National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016

National Junior College

2015 – 2016 H2 Mathematics Lecture Notes

Topic 15: Vectors II (Lines and Planes)

Key questions to answer:

Part 1:
1. What is a vector equation of a line in 3D space?
- How do we find a vector equation of a line?
- What is the geometrical significance of each of the vectors in a vector equation of a
line?
- How do we convert a vector equation of a line into a Cartesian equation and vice
versa?

2. How do we verify whether a point lies on a line or not?

3. How do we determine if two lines are

- intersecting,
- parallel, or
- skew?

4. How do we find the point(s) of intersection of two intersecting lines?

- How many point(s) of intersection can two intersecting lines have?

Part 2:
5. What is a vector equation of a plane in 3D space?
- How do we find a
o vector equation (parametric form),
o vector equation (scalar-product form) and
o Cartesian equation
of a plane?
- What is the geometrical significance of each of the vectors in a vector equation of a
plane?
- How do we convert a vector equation of a plane into a Cartesian equation and vice
versa?

6. How do we verify whether a point lies on a plane or not?

7. How do we determine if a line lies on, is parallel to, or intersects a plane?

- How many point(s) of intersection is/are there between the line and the plane for each
of the above cases?
- How do we find the point(s) of intersection between a line and a plane?

8. How do we determine whether two planes are parallel or intersecting?

- How many points of intersection are there between the two planes for each of the
above cases?
- How do we find the points of intersection between two planes?

9. How do we determine the relationship among three planes?

- How many point(s) of intersection is/are there among three planes?
- How do we find the common point(s) of intersection among three planes?

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Part 3:
10. How do we find the acute angle between
- two lines?
- a line and a plane?
- two planes?

11. How do we find the

- foot of perpendicular, and
- perpendicular distance
from a point to a line?

12. How do we find the

- foot of perpendicular, and
- perpendicular distance
from a point to a plane?

Part 1:

§1 Equations of a Line

1.1 Vector Equation of a Line

For self-reading prior to lecture

Recall that in the topic of Cartesian Geometry, we learnt that the equation of any
non-vertical straight line in the Cartesian plane can be expressed as

y = mx + c,

where m is the gradient of the line and c is the y-intercept of the line. For example,
for the line y = 0.5x + 2, the gradient of the line is 0.5 and the y-intercept is (0, 2),
as shown in the diagram below:

Now suppose we let x = λ, then we can form a pair of parametric equations for the
line as follows:

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x
,
y 0.5 2

Since we can represent every variable point (x, y) on the line by its position vector
x
, we can rewrite the above pair of parametric equations as a vector equation
y
as follows:
x
y 0.5 2
x 1 0
y 0.5 2
x 1 0
y 0.5 2
0 1
,
2 0.5

0 1
Now, let us consider the significance of the vectors and in the line y =
2 0.5
0.5x + 2.
0
Clearly, the vector corresponds to the position vector of a fixed point with
2
coordinates (0, 2) on the line.

1
The vector is parallel to the line (since for every 1 unit to the right, we take
0.5
1
0.5 unit upward, which gives rise to a gradient of 0.5). Hence we call a
0.5
direction vector of the line.

Considering (*), for every real value of the parameter λ, we generate the position
vector of a point on the line. For example, when λ = 1,

x 0 1 1
y 2 0.5 2.5

gives us the position vector of another point (1, 2.5) on the line, as shown in the
diagram below:

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0
Hence the position vector of every point on the line is the vector sum of and
2
1
a scalar multiple of the vector , as illustrated in the diagram below.
0.5

In 3D, we are unable to specify an “axial intercept” or a “gradient” of the line. We

hence use vector fomulations (as above with position vector of a fixed point on
the line and the direction vector of the line) to construct vector equations for a
line, as follows:

Consider a line l parallel to a vector m and passing through a fixed point A with
position vector a relative to an origin O (i.e. OA a ).
A
Let R be a variable point (x, y, z) on the line with m
x
R
position vector r y (i.e. OR = r).
a line l
z
Then r OA AR a m, . r

O
Every point on l has position vector (w.r.t. O) given by a + m for some real
value of . Each value of corresponds to one point on l. Hence,

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Vector equation of line l: r a m,

Where r is the position vector of any pt on the line;
a is the position vector of a fixed/reference pt on the line;
m is the direction vector of the line itself
Example 1.1.1
Find a vector equation of the line l that passes through A 2, 5,1 and has a
direction vector m i j 2k .

Solution: A m P
Let P be any point on the line l. line l
2 r
If OP r and OA 5 ,
1
Then a vector equation for l, passing through A
and with the direction m is r = a + m, O
2 1
r 5 1 , .
1 2
1. Can you give another vector equation of the line l
Let’s be broad
with the same direction vector?
and adventurous! 1 1
E.g. r 6 1 , .
3 2

2. Can you give another vector equation of the line l

with a different direction vector?
2 2
E.g. r 5 2 , .
1 4

Note:

1. In the equation r a m, , a is the position vector of a fixed point

on the line l, and m is a direction vector of line l. Neither the choice of a
nor m is unique for the same line, since the position vector of another
fixed point on the line, and any other scalar multiple of m, can replace
the roles of a and m in the equation respectively (the value of then
changes for the same point being considered).

2. In particular, when a line l passes through the origin O, it can always be

expressed in the form of r m, . Conversely, if a line has
equation r m, , it definitely passes through the origin.

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Example 1.1.2
Find a vector equation of the line that passes through A 2, 5,1 and B 1,1, 2 .
Verify that C 8,13, 1 lies on the line.

Solution: O
2 1
OA 5 and OB 1
1 2
A B
1 2 3
AB 1 5 4 m
2 1 1

Then a vector equation of the line that passes through A and B is r = a + m,

2 3
r 5 4 , .
1 1
2 3 8
Observe that when 2, r 5 ( 2) 4 13 .
1 1 1
Hence C 8,13, 1 lies on the line.

1.2 Cartesian Equation of a Line

If l has vector equation r a m, , where r xi yj zk ,

a a1i a2 j a3k and m m1i m2 j m3k , then for m1 , m2 , m3 0 ,

x a1 y a2 z a3
Cartesian equation of line l: (in MF15)
m1 m2 m3

Proof:

x a1 m1 a1 m1 x a1 m1
y a2 m2 a2 m2 y a2 m2 ,
z a3 m3 a3 m3 z a3 m3

x a1 y a2 z a3
Making the subject, we have .
m1 m2 m3

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Example 1.2.1
1 2
Find a Cartesian equation of the line l: r 2 1 , .
1 1

Solution:
x 1 2 1 2
Let r xi yj zk . Then y 2 1 2 ,
z 1 1 1

x 1 y 2
Therefore x 1 2 , y 2 2 y and
2 1
z 1 z 1.
x 1 y 2
Thus the Cartesian equation is z 1.
2 1

Example 1.2.2
x 1
Find a vector equation of the line l: 1 y, z 2.
6

Solution:
x 1
Let x 1 6 and 1 y y 1 , therefore
6
x 1 6 1 6
r y 1 1 1 , .
z 2 2 0

Note:

1. The parametric equations of the z

line l are given by:
x a1 m1
y a2 m2
z a3 m3 a3

2. Suppose m3 = 0. Then z = a3.

y
O
So, we write
x a1 y a2
,z a3 .
m1 m2 x

This means that the line l lies on a plane

that is positioned at z a3 and parallel to xy-plane.

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What if m1 m2 0?
Let’s be
intellectually
curious!
x a1 , y a2 , z .

The line is perpendicular to xy-plane and passes through

a1, a2 , 0 .

Example 1.2.3
Write down a vector equation for the line that passes through A(1, 1, 7) and
B(3, 4, 1).
Find the co-ordinates of the points where the line crosses the
(i) xy-plane, (ii) yz-plane, (iii) xz-plane.

Solution: z
1 3 2
OA 1 , OB 4 then AB OB OA 3
7 1 6 yz-plane
A vector equation of the line is xz-plane
1 2 y
O
r 1 3 , .
xy-plane
7 6
x
(i) When line crosses the xy-plane, z = 0. This implies that
7
7 6 0
6
10
1 2 3
7
Position vector of the point on the xy-plane = 1 3 = 9
6 2
7 6
0
10 9
Thus, coordinates of point of intersection is , ,0 .
3 2

(ii) When line crosses the yz-plane, x = 0. This implies that

1
1 2 0
2
0
1 2
1 1
Position vector of the point on the yz-plane = 1 3 =
2 2
7 6
10
1
Thus, coordinates of point of intersection is 0, , 10 .
2

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(iii) When line crosses the xz-plane, y = 0. This implies that

1
1 3 0
3
1 2 1
1
Position vector of the point on the xz-plane = 1 3 = 3 .
3 0
7 6 9
1
Thus, coordinates of point of intersection is , 0, 9 .
3

§2 Relationships between Two Lines

In the Euclidean 3D space, there are three possible relationships between two
distinct lines.

2.1 Parallel Lines

Two distinct lines are parallel if their direction vectors are scalar multiples of each
other.

1 1 1
For example, l1 : r 1 , and l2 : r 1 1 , are parallel
0 1 0
lines.

2.2 Intersecting Lines

Two distinct lines are intersecting if solving their equations simultaneously gives
exactly one solution.

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Example 2.2.1
1 1 2 2
Show that l1 : r 1 1 , and l2 : r 4 1 , intersect
3 1 6 3
at exactly one point. Determine the position vector of this point.

Solution:
1 2 2
Equating the RHS of the two equations, we have: 1 4 .
3 6 3
1 2 2 ------------- (1)
1 4 ------------- (2)
3 6 3 ------------- (3)

Solving for (1) & (2), we get 3, 2.

Substituting 3 and 2 into (3),

LHS = 3 + (–3) = 0
RHS = 6 + 3(–2) = 0 = LHS.

Therefore equation (3) is also satisfied. Hence l1 and l2 intersects at one point.
Substitute 3 into the equation of l1 , the position vector of the point of
2
intersection is 2 .
0

2.3 Skew Lines

Definition 2.3.1 (Skew lines)

In 3D space, skew lines are two lines that do not intersect and are not parallel.

The following is a visualisation of how skew lines appear in 3-dimensional space.

The following example shows how to determine if two lines are skew lines.

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Example 2.3.2
Determine the relationship between the following pair of lines.

1 2 1 3
l3 : r 1 2 , and l4 : r 3 1 , .
3 1 2 6

Solution:
1 2 1 3
For the lines to intersect, 1 2 3 .
3 2 6

1 2 1 3 -------- (1)
1
1 2 3 -------- (2) Solving for (1) and (2), we get , 1.
2
3 2 6 -------- (3)

*Check to see if the solution satisfies (3):

1 7
LHS 3
2 2
RHS 2 6 1 4 LHS

Thus l3 and l4 do not intersect.

And since they are not parallel lines (their direction vectors are not scalar
multiples of each other), they are skew lines.

Definition 2.3.3 (Coplanar lines)

Suppose l1 and l2 are two lines. If there exists a plane that both lines lie in, we say
that l1 and l2 are coplanar.

1. A pair of parallel lines are (definitely / probably / definitely not) coplanar.

2. A pair of intersecting lines are (definitely / probably / definitely not)
coplanar.
3. A pair of skew lines are (definitely / probably / definitely not) coplanar.

Let’s be
intellectually How many point(s) of intersection can two lines have?
curious!
For any two lines, we can have zero (in the case of parallel
or skew lines), one (in the case of intersecting lines) or
infinitely many points of intersection (in the case where
the two lines are the same).

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Part 2:

§3 Equations of a Plane

3.1 Vector Equation of a Plane in Parametric Form

Consider a plane p passing through a given point A with position vector a, and
parallel to two given non-parallel vectors m1 and m2. Note that m1 and m2 need
not lie on the plane.

λm1

m1 plane p R
m2 µm2

a r
A
O

Let R be any point on the plane with position vector r.

Then AR m1 m2 for some real scalars λ and μ.

And we know that AR OR OA , then OR a m1 m2 .

Vector equation of plane p (in Parametric Form):

r=a+ m1 + m2, ,

Note:

1. A pair of scalar parameters and uniquely determines a point on the

plane.
For example, if 1, 2 , then the point R has position vector
r a m1 2m2 .

2. The choices for a, m1 and m2 are not unique.

3. If a plane contains two non-parallel lines l1: r = a1 + m1, l2: r = a2 +

m2, , , then the equation of the plane is r = a1 + m1 + m2 or
r = a2 + m1 + m2.

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Example 3.1.1
Find an equation of the plane that passes through:

(a) the point (1, 2, 0) and is parallel to i j k and 2i j 2k ,

(b) the points A(3, 1, 1) and contains the line with equation
r 4i 2 j (2i j 3k ) , ,
(c) the points C(0, 1, 1), D(−2, 1, 3) and E(2, 0, 1).

Solution:
1 1 2
(a) Equation of plane: r 2 1 1 , , .
0 1 2
(b) Vectors parallel to plane are
1 2
AB 1 and 1 .
1 3
Equation of plane:
3 1 2
r 1 1 1 , , .
1 1 3

2 2
(c) CD 0 , CE 1 (Note that these two vectors are parallel to the
2 0
0 2 2
plane.) Equation of plane: r 1 0 1 , , .
1 2 0

3.2 Vector Equation of a Plane in Scalar-Product Form

n n n
p p p
R
A A A
R R

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Consider a plane p passing through a given point A with position vector a, and
perpendicular to a vector n.

Let R be any point on the plane with position vector r.

Since AR lies on p ,
AR n
AR n 0
(r a) n 0
r n a n

The scalar product a n, gives a constant D. Thus, we will have:

Vector equation of plane p (in Scalar-Product Form):

r n = D where D = a n is a constant
Bec r & a are 2 points which are both on the same plane p

Again, the vector equation of a plane is not unique.

Note:

The vector n, is called a normal vector to a plane, and can be found as the vector
product of two vectors that are parallel to the plane, but not parallel to each other.

Example 3.2.1
1 1 3
Find a scalar-product equation of the plane p: r 2 0 1 , , .
1 2 0
Determine the position vector of another point on this plane.

Solution:
1 3
Observe that 0 and 1 are two vectors that are not parallel to each other, but
2 0
both are parallel to the plane.

Then a normal vector n that is perpendicular to the plane can be found by:
1 3 2
n 0 1 6 .
2 0 1
1
We can take a 2 since it is the position vector of a point on the plane.
1

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A vector equation of plane is found as follows:

2 1 2
r n a n r 6 2 6 9
1 1 1
2
Hence, vector equation in scalar-product form of the plane p is r 6 9.
1
0
Position vector of another point on this plane is 0 .
9
[You may choose any vector that satisfies the equation of the plane.]

3.3 Cartesian Equation of a Plane

Consider again the equation of the plane in the form r n = D.

x a
Let r = xi + yj + zk and n = ai + bj + ck. Then r n = D y b D.
z c

Cartesian equation of plane:

ax by cz D

2
For example, a Cartesian equation of the plane with vector equation r 6 9 is
1
2x 6 y z 9.

Given the way the Cartesian equation of a plane is converted from a vector
equation of the plane, the Cartesian equation of a plane is also not unique since
vector equation of the plane is not unique. For example, 4 x 12 y 2 z 18 is
another possible equation of the plane above.

Example 3.3.1
Find a scalar-product equation for each of the following:

(a) yz-plane, (b) xz-plane, (c) xy-plane.

Solution:
(a) yz-plane has equation x 0 , i.e. 1x 0 y 0 z 0.
x 1 1
Thus, its scalar-product equation is y 0 0 , i.e. r 0 0.
z 0 0

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0
(b) The scalar-product equation of xz-plane is r 1 0.
0
0
(c) The scalar-product equation of xy-plane is r 0 0.
1

Example 3.3.2
Convert the equation of the plane p , x y 2 z 3 , from Cartesian form to
scalar-product form and parametric form.

Solution:
1
The equation in scalar-product form is r 1 3.
2
To find an equation in parametric form, we let y and z in the equation
x y 2z 3 .
Then x 2 3 x 3 2 .

The equation in parametric form is

x 3 2 3 1 2
r y 0 1 0 , , .
z 0 0 1

Let’s be broad Can you find another equation in parametric form for the
and adventurous! plane p?

We may let x and z in the equation

x y 2z 3 .
Then y 2 3 y 3 2 .
The equation in parametric form is
x 0 1 0
r y 3 2 3 1 2 ,
z 0 0 1
, .

§4 Relationships between a Line and a Plane

There are three possible relationships between a line l: r a m, and a

plane p: r n D .

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Let A be the point with position vector a (and hence it lies on l based on the
equation of l).

If

Case 1 (a) the direction vector m is parallel to the

plane p (means m is perpendicular to
the normal vector of p, n), i.e.
m n 0

AND

(b) the point A lies on the plane p (since a

satisfies the equation of p), i.e.
a n D,

then the line l lies on the plane p (or p

contains l). In this case, there are infinitely
many points of intersection, which are all
the points on the line l itself.

If
Case 2
(a) the direction vector m is parallel to the
plane p, i.e. m n 0

AND

(b) the point A does not lie on the plane p

(since a does NOT satisfy the equation
of p), i.e. a n D ,

then the line l is parallel the plane p, but

NOT on p. In this case, there is no point of
intersection between l and p.

If
Case 3
the direction vector m is NOT parallel to
the plane p (means m is not perpendicular to
the normal vector of p, n), i.e. m n 0,

then the line l intersects p at exactly one

point.
The example below demonstrates how to
find the position vector of the point of
intersection.

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Example 4.0.1
Determine the relationship between the plane p: r i 2 j k 5 and each of the
following lines,
1 x
(a) l1 : y, z 2
2
(b) l2 : r 2 i j 1 k, ,
(c) l3 : r i 3j k t i 2 j k , t .

Find the coordinates of the point(s) of intersection if any.

Solution:
1
Normal vector of p is 2 .
1
x 1 2 1 2
1 x
(a) y ,z 2 y 0 1 r 0 1 , .
2
z 2 0 2 0
2 1
Since 1 2 0 , then l1 is parallel to p.
0 1
1
A point on l1 with position vector 0 does not lie on p since
2
1 1
0 2 1 5.
2 1
Therefore l1 is parallel to p but not on p and hence do not intersect each
other.

2 1
(b) r 1 0 ,
1 1
1 1
Since 0 2 0 , then l2 is parallel to p.
1 1
2 2 1
A point on l2 with position vector 1 lies on p since 1 2 5.
1 1 1
Therefore l2 lies on p and the points of intersection between l2 and p is
the line l2 itself, i.e. all the points whose coordinates can be expressed in
the form 2 ,1,1 , where is a real number.

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1 1
(c) r 3 t 2 ,t .
1 1
1 1
Since 2 2 2 0 , then l3 is not parallel to p and hence it
1 1
intersects p at exactly one point.

To find the intersection between a line (l3) and a plane (p):

Let N be the point of intersection between l3 and p.

1. Find an expression for the Since N lies on line l,

vector ON using the equation 1 1
of the line (since N is a point on ON 3 2
this line)
1 1
1
3 2 , for some fixed .
1

2. Substitute the found expression Since N also lies on the plane p, ON

for ON into the equation of p must satisfy the equation of p, i.e.
(since N is also a point on p), 1 1
and use this equation to solve 3 2 2 5
for the value of the parameter
. 1 1

1 2 3 2 1 5

8 2 5

1.5
3. Substitute the found value of 1 1.5 2.5
into the equation of the line to
Hence ON 3 2(1.5) 0
find the vector ON .
1 1.5 2.5

Hence the the coordinates of the point of intersection is 2.5, 0, 2.5 .

Note:

Since the question is asking for the coordinates of the point(s) of intersection and
NOT its position vector, you should express your final answer as coordinates of a
point, and not as a vector.

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§5 Relationships between Two Planes and Among Three Planes

5.1 Relationship between Two Planes

In 3D space, two distinct planes (i.e. not the same plane) either are parallel or non-
parallel.

Case 1: The planes are parallel.

Two planes are parallel, if and only their normal vectors are parallel (i.e. both
normal vectors are scalar multiples of each other) and one point on the first plane
does not lie on the other plane.

In this case, there is no intersection between the two planes.

1 1
For example, planes p1 : r 1 2 and p2 : r 1 3 are parallel to each
1 1
1 1
other, since their normal vectors are parallel, i.e. 1 1 1 , and 1,1, 0 lies
1 1
on p1 does not lie on p2 .

Case 2: The planes are NOT parallel.

Two distinct planes are not parallel to each

other if and only if their normal vectors l
are not parallel to each other.

In this case, the two planes must intersect

at a line.

Can two intersecting planes intersect at a

point?

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Example 5.1.1
Find an equation of the line of intersection of
1 3
p1 : r 2 3 and p2 : r 2 5.
2 4
Note that p1 and p2 are distinct and non-parallel. (Do you know why?)

Solution:

Method 1: Using the Cartesian Equations of the Planes

Steps Solution
1. Convert equations of the two The Cartesian equations of the planes are
planes into Cartesian form.
p1 : x 2 y 2 z 3 , and
p2 : 3x 2 y 4 z 5

2. Solve the two equations either Solving by GC

using the GC or algebraically
(if the question disallows the
use of the GC)

From a GC, we have the solution

1
2 z
x 2
1 5
y z .
2 4
z
z
Let z , an equation of the line of
intersection is
1 1
2 2
2 2
1
r 1 5 5 , .
2
2 4 4
0
1

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Solving algebraically
Let x in (1) and (2).
(The choice is not unique, we may choose
y etc.)

Then
2 y 2 z 3 … (1) and
3 2 y 4 z 5 … (2)

(1) + (2): 4 2z 8 z 4 2 .
Substituting z 4 2 into (1), we have
2y 2 4 2 3 y 5.5 2.5
Hence an equation of the line of intersection
is
0 1
r 5.5 2.5 5.5 2.5 ,
4 2 4 2

Method 2: Using the Scalar Product Equations of the Planes

Steps Solution
1. Find one arbitrary point A on Let A be the point on both p1 and p2 whose
both p1 and p2 (and hence on y-coordinate is set to be zero arbitrarily, i.e.
the line of intersection, l) has coordinates (x, 0, z).
either by observation or by Since A lies on p1 , then
fixing the value of one of x, y x 1
and z, then finding the values
0 2 3 x 2z 3 (1)
of the other two variables.
z 2
Since A also lies on p2 , then
x 3
0 2 5 3x 4 z 5 (2)
z 4
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously,
2.2
x 2.2 and z 0.4 . Thus OA 0 .
0.4

2. Since the direction vector of l A direction vector of l is given by

is parallel to both planes and
hence peperndicular to both
their normal vectors, We can
find the direction vector of l
by finding n1 n2 .

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1 3
2 2
2 4

(2)(4) ( 2)( 2)
( 2)(3) (1)(4) .
(1)( 2) (2)(3)

4 2
10 2 5
8 4

3. State a vector equation of l Thus an equation of the line of intersection,

using the found point on the 2.2 2
line and the found direction
l, is r 0 5 , .
vector.
0.4 4

All the three equations look different. How can we tell

Let’s be
intellectually
whether they are describing the same line?
careful.
You may wish to check that the direction vectors in each
of the equations of the line of intersection are parallel
(i.e. scalar multiples of one another).

Next, you may verify that the position vectors of the

fixed points in each of the equations of the line of
intersection satisfy the equations of both planes.

5.2 Relationship Among Three Planes

There are five possible relationships among three distinct planes,

p1: r n1 D1 , p2: r n2 D2 and p3: r n3 D3 .

Case 1: All the three planes are parallel.

If all the normal vectors n1 , n 2 and n 3

are parallel (i.e. scalar multiples of one
another), all the three distinct planes
are parallel (hence no common point of
intersection among them).

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Case 2: Exactly two of the three planes are

parallel.

If exactly two of the three normal vectors

are parallel, the two planes with these two
normal vectors are parallel to each other.

The third plane intersects each of these two

planes in one line each; these two lines are
parallel to each other.

As with Case 1, there is no common point

of intersection among the three planes.

If there does not exist a pair of parallel normal vectors, then no pair of planes
are parallel.

To determine the relationship among the three planes in this case, we first find the
line of intersection l between two of the planes, say p1 and p2 , then find the
relationship between this line and the third plane, p3 (refer to Section 4). The
common point(s) of intersection among all three planes is/are exactly the point(s)
of intersection between l and p3 .

Case 3.1: The three planes intersect at exactly one common point.

In this case, l intersects p3 at exactly one point.

l
l

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Case 3.2: The three planes intersect in one common line.

In this case, l lies in p3 .

l
l

Case 3.3: Each pair of the planes intersect in a line and all the three lines of
intersections are parallel.

In this case, l is parallel to p3 .

l
l

Another way to determine the relationship among three planes, among which no
pair are parallel, is as follows:

Step 1. Convert equations of the three planes into Cartesian form:

a1 x b1 y c1z D1
a2 x b2 y c2 z D2 .
a3 x b3 y c3 z D3

Step 2. Use a graphic calculator to solve the three equations in three variables
simultaneously.
If a unique solution is obtained, then the three planes intersect at one
common point whose position vector is the solution itself. (Case 3.1)

If the solution gives the equation of a line, then the three planes intersect
at one common line with this equation. (Case 3.2)

If no solution is given, then each pair of the planes intersect at a line and
all the 3 lines of intersection are parallel. (Case 3.3)

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Must three planes be pairwise-perpendicular (i.e. every

Let’s clarify and
pair of the three planes are perpendicular to each other)
seek for them to have exact one point of intersection?
understanding.

No. The line of intersection of any two of the three

planes (if it exists) can intersect the third plane obliquely
(i.e. at a non-right angle).

Example 5.2.1
6 5
Determine the relationship among the planes p1 : r 5 32 , p2 : r 1 24
4 3
9
and p3 : r 2 40 .
5

Solution:
By observing their normal vectors, there does not exist any pair of parallel planes.

Converting all three equations into Cartesian form,

p1 : 6 x 5 y 4 z 32
p2 : 5 x y 3z 24
p3 : 9 x 2 y 5 z 40

and solve them simultaneously using a GC, we have

x 8 z
y 16 2 z .
z z

That means all the three planes intersect in one common line.
Let z , the equation of this common line is
8 8 1
r 16 2 16 2 , .
0 1

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Example 5.2.2
(i) Verify that the point A 1, 3, 2 lies on both planes
1 3
p1 : r 2 3 and p2 : r 2 5.
2 4
(ii) Hence, find an equation of the line of intersection of p1 and p2 .

It is given that the plane p3 has equation ax 2 y 5z b.

What can you say about the values of a and b for each of the following cases?
(a) The three planes have exactly one common point of intersection.
(b) The three planes intersect at a common line.
(c) The three planes do not have any common point of intersection.

Solution:
1 1 1
(i) OA 2 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 . Hence A lies on p1 .
2 2 2

3 1 3
OA 2 3 2 1 3 3 2 2 4 5 . Hence A lies on p2 .
4 2 4

1 3 4 2
(ii) A direction vector of l is 2 2 10 2 5 .
2 4 8 4
By (i), A lies on the line of intersection l of p1 and p2 .

1 2
Hence an equation of l is r 3 5 , .
2 4
a
It is given that p3 has equation r 2 b.
5
(a) For the three planes to have exactly one common point of intersection, l
must intersect p3 exactly once. Hence
2 a Review Section 4
5 2 0 to recall why this
4 5 is so.

2a 10 20 0 a 5.

Therefore, a 5, b .

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(b) For the three planes to have a common line of intersection, l must lie on
p3 .
[Note that in this case, l itself is the common line of intersection.] Hence,

2 a
5 2 0 2a 10 20 0
4 5
a 5

and

1 a 1 5
3 2 b 3 2 b
2 5 2 5

5 6 10 b

b 9.

Therefore, a = 5, b = 9.

(c) For the three planes to have no common point of intersection, l must be
parallel to p3 but not on p3 . Hence,

2 a
5 2 0 2a 10 20 0
4 5
a 5.

and

1 a 1 5
3 2 b 3 2 b
2 5 2 5

5 6 10 b

b 9.

Therefore, a 5, b 9.

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Part 3:

§6 Angles Between Lines, Line & Plane, and Planes

6.1 Angle between Two Lines

Suppose we are interested in finding the acute angle between

l1 : r a1 m1 , and l2 : r a2 m2 , .

Let denote the angle between the direction vectors m1 and m 2 . We know that
m1 m2
cos .
m1 m2

Hence if is acute (refer to Case 1) and 180 if is obtuse (refer

to Case 2).

Case 1: is acute (or cos 0)

Case 2: is obtuse (or cos 0)

In general, we have the following

Result 6.1.1 (Angle between Two Lines)

Let denote the acute angle between l1 : r a1 m1 , and

l2 : r a2 m2 , , then
m1 m 2
cos .
m1 m2

Note:

We assume to be acute unless otherwise stated.

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Example 6.1.2
Find the angle between the lines:

l1: r (2 1)i (1 ) j (1 )k and

l2 : r (3 )i ( 2 1) j (4 2)k .

Solution:
1 2 3 1
l1 : r 1 1 , , l2 : r 1 2 ,
1 1 2 4

Let be the angle between l1 and l2 .

2 1
1 2
1 4
cos 0 90 l1 l2 .
2 1
1 2
1 4

6.2 Angle between a Line and a Plane

Suppose we are interested in finding the acute angle between the line
l: r = a + m and the plane p: r n = D.

Let denote the angle between the direction vector m of the line and the normal
m n
vector n of the plane. We know cos .
m n
l

Case 1: is acute (or cos 0)

m
As shown in the diagram, 90 . n
p
θ
m n
Thus sin sin 90 cos 0.
m n

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n
Case 2: is obtuse (or cos 0)
l
As shown in the diagram, 90 180 90 .

m n
Thus sin sin 90 cos 0 m
mn
p
m n θ
In both cases, we get sin .
m n

Result 6.2.1 (Angle between a Line and a Plane)

Let denote the acute angle between the line l : r a m, and the plane
p : r n D , then
m n
sin .
m n

Note:

We assume to be acute unless otherwise stated.

Example 6.2.2
x 2 y 1 z 3
Find the angle between the line l: and the plane p:
2 6 3
2x y 2z 4.

Solution:
Let denote the acute angle between l and p.

2 2
Rewrite the equation of l as r 1 t 6 ,t and the equation of p as
3 3
2
r 1 4.
2
2 2
6 1
3 2 8 8
Therefore sin 22.4 (to 1 d.p.).
2 2 7 3 21
6 1
3 2

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6.3 Angle between Two Planes

Definition 6.3.1 (Angle between Two Planes)

The angle between two planes is defined to be

0, if they are parallel to each other;
the acute angle between two lines, one lying in each plane, such that they
are at right angles to the line of intersection of the two planes (refer to the
diagram below).

Let denote the acute angle between two intersecting planes p1: r n1 D1 and
p2: r n2 D2 .

can be related to the angle between their normal vectors n1 and n 2 .

n1 n 2
We know cos .
n1 n 2

Case 1: is acute (or cos 0)

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As shown in the diagram, 180 90 90 360 .

n1 n 2
Thus cos cos 0.
n1 n 2

Case 2: is obtuse (or cos 0)

As shown in the diagram, 360 90 90 180 .

n1 n 2
Thus cos cos 0.
n1 n 2

Result 6.3.2 (Angle between Two Planes)

Let denote the acute angle between the plane p1: r n1 D1 and the plane
p2: r n2 D2 , then
n1 n 2
cos .
n1 n2

Example 6.3.3
3 0
Find the angle between the planes r 1 3 and r 1 2.
2 0

Solution:
Let denote the acute angle between the two planes.

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3 0
1 1
2 0 1
cos 74.5
3 0 9 1 4 1
1 1
2 0

Therefore, the angle between them is 74.5 .

§7 Relationships between a Point and a Line/Plane

7.1 Foot of Perpendicular and Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a

Line

Consider a line l passing through a fixed point A with position vector a and
parallel to m, and let P be a given point with position vector p.

Let N be the foot of the perpendicular from P to the line l. P

How can we find
1. the position vector of N, and
2. the perpendicular/shortest distance
from P to l? m
A N l

Example 7.1.1
Find the position vector of the foot of perpendicular from the point P( 2, 1, 1) to
the line l with vector equation r 4i (1 2 ) j 2 k, .

Hence or otherwise, find the shortest distance between point P and the line l.

Solution:
The equation of the line l can be expressed as

4 4 0 4 0
l :r 1 2 1 2 1 1 ,
2 0 2 0 1
0
Hence a direction vector m of l is 1 .
1

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Draw a diagram that illustrates the problem here.

Method 1: Using Vector Projection (refer to Vectors I, Part 2, Section 7.2)

used to find length of projection
Steps Solution
1. Find the displacement vector 2 4 2
AP. AP OP OA 1 1 0
1 0 1

2. Find the vector AN by AN ˆ )m

( AP m ˆ
projecting the vector AP onto 2 0 0 0
the vector m. 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1 1

3. Find the postion vector of N, ON OA AN

ON by using vector addition. 4 0 4
1
1 1 1/ 2
2
0 1 1/ 2

Method 2: Using the Scalar Product for perpendicular vectors (refer to Vectors I,
Part 2, Result 5.2.4) used to find the foot of perpendicular

Steps Solution

1. Use the equation of the line to 4

form an expression for PN in Since N lies on l, ON 1 for some
terms of a and m.

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Hence
4 2 2
PN ON OP 1 1
1 1

2. Use the result that the scalar Since PN m, PN m 0 . Hence

product of the perpendicular
2 0
vectors PN and m is equals to
zero to solve for the value of 1 0
the parameter . 1 1
( 1) 0
2 1 0
1
2

3. Substitute the found value of 4 4

into the equation of the line
ON 1 1
2 1/ 2
to find the vector ON . 1
2 1/ 2

Let’s be planful and strategic:

0 0
Why do we use 1 as the direction vector of the line of 2 ?
1 2

Hence, the perpendicular distance from the point P to the line l,

2
4 2
1 3
PN PN ON OP 1/ 2 1 .
2 2
1/ 2 1
1
2

Suppose there is no requirement to find the position vector

Let’s be broad
and adventurous!
of the foot of perpendicular, and you are only required to
find the perpendicular distance between P and the line.

1. What other method(s) is/are there to find the shortest

distance? [Hint: Recall how to find the perpendicular
vector component in Vectors I, Part 2, Section 7.3.]

2. In your opinion,which method is faster? Why?

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7.2 Foot of Perpendicular and Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a

Plane

Given a point Q with position vector q and a plane p: r n = D.

Q
N is the foot of the perpendicular from Q to the plane p.

How can we find

p
1. the position vector of N, and
2. the perpendicular/shortest distance
N
from Q to p?

Example 7.2.1
Find the position vector of the foot of the perpendicular, N, from the point
Q(7, 0, 3) to the plane p with equation r (i j 2k ) 1 . Hence or otherwise, find
the shortest distance from Q to p.

Solution:
Draw a diagram that illustrates the problem here.

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Method 1: Using Vector Projection (refer to Vectors I, Part 2, Section 7.2)

Steps Solution
1. Consider any (convenient) point By observation, the point A (1, 0, 0) lies
A that lies on the plane p, and 1
find the displacement vector
on the plane p since OA 1 1 .
QA.
2
(You can also choose A as (0, 1, 0) or any
other point whose position vector
satisfies the equation of the plane p.)
1 7 6
QA OA OQ 0 0 0
0 3 3

2. Find the vector QN by Since QN is the projection vector of

projecting the vector QA onto QA onto n,
the vector n. QN QA n n

6 1 1
1 1
0 1 1
6 6
3 2 2
1 .
1
6 1 0 1 3 2 1
6
2
2
2
4

3(a). Find the postion vector of N, 7 2 5

ON by using vector addition. ON OQ QN 0 2 2
3 4 1

3(b). Find the shortest distance by QN QN

evaluating the magnitude or
using the formula for finding ( 2) 2 ( 2) 2 ( 4) 2
the length of projection.
2 6

OR

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QN QA n

6 1 .
1 12
0 1 2 6
6 6
3 2

Method 2: Using the Intersection between a Line & a Plane (refer to Vectors II,
Part 2, Section 4)

Steps Solution
1. Find the equation of the line Let l be the line passing through Q and
passing through Q and perpendicular to p. Then the equation of l
perpendicular to p. 7 1
is r 0 1 , .
Note that N will then be the point
of intersection of this line and p 3 2

2. Express the vector ON in terms Since N lies on line l,

of q and n using the equation of 7 1
the line (since N is a point on ON 0 1
this line)
3 2
7
for some .
3 2

3. Substitute the found expression Since N also lies on the plane p,

for ON into the equation of p 7 1
(since N is also a point on p), 1 1
and use this equation to solve for
3 2 2
the value of the parameter
7 2(3 2 ) 1
6 13 1
2

4a. Substitute the found value of 7 ( 2) 5

into the equation of the line to
ON 2 2
find the vector ON .
3 2( 2) 1

b. Find the shortest distance Shortest distance from Q to p

byfinding the vector QN , then QN
evaluate its magnitude
5 7 2
2 0 2 2 6.
1 3 4

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