work must be negative, The amount of positive work can be easily calculated rig ly Ww gf FOR Nov it is obvious that the maximum displacement cannot be F/k because it would lead to nonzero net work in contradiction with the work-energy theorem. Consequently, the greatest distance must be twice as large as F'/k, because any other choice of the maximum position would lead to nonzero total work and would violate the work-energy theorem as it can be seen in figure (3.10), In the position « = F/k the body has the highest speed. According to the work- energy theorem it can be calculated as follows: Foi,CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS 3.7. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM 0 -Fi. Figure 3.10: The net force as a function of displacement. ‘The maximum aceeleration is connected to the maximum net force. The net foree is maximum in =0 and x =2F/k positions. The values of the acceleration in these positions are (347) Gana = ‘The positive sign indicates that the direction of the acceleration is parallel with the axis. 3.7.5 Applications of Conservation of Mechanical Energy Le us consider again the former problem in the framework of conservation of mechanical energy, At the initial position the object has only potential energy in the “force field” of pulling force. This potential energy is similar to mgh. The conservation of mechanical energy in the initial and the farthest position of the body reads as: ing, ,P8 _ pe epting pail Kot Vee Ve = Keenan) Veen) + Ve Ky oan 7 — 7 Fm = F (QF /k=2). )) the potential energy has to agree with the total energy Hence the potential energy with respect to the position x At the initial position (x of the system for this reason oF oF a (3.48) V (0) =F —-0 V(0) FE 0 So, the potential energy function takes the following form: a V(2)= a Fe 4937. ( THEOREM CHAPTER 3._ DYNAMICS ‘The energy equation of the system in an arbitrary xr position takes the following form: (3.49) If we eliminate the total energy from the equation we get the kinetic energy as a function of x Mathematically the kinetic energy function is a parabola. The problem is more intricate if the spring is initially compressed (or stretched). Without detailed calculations we give some expression and functions. The energies in both eases are depicted in figure (3.11). Ype of Energy | Initially Undeformed | Initially compressed Spring Spring Eras 4 26 4 2F ay + Shere? Ve) spring k(x — 49)? V (2) pulting 2B Pr 224 2P my —Fe K(2) kaor+ Fa -$ha? Figure 3.11: On the left: the energy balance of an initially undeformed spring-body syst ‘On the right: the energy balance of an initially compressed spring-body system.CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS 38. LAWS OF CONSERVATION Let us test the energy equation by substituting « = F/k, Now we know that the body speed is maximal in that position. 3.8 Laws of Conservation Bodies forming a mechanical system may interact with one another and with bodies not belonging to the given system. Accordingly, the forces acting on the bodies of a system can be divided into imternal and external ones. We shall define internal forces as the forces with which a given body is acted upon by the other bodies of the system, and external forees as those produced by the action of bodies not belonging to the system, If external forces are absent, the relevant system is called closed, There are functions of the coordinates and velocities of the particles forming a system for closed systems that retain constant values upon motion. These funetions are called motion integrals, There are three additive motion integrals. ‘The first is called energy, the second—momentum, and the third —angular momentum. ‘Thus, three physical quantities do not change in closed systems, namely, energy, momentum, and angular momentum. Accordingly, there are three laws of conserva- (ion —that of energy conservation, that of momentum conservation, and that of angu- lar momentum conservation, These laws are closely associated with the fundamental properties of space and time. ‘The conservation of energy is based on the uniformity of time, i. e. the equivalence of all moments of time. ‘The equivalence should be understood in the sense that the substitution of the moment of time fy for the moment f; without a change in the values of the coordinates and velocities of the particles does not change the mechanical properties of a system. ‘This signifies that after such a substitution, the coordinates and velocities of the particles have the same values at any moment of time f as they have had before the substitution at the moment ‘The conservation of momentum is based on the uniformity of space, i. e. the iden- tical properties of space at all points. ‘This should be understood in the sense that translation of a closed system from one place in space to another without changing mutual arrangement and velocities of the particles does not change the mechanical properties of the systema. Finally, the conservation of angular momentum is based on the isotropy of space, i, ¢. the identical properties of space in all directions. 53.9. COLLISION OF TWO BODIES CHAPTER 3, DYNAMICS 3.9 Collision of Two Bodies When bodies collide with one another, they become deformed. ‘The kinetic energy which the bodies had before the collision partially or completely transforms into the potential energy of the bodies. An increase in the internal energy of bodies is attended by elevation of their temperature Two extreme kinds of collisions are distinguished: perfectly elastic and completely inelastic ones. A perfectly elastic collision is one im which the mechanical energy of the bodies does not transform into other nou-mechanical kinds of energy. In such a collision the kinetic energy transforms completely or partly into the potential ener of elastic deformation. Next the bodies return to their original shape, repelling each other. As a result, the potential energy of clastic deformation again transforms into Kinetic energy, and the bodies fly apart. The magnitude and direction of the velocities are determined by two conditions—conservation of the total energy and conservation of the total momentum of the system of bodies 3.9.1 Completely Inelastic Collision A completely elastic cotlision is characterised by the fact that no potential energy of deformation is produced. ‘The kinetic energy of the bodies completely or partly transforms into internal energy, After colliding, the bodies cither move with the same velocity or are at rest, In a completely inelastic collision, only the law of conservation of momentum is observed. The law of conservation of mechanical energy is violated because of the presence of non-conservative forces. Let us first consider a completely inelastic collision of two particles forming a closed system. Let the masses of the particles be my and ma, and their velocities before colliding v; and v2. In view of the law of momentum conservation, the total momentum of the particles after the collision must be the same as before it my vy + myv, = (mm +m) 0 (3.50) y= Tam + mab ws my + m2 w is the identical velocity of both particles after colliding, We can calculate the value of mechanical energy loss as follows: 1mm, « 1 1 2+ omy? — = iA am ge ys)? 3.52 aud + rma yt — > (em +a) 0? = 5 (v1 — m9) (3.52) A ballistic pendulum is a device for measuring a bullet’s momentum, from which it is possible to calculate the velocity and kinetic energy. A large wooden block suspended by two cords serves as the pendulum bob. When a bullet is fired into the bab, its momentum is transferred to the bob. The bullet’s momentum can be determined from the amplitude of the pendulum swing. ‘The velocity of the bullet, in turn, can be detived from its calculated momentum, Ballistic peadulums allow direct measurement of the projectile velocity. Because of its simplicity and usefulness it can be found as a 52CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS 3.9, COLLISION OF TWO BODIES popular demonstration tool. Unlike other methods of measuring the speed of a bullet, the basic calculations for a ballistic pendulum do not require any measurement of time, but rely only on measures of mass and distance. After the collision, conservation of energy can be used in the swing of the combined masses upward, since the gravitational potential energy is conservative. Measuring the height of the swing revealed the speed of the bullet, but since the block was increasing in tnass with the added bullets, the mass of the block had to be checked as well as the mags of the bullet being fired. (m+ MU m m+M $lm+ M) U2 = (m-+M)gh M\ ~~ (= ) Th v mm Tool Jaximum speed projectile mass Bowyarbalent T25 m/s — 150 kay 30-100 & TAK 47-es) assault riffle [715 m/s = 257d km/h Dragunov sniper rile [S10 m/s — 2016 km/s Gepaird Mi sniper rifle [840 m/s — 3024 km/h D-20 towed gun-howiteer 650 m/s railgun 5000 m/s — 21 240 km/h 3.9.2 Elastic Collision Let us now consider a completely clastic collision. We shall limit ourselves to the case of a central and head on collision of two homogeneous bodies. A collision is called head on if the bodies before colliding travelled along a straight line passing through their centres. A head on collision of two spheres can take place if the spheres are moving toward each other, or if one of the spheres is overtaking the other one. We shall assume that the spheres form a closed system or that the external forces applied to them balance each other, We shall also assume that the spheres do not rotate. my vy + maw) = ry tes + ra ea (3.53) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 re wit + pmavs? = yim un? + yma we (3.54) (m= ma) v1 + 2mavy Tm + ey (mz — my) v2 + 2m, ty = a my + ma3.10.__ PLANETARY MOTION CHAPTER 3, DYNAMICS ‘We can use the former equations to find the velocity of a sphere after an elastic collision with a stationary or a moving wall. We assume that the wall is stationary v= 0, 2m. m= 2 ayy + MaMa 1g + my +m," m+ mg oe 0, + 0) = 2 —v, = 0, gees a f Now we assume that the wall is moving oppositely directed as the particle moves =v. 2a my =m a mig? my Fie " 2 im — 1 Aarne (she) rca ‘The result obtained shows that the velocity of the wall remains unchanged. ‘The velocity of the particle, however, if the wall is stationary, reverses. If the wall is moving, the magnitude of the velocity of the particle also changes. It grows by 2» if the wall moves toward the sphere. Let us consider the case when the two masses of the colliding partieles are equal: m= my. The particles exchange veloctties when they collide 3.10 Planetary Motion At the beginning of the seventeenth century, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) proposed three laws to describe the motion of the planets. These laws predated Newton's laws of motion and his law of gravity. They offered a far simpler deseription of planctary motion than anything that had been proposed previously. Kepler's laws of planetary motion are © The planets travel in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse A line drawn from a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. # The square of the orbital petiod is proportional to the cube of the average distance from the planet to the Sun Kepler's first law can be derived from the inverse square law of gravitational attraction. A detivation is a bit complicated. We can derive Kepler's third law from Newton's law of universal gravitation for the special case of a circular orbit, Fama GmM _ miCHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS: 3.11. DETERMINISM Solving for v yields ‘The distance travelled during one revolution is the circumference of the circle, which is equal to 2ar. The speed is the distance travelled during one orbit divided by the period. Now we solve for T: Squaring both sides yields: _ dart ~ GM 71 = constant - 14 (3.55) Equation (3.55) is Kepler’s third law: the square of the period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the radius. In case of elliptical motion r means average orbital radius. Planetary orbits are affected by gravitational interactions with other planets: Ke- pler’s law ignores these small effects. Although Kepler's laws were derived for the motion of planets, they apply to satellites orbiting the Earth as well. 3.11 Determinism French mathematician Pierre Laplace speculated that Newtonian mechanics heralded a rigid determinism that would theoretically enable the successful prediction of the entire future of the universe, given absolute knowledge of its complete state at any given time, Laplace expressed this as follows: “We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of its past and the cause of its future. An intellect which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes.” Chaos theory concerns deterministic systems whose behaviour can in principle be predicted, Chaotic systems are predictable for a while and then appear to become random. Small differences in initial conditions (such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation) yield widely diverging outeomes for such dynamical systems, rendering long-term prediction of their behaviour impossible in general. This happens even though these systems are deterministic, meaning that their future behaviour is fully determined by their initial conditions, with no random elements involved. In other words, the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable 553.11. DETERMINISM CHAPTER 3._ DYNAMICS 3.12; A simple pendulum driven at the suspension po Fig it (on the left) and a double pendulum (on the right). ‘This behaviour is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos, The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as: Chaos: When the present determines the future, but the approximate present does not approximately determine the future. A consequence of sensitivity to initial conditions is that if we start with a limited amount of information about the system (as is usually the case in practice), then beyond a certain time the system is no longer predictable. ‘A simple pendulum driven harmonically at the suspension point. Despite its sim- plicity, it generally does extremely complicated motion. The general behaviour of the motion is chaotic, The equations of motion are the following: In the last chapter we will show the method (Lagrangian mechanics) by witch these equations can be obtained. ‘The double pendulum also undergoes chaotic motion, and shows a sensitive depen- dence on initial conditions. ‘The equations of motions are the following: nal a-+ matila 4; cos (Oh ~ 02) — malta, sin (01 — 02) + lamagsin®s = 0 (3.58) mala y+ maly 8 cos (01 — 2) — mats Op sin (0 — 02) + magsin® = 0 (3.59) In the framework of Lagrangian mechanics these equations can he deduced, however the solution in both cases required sophisticated numerical methods that can be performed on a computer 56