NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

CONTENTS
PAGE

UNIT 1 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES –ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY 1-11

UNIT 2 THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

UNIT 3 ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

UNIT 4 CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY

UNIT 5 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

UNIT 6 LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

UNIT 7 DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE

UNIT 8 THE CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBAMBWE

UNIT 9 REGIONAL AND INTRNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNIT 10 DIPLOMACY

UNIT 11 INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

UNIT 12 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

UNIT 13 REGIONALISM

UNIT 14 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)

UNIT 15 THE MEDIA

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 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

UNIT 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

· Define National and Strategic Studies
· Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy
in the West.
· Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
i) Medicine
ii) Governance
iii) Democracy
iv) Culture
v) Technology
vi)

1.2 INTRODUCTION.

1.2.1 NASS- The background

There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and cherished
by that society. Education is about values in other word behavior change in all the
domains of education that is the psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A
skilled artisan or accountant with no sense of his position in society at the family level or
at work or society in general is a social misfit and a drain to national wealth because of
the need to either hospitalize him because he has AIDS or incarcerate him because he is a
criminal and a danger to that society. A strong sense of belonging or identity,
responsibility and accountability are the things that can be defined as patriotism.
Economic giants today and in the past are and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe
today the sense of belonging has eluded both young and old and this is due to
selfishness, greed and the collapse of the extended family due to western values. A
culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary attitude pervades all sectors of society in the
banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil service. The need to change attitudes and the
need to inculcate correct values is not only urgent but imperative now and in the future.

1.2.2 NASS -Definition

NASS can be defined as civic education designed to make all
Zimbabweans who go through tertiary institutions become
responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefore be
mobilized to participate in national development. .
Civic education is typical of and in all educational systems and is
not unique to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was the odd case in that it did

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 not have this kind of emphasis in its education as much as
Zimbabwe was the odd case in relation to National Service.

1.2.3 NASS-Purpose
NASS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the
attitudes of participants with respect to their national identity and
with respect to translating the political gains of the Second
Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and Fourth
Chimurenga.

1.3 ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY…

Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the Zimbabwe
ruins as well as in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of the Second Chimurenga
war. The second chimurenga in essence establishes our ‘enduring political tradition” and
ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far behind as he is able to see as far ahead.
Mathematically expressed this would be, “one is able to see as far ahead proportional to
the distance he/she is able to see as far backward.’ History is therefor relevant not only
for today’s events and policies, but allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of
yester -year.

1.3.1 PRE COLONIAL HISTORY

1.3.1.2 The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

· State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
· It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the payment of
tribute and was involved in international relations.
· The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the shona
people and who had much wealth in the form of livestock.
· The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe which
became the centre of social, religious, economic and political life..
· The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means “house of
stones” that is “Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar “dzimba dzemabwe” were built
across the country for chiefs on rulers who were loyal to the “mambo” at Great
Zimbabwe.

1.3.1.2.1 Historical evidence

· Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the Great
Zimbabwe state. However, there is little that we normally get from the oral traditions
because the Shonas have no written records.
· Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese and records
found in Arab writings have an account on the Changamire and Mutapa states.

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 1.3.1.2.2Archaeological Evidence
· Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some of the
evidence including bones, copper and iron tools.
· These have been used by historians to show the social economic and political
activities of the people at Great Zimbabwe.
· The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis”or temple area and
the external enclosure which consisted of a large number of stone buildings.
· Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and brassware,
· Sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
· Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soapstones, chisels etc.

1.3.1.2.3 Social and Political Organisation

· By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize almost the
whole population to build a high surrounding wall made of granite blocks.
· The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms who paid tribute
to the mambo at great Zimbabwe.
· Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through marriage and
trade.
· The ruling class controlled trade.

1.3.1.2.4Purpose of the stone structure

1) Security
2) Religion
3) Prestige monument.
4) Occupy slave labour

1.3.1.2.5 Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State

· The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.
· There was increased emigration
· Shortage of resources i.e. salt
· Civil wars
· Declining soil fertility
· Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had failed to
succeed and left and formed the Mutapa state..

1,3.1.3.THE MUTAPA STATE

· The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Zimbabwe in search
of salt or after a succession dispute according to oral history. Mutota went to the
Zambezi Valley where he defeated some weak communities who were already
settled there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people. Mutota As a result earned
the title ‘ Munhu-mutapa’ a praise name which means Lord of Conquering.

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· Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota’s father had ordered
Mutota to find salt.
· Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with salt and
reported on the abundance of elephants in the area.
· Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a “Zimbabwe”
on the slope of Chikato hill near the Utete River.
· Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the escapement north of
Guruve.
· Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the death of
Mutota, his son, Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his half sister
Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa hence she is often referred to as
Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa Empire stretching from the Anngwa
and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and west to the Musengezi and
Mukumbura Rivers.

1.3.1.3.1The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs

· The people had the same shona language, customs and culture similar to the peoples
of the Great Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not used until the 19th century.
The Ndebele people described the Karanga ie. Mutapa language and area of control
as “entshona langa” which means a place where the sun sets or a place to the west.
· Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related dialects (in
Zimbabwe) one of which is Karanga.
· They believed in a god whom they called ‘mwari’ who is claimed to have spoken
through the spirits of the ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit mediums i.e.
the Mhondoros.
· Religious ceremonies were held to honour the spirit mediums where music dancing
and feasting occurred (Bira). The senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the north
east, Nehanda in the central and Chaminuka in the west.
· At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of
society as well as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of this arrangement
was a high degree of morality with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution,
divorce and almost all known present day social ills being unknown. The law was
highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less defined in terms of commerce.
Criminals even murderers were rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the
injured and the culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of
murder. When a person was murdered life had to be paid with life and invariably a
young woman from the murderers’ family had to be given to the victim’s family.
Inevitably, this created a bond between the two considering that at birth or death
there are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman. This is
in stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and
divisive.

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1,3.1.3.2 The Mutapa Economy
The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its peak it was the
heart of a powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi River trade route and received
taxes from foreigners. Not only was the economy based on trade and taxation, tribute
was also part of their economy. The people of the Mutapa provided a variety of goods
for trade. Trade made the Mutapa ruling class wealthy and the state became strong.

· The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters paid tribute
in the form of tusks.
· The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work in return the
miners had to sell the gold to the Mutapa.
· He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor gifts, people
brought disputes and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for his judgement.

1. 3.1.3.3 The Mutapa Political Structures

· They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state.
· Some of the emperors’ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and handling their
business and as members of his royal court they became very powerful.
· Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and clothes made
from cotton and silk. Most people wore skin aprons.
· A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling and collecting
taxes and cattle and brought new communities into the empire.

1. 3.1.3.4 The Portuguese Factor In The Mutapa State.

· When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu
became king and was the first to receive a Portuguese visitor named Fernandes who
brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts.
· The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa’s power such that he was in a position
to assist his ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.
· In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He took over
Mbire province earning the praise name Munembire.
· He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle fires at
the king’s palace.
· In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or Ntemba an
unmarried youth, took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
· Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father Goncalo da’
Silveira who wanted to convert them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the king’s
court (vamwenyi) did not like this and plotted to kill Da’ Silveira. They
subsequently strangled him and dumped him in a pond.

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· Goncalo’s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge his
death, it was defeated.
· In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese’s for assistance to fight his rival for the
leadership and in return they were given mines.
· The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because of earlier
experience with Portuguese Prazeros(land/ prazo holders)(this is where the name
purazi comes from) who took their land.
· More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese
formed private armies and became wild and lawless.

1.3.1.3.5 The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State

· The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led the Mutapa
Nyambo Kapararidze to try to expel them.
· He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet Mamvura
Mhande was installed.
· After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who would obey them.
· An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where new chiefs
were appointed to restore order.
· Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against the
Portuguese but was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of the Mutapa
state.

1.3.1.4 THE ROZVI STATE

· The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo (1634)
believed to having been a powerful ruler. He was very wealthy and claimed that his
father was a mwari and his mother a virgin. The Rozvi capital was at
Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.
· By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the Zambezi and
Limpopo rivers and even into areas like Mozambique e.g. Sena.
· The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs.
· By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in name only.

1.3.1.4 .1 Decline and Collapse Of the State

Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane ‘or time of trouble” caused by
Nguni tribes who had fled from Tshaka or broken away from the Zulu state in present
day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi ruler
Chirisamhuru.
· The state was further weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and defeated
the Rozvi. Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and
finished the remnants of the Rozvi state between 1837 – 1840.

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1.3.1.5 THE NDEBELE STATE
The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of, Matshobane and grandson of Zwide.
Mzilikazi joined Tshaka under Zwide. He was a chief of a small clan called Khumalo.
He suspected Zwide of the death of his father Matshobane.

· Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to Tshaka and
fled north.
· He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given as a
nickname by Tswanas and means people of long shields. Mzilikazi increased his
side through conquering and incorporating weak tribes such as the Tswana and
Suthuland some people voluntarily joined Mzilikazi. He was defeated by the Boers at
Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The Ndebele crossed the Limpopo River in 1837 –
1846 and settled at Inyati near Matopo hills.
· They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas under their
control. They conquered Shonas such as the Kalanga and Venda.

1.3.1.5.1 Political Structures

· King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme commander
of the army, highest judge with power over life and death. He was a religious leader
who presided over important religious ceremonies such as Incxwala.
· King however didn’t rule alone but with two advisory counsels, the Mphakati and
Izinkulu indicating that king was not a dictator.
· The Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who had left Natal
and knew Zulu military tactics.
· These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed by the king.
· The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were incorporated in
the Ndebele state..

1.3.1.5 .2The Ndebele Economy.

Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases of Ndebele
economy. They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and therefore had lots of time for
raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true. The following were the basis of Ndebele
economy:
· Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that Ndeng
initially were not permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndeng kept large
heads of cattle, sheep and goats.
· They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were obtained through
the conquered Rozvi and others were received in the form of tribute from the Shona
while others were obtained through raiding.
· Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet, sorghum,
water melons etc.

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· Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of climatic
conditions.
· Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their kills
ranged from large animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species e.g. buck and
rodents. Men usually hunted while women concentrated on gathering.
· They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in the
Ndebele state as far as it supplemented organised agriculture.
· Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the Shona
· The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron, jewellery, beads
etc
· Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited
extent. They traded gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly in winter-
after harvest when people didn’t have much work in the field.
· Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent women from those tribes
under their control
· Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women, young
men and grain.
· However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn’t always raid the Shona. Only
those who lived near Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such as the Shona
in the Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru and Kwekwe areas.

1.3.1.5 .3 Ndebele- Shona relations

1.3.1.5 .3.1 The myths and realities.

· Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona and that
the Shona were on the verge of extinction when settler colonialists came to
Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse to influence the British government to
colonize this country and the missionaries used this argument more than the ordinary
settlers.
· The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy and
destroy the Ndebele Kingdom was because they had failed to convert a single
Ndebele man.
· The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona and the
Ndebele had the occasional raid as a common feature of this relationship.
· In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the Ndebele
were pre-occupied with their own security, internal problems such that they could not
always fight the Shona.
· It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to 1890
especially those Shona people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
· Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were major
targets for raids. Ndebele raids did not interfere with the economy of those Shona

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 chiefs who paid tribute and moreover some Shona chiefs aided the Ndebele and some
stole or raided the Ndebele to recover stolen cattle.
· The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of inter-
marriage.
· The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “mwari”/umlimu’ and followed the Shona
traditions of ancestral worship..
· The state was divided into 3 distinct social groups based on history namely:

a) Abezanzi
These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They formed the
aristocratic ruling class. These were the original Khumalo who had left Natal and
constituted about 15% of Ndebele population ie. The Hadebes, Khumalos, Mkwananzi.

b) Enhla

These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were Sotho and
Tswana who joined the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe. They occupied important
military positions in the Ndeng state and they constituted about 25% of Ndebele
population.

c) Amahole

These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of the
Kalanga and other Shona speaking people who were conquered and absorbed by the
Ndebele and made up 60% of Ndebele population. However, the hole who proved
themselves in battle also occupied important military posts in the Ndebele economy.
Due to continued inter-marriage most of these groups lost their identities ie the
Moyos, Sibandas, Ncubes, Gumbos.

1.3.1.5 .3.2 ACTIVITIES

· Define National and Strategic Studies
· Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy
in the West.
· Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
vii) Medicine
viii) Governance
ix) Democracy
x) Culture
xi) Technology

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 UNIT 2

THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

· Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

· Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5

· Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

·Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

·Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War , the1st Chimurenga War
and 2nd Chimurenga.

· White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at the Cape in
South Africa. This was a re-supply post for fresh water and food for the East India
trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape were soon displaced by the British and pushed
north. The discovery of gold on the Rand and diamonds led to the continued jostling

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 for control between the British and Dutch settlers for the good part of the two
centuries from 1700 through 1800. Hunters and missionaries who were the trail
blazzers for British colonisation spread the rumor that there was a bigger Rand in the
area occupied by the Ndendele across the Limpopo.

· Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill-health joined his brother
at the Kimberly diamond fields and became rich and directed his attention to the
rumors of an “el dorado” or city of gold to the north.

· Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British Control all
African territory from South Africa to Egypt.

· Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British responsibility
to civilize Africa the so called Dark Continent.

· Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers from the short
lived Transvaal Republic, Germans from South West Africa and especially the
Portuguese.

2.1 The Grobler Treaty

· In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to negotiate a
friendship treaty with Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of all the territories north
of the Limpopo. The agreement - known as the Grobler treaty provided for a Boer
Representative to be resident at Bulawayo and Lobengula would assist the Boers (
in the face of British threats) if required to do so.

· In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to send a

representative to Bulawayo to negotiate a counter treaty.

2.2 The Moffat Treaty

· John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and signed the
treaty in February 1888. According to this agreement Lobengula was to cancel the
Grobler Treaty. He would also not enter into any agreement with any European
power without the consent of Britain.

· The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between Lobengula and
the British government but in fact was the first step in the collapse and subjugation of
the Ndeng state.

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2.3 The Rudd Concession

· Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe by the
white settlers through the British South African company. Rhodes had formed this
commercial company to spear head the occupation of this country.

· The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd representing Rhodes
and Lobengula. The Rudd delegation consisted of three people namely;

1Charles Rudd

Rhodes’ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was therefore an
embodiment of Rhodes’ self interest.

1. Rotchford Maguire

Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to be useful
in tricking Lobengula.

2. Francis Thompson

He was nicknamed “Matebele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages including

Ndebele. He had a perfect knowledge of Ndeng custom. His presence was therefore
meant to influence Lobengula to sign the agreement. Rhodes was careful in the
selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn’t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the agreement, the
evidence is that:

1) It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

2) The delegation bribed Lobengula’s most trusted senior, Induna Lotshe, who
influenced Lobengula to sign the agreement and for that role Lotshe was executed
together with his family.

3) Lobengula was influenced by several whitemen he trusted such as Moffat who

misled or lied to him that the Rudd delegation represented the queen.

4) Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the Rudd
Concession in October 1888, the terms of which were;:

a) Lobengula was to receive:

· Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.

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· 1000 enfield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.

· A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against Portuguese invasion.

b) Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;

· -Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and precious
metals in Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

· Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.

· They would dig only one hole.

· They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually become his people.

2.4 The Royal Charter

· Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political protection of the
British government. Rhodes therefor sought and got this protection through The
Royal Charter, granted in October 1889. The document in effect declared that the
Rudd concession had effectively made the territories of Lobengula British territories
under the administration of the British South Africa Company (BSAC) and by that
virtue restricted Boer and Portuguese expansion. Some German hunters advised
Lobengula on what was meant by the document and he tried in vain to repudiate it.

· He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E A Mount and Charles
Helm to inform her that he was no longer interested in the Rudd Concession. The
indunas were deliberately delayed and the repudiation was too late.

· To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a German

businessman a concession for a period of 100 years to mine in Zimbabwe.

· Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more powerful.

2.5 The Pioneer Column

· Rhodes’s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to form the first t
settlers in Zimbabwe.

· The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and chosen from
thousands of applicants from all over Europe and South Africa.

· Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five gold claims
each. The Botswana protectorate provided 800 African labourers.

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· Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the country as a
hunter. The group crossed Into Zimbabwe in March 1890 and built fort Tuli. The
column turned east avoiding the Ndeng state and established Fort Victoria
(Masvingo) On 17 August 1890 the Column reached Fort Charter (Chivhu). From
Charter the column reached Harare on 12 September 1890, raised the British flag the
Union jack and, and called Harare Salisbury in honour of British Prime Minister at
that time. This marked the completion of the occupation of the land.

· Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes’ personal friend was appointed the first governor of
Mashonaland.

2.6 The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount of gold they
got in Mashonalnad.

· They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a second Rand
could be found in Matebeleland.

· The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and the attractive
land (rich grazing lands). They even believed that Lobengula’s capital was built on
top of a gold mountain.

· It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was inevitable and
unavoidable. It was to complete the occupation of Zimbabwe and, as the BSAC was
bankrupt, it needed gold; hence Matebeleland was their own way out of that big
problem.

· To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndeng state and Leander
Star Jameson needed an excuse in order to attack the Ndeng state. He created
conflicts to justify war between whites and Ndeng.

2.7 Precursors to the war

1. The Boundary Line

· According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

· Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from Matebeleland.
He then restricted Lobengula’s rule to Matebeleland.

· Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

PAGE 15
· He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the boundary line
kept on shifting towards his capital thus reducing his area of influence.

2.8 The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland the Ndeng
were trying to avoid any conflicts with the whites. Since the settlers were interested in
Matebeleland, Rhodes and his people were busy finding ways of attacking the Ndeng The
whites admired the Ndeng’s rich grazing lands and suspected gold deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

1. The Victoria Incident

· Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndebele still regarded later as their
subjects.

· In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomala stole 500 metres of
telegraph wire.

· They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle that belonged
to Lobengula and which they had had stolen.

· Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

· Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to have to have
stolen cattle belonging to Lobengula.

· Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a result Shona
servants on European farms were killed and some fled to Fort Victoria for protection.

· The Ndebele Indunas, Manyao and Uumgandani pursued the Shona people who
sought refuge in Victoria.

· The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the magistrate of
Fort Victoria refused and the Ndeng were ordered to vacate Fort Victoria.

· Lendy followed and caught up with Umgandani’s party and killed all of them and in
response Lobengula mobilized 6000 soldiers.

· The Victoria Incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that the white
farmers believed that there were rich gold deposits in Matebelaland and had long
planned on how to get there

PAGE 16
 They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a recipe for
prosperity even if they were to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white settlers from
getting enough labour for their mines and farms.

2.9 Preparation for war

· By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well armed white
settlers aided by missionaries from South Africa.

· Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each if the
Ndeng were defeated.

2.10 The Battles

· The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and moved south
west towards Matopo ready for a show down with the Ndeng.

· In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the Ndeng impi
was heavily defeated.

· On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces entered the
Ndeng capital, Bulawayo and Lobengula set fire to the city and fled north where he
vanished without trace to date.

· The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to Ndendele
Supremacy.

2.11 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.Slavery is the highest level of degrading another

human being. Slavery is as ancient as human existence. The practice was pronounced under the
Roman Empire and at that time it also assumed its commercial undertones. This practice was
perfected by the former Roman colonies in Europe when they enslaved Africa. Never in the
History of mankind were such atrocities, insensitivity, and cruelty and inhumanity perpetrated
by human beings upon other human beings. Slavery was the crudest method of exploiting other
human beings and in its wake came colonisation which by definition is slavery with a humane
face. The latter like slavery leads to the exploitation of other man by other man by other means
other than brute force.

It is not possible under The United Nations Charter for a nation to unilaterally attack or
annex the territory of another state and where this has happened of late as when Iraq
attacked Kuwait the UN unanimously agreed to reverse the annexture through force of
arms. To colonize another state is therefor the highest form of state irresponsibility. The
USA under false claims of existence of weapons of mass destruction attacked Iraq in
2003 and there was a global outcry against the war. Colonization nevertheless took place

PAGE 17
many centuries before the UN came into existence but that does make colonization any
less a crime against humanity. Colonisation was perpetrated by the very nations that were
vociferously opposed to the Iraq Kuwait invasion and yet many serious human rights
violations were perpetrated by the colonial powers in this process. In Tasmania Australia,
the aborigines on the island were wiped out to the last man by British settlers. The
Spanish conquistadors demolished whole empires and civilizations in the Americas.

2.12 SLAVERY

1. The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South America or in the
Americas created the need for disciplined workforce.

2. Inability of the local or native Red-Indian population to withstand organized

disciplined labour.

3. Existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa.

4. Indigenous or Red-Indian inability to withstand European diseases e.g. small pox,

syphilis, gonorrhea etc.

5. The existence of a greedy and guliable or naïve chieftainship in Africa which captured
and sold its own kith and kin for a bottle of fire water that is gin.

· Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the consolidation of slavery. The

trade in Europe did not provide sufficient profit because of the problem of exchange
values. But the trade with unindustrialized countries in Africa and America was
more profitable because of the use values.

· This system of trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy and slavery
and colonial conquest.

· To consolidate accumulation or profit in England, the joint stock company was

devised and several of this new economic tool were formed, e.g. the Adventurous
Russia company and the Africa company. According to Nassau, a well known
academic of the time, the objectives of the Africa company were, “…to kidnap or
purchase and work to death the natives of Africa without mercy.” The Eastland
Company had the monopoly and right to trade with the European hinterland. The
Levan Company in which Queen Elizabeth 1 was a major shareholder became the
East Indian Company.

· The Fuggers Company in Germany was first a merchant company and later became a
bank and financed all Germany wars of the period.

PAGE 18
· The Fuggers Company in return for financing war was paid through the form of
trading concessions, colonial land and through revenue from colonial mines.

· As contact with Latin America or South America increased, the company turned to
Africa for cheap labour.

· It was the nearest continent with a population used to organize labour which was also
disciplined in many respects. The Uterecht Treaty of 1713 gave English Merchants
the right to supply South America with 5 000 slaves every year and a special
company was formed to supply these slaves.

· Most of the gold and products from the plantations from South America ended up in
British towns.

· The continued enslavement of African peoples between 1646 and 1680 resulted in 70
000 slaves being taken to South America. However, only 46 000 survived the
translocation. The slave trade was part of the triangular trade between Europe,
Africa and South America .This trade was very profitable to the European companies
and the African Royal company which was the slave company paid a dividend of
300% despite loss of half the “goods/cargo” that’s despite the death of more than
half the slaves en route to the Americas.

· There is therefore a co relation between Europe’s expansion/development and slave

labour from Africa. The methods used by the companies especially British firms,
was to capture other countries’ export markets through colonisation, protectionism
and unequal exchange.

· Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial Revolution without the plunder, the
enslavement and the destruction of the native people of Africa.

2.13 COLONIALISM

· Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European commerce. The

former (the merchants) later supported and financed the political institutions or their
governments in their wars of conquest and colonisation and they also participated in
policy making. Colonisation therefore was therefor an economic necessity. The
reasons or causes of Africa’s colonisation were or are:

a) Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading nation.

b) Allowed easy access to tropical markets.

c) Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.

PAGE 19
d) Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance of trade
problems.

e) Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super structure and
beliefs of the colonizers on the colonized peoples.

f) For glory and imperial prestige.

· African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16th century but the need to
exploit the wealth of South America saw slavery reaching a climax in the 18th
century. Slavery however, came to an end when it stopped serving the purposes and
interests of European commerce.

· The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no longer required
slave labour. Britain banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however, continued or even
grew after this banning. In 1833 slavery was internationally banned but it did not die
until a 100 years later and to the shame of Africa still lingers on in places like the
Sudan.

· Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its weakedness but
because commerce could not benefit as much from this evil practice.

· Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

· The commercial revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond Europe and this
created a conservative class of merchants and landlords. Commercial merchants were
a class which could not fully satisfy their accumulation potential in Europe so they
turned to foreign markets.

· Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence and other
dishonest means, was extended and practiced in foreign lands through colonization.

· The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the
Ashanti kingdom and the Aztec Civilization in Central America.

· Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East and this
almost destroyed the Arab civilization. The crusades were less about religion and
more about plunder and theft and robbery. The amount of wealth stolen in this
manner although substantial could not last long and the result was to exploit the
mines and the agricultural potential in Africa and in South America.

· In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the mines could
not be exploited using local labour so they resorted to stealing people from Africa.

PAGE 20
· This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labour as a more profitable way
of accumulating wealth.

· Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to both

colonialism and slavery.

2.14 THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

· Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long existed between
Europe and Africa and in trying to protect their commercial interest, Europeans had
fought many wars and for almost a 100 years between 1700 and 1800 Europe was at
war with each other because of commercial or economic interests. With the growth
of England and France as the major military powers, the wars became less and less
However, when German became a powerful nation towards the end of the 19th
Century, the following scenario developed in Europe;.

· The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

· The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and Staple acts
etc. with a view to monopolising trade with the so called ‘new world’ and ‘the dark
continent.’

· Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain suggested or requested Otto Von
Bismark, the Germany chancellor, to convene a conference for all interested parties
with trading or commercial interests with Africa. This led to the infamous Berlin
conference. The objectives of the conference were:

1. To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.

2 .To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.

2.15 Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Conference;

1. Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

2. Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into voluntarily between

European powers and African Chiefs.

3. A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and evidence of a
written protectorate agreement.

2.16 PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

2. 1. German ,Belgium ,England, France, Italy ,Portugal

PAGE 21
2.17 Contents Of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers and African
Chiefs/Kings.

1. Parties to the agreement- a). African chief and, b). a European commercial company.

2. Subjugation or surrender of title to land.

3. The location of the land, its size and general description.

4. Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.

5. Creation of a monopoly trade area.

6. Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or for ever and ever.

7. Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement of their lives
through European civilization.

8. Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

2.18 RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through commercial
companies or by commercial companies.

2. The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained to the
African chiefs.

3. Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they understood the
implications of the agreement.

4. Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonise Africa.

2.19 THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

1. Balance of trade dis-equilibra i.e. negative trade relations between Africa and
European countries during and after colonialism through a new form of relationship
called Neo-colonialism.

2. Exploitation and depletion of Africa’s natural resources without benefit to Africa.

3. Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to facilitate

industrialisation (investment was only in infrastructure to enable exploitation of
resources).

4. Cultural decimation/destruction.

PAGE 22
5. Dependency on European economies.

6. Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after colonialism

7. Super enrichment and development of Europe and their extensions in America and
Australia.

2.20 Reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).

2. Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya..

3. Africa was the source of many major rivers.

4. Existence of a money economy in Africa.

5. Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.

6. Little to no meaningful resistance

2.21 CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN ZIMBABWE

2.21.1 Early Settler Administration.

· With the Ndebele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling in the face
of superior settler firepower, the BSAC proceeded apace to consolidate its grip on the
country. The Transvaal Boer state however posed a great challenge to Rhodes’ plans
In 1895, Jameson withdrew most of the company’s armed personnel into the
Transvaal to fight the Boers but was crushed and the scenario for the Native
rebellion in Zimbabwe developed

2.21.2 THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

2.21.2.1 Causes of the War
· The land Issue

The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry inhospitable

holding areas was introduced.

In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres displacing many
natives and those displaced became fulltime labourers or squatters.

The settlers started ill treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

PAGE 23
· . FORCED LABOUR

The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the Africans to go to
work and in order to raise revenue.

Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

To solve their labour problems, the company introduced forced labour. The chiefs were
instructed to recruit able bodied men and hand them over to the BSAC as labourers-
“chibharo”. The Shona and Ndebele so enslaved ran away into the hills to escape.

The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

Again this did not please the Ndeng who wanted to claim their ancestral land back as in
the reserves there was food shortage and starvation at times.

· CATTLE

Soon after the defeat of the Ndeng in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites confiscated the
Ndeng cattle numbering about 250 000.

This drastically reduced the Ndeng herd and the Ndeng wanted their cattle back as it was
a sign of prestige.

· TAXATION

This was imposed on the Ndeng for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndeng to work in order to pay tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

· Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had to fight the whitemen and the employment
of their former vassals the Shona as policemen did not please the Ndebele as they were
now told what to do by these Shona policeman.

· NATURAL DISASTERS

It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought, rinderpest a
cattle disease and locusts. Africans gave these natural disasters a religious
interpretation; they argued that the presence of the whites had angered their ancestors

PAGE 24
hence these natural disasters and they then found it necessary to drive away the whites in
an effort to bring the natural disasters to an end.

· THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

These were very instrumental in bringing about a concented effort to drive away the
white man and they used a variety of methods. They passed information on the progress
made in the preparations for war. Some prophesied that the fighters would be protected
by their ancestors. They also provided medicine which they claimed made the fighters’
bullet proof.

· They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they threatened
death to all those who showed no interest.

2.21.2.2 RESULTS

· Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used which included
spears, shields, bow and arrows against the whitemen’s machine guns, cannons and 7
pounders.

· Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat as some
collaborated with the whites.

· Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the Africans
direction less and leaderless.

· Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their religion in general
leading to many Africans being converted to Christianity. However, although the
Africans were defeated, their efforts need to be recognised. It was the first time that
they had fought a common enemy as a united people.

· It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of resistance that is
the 2nd Chimurenga etc.

· Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like Nehanda,
Kaguvi, General Magwegwe and Mkwati of the Ndebele army, Chief Chingaira,
Mashonganyika, Muzambi, Maremba, Zvidembo, Mazhindu, Manyongori,
Gunduza, Mvenuri and Gutu.

2.21.3 Repressive Settler Legislation which dispossessed and dehumanized Native

Zimbabweans

Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first Chimurenga war and many
thousands of Africans died in battle and in the reprisals that followed up to and during

PAGE 25
1898. To secure their position the settlers enacted many pieces of legislation that
effectively proscribed or limited African economic, cultural and political freedoms.

The Native Reserve Order In Council: 1898.

Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and replaced them with
puppet settler administrators. The act also created reserves or cantonments in dry
inhospitable areas.

The Hut Tax: 1903.

Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go and work for the white
man.

The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.

The land bank act provide d new white settler farmers with free tillage for five years and
the same period as grace before commencing to repay loans from the state owned Land
bank.

The European Produce Act: 1917.

Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production was concerned with

respect to quantities they could market or the prices they could fetch.

The Morris Carter Commission:1925.

Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from the highest
rainfall region 1 to the lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were trans- located to regions 4
and 5.

The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.

In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres of prime land
while blacks who numbered 1 000 000 were allocated 28 000 000 acres of the worst land
in regions 4 and five. The translocation of blacks was accompanied with untold violence
and starvation and malnutrition became endemic. More government officials were
employed country wide and effect while rule and these included native commissioners
and police man. A land policy after 1905 was affected which started to impoverish ty
blacks and to keep them politically ineffective. Africans were also excluded from
government through strict qualifications e.g.. The right to vote was given to males over
21 days with an annual income of 50 000 pounds or with property worth 75 pounds. The
Land Apportionment Act of 1930 confirmed and legalised the displacement of Africans
that had been ongoing earlier.

PAGE 26
Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural produce came from
black farmers and many whites did not like this state of affairs. As a result, the Rhodesia
Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) stopped blacks from competing with whites and between
1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres of the best land was taken from blacks and given to
whites. New boundaries were created to exclude fertile high rainfall areas from newly
created reserves. The latter were located in semi arid areas. Blacks in regions 1, 2 and 3
were made to pay higher grazing fees and taxes. Since many could not pay they were
removed and settled in reserves which were situated far away from markets and rail and
tarred motor roads. By the 1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into
reserves. This led to cycle of poverty among Africans which persists up to today -2004.

The Maize Control Act:1935.

The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production. 2 grades
of maize were made, A grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A grade fetched a
higher price while B fetched a lower price. Whites also paid less for maize they bought
from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

· Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.

· The government paid more to whites for their cattle.

· This system impoverished the blacks who were loosing out through this fraudulent
commercial arrangement. As the blacks became poorer in the reserves they migrated
or translocated to towns.

Industrial Conciliation Act:1934.

· Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

· Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites that are skilled and semi-skilled job.

· The act was latter amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.

Racial Discrimination Act:1934.

Þ The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an offence
for a white to share a toilet with a black man or to mix in schools, hospitals, or hotels
even cemeteries.

PAGE 27
The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.

Þ The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle or eight
acres of land in the communal lands.

The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965.

Þ The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black areas.
Natives could only occupy land in communal lands without holding title to it. In
Towns natives could only lease property and no black man could own a house in town
until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969.

Þ The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000 000 acres as
European land and shared among the 250 000 whites and the worst 45 000 000acres
was designated as native land to be shared by the 5 000 000 blacks.

Þ The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race’s land.

· PASS LAWS

· All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any white man
or police officer of any race could demand at anytime anywhere. This restricted
black freedom of movement from place to place.

2.21.4 AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST LEGISLATION

After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by the British
through the BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control and since company
rule was increasingly becoming inadequate and incapable of running the country, the
British gave the settlers two options to either join South Africa or to establish
responsible self government. In a referendum in 1923 the settlers chose the latter. The
more the settler regime became repressive the more the African spirit of resistance
blazed. Early resistance took crude forms such as jamming of factory machines or
refusing to work on farms and in mines. More refined resistance took the form of strikes
and joining trade unions.

· Between the 1st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation among blacks
were the trade unions. The African Railway Workers Union and the Reformed
Commercial and Industrial Workers Union were the first and most effective and they
also were non tribal.

PAGE 28
· Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political activity
originating and directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called a strike that
paralyzed the whole network from Mutare to Ndola in Zambia’s copper belt.

· In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all cities in
the country.

· The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland
(Southern and Northern Rhodesia, ie Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi)and by the
early 1950s this absorbed the attention of the natives since there were many false
promises associated with the creation of the federation. The federation was
eventually created in 1953 and its major features were the following;

· Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern

Rhodesia..

· The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern Rhodesia

with the Federation railways and airlines being headquartered in Southern Rhodesia

· The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern
Rhodesia.

· The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed to rid

Southern Rhodesia of all its native blacks and Trans locating them in Northern
Rhodesia and replacing them with what were perceived as docile migrant laborers
from Zambia and Malawi.

· White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing any hopes
of early self determination for all the members of the federation as long as the
federation existed.

· 1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely workers
movement operating in the urban areas.

· Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations’ political aspirations.
Some churches criticized the settlers in their sermons and hymns. However there
were many racists church leaders who used religion or Christianity to subdue and
indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a subservient role. These racist
apologists were happy to continue with the policies of segregation in church, politics
and the economy and the result was a proliferation of many independent African
churches.

PAGE 29
· In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and it was
a merger between the old ANC and the City Youth League led by Joshua Nkomo. It
demanded majority rule.

· It co opted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the Land
Husbandry Act (1951) and it urged the peasants not to cooperate with the
government. Garfield Todd, the federation premier (1953-1957) who was a liberal,
argued for accommodation of African demands but the avowed racists in his cabinet
called for repression of all African political activity. As a result Todd was deposed in
an internal coup for giving in to black demands and David White head became
premier and in 1959 e SR-ANC was banned and hundreds of blacks thrown in jail.

· 1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;

The Native Affairs Act 1959

The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959

The Preventive Detention Act 159

The Emergency Powers Act 1960

The law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

Þ Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more repression
and the nationalists resorted to pressure Britain to reign in the settlers and to give
independence to blacks but Britain refused.

Þ January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SR-ANC.
Joshua Nkomo was elected president and the leardership of the party consisted of
Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet Chitepo, Robert Mugabe, Bernard Chidzero, George
Silunduka, Jaison Moyo, Leopold Takawira, Josiah Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

Þ 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in December.

Þ 1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern Rhodesia and the
party represented the hard core white racists determined to wipe out all resistance to
colonialism and Winston Field was then premier.

Þ 1962 September ZAPU was banned.

Þ 1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of tolerance
and accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole.

PAGE 30
Þ 1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in prison or in
exile.

Þ 1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many acts of
sabotage. Of note is the action by self styled General Chedu who led 100 youths
calling themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation army. The same year ZANU recruited
and trained the first armed resistance to colonialism and the Crocodile group drew
first blood when they attacked a police station and killed a white farmer in
Chimanimani(Melsetter).

Þ 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

Þ 1965 November 11th. Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral Declaration of
Independence. This made the country an illegal state and although Britain still
claimed to be the legitimate ruler they failed to bring to justice the settler regime. At
about the same time the little island of Anquilla in the Pacific made a UDI and Britain
did not hesitate to reign in the rebels.

Þ UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain self
determination and the Smith regime went on an all out campaign to stifle African
aspirations and institutionalized arpertheid or racial segregation as the system of
governance and social and economic life. The same year a state of emergency was
declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending some or all civil liberties and
allows the state to take extra judicial measures to deal with the crisis. What followed
were many years of state terrorism and murder to which the Africans responded by
intensifying the armed resistance - the second Chimurenga war.

Þ By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African countries
like Egypt, Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed wings. Zanu’s armed wing
became the ZImbabwe National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and ZAPU’s armed wing
became known as the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Training
also took place outside Africa in places like Cuba, China, and Russia.

Þ 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed with the
security forces and all seven members of the group were killed.

Þ 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress’s armed
wing Umkhonto Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20 combatants each group. The
majority of combatants were killed in and around Wankie district. Rhodesia airforce
began to violate Zambian airspace and another larger group was deployed by the
alliance and again was decimated.

PAGE 31
Þ The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the Smith
government passed the Law and order maintenance amendment bill – 7 September
1967. The law provided for a death sentence on any one caught with arms of war

Þ Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mocambique fighting the
Portuguees in Mocabmique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more
experience they provided training and logistical support which proved invaluable and
led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass mobilisation became the preferred tool of
the armed resistance and met with great success. Rhodesia and Portugal began joint
operations in 1968.

Þ 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm Centenary.

Þ 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza deposed the premier Salazaar and
brought immediate independence to Mocambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.

Þ 1974 John Vorster South Africa’s Boer premier initiated Détente a policy of
accommodation designed to neutralize the armed struggle by promoting internal
reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe. This stalled and almost derailed the
armed struggle especially with the death /assassination of Herbet Chitepo on 18
March 1975 in Zambia.

Þ Chitepo became the chairman of Dare rechimurenga an organisation formed after the
banning and jailing of the nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the
war while the leadership was in prison..

Þ 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments were

introduced in all war fronts to deprive the fighters food and other support.

Þ 1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the OAU force
the two to combine their armed efforts.

Þ 1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people’s army (ZIPA) and
armed resistance gathered momentum in early 1976 as ZANLA intensified operations
in Gaza, Tete and Manica provinces or fronts or regions according to ZIPRA
terminology.

Þ 1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mocambique, Rhodesians killed many refugees

and guerillas at Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mocambique and Freedom camp
Mulungushi, and Chifombo in Zambia.

Þ March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between anti war and
reactionary black groups in Rhodesia.

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Þ April 1979 the ANC’s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in sham
elections and temporarily the Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state existed and it was not
recognized by any state except South Africa. It was during this period that some of the
most gruesome murders were perpetrated against refugees and the armed resistance
with the authority and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s government.

Þ South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in Rhodesia
pressured Smith for a negotiated solution.

Þ 1979 October the British under international pressure convened the Lancaster house
talks. The parties to the talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front(ZANU
and ZAPU) and the internal group Muzorewas ANC and Smith’s Rhodesia front. The
talks could not reconcile the demands of the parties especially on land but both groups
hoped against hope that they would win and be able to maintain their claims and
positions from a legialised position.

Þ 1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to win a single

seat in parliament , Smith only got his reserved 20 whitemen’s seats, ZANU(PF)
swept the board with 79 seats and ZAPU(PF) got 20 seats from all of Matebeleland
and ZANU –Ndonga got one seat..

Þ Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand Australia

Britain etc. where they continue to reminisce nostalgically about the war and how
Britain sold them out.

Þ 1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert Mugabe as

premier. The new prime minister offered Josshua Nkomo the titular head of state
position but he declined to accept although several ministries were headed by his
other fellow ZAPU colleagues.

Þ 1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were suppose to have been
surrendered to the state are discovered and ZAPUs properties with caches are
confiscated by the state. Disturbances of a tribal nature erupt in Bulawayo in
Entumbanen and some people are killed and the army is sent in to reign in rogue
ZIPRA elements and some these flee to the bush

Þ 1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Arpetheid regime in South
Africa begin a campaign of sabotage, murder and destabilisation in Matebeleland and
the Midlands and such names as Gwesela, Ndevu eziqamula inkomicho became
household names for their notoriety. Hoods, Conjwayo and other South African
saboteurs and agents provocateurs are apprehended in Zimbabwe. South Africa
unleashes a war of destabilization of all frontline states with rebel movements
RENAMO in Mocambique and UNITA in Angola wrecking havoc to the economies
of all Front line states..

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Þ 1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth brigade is
deployed in Matebeleland and the Midlands and development stalls in the affected
areas as hundreds of Shona civilians perish at the hands of dissidents and thousands of
Ndebele civilians loose their lives in reprisals by the Fifth Brigade.

Þ 1987 December 22 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Zimbabwe’s first non

executive president Mr. Canaan Banana, a unity agreement is signed between ZANU
PF and ZAPU PF. A new party ZANU PF is created and Joshua Nkomo became a co
vice president with Simon Muzenda. All dissident to be incorporated into society and
no charges to be preferred against them and similarly no charges to be preferred
against any member of the Fifth Brigade.

Þ 1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and immoral
practice continued and exists unabated to date. The new government made strides to
correct the colonial evils in the following areas;

1. Universal free primary and secondary education.

2. Free medical and health care

3. Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler colonialists

to which they have to date spurned.

4. Land distribution under the willing seller willing buyer basis.

5. Integrate and demobilize the belligerents

6. Indeginisation- enabling the native Africans to own and

control business.

7. Expanding trade with the region and the world at large

Þ 1991 A foreign driven Economic structural programme from the IMF and World
Bank was adopted. The programme required Zimbabwe to liberalize trade, which is
allow free movement of goods from outside, restrict or cut expenditure, and devalue
or allow the local currency to float.

Þ 1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the negative
effects of ESAP.

Þ 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to help the
beleaguered Kabila regime.

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Þ 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 year non compulsory acquisition
of land close in the Lancaster agreement, a Land Donor Conference is organised and
many foreign donors pledge to assist Zimbabwe but not a cent is remitted.

Þ 1999 The labour Union leadership breaks ranks with government and threatens to
form a political party under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in September the
same year this actual happens in the form of the Movement for Democratic change...

Þ War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to the 2000
elections The labour leardership cum opposition party slides more and more to the
right and is seen supporting settler colonial interests in land commerce and industry
and receives massive monetary and moral support from the same quarter. This
alliance also receives massive external assistance from foreign interests like the USA
and UK governments directly or indirectly through such organisations as the
Westminister Foundation etc.

Þ February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a referendum and
labour, the opposition together with civic organisations mobilise the electorate to
reject it because allegedly it confers too much power on the president but really
because of the ‘no compensation for land compulsorily acquired for settlement
“clause in the constitution.

Þ 2000 February realising the near success of the landed white class in derailing the
land redistribution by using political parties they funded and helped to found,
Veterans of Zimbabwe’s 2nd. Cimurenga and landless peasants occupied white owned
farms and forced government to make appropriate legislation to fast track land
distribution – The Land Acquisition Act 2000.

Þ 200 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling ZANU(PF)
party and wins 57 seats to 63 for ZANU PF.

Þ 2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to ostracize the
Mugabe regime and begins to talk about regime and forces its friends to impose
sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the economy in order to make the electorate vote him
out of power. Inflation rises steadily and local white employers on the whole do
everything to arm twist the electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.

Þ 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the MDC refuses
to concede defeat or to recognize the new government and goes to court to challenge
the election results and alleges intimidation vote rigging etc.

Þ 2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from Britain and
America and court challenges to the presidency continuing and the opposition top
leadership is arrested and taken to court for trying to assassinate the president.

PAGE 35
Þ 2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a general optimistic
expectation pervades the nation as preparation and campaigning for the 2005
gubernatorial elections get underway.

2.22 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland(15 Dec 1953- 31 Dec 1963)

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the product of the general election
of December 15, 1953 and was the first election to the legislative assembly of the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which had been formed a few months before.
The election saw a landslide victory for the Federal Party under Godfrey Huggins who
had been Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia for the past 20 years.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also called Central African
Federation, political unit created in 1953 and ended on Dec. 31, 1963, that embraced the
British settler-dominated colony of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and the territories of
Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi), which were under the control of
the British Colonial Office.
From the 1920s white European settlers in the Rhodesias had sought some form of
amalgamation to counter the overwhelming numerical superiority of black Africans, but
this had been blocked by a British Colonial Office that was sensitive to profound African
opposition.
2.22.1 The Idea Of Federation 1953 to 1963
The term federation means loose coalition of nations or organizations where by each
nation report to its central leader whilst returning its otonomy/independence.
The idea of forming a federation of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland was discussed as early as 1915.
There were two main advantages for the federation, one was economic and the other one
was political.
1. economically the federation would give the BSAC control over a large mineral
producing area.
2. the whites in Southern Rhodesia would benefit from cheap labour extracted from
the three nations.
3. politically the whites in the three nations would increase their armament, both by
recruiting fighting men and capitalizing on the weapons from the three nations.
4. the federation would also improve the settler security against enemies.

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 5. the principal aim for the establishment of federation was to fight the Afrikaners in
South Africa who had just won the elections and were very powerful, but their
relationship with the whites was not always good.
6. another reason for federation was social, namely that the whites just wanted to
control the blacks in all the three nations.
2.22.2 Steps Towards The Establishment Of The Federation.

· In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was appointed to look into the
federation question in East and Central Africa.
· The commission recommended against the union of the three nations.

· It baesd its argument on the Devonshire Memorandum of 1923, which has

said that African interest were to be put first.
· It also recommended no self-government of the settlers in Kenya and
Tanzania would be recommended.

· This principle was therefore applied by the Hilton Young Commission to

Northern Rhodesia who felt that the whites population in this country was
so small that it could not make a federation viable.

· In 1938 the Bledisloe Commission was again appointed to look into the
issue.

· Again the Commission objected the idea on the grounds that the racial
policies in the Southern Rhodesia were harmful to blacks.
· In 1951 the conservative party in Britain won the election.
· This party supported the idea of federation.
· White politicians in Northern and Southern Rhodesia began to campaign
for the idea of federation.

· They openly explained that their nrelationship to the black was like that of
horse and the horserides.
· Inspite of all these objections the federation was imposed on blacks in 1953
2.22.3 Federation Years 1953 to 1963

· The Federation was created in 1953 comprised of Southern Rhodesia, Northern

Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

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 · There was a total of 310 000 whites in all the three nations, and 8 500 000
Africans. The Federal Parliament had 35 seats but 29 belonged to the whites and
only 6 were for the blacks.

· The Federation however did not benefit Zambia and Malawi, it only benefited
Zimbabwe.

· 100 000 pounds generated from the Zambians Copper Mine was spent in Southern
Rhodesia in building institutions like the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
later on called the University of Zimbabwe.
· Furthermore, the powerstations at Kariba was built on the Zimbabwean side.
· Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland provided ready markets for finished goods.

· In Zambia , Harry Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda fought tirelessly against the
federation.

· In Malawi it was the effort of Kamuzu Hastings Banda who also fought against
federation.

· In Southern Rhodesia people like Joshua Nkomo who formed the ANC in 1957
led the people in the fight against federation.

2.22.4 The 1961 constitutional proposals

· A new constitution was harmed out in Southern Rhodesia in 1961.

· According to the constitution the electorate was divided into two, the A and B
rolls.

· Roll A would elect 50 of the 65 members of the partiam whilst roll B would elect
only the remaining 15.
· To qualify for roll A one had to have the following:
1. An income of at least 792 pounds per year.
2. fixed property valued at 1650 pounds.
To qualify for roll B one had to have the following:
1. income of 264 pounds per year or ownership of fixed property valued at 495
pounds

PAGE 38
A minister of religion or headmen with 20 or more followers automatically qualifies into
the B roll. However three votes on the B roll were equivalent to one vote in the A roll.
· Joshua nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole had attended the conference in 1961
and they had surprisingly agreed to these terms.

· The federation broke on December 31, 1963 and Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland went on to attend independency the following year.
· When the federation ended Southern Rhodesia benefited in 3 ways:
i) all the military was taken by Southern Rhodesia
ii) university of Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the University of
Rhodesia now University of Zimbabwe.
iii) The Kariba powerstation was now controlled by Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) although it also applied to Zambia.
2.23 ACTIVITIES
· Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

· Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-

· Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

· Show how the repressive colonial legislation proletarianised and
pauperized the blacks during the colonial era

· Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

· Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War, the1st
Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga

UNIT 3

ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:
· Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage

PAGE 39
 ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage
· Analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society.

The heritage of any nation is based on that nation’s enduring political tradition. In the
USA, the national heritage is a deep rooted political legacy born out of the war and
rebellion against Great Britain and this is embodied in the term REPUBLICANISM. The
French, who are fiercely proud of their heritage, have the French revolution which
climaxed in the storming of the Bastille palace and the slaughter of the nobility as their
national heritage. Similarly, the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second
Chimurenga as the national and enduring political tradition. The second chimurenga
ethos embodies political, cultural as well as economic principles which define and
continue to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation, all one has to do is undermine
that nation’s heritage hence the continuing psychological war by the enemies of
Zimbabwe to distort and demonize not only the second chimurenga war but those who
participated in that war and especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event, achievement,

tradition or theory to which the peoples of a specific nation rally around, and have
emotional attachments and for which they are prepared to defend and to go to war if
threatened or violated.

3.2 SOCIAL and CULTURAL HERITAGE

Culture in Zimbawe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society The
demographic statistics show that the people of Shona extraction constitute about ninety
percent of the population with the Ndebele at 2.5%, Tonga, Venda, Kalanga, Cewa
Nambia, Shangaan and other smaller groups constituting about 7%. The white population
has dwindled to less than o.1% of the population. Inspite of their small number the
Ndebele influence on culture is fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has
rubbed on to the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is also quite true. Culture is
dynamic. As a result it is a correct generalization that there is such a thing as African
culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to European culture. There are at most only variations in
customs among the various African groups in Zimbabwean society but the customs are
either the same or closely resemble each other. Zimbabwean African culture has the
following major elements;

- Nuclear or extended family

- Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.

- Respect for hard and honest work.

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- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media on the African
culture in Zimbabwe. Television radio and the print media have done much harm in
undermining the superior African culture by encouraging foreign tastes and habits in
terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage, sex and the extended family. The first culprit
has been the African family with divorce (unknown and unthinkable in pure African
culture) wrecking many families. Disease due to sex before marriage and prostitution has
grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS related ailments. The white mans’
consumption or spending patterns have also spread among young Zimbabweans and they
are finding the extended family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of
the white mans’ culture and this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the
white person in Zimbabwe, the African does not have sufficient expendable cash and
as a result debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are making the lives of many
Zimbaweans miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the nation
cemented. Moreover such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime and
political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed would be non existent. All
these ills are a result of lack of self respect and lack of personal identity due to wanting to
be a white person eg. Michael Jackson who straightens his nose or an African woman
who wears false hair extensions to look like a Caucasian or preferring to speak in a
foreign language and not vernacular..

The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchalengable in that
traditional diet consisting of small grains legumes and African fruits, vegetables and nuts
naturally prevent such diseases as obesity/kusimba - a common feature of most urbanized
woman and the major cause of high blood pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis and
infertility.

In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for a long
healthy life and the solution to such problems as AIDS more so than condoms.

Marriage and the family are the economic base of any society and nation. Premarital sex,
divorce and sex for money and perversions such as lesbianism homosexuality, drug
taking including alcohol directly attack and undermine the family and as such society. A
multiplicity of sexual partners before marriage will always lead one to either multiple sex
partners in marriage or lack of satisfaction with one partner in marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals of
Christianity are firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents and authority, good morals
that is no fornication or adultery no perversion that is no homosexuality, taking care of
the needy etc. are biblical positions that remain unchangeable. In short the white mans’
culture is not only incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the antithesis and a direct

PAGE 41
attack on everything Godly, that is , it is devilish.. The problem between African religion
and Christianity is not lack of morals in African religion, but methods of accessing God
or worship. Indeed this writer is convinced there is lots of superstition with respect to
methods of worship in African religion in as much as most main line and emerging
Christian churches are thoroughly paginated. It is only right and good therefore to
promote and maintain our morally superior culture while adopting correct Christian
methods of worship.

Our religious inheritance will therefor remain for all time our good cultural values or
morals.

The values of any society therefor serve to define that society’s identity. History has
much been distorted by painting the African culture as irreligious to the extent that it is
almost the accepted value among most young Zimbaweans to be immoral because a
White Christian has an immoral value or practice for an example walking naked or partial
naked in public despite the fact that this violates Christian principles. The Black person
should there for not use the Whiteman’s values, or morals or immorals as the case may be
as the reference point for good or bad values but should use traditional practice as the
point of departure and compare that with biblical principles which remain unchanging
Our values as Africans clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality
graft corruption and laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We believe
in God and we have no room for atheism in our culture.

The second chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At the economic
level the legacy of the second chimurenga and our heritage from that event is that the
resources that are God given belong to Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or
tribe. Thus the land as resource number one belongs to all Zimbabweans. White
Zimbabweans with very negligible exceptions believe that land and all ill gotten gains
from the international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic cleansing and
segregation are legitimately and exclusively the property of those former criminals.
Whites do not want to share our land with us. We have said we will equitably share our
land with whites and that remains and will always remain the Zimbabwean African’s
morally right and correct position. Any so called Zimbabwean therefore of any race who
departs from this position is not only a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect
and in essence declaring that the second chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won
by the Africans in Zimbabawe through much blood and joy, and lost by settler
colonialists through by much blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of war.

Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with land
firmly in their hands, can engage other nations at the economic level and benefit from the
comparative advantages we have in terms of skilled disciplined labour, good climate, an
abundance of minerals and varied flora and fauna - domestic and wild. Economic activity
therefor should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost and this should happen through
an internal driven economic programme and not one that is externally driven. Political

PAGE 42
liberation simply relates to universal common suffrage being available to all citizens.
This was gained fully at Lancaster as manifested in the result of the 1980 elections and
subsequent elections whether presidential or gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow and
empty and absolutely useless if it is not used to bring about economic emancipation.
Political emancipation there for leads to and of necessity must lead to economic
emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most of the former colonies through
the practice of neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and most of the
developed world. The war for economic emancipation is the last war and it is the most
difficult war in that it is now being fought at the psychological level through global
media houses and the agency of corrupted local comprador/reactionary/collaborator
journalists who raise and imagine and publish false notions of the freedoms of expression
assembly and association. This leads to people as it were shooting themselves in the foot
because they through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters’ perceptions have
been warped in favour of their colonisers - vote into power those who perpetrate their
economic subjugation. The battle for perceptions is an unfair war, and it is most cruel and
criminal because of the open aggression through demands made on former colonies under
the guise of human rights.

At the political level the second chimurengas’ heritage is that as a people we are
sovereign and can determine our own destiny without outside interference and through
democratic processes designed to safeguard our hard won independence. (See governance
under legal and parliamentary affairs.)

3.3 Ubuntu\Unhu\Moral Values-The African Values Perspective

3.3 .1 CONCEPT OF “UBUNTU”
· Mbigi and Maree (1995:p7), define Ubuntu as the sense of solidarity or
brotherhood which arises among people within marginalized or disadvantaged
groups .
· It is not unique to African people, but can also be found elsewhere.
· It is the foundation of communal African livelihood.
· It expresses our “interconnectedness, our common humanity and responsibility to
each other that deeply flows from our deeply felt connection” (Nussbaum 2003;2).
· It brings to the fore images of supportiveness, co-operation and communism
(Koster 1996:111).
· Nussbaum (2003:2) views it as the capacity in African culture to express
companion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony and humanity in the interest of building
and maintaining community with justice and mutual caring. “Personhood is the
central theme of Ubuntu.
· It is based on the Zulu proverb”Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,” meaning a person is
a person through other people.
· This Ubuntu affirms the humanity of one person being directly related to next
person’s humanity.

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 · Archbishop Tutu (199:34-35) characterises a person with Ubuntu as “ one who is
open and available to others, affirming, does not feel threatened that others are
able and good, for he\ she has a proper self assurance that he or she belongs in a
greater whole is diminished when others are humiliated, when others are tortured
or treated as if they were less than who they are from the foregoing, it is clear that
ubuntu is characterised by human dignity, respect, interdependence, compassion,
solidarity and taking care of your own.
· Tambalusi and Kayuni(2005:147-161) presuppose that there is no reason for one
to grab other’s property, get forced gifts from fellow human beings in whatever
form. In this view, there is no justification for extortion, demanding bribes or
extortion for service delivery areas in Zimbabwe.

· In view of the above , prostitution; immoral dress such as miniskirts, tight fitting
clothing; murder; rape; robbery; burglary, drug abuse; alcoholism; abusive
language; lack of respect of senior citizens; corruption; dishonesty, gay
movement(homosexuality and lesbianism), among others, are all characteristics of
lack of ubuntu.

· The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our ubuntu
principles in our social, political, economic, and professional settings or
lives for the good of our country

· Lack of ubuntu can be observed in most Government departments such as the

police, mining, city councils, immigration, among others, where corruption,
mismanagement or any other form of malpractices such as demanding bribes and
extortion are rampant.

· From another view point, Mandela (1994) captures the essence of ubuntu in the
following quotation; “I am not truly free if I am taking away someone’s freedom
or rights just as truly when my freedom is taken away .” The point in this case is
that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our ubuntu principles in our social,
political, economic, and professional settings or lives

3.3.2 Ubuntu and Leadership

· As Zimbabwean citizens, we are leaders in various capacities such as at family,

group, community, occupational and national levels and we are expected to be role
models in terms of our moral values(ubuntu/unhu)
· Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related activities of
group members (Stoner et al, 1995: 470).
· Leaders use powers and influence to get the activities effectively performed by
followers.

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· Whereas power is defined as the ability to exert influence, that is to change
attitudes or behaviour of individuals or groups; influence refers to any actions or
examples of behaviour that cause a change in attitude or behaviour of another
person or group.

· It must, therefore, be pointed out that leadership is about values.

· According to James McGregor Burns (cited in Stoner et al, 1995: 470), the leader
who ignores the moral components of leadership may well go down in history as a
worse.
· Thus, moral leadership concerns values and requires that followers be given
enough knowledge of alternatives to make intelligent choices when it comes time
to respond to a leader’s proposal to lead.

· As noted by ethicist Michael Josephson (quoted in Stoner et al, 1995:470),

followers or employees do not learn ethics from people who sermonize or moralise
or try to preach to them about ethics, but learn ethics from the people whom they
admire and respect, who have power over them and those are the right people or
teachers of ethics.
· It is, therefore, important to reinforce ideals if they are sincere.

· It is also very important for leaders and role models, whether they be sports
figures, politicians / rulers or Senior Government Officials to make positive
statements of ethics, if they say (Stoner et al 1995: 470). If leaders are not
hypocritical, they can account for their actions.

· The ideas articulated in this case by Stoner et al (1995), squarely matches the
concept of “Ubuntu in(Zulu/ Ndebele and Unhu in Shona)” Ubuntu refers to love
for God, love for one another, and bringing to ourselves and the rest of the
world music, sport, arts and other forms of expression which bring out the
best of the human spirit and connects people across the boundaries of
material life (Rukuni,2007:450). Given the poor service delivery and corruption
which characterize various sectors of Zimbabwe, what ethics/values or
Ubuntu/Unhu do some of our fellow citizens portray to the society?
· Van der Colff (2003) points out that Ubuntu calls for leadership which
espouses the values of leadership legitimacy, communal enterprise and
value sharing. She argues that these values are vital for establishing an
enabling culture and a set of skills and competencies valued in most
leadership situations.

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· Historically, African leadership is based on participation, responsibility and
spiritual authority. According to Lessen and Nussbaum (1996), African
leadership calls for transparency, accountability and legitimacy. On the
contrary; Van der Colff (2003) contends that leadership legitimacy can only
be promoted by being role models for their followers through their
actions and sticking to values and goals. Thus leaders must be of integrity
before expecting the same for followers.
· Furthermore, a leader with Ubuntu values must create an enabling
environment for their followers. He / She must be fair, helpful and
considerate and support followers in their legitimate requests..
· Karsten and IIIa( 2005) highlight that Ubuntu decision making is
characterised by consultation, communal participation and open
conversation. Evidently, Ubuntu leadership entails a critical discourse
since voices of all participants in organisations or groups are involved and
emphasis is on consensus building.
· This is strikingly similar to indigenous African political systems whose story
telling, inclusive decision making and participatory community meetings
were key. Coercive powers were generally not used to achieve a common
goal. Rather, consensus was the means. “Majority of opinion did not count;
unanimity was the rule (Ayittey 1991:100). As a result, communal meetings
were not largely characterised by haggling and debate but a search for
deeper comprehension of issues and a spontaneous emergency of
solutions.

· The key issue here is the “value system” that guides and controls
behaviour. According to Tambulasi and Kayuni (2005 147 – 16), some
African public officers perceive the concept of Ubuntu to be all
encompassing and its pursuance is viewed as an empowerment to pay
less attention to western derived principles of democracy and good
governance. In view of this, would the mixed-bag of western value systems
and African value systems help Zimbabwean citizen achieve the desired

PAGE 46
 results or outcomes in social ,economic and political life? The question is
“can African feet divorce Western shoes?” This follows Richard
Tammbulasi and Happy Kayuni (2005)’s quest for reality about
Unbuntu/Unhu,/Butho.

3.4 Economic Heritage

National resources.

Zimbawe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances places the
nation on the strategic resources map of the world.

Land

Zinbabwe’s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very conducive climate
being neither too hot nor too cold and has an average rainfall of about 1500 ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin, emeralds.
Diamonds, platinum nickel.

Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic importance
because they are ranked in the top five in terms of quantity and quality. Unfortunately
control of these minerals is still in foreign hands and as a nation we also are not yet
adding value to them.

Wild life

The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined Kenyan and
Tanzanian wild life population of the Serengeti game park. The big five wild game –
elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and rhino are more abundant in our game parks than in any
other park in the world..

People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimabwe is still sparsely populated
considering that our land mass can sustain seventy million people with optimal economic
utilization. The plus about this population is its literacy levels –about 87% and its varied
skills base from which even the most advanced nations are tapping into. Through many

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tricks especially after the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Western countries have not
rested in trying to spark a civil war in Zimbabwe which they will use as a pretext to
directly interfere in the politics of this nation. Thatchell the infamous homosexual has
been quoted as saying that he is not only organizing but sponsoring a group consisting of
personnel in Zimbabwes’ armed forces and in the diaspora to militarily bring about an
end to the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation And even much
earlier the Heritage Foundation a USA right wing organization are trying and had tried to
use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the Zimbabwean armed forces . On the
whole the people of this nation have refused to be used in this very destructive and
dangerous way and have democratically expressed their wishes at the polls. The people of
this nation save those who pipe and beat the drum of this nation’s enemies remain
resolutely united in the face of an unprecedented onslaught from Europe and the USA. .

3.5 NATIONAL SYMBOLS.

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were the rallying
point of the nation. Authored by Professor Mutsvairo, it describes and narrates in a few
words our origins, history, beliefs and aspirations.

The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms they are the
official and visible tokens of the state and its authority and existence. The flag is also a
product of the war of liberation. The red star represents our socialist ideals and the
Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to our distant origins and prowess as a people and
nation in antiquity among the great civilizations of the world. The white background on
which the above two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and tranquility
within and without. The red stripes symbolize the blood of the heroes who died liberating
the country, yellow our mineral resources, green our flora and fauna and black the
indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent upon every Zimbabwean and
any foreigner on our soil to acknowledge our statehood by standing at attention when the
flag is lowered where ever and what ever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a
religious act as some over zealous and misguided so called Christians think. Kneeling or
bowing down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why Shadrech and
his other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian writing is standing
erect an act of worship or homage. It would be only right and fair to refuse to kneel to
the flag for every Christian. It is only right and fair for every Christian to stand erect in
recognition not homage of those who rule them.

The Great Zimbabwe monument.

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Located near Masvingo town , it represents unparalleled architectural design and
construction and stands as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed Africans of
possessing no scientific psychological make up or achievements or capability. It was used
as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls.

A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few rivals if any and
has water plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and mist from which its more
appropriate Tonga names is derived from –mosi a-tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the
nation’s prime tourist resort attraction.

3.6 Activities
· Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage

· Critically analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society

UNIT 4

CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES

4.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

· Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

· Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world.

4.2 Disasters

As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated with it and at

the same time what appears to be natural disasters have also increased. Management
of these disasters has become a major science and the role of each citizen in disasters
has become an imperative. Major disasters can be listed as,

-disease pandemics eg. AIDS, SARS and Ebola

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-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or broken dam
walls

-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear
contamination,etc

-Earthquakes.

Þ Disease management is first and foremost an individual responsibility. Correct

dietary and sexual habits are the first front line. Each individual is a national
resource and eating junk food or recklessly imbibing in drugs or alcohol destroys
that line as much as taking irresponsible and immoral sexual behavior like sex
before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious diseases, each
individual should take note and report any suspected infections and quarantine
self or the affected victim.

Þ Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to rally behind
those affected by donating food and clothes and shelter. It is also necessary to
avoid flood and quake prone areas and to take heed to quake or flood warning.

Þ Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social responsibility to

minimize the risks. There is no such thing as safe technology. The issue at stake is
risk minimization and management.

Þ Droughts have always been there before the white man’s agriculture and
especially exotic crops such as maize. Despite droughts, Africa was not found
unpopulated as a result. A banana plant does not grow in Gokwe as naturally as it
does in Rusitu valley in as much as maize thrives in Peru but is prone to drought
in Zimbawe. Maize is a stock feed that grows well in its homeland in South
America but is prone to drought in Zimbabwe. On the other hand small grains
thrive in Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for humans. The paradigm shift in
our dietary habits will go a long way towards national food self sufficiency
because eventually sooner rather than latter even irrigated crops will fail when
there is no flow in the dams. There is no other credible long lasting solution to
drought at the family or national level than reverting to the small grains.

Þ :In defense of the Nation

Þ All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each citizen’s ability
to identify with his nation by being able to distinguish between party political
issues and national issues. Sovereignty, land and defending the nation are not

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 party political issues but national issues to which every real Zimbabwean must
stand up in defense.

4.3 Patriotism

· Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called upon to do so
by the authorities in power or individually when the situation so demands like in
the case of unilateral superpower attack.

· Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation’s greatest and most
potent enemy today is the one amongst us who agrees to spread falsehoods about
the nation’s politics and economy. Other than the dissident menace, Zimbabwe has
been the most peaceful nation at par with countries like Botswana and Namibia.

· Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

· Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering, pollution etc.

· Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime, corruption,
greed and harmful behavior such as premarital sex, drug abuse etc..

· Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

· Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of differences
in approaches.

4.4 ACTIVITIES

· Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

· Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world

UNIT 5

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

5.1Objectives

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

· Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

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 · Explain how the government solved the problems that it faced at and after
independence

5.2 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

· Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a hundred years of
colonial rule.

· Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a small white
section of the population.

· Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

· Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national
economy and agricultural production.

· Deal with unfavourable terms of trade.

· Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.

· Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against major
international currencies

· Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and profiteering.

· Falling commodity prices in the international market.

· Dis investment due to a more vigorous indegenisaion economic approach.

· Political interference in the nation’s politics through the sponsoring and creation of
opposition parties with a foreign agenda..

· The brain drain

· Corruption

· Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

5.3 HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

· Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from abroad and
construction of dams and also creating grain strategic reserves seeds packs given to
peasants to help them recover from droughts. Of major importance has been the
redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the congested rural areas and settling
people in areas with fertile soils and high rainfall.

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· The Ministry of Employment Creation and indegenisation have gone some way in
creating employment.

· Externally originated and driven economic policies have been abandoned in favour of
home grown solutions

· Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked gradually
restoring sanity to the financial sector.

· ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been redirected to the
East Asian economies to encourage investment and cooperation.

· SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to encourage an
increase in international trade.

· However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

· Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate spiraling costs..

· Indigenisation, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, the Land bank land

redistribution etc have all gone a long way towards alleviating the unemployment
problem.

· A new monetary policy together with an anticorruption drive has seen inflation
decreasing slowly but gradually.

· Reawakening of the peoples’ moral values and their culture as a solution to

decreasing and ultimately wiping out STDs and AIDS infection.

5.4 Activities

· Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

· Explain how the government has solved the problems that it faced at and after
independence

UNIT 6

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

6.0 OBJECTIVES

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By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o Discuss the Constitutional provisions of Zimbabwe
o Analyse the rights and freedoms as enshrined in the constitution

6.1 LAW

6.1.1 Definition
Can be generally defined as;
a) ‘rules of behavior enforced by society’
b) “a body of established norms for the good governance of society’
Austin defines law as,
c) “ a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign individual
and /or body, to a member or members of some independent political
society in which his authority is supreme”.
Salmond defines law as,
d) “ consisting of principles which are recognized and enforced by the courts
in the administration of justice.”
Vinshisky (a one time attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth century) defines
law as;
e) “rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to protect
their interests.”
The major elements in Austin’s definition are:
1) “ the command of a sovereign’. This suggests use of force and the right to
command.
2) The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements as justice,
consistence and uniform application. In this present day and age law is
looked at as the balance and union between might and rightness or justice
and legitimacy. The definition also excludes the law enforcement aspect –
the courts.
Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and “recognition’
and in typical English legal tradition leaves room and gives a free hand to the
judge to determine what is a recognized principle and what is not. Moreover, this
definition does not deal with the element of legitimacy assuming that English
political authority is right and legitimate always and everywhere and in one
statement legitimating such evils as colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “ something that can be applied over a large range of
cases resembling one another in their most essential features” and the result or
outcome is invariably the same.

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 Vinshisky ‘s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and explains the
origins; purposes and justification of such laws as the Hut tax the Land
apportionment act and the Land Tenure act in pre-independent Zimbabwe. It also
explains the current laws being made to reverse the very same laws e.g. the Land
acquisition Act, POSA and AIPPA. Everywhere even in Britain law is not made in
pursuit of that elusive thing called justice but for the protection of the interests of
those in power. To a large extent this is a Marxist definition and is precise in so far
as it is realistic and not idealistic. No law is just per se’. All law is premised on
maintaining the status quo and the advantages - political and economic- of those in
authority or of the ruling class.

6.1.2 Purpose of Law;

· Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests of those
making the law.

· Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and order,

predictability, stability and peace.

6.1.3 The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term ‘society’ or community suggests norms or

behavioral patterns in the society. Behavior patterns become social customs with
the passage of time, usage, and acceptance. Social customs attract social sanctions
if and when violated e.g. Labeling such as uri nzenza or ostracism etc. Social
custom evolves into legal custom once they are enforced and accepted in the law
courts e.g.. van Breda and Others vs. Jacobs.

6.1.4 Natural law or lex Naturalis and the origins of law.

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical principle ‘ do unto
others as you would want them to do unto you’. Evolutionists suppose that man
had to escape from a state of nature that is lawless society. In such a society each
member of society does as he pleases and is a law to himself and does not value
nor does he respect the welfare of others. Thomas Hobbes views law as an
authoritarian command, which should be legitimated by its consistence or
compliance to natural law that is one gives as much as he is willing to receive.
One enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of staying in his house because he in turn
does not threaten the undisturbed enjoyment of other people’s homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural law.
Lawmakers are therefore bound by natural law and it flows naturally from right
reason. Natural law is seen as the moral basis and norm for legislators and
governments. The state is thus a product of men or members of society contracting
to appoint a single body or will to bear or represent all of them. Members of

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 society therefore enter into a social contract, which is characterized by a mutual
transfer of rights. Lex naturalis proscribes man from doing that which is
destructive of his life or taking away the means of preserving his life. Man in a
state of nature has the right to everything and is governed by his own reason and
can do anything to anyone to further his interests. Thus man should be willing if
and when others are willing and in so far as his security and peace are assured as
he sees it, waive his right to every thing and be satisfied with as much liberty
against others as s he receives from others. Every member of society should
therefore surrender as much in terms of rights as the other person is prepared or
willing to surrender. This alludes to the entering of a social contract by people
whose desire is to escape from a state of nature. All modern law is presumed to be
based on natural law.

6.1.5 The origins of law /Sources of law

· Persuasive sources of law

These are references, which the law courts resort to in order to tilt the
balance for or against a decision or controversial point of law. These
are; a) social custom, b). Legal literature by jurists, c) Judicial
precedent specifically Obiter Dicta or that part of a judges decision in a
novel case which are side statements and not the actual principle.

· Binding sources of law

These are references, which are followed in determining what is legal, or
are not. It consists of legal principles in the following forms;
a) Legal custom; Social custom that can be enforced in the law courts
b) Judicial precedent/common law; the legal principles established each
time a new case or situation comes before a judge. It is based on
ratio decided, that is the legal basis on which a decision is reached.
c) Legislation; this refers to law made by the legislature or parliament
and is termed statutory law or acts of parliament. Parliament
delegates its authority to make law to such bodies as municipalities
and the law they make is termed delegated legislation that is,
statutory instruments or by laws. Where there is a conflict between
the various laws, the statutory law position takes precedence and
nullifies any other position.

6.1.6 Principles / characteristics of legislated law

All law, to be valid, should be seen to possess the following elements;

i) Doctrine of impartiality;

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 a) Equality -there should be seen to be equality in the application of
law among citizens.
b) Uniformity - there should be spatial uniformity in the application of
law.
c) Just application- law should be seen to be morally right.

ii) Authority;
a) Separation of powers – the legislature, judiciary and the executive
should be separated to ensure counterbalancing and counterchecking
the exercise of the powers of state.
b) Doctrine of ultra and intra virus- all law should be made within
the confines of the law i.e. in consistence to/with the constitution.
iii) Certainty;
– The law should not be retroactive or ex-post-factor

6.1.7 Divisions/classification of law

LAW

National Law International Law

Criminal Law
Private
International
Admin Law Law
Public
International
Constitutional Law Law
Law of treaties

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 Civil Private Law
Law of sea
Commercial Law
Company Law

Family Law
Industrial Law

Labour Law
National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of citizens of
and within a specific country and it is further subdivided into three specializations. These
three distinctions are not based on the type of act/omission but on the legal action that
follow.

Criminal law is where criminal proceedings are instituted against a person for committing
a crime that is an act or omission that attracts sanctions – fines or imprisonment or both.
The parties in criminal proceedings are; the State vs. the defendant or the accused. The
outcome is guilty or not guilty.

Civil law is where civil proceedings are instituted or where an individual sues another
individual in a legal suite. The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff or complainant
(the one suing) and the defendant (the one being sued). The result of or sentence of the
proceedings is commission of a wrong or no commission. The sentence can be damages,
compensation, restitution or performance.

Administrative law is the law that relates to the operations and functions of formal
institutions in so far as their relations with the state and their employees is concerned.

International law is the law that regulates relations between states and is based on
conventions, custom, treaties and bi-lateral and multilateral agreements. It differs from
national law in that where as national law has a law-enforcing agency to back it in the
form of the army and police and prisons, international law has none of these law-
enforcing agencies and relies on the goodwill of states, which in many instances is
lacking. International law can be private international law or public international law. The
former deals with disputes between citizens of two different countries and these are
mostly trade disputes. Public international law is the law that relates to disputes between
states and these are normally issues relating to boundaries, war, or natural resources
access. International law is the law that governs the behavior of states and to a growing
extent the behavior of nationals within states e.g. War crimes, crimes against humanity
and terrorism.

6.1.8 Substantive and adjectival law

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 This classifications cut across all the above categories.
Adjectival law can be defined as the law that relates to the enforcement of rights
and duties liberties and powers specifically the law of procedure and evidence for
an example civil and criminal pleadings. In civil procedure the plaintiff’s claim is
termed the declaration and the defendant’s response is termed a traverse
(countercheck quarrelsome according to Dickens).

Substantive law is that law that lays down the peoples’ rights, duties, liberties and powers
e.g. the constitution or an act of parliament.

6.1.9 The Constitution

Most nations have a written constitution as the supreme law of the country. The
United kingdom stands out as the odd case that has no one clear document written
and termed a constitution. The UK has precedent, custom as well as separate
pieces of documents that all add up to what may be interpreted as a constitution. A
constitution is the body of rules and regulations that sets out the authority of those
in power or and the extent and limits of the exercise of executive power. It also
sets out the rights and duties of the citizen. These two aspects are contained in the
doctrine of the separation of powers and the doctrine of intra-vires and ultra- vires.

6.2.11 THE LANCASTER AGREEMENT OF 1979

After fighting a successful protracted war of liberation, The First Chimurenga

war, the settler colonialists and Britain succumbed to the reality of defeat and had
to negotiate for peace and unlike the previous occasions where peace talks were
unsuccessful, it was imperative that a solution had to be found to the war of
liberation in Zimbabwe if the settler community and British interests were to be
safeguarded. The Frontline states were also a major factor in the search for peace
at the conference in that there were clear signs of war weariness on their part. This
scenario was ideal for the settlers in that there was every chance of as they saw it
of getting into power I they or their stages the DNC were to get into power. The
major problems provisions of the agreement were as follows:

2.2 The Separation of Powers

The state has three arms whose functions are separate and these are;
Government/Executive
Judiciary
Legislature

The State is that intangible aspect of every nation that can be defined as the authority
and identity conferred by a people within a country to themselves and for which there

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is a force in the form of an army to defend that authority. A state does not change or
vanish unless territory is annexed by another state through conquest or agreement or
the population becomes non existent and the territory becomes uninhabited that is
terra nullius. Sovereignty is therefore not conferred on a nation but it is claimed by
each individual nation people and asserted through the exercise of executive powers
and the ability to enter into diplomatic intercourse with other nations.

A Nation is the peoples within a geographical entity called a country whose

aspirations, interests shall so decide the shaping of their destiny.

A Country is geographical space marked by natural or man-made boundaries.

6.1.10 The doctrine of separation of powers.

The three arms of state are supposed to act as checks and balances on each other
so that there is no abuse of power by anyone aspect or arm of state. This ensures
that the judiciary is impartial and does not make any law. The legislature is the
supreme law making body and has no restricted competency and can change or
amend the constitution.

6.1.10.1 Ultra-vires and intra-vires doctrine

Parliament can only make law that does not violate provisions of the
constitution and the executive or government must exercise its authority as
provided for in the constitution. When the executive or parliament acts
within their powers they are acting intra-vires when they act outside their
powers as provided for by or in the constitution, they are acting ultra vires
and there is therefore no rule of law. When parliament makes law they act
intra-vires the constitution there is therefore the rule of law. Any influence
by foreign or illegitimate forces in relation to constitutional uses, were
national interests are concerned; the wish of the state thru the national force
(people) shall take precedents in the interests of sovereignty.

6.1.11 Public order

Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every individual is able
to exercise his/her constitutional rights without infringing or interfering
with the rights of others or endangering state security and national
sovereignty by championing blatantly clear foreign interests that seek to
reverse the gains of independence and self rule and by so doing
compromising state national sovereignty. Democracy is therefore a
qualified and subjective term that does not give license to any individual or
group or political party the right to exploit situational hurdles in the history
of Zimbabwe to compromise national sovereignty and the ethos of the
preservation of freedom. If and when that happens, the custodian of the

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 nation, the army and every patriotic Zimbabwean, should by all means
available, defend the nation and democratic rights can and should be
suspended until such a time as these are compatible with our historical
aspirations. Public order therefore entails the capability of self-censorship
with respect to the exercise of individual constitutional rights especially the
rights of expression, speech, assembly and association. In the latter case,
the constitution cannot be read to mean that belonging or associating with a
subversive organization or unpatriotic party or ill association whose
interests are to destabilize peace, order and security is a right guaranteed by
the constitution.
6.1.12 ACTIVITIES
o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o Analyse the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe

UNIT 7
Democracy and Governance.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

· Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity,
exclusivity
· Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
· SADC election guidelines
· Discuss - Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

INTRODUCTION

Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its main tenet was

its attempt to bring about an inclusive rather than an exclusive form of
governance that is typical of the monarch or king. A monarch has its merits
and demerits and so does democracy.
The traditional Zimbabwean system of governance while having its
shortcomings was nevertheless superior to both the former aristocratic
European system of governance and the present form of democracy as
championed by the West especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the U.K.
Demo means people and cracy means rule. Democracy means people rule.
Democracy as a system of governance is not established through elections
only. In the traditional Shona system of governance “ushe hwaive
madzoro” first and foremost, that is there was no permanent ruling class or
family as in the present American and European systems where the super

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 rich and well connected and acceptable few in terms of race and ideology
qualify to rule that is the rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese, Hispanics and
especially blacks are excluded from the presidency on no other grounds
other than that that they are from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the kings
“dare” and this system of inclusion permeated the whole structure from top
to bottom and it was reflected in the family governance where the family
was not run by the father tyrannically but involved and to a large extent
today does involve the mother the children who have come of age and the
check and balance of the extended family “vana tete nana babamunini”.

7.2 WHAT IS GOVERNANCE?

The term “governance” refers to the process of decision-making and the ways in
which decisions are implemented (or not). In any given system, the executive (
government) is the major actor, but others like the Judiciary and the Legislature
can influence the process. Non-state actors, such as religious or tribal leaders,
civil society, major landowners, trade unions, financial institutions, and
community based groups can play important roles. The following characterise a
good system of governance:
• Participatory—encouraging wide citizen participation
in decision-making;
• Consensus-orientated—attempting to reach decisions
based on widespread agreement;
• Transparent—being open to scrutiny in decision making
processes;
• Responsive—listening and responding to the needs
of its citizens;
• effective and efficient—providing basic services; and
• equitable and inclusive—not excluding sectors of
the population, especially those that are more
vulnerable or marginalised.

There are many multi- and bilateral institutions that are concerned with promoting
what they have termed “good governance” in post conflict and developing
countries. Each of these institutions defines good governance slightly differently
and has developed its own indicators by which it measures and evaluates
progress toward good governance. The World Bank, for instance, has identified
six indicators of good governance “to help countries identify areas of weakness
so that capacity building and assistance strategies are more effective.” The
indicators are:
• voice and accountability;

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• political stability and lack of violence;
• government effectiveness;
• regulatory quality;
• rule of law; and
• control of corruption.
Democracy and Governance
Political leaders’ visions they promote and the systems and values they bring to
governing a country play a pivotal role in fostering peace and development,
promoting oppression or the resurgence of conflict. Since so much is at stake,
during peace negotiations there is often great competition for power and the
prospect of controlling a government. For countries that have little or no
experience with democratic governance, the challenges are immense. But the
post conflict environment does provide an opportunity for countries to create new
structures of government and systems of “good governance.” In situations where
the international community has taken on state-building, its institutions assume
some responsibility for issues related to democracy and governance. It is also a
time of opportunity for women. In particular, Zimbabwe has been effective at
using quotas and reserved seats to “ensure the presence and participation of
women in justice, governance, private sector and civil society .For example; we
have a lady Vice President, Mrs Joice Mujuru. International actors consider “good
governance” to be a key for building sustainable peace and long-term
development. Progress toward good governance is increasingly used as a
requisite for the provision of aid. Despite the variations in definitions and
indicators of good governance, most institutions agree that good governance
typically includes efforts at democratization and decentralisation, the introduction
of free and fair elections, participatory politics, the creation of an
independent civil society, guarantee of a free and independent press and
respect for the rule of law. Each of these topics, among others, is discussed
below.

7.3 WHAT ARE THE KEY COMPONENTS

OF “GOOD GOVERNANCE”?

In countries involved in peace processes, questions relating to governance often

consume a significant portion of the discussions; typically demands for
democratisation, including elections and timeframes for transition, are addressed.
Other related elements include discussions surrounding the nature of political
participation, electoral systems, issues of transparency and separation of
powers, as discussed below.

7.4 DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people
(the population) and exercised through representatives chosen in free and

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fair elections. But a democracy does not just mean that “the majority rules.” A
democracy also includes and protects the human rights of minorities and
respects multiple or “plural” views and opinions. In a democracy people have
rights as citizens, but they also have responsibilities to participate in the
governance system. There are many versions of democracies around the
world (e.g. electoral, consultative) and ongoing debates about the extent to which
“one size fits all” with regard to democracy. The process a country
goes through in attempting to become more democratic is referred to as
democratisation. In order for a country to be truly democratic, all of its
citizens—men and women—must be empowered to participate fully in the
governance process (as citizens, voters, advocates, civil servants, judges,
elected officials, etc.).

7.5 FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

An election is the procedure by which citizens of a country choose their

representatives and leaders and assign authority. Elections must be held
regularly so that elected officials remain accountable to the
population; if they do not uphold their responsibilities to the electorate, they can
be voted out of office in the next election. Elections must be
held within a period of time that is prescribed in the constitution, or fundamental
law. For an election to be truly democratic, it must be:
• universal—All citizens of a country must have the right to vote and to be
elected, without discrimination based on sex, race, language, religion or political
affiliation. In Zimbabwe as elsewhere in the world there is no discrimination in
voting processes.
• equal—The value of each vote must be the same.
• secret—The balloting must be private so that citizens can participate without
being afraid; only the voter must know for whom she or he votes.
• direct—The voters must be able to choose their own leaders without an
intermediary.
• wide choice—The voters must have the opportunity to choose from among
several available candidates.

7.6 DECENTRALISATION
An increasingly important component of democratisation in many parts of the
world is decentralisation. Decentralisation is the process of transferring
authority and responsibility from the central government to provincial and local
levels. Countries pursue decentralisation for a variety of reasons, including a
desire to make the government more receptive and accountable to the needs of
its population and/or to respond to pressure from donors to “downsize” central
government budgets. Decentralisation is based upon the notion that

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various levels of the government have different expertise and abilities to address
problems. For example, national defence and monetary policy are clearly best
set at the national level, but policies concerning schools, local police protection
and some public services are often better determined at the local level with
community input. Critics of decentralisation, however, charge that it weakens
parts of the state that, for the sake of peace building and human security, need to
be strengthened. There are three types of decentralisation: political,
administrative and fiscal. Political decentralization involves the election of local-
level leaders. Administrative decentralisation occurs when some of the
government’s decision-making is managed at the local level. And fiscal
decentralisation refers to the national government sharing budgetary
responsibility for collecting revenues and making expenditures with local
government representatives. Decentralisation processes often include local-level
elections.

7.7 PARTICIPATORY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

The concept of “participatory politics” refers to the involvement of all citizens in

politics and policymaking. This requires a relationship between the government
and society in which the participation of citizens and a plurality of views are
encouraged. This can be supported by strengthening political parties;
encouraging the participation of marginalised groups, such as women and youth;
and by strengthening civil society (described below). The right to convene and
articulate political views is a key principle of good governance and
democratisation. Political parties are one of the cornerstones of a democratic
political system. Parties are critical because they provide a structure for
political participation for people with similar beliefs and interests. By joining
together, individuals, who would otherwise not be influential, can make their
voices heard in the political process through their support of a political party.
Political parties also provide leaders with a space in which to learn the
skills needed for governing a society. A democracy must have more than one
major, viable party so that a single group does not dominate the government
and voters have a choice. This principle is called multipartyism. Membership in
political parties must be voluntary. It can be difficult for women to achieve
leadership positions within political parties and to be selected as candidates
because, in many countries, parties operate or govern themselves without written
party rules or transparent procedures. Such lack of openness allows patronage
systems and “old boys’ networks” to flourish, effectively excluding women from
decision-making positions and candidate lists. In some countries, political parties
have adopted internal quotas for women’s participation to ensure that they
always put forward a certain number of women’s candidates. In Zimbabwe as in
Argentina, Botswana and France, among others, all political parties encourage
participation of women in politics. For example, the political parties in Zimbabwe

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have Women’s Leagues in their structures and both the major political parties in
Zimbabwe have ladies as their Vice Presidents. An important advocacy strategy
for women is to work with political parties to make sure that the party platform,
the formal declaration of the principles and positions that the party supports,
describes its positions on issues important to women.

7.8 ACTIVITIES

· Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity,

exclusivity
· Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
· SADC election guidelines
· Discuss - Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

UNIT 8

The Constitution of Zimbabwe

8.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

· Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
· State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
· Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic
Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and local
government

The constitution is the supreme law in Zimbabwe. No law is above the

constitution of the republic of Zimbabwe in determining what is legal and
what is illegal in Zimbabwe. This law (constitution) is drawn and revised to
protect and safeguard the interests of the citizens of this country. Some
countries especially the European nations and the U.S.A. want to introduce
laws that they term international norms or laws acceptable in international
law.

This is in a way an attempt to change the laws of other countries in such a way as
to have their interests protected. The majority of these laws are designed to
protect subversive or perverted elements within other societies or nations for an

PAGE 66
 example perverts (Gays and lesbians) or puppet political and economic groups
within smaller nations for an example secessionist and tribal minorities.

8.2 The constitutional Provisions

· Republican Destiny
The constitution of Zimbabwe begins with the declaration that Zimbabwe is
a sovereign state and so shall decide its destiny. The republican destiny is
outlined in conjunction with national interests as represented by the public
seal which shall be kept by the president as the head of state and whose
authority protects national interests and aspirations.
· Citizenship

- Can be by birth, except if the parents have diplomatic immunity, are

not citizens, or the parents are enemy aliens or an illegal residents
- Can be by descent that is he is born outside the country but his
parents are or were Zimbabwean citizens.
- Can be by registration that is by application to the minister of Home
affairs.
Dual citizenship.

No person having other citizenship can be a Zimbabwean citizen unless

he/she renounces that other citizenship. In many precedents law tends to
favour descent than any other citizenship status on enjoyment of privileges.

· Declaration of rights
Every citizen irrespective of color race religion etc. is entitled to the basic
and fundamental rights of the individual provided that when enjoying such
rights or freedoms he/she does not infringe on the peaceable enjoyment of
the rights of others or does not endanger the public interest that is state
security and public order. Such freedoms are as follows:

a) The right to life except where the state is duly carrying out a death
sentence, or where there is need to defend property or in repelling violence,
or effecting lawful arrest or preventing someone from escaping from lawful
custody, or in suppressing a riot, insurrection and unlawful gathering, or in
preventing the commission of a crime or if the cause of death is a lawful act
of war.

b) Right to Personal liberty

Such a right can be exercised by any citizen excerpt where; the person is
sentenced to a prison term by a court of law for a criminal offence or for
contempt of a court of law or in a civil suit or where a parent or guardian so
requests the court for the welfare or education of an individual between 21

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 and 23 years old or in order to prevent the spread of a disease or if the
person is of an unsound mind, is a drug addict an alcoholic or is an illegal
immigrant or subject of an extradition process.

Any person so detained is entitled to legal representation and should be

charged within a reasonable period and where a person is unlawful detained
the detainee is entitled to compensation from that person or authority
detaining him/her.

c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

Excerpt where such labour is in compliance with a court sentence or is
necessary for hygiene and the maintenance of the places of lawful detention
or is a requirement by a parent for purposes of parental discipline or labour
required by virtue of belonging to a uniformed service or required of any
citizen during an emergency.

d) Protection from inhuman treatment;

Such as torture or other degrading punishment. Where as reasonable force
or corporal punishment is acceptable in effecting an arrest or for a parent or
anyone in loco parentis over a person eighteen years and below and under
his custody.

e) Protection From deprivation of property

Every Zimbabwean citizen shall not be compulsorily deprived of

his/her property or right therein excerpt;
When legally required by law in the case of land for the utilization of such
land for purposes of agricultural settlement or other use or for land
reorganization such as forestry and game parks or for purposes of relocation
of persons affected in the former cases, or for purposes of public defense,
public order and safety, morality, health, town and country planning, or for
any other public good.

Where such land is thus acquired it will be done according to the law in
force at that time allowing for reasonable notice and fair compensation.

f) PROTECTION from arbitrary search and entry of the person or his

property
Except where the person so searching is parent, or for purposes of the
defense and security of the state, public health, morality or town and
country planning or in the enforcement of the law where there are
reasonable grounds of suspicion of the existence of a crime.

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 g) Provision to secure protection of the law
All citizens are entitled to the protection of the law. Where a person is
charged with a criminal offence that person should; be brought before an
independent and impartial court within reasonable time, is innocent until
proved otherwise, is entitled to legal representation and to defend and cross
examine witnesses and no person is guilty of an offense post facto.

h) Protection of freedom of conscience

Every citizen except for minors or with his/her own consent has a
right to freedom of thought, religion (belonging or changing),
freedom to individually or severally in public or private to
propagate/ manifest his/her religion through worship teaching
practice and observance. No person attending an educational
institution shall be compelled to receive religious instruction
contrary to his/ her religion, unless in the
interest of group discipline.
Any community is entitled to provide religious instruction to its members at
its educational institutions. Provisions on guardianship powers may limit
freedom of conscience.
i) Protection of freedom of expression
Every citizen save for minors or with one’s own consent is entitled to hold
his her own opinions on any issue and receive and impart such opinions or
information without interference Excerpt where, The law makes provisions
for the sake of the defense of the nation, public safety and order, economic
interests of the state, public morality and public health to;
Protect reputations privacy, and rights of others, Maintain confidentiality,
protect parliament, the courts and tribunals, and regulate technical aspects
of telecommunications and the electronic media and preventing any
unlawful communication. Freedom of expression is exercised within the
parameters of justification, fair comment and qualified or absolute
privilege.

J) Protection of freedom of assembly and association

With the excerption of minors or through his own consent every citizen is
entitled to assemble and associate and belong to or not to be compelled to
assemble or associate with any group, political party, union for purposes of protecting
and propagating his/her interests. Excerpt where the law makes provisions for the
sake of public order, safety morality, health, security and defense and the regulation of
companies or other business enterprises. The associations whose interests are known to

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comprise security and order shall be diffused under the prohibition from commitment of
crime.

k) Protection from discrimination on the grounds of;

Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, political affiliation, place of origin tribe,
etc. No law or practice shall be deemed lawful if it violates this provision
excerpt in the cases of adoption, marriage divorce, burial devolution of
property or any matter pertaining to personal law or relating to immigration
status, qualifications for purposes of employment not relating to any of the
above.

l) Enforcement of rights
Where an individual feels that his her rights are violated the said person
shall appeal to the supreme court which alone has the prerogative to hear
and deliberate on all matters relating to the constitutional provisions on the
fundamental freedoms.
· The Executive
Executive Powers and Authority
The Executive Authority of the Inclusive Government shall vest in, and be
shared among the President, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, as provided
for in the Constitution and legislation.
The President of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to
the Constitution and the law.
The Prime Minister of the Republic shall exercise executive authority
subject to the Constitution and the law.
The Cabinet of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to
the Constitution and the law.
In the exercise of executive authority, the President, Vice Presidents, the
Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers
must have regard to the principles and spirit underlying the formation of the
Inclusive Government and accordingly act in a manner that seeks to
promote cohesion both inside and outside government.
· The Cabinet
(a) shall have the responsibility to evaluate and adopt all government
policies and the consequential programmes;
(b) shall, subject to approval by Parliament, allocate the financial resources
for the implementation of such policies and programmes;

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 (c) shall have the responsibility to prepare and present to Parliament, all
such legislation and other instruments as may be necessary to implement the
policies and programmes of the National Executive;
(d) shall, except where the Constitution requires ratification by Parliament,
or action by the President, approve all international agreements;
(e) shall ensure that the state organs, including the Ministries and
Departments, have sufficient financial and other resources and appropriate
operational capacity to carry out their functions effectively; and
(f) shall take decisions by consensus, and take collective responsibility for
all Cabinet decisions, including those originally initiated individually by any
member of Cabinet.
(g) The President and the Prime Minister will agree on the allocation of
Ministries between them for the purpose of day-to-day supervision.
· The President
(a) chairs Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall exercise his/her powers subject to the provisions of the
Constitution;
(d) can, subject to the Constitution, declare war and make peace;
(e) can, subject to the Constitution, proclaim and terminate martial law;
(f) confers honours and precedence, on the advice of Cabinet;
(g) grants pardons, respites, substitutes less severe punishment and
suspends or remits sentences, on the advice of Cabinet;
(h) chairs the National Security Council;
(i) formally appoints the Vice Presidents;
(j) shall, pursuant to this Agreement, appoint the Prime Minister
pending the enactment of the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment
no.19 as agreed by the Parties;
(k) formally appoints Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers and Deputy
Ministers in accordance with this agreement;

PAGE 71
 (l) after consultation with the Vice Presidents, the Prime Minister and
the Deputy Prime Ministers, allocates Ministerial portfolios in accordance
with this Agreement;
(m) accredits, receives and recognizes diplomatic agents and consular
officers;
(n) appoints independent Constitutional Commissions in terms of the
Constitution;
(o) appoints service/executive Commissions in terms of the Constitution
and in consultation with the Prime Minister;
(p) in consultation with the Prime Minister, makes key appointments the
President is required to make under and in terms of the Constitution or any Act
of Parliament;
(q) may, acting in consultation with the Prime Minister, dissolve
Parliament;
(r) must be kept fully informed by the Prime Minister on the general
conduct of the government business and;
(s) shall be furnished with such information as he/she may request in
respect of any particular matter relating to the government, and may
advise the Prime Minister and Cabinet in this regard.
· The Prime Minister
(a) chairs the Council of Ministers and is the Deputy Chairperson of
Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall oversee the formulation of government policies by the
Cabinet;
(d) shall ensure that the policies so formulated ar€ implemented by the
entirety of government;
(e) shall ensure that the Ministers develop appropriate implementation
plans to give effect to the policies decided by Cabinet: in this regard,
the Ministers will report to the Prime Minister on all issues relating to the
implementation of such policies and plans;
(f) shall ensure that the legislation necessary to enable the government
to carry out its functions is in place: in this regard, he/she shall have the"

PAGE 72
responsibility to discharge the functions of the Leader of Government Business
in Parliament;
(g) shall be a member of the National Security Council;
(h) may be assigned such additional functions as are necessary
further to enhance the work of the Inclusive Government;
(i) shall, to ensure the effective execution of these tasks, be assisted
by Deputy Prime Ministers; and
(j) shall report regularly to the President and Parliament.
· Council of Ministers
To ensure that the Prime Minister properly discharges his
responsibility to oversee the implementation of the work of
government, there shall be a Council of Ministers consisting of all the
Cabinet Ministers, chaired by the Prime Minister, whose functions shall be:
(a) to assess the implementation of Cabinet decisions;
(b) to assist the Prime Minister to attend to matters of coordination in
the government;
(c) to enable the Prime Minister to receive briefings from the Cabinet
Committees;
(d) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters of implementation of
Cabinet decisions;
(e) to receive and consider reports from the Committee responsible for
the periodic review mechanism; and
(f) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters related to the
periodic review mechanism.
· Composition of the Executive
(1) There shall be a President, which Office shall continue to be
occupied by President Robert Gabriel Mugabe.
(2) There shall be two (2) Vice Presidents, who will be nominated by the
President and/or Zanu PF.
(3) There shall be a Prime Minister, which Office shall be occupied by Mr
Morgan Tsvangirai.

PAGE 73
 (4) There shall be two (2) Deputy Prime Ministers, one (1) from MDC-
T and one (1) from the MDC-M.
(5) There shall be thirty-one (31) Ministers, with fifteen (15) nominated
by Zanu PF, thirteen (13) by MDC-T and three (3) by MDC-M. Of the 31
Ministers, three (3) one each appointed shall become members of the
House of Assembly and shall have the right to sit, speak and debate in
Parliament, but shall not be entitled to vote.
(6) There shall be fifteen (15) Deputy Ministers, with (eight) 8 nominated
by Zanu PF, six (6) by MDC-T and one (1) by MDC-M.
(7) Ministers and Deputy Ministers may be relieved of their duties only
after consultation among the leaders of all the political parties participating
in the Inclusive Government.
· Senate
(a) The President shall, in his discretion, appoint five (5) persons to the
existing positions of Presidential senatorial appointments.
(b) There shall be created an additional nine (9) appointed senatorial
posts, which shall be filled by persons appointed by the President, of
whom, 3 will be nominated by Zanu PF, 3 by MDC-T and 3 by MDC-M.
· Filling of vacancies
a) In the event of any vacancy arising in respect of council and
cabinet posts such vacancies shall be filled by a nominee of the Party
which held that position prior to the vacancy arising.
The executive arm of the state consists of the Head of State ,the president,
the Vice presidents,the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, the
Cabinet, the ministries or/and the civil service, the Security agencies that is,
the Zimbabwe Defense Forces, the Zimbabwe Republic Police, The Prison
Service, and the Central Intelligence Service.

a) The President

i) Is the head of state, is the executive head of government, and is the

commander in chief of the Defense Forces. Is the Pre- eminent
person in the Nation.

ii) Qualification.
Should be a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth, or descent, should be
forty years and above, is ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe.

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 (NB. To be read into the constitution although the document is silent
is that the presidential aspirant should espouse and uphold the
aspirations of the nation, derived from assertions leading to the war
of liberation in the preservation of freedom, independence and
national interests uphold Zimbabwe’s ENDURING POLITICAL
TRADITION as represented by the values of the War of liberation.)
Should hold no criminal record.
iii) Election.
Is an elected by voter on the common roll and within ninety days
before the expiry of the presidential term and in the case of death,
incapacity or impeachment the Vice president shall act as president
for ninety days during which period fresh elections should be held.
iv) Tenure (duration in office)
Shall be in office for six years and until the next person elected take
office
v) Removal from office
- Can leave office through resignation by letter to the speaker
of parliament.
- Can leave office on parliamentary recommendation following
a request of not less than a third of members of parliament
alleging willful violation of the constitution, or incapacity to
carry his duties/functions or gross misconduct and when two
thirds or more of members support the motion to impeach the
president.
vi) Functions of the President.
a) Has and exercises all executive authority of the state that is the
government of the country or the enforcement of law, the defense
of the nation translation of political policy into government
programs and their implementation by the civil service.
b) To uphold the constitution
c) To exercise the prerogatives of head of state that is: -
§ Enter into treaties and international agreements.
§ Proclaim and terminate martial law
§ To declare war and make peace.
§ To confer honors and precedence
§ Appoint and accredit diplomats
d) To act on advice of the cabinet excerpt on: -
§ Matters relating to dissolution of parliament
§ Appointment and removal of governors
§ Duties of the Vice presidents or any other person
appointed by the president.
e) To exercise the prerogative of mercy that is: -
§ Grant pardon to felons

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 § Declare a stay of execution of a felon
§ Vary/substitute prison terms
§ Suspend or remit a sentence
§ Declare public emergencies
§ Which shall be approved by parliament within fourteen
days failing which the declaration becomes void.
The declaration lasts for a specified period or for a period not
exceeding six months subject to any extension of such a period by
the president. The effect of such a declaration is to allow the
direction of funds to that emergency and where necessary the
suspension of civil liberties.

· The Public service

The constitution provides that a public service be established for the
administration of the country. This consists of all the ministries and
other institutions through which government implements its
programs.
Members of the Public service are appointed on merit and have
security of tenure, are not political appointees and at most are not
expected to engage in active politics.

The affairs of the Public service are managed by a commission,

which consists of a chairperson and not less than two and no not
more than seven members. The president appoints the members.

· The Attorney General

Is the principal legal adviser to government, holds a public office but
is not a part of the public service.
The president appoints him after consultations with the judicial
services commission. Only persons suitable for appointment as
judges are qualified to be A.Gs. The A.G. is an ex-officio member of
the cabinet and his main functions are to institute criminal
proceedings, and to prosecute or defend an appeal from all criminal
proceedings.
· The Police Force
The police force is provided for in the constitution with the specific
task of preserving the internal security in the country and the
maintenance of law and order.

A police commissioner appointed by the president heads the ZRP.

PAGE 76
 A Police commission headed by a chairperson who is the
Chairperson of the Public service commission manages the affairs of
the Police force.

· The Zimbabwe Defence forces

To defend the territorial integrity of the nation, the constitution

provides for the establishment of an army consisting of an Air force,
and an Army – ground troops and any other specializations deemed
necessary for the defence of the nation and provided for through an
act of parliament. The commander in chief of the defence forces
shall be the President.
The affairs of the army are managed by the defence forces
commission consisting of a chairperson (the Public service
chairperson) and not less than two and no more than seven other
members.

· The Prison service

Tasked with the responsibility of protecting society from criminals

by incarcerating them and rehabilitating and reintegrating them into society.
The prison service is headed by a Prison service commissioner and the
affairs of the service are managed by a Prison service commission headed
a chairperson (the head of the public service commission) and between
two and seven other members.

· The Intelligence service

Provided for by the constitution as part of the office the President with the specific
task of providing, through conventional and unconventional means, information of
any type necessary for the protection of the nation’s economic, political, social or
cultural and other interests. A Director General appointed by the President heads the
service.

· The Ombudsman

Holds public office but is not a member of the public service. He

is tasked with the responsibility of receiving any complaint
from members of the public on the function or lack of it of
member of the civil service.
· The Comptroller and Auditor General

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 Holds a public office but is not a member of the Public service. His/her
main functions are to examine or audit at least once a year all ministries or
persons or institutions entrusted with the receipt or the use of public funds,
that is, monies from the consolidated revenue fund. (C.R.F). The president
appoints him after consulting the Public service commission.

The C.R.F.

All monies collected for and on behalf of government as taxes, fees, fines,
profit etc. are deposited into the CRF and used or withdrawn from that
account as allocated funds under respective ministerial budgets excerpt
where the authority is allowed to retain the monies so collected and for use
to defray their expenses as provided for through an act of parliament.
The allocation shall be made through the Budget process in
Parliament as votes to Ministries and government departments.

· THE LEGISLATURE

Parliament has the supreme authority to make law in and for Zimbabwe. No law
made elsewhere is binding or legal unless Government accedes to or ratifies such
law through parliament. International law or other legal protocols are binding only
if and when parliament ratifies such directly or through an act of parliament.
Parliament can delegate it authority to make law to other bodies such as local
government authorities or parastatals.

The law making process in parliament

The process of making law in parliament is open to any member of society. Most
of the law ,however, comes in the form of bills or proposals from concerned
ministries and not as private members’ bills. The stages in the law making process
are as follows;
3.1.1 Proposals- anyone can make law proposals.
3.1.2 Expert/legal input- relevant ministry or and Attorney general’s office.
3.1.3 Presentation to the Cabinet Legal Committee
3.1.4 Presentation to the Government Gazette for publication to get public input
3.1.5 First reading – notification in parliament; no responses from MPs.
3.1.6 Second reading- responses from MPs.
3.1.7 Committee stage
3.1.8 Report stage – responses and inputs from MPs.
3.1.9 Third reading – responses from MPs and voting for or against the bill.

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 3.1.10 Presentation to the Senate
3.1.11 Presidential assent
3.1.12 Presentation to the Government Gazette(for promulgation).
At each stage of the readings, reference is made to the Parliamentary Legal
Committee, which shall consider inputs from MPs from a legal point of
view and produce adverse or non-adverse reports where necessary.
· Composition consists of: -
- The President
- One hundred fifty members of parliament elected appointed and nominated
as follows;
- 120 elected by voters on the common roll and representing 120
constituencies
- 8 provincial governors appointed by the president
- 10 chiefs elected according to the electoral law
- 12 members appointed by the president.
· Non-voting members of parliament
- The president
- Vice presidents and ministers if not members of parliament and the AG.
- The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer whose function is to facilitate the
process of legislation by ensuring that debate and voting and al other
procedures related to legislation are conducted in the manner prescribed by
the standing rules of the house. The speaker is elected from persons who
have been members of parliament before and his tenure of office lasts a full
parliamentary term unless he/she resigns or becomes a minister or vice
president while his/her term has not expired
Or becomes an MP.

· Administrative staff of parliament

- Secretary to Parliament
Appointed by the committee on standing rules and orders and is the pre-
eminent administrative officer of parliament. Holds a public office but is
not in the public service.
- Clerk to parliament

He is the chief administrative officer and holds a public office and

supervises all other supporting staff like clerks, stenographers
accountants etc.

- Sergeant at Arms
He holds a public office and is a member of the police force and ensures
that order is enforced in the legislative assembly.

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· Parliamentary Legal committee
The committee consisting of not less than three and is appointed by the
parliamentary committee on standing rules and orders at the beginning of each
parliamentary term. The members of the committee shall in the majority be legally
qualified.

· The functions of the committee: -

- Examine every bill other than constitutional bills
- Examine every statutory instrument.

· Tenure of Members of Parliament

Shall last the full term of parliament or until parliament is dissolved

Membership shall also laps: -

- If member dies before dissolution of parliament
- On resignation by letter to the speaker
- Is absent for twenty one consecutive sittings/days in one session of
parliament
- Ceases to be a member of his political party
- Becomes speaker or president or provincial governor or assumes any public
office.
- Is placed under a curator bonis
- Is mentally or physically unfit
- Is incarcerated for more than six months

· Parliamentary privilege and immunity

These are fixed through an act of parliament but broadly no member of parliament is
criminally or civilly liable in any act or utterance while performing his/her
parliamentary functions.

· Legislative function of MPs

By/through bills passed by parliament and assented to by the president within
twenty-one days of being passed by parliament
A bill becomes law if MPs present vote with a simple majority provided that
members present a re a quorum that is not less than twenty-five.

· Constitutional amendment
Parliament has the power to amend change or repeal the constitution through an
affirmative vote of not less than two thirds of members of parliament.

PAGE 80
· Parliamentary elections
Elections are held not more than four months after a dissolution of parliament or
as by election in the event that a seat becomes vacant. For elections to be held the
following shall be done as provided for in the constitution.

a) By election: conducted in the event of the death or resignation of a member

of parliament.
b) General election: conducted at prescribed times as laid out in the supreme
law of the country.

· Commissions

· Delimitation commission
- Is appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman – chief justice or other judge of the supreme or high
court and three other members
- Functions for five years.
- Functions shall be to determine the boundaries of the -constituencies taking
cognisance of such features as geography, ethnicity and communication etc.

· Electoral Supervisory commission

- Appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman and four other members –two appointed by the
president after consulting the judiciary service commission and two
after consulting the speaker.
- Functions are to supervise voter registration, and conduct/run elections.
- Consider proposed bill or other law relating to elections.

The constitution also provides for the formation of the Public Service
Commission, the Judiciary Commission, and the Police Commission etc.

Contemporary issues and New dimension in law

a) Rule of law – upholding of the law in a scenario where no one is above the law

b) Prerogative – discretional prerogatives have made law to be applied based on

certain trivial relative issues

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 c) Political willpower – those in power or those wielding the axe make the most
decisions and tailor-make law to protect their interests

d) Human rights – the emergence and definition of human rights has led to
commitment of crime and subsequent ignorance of the rule of law even when
certain behaviours become immoral e.g. the gays and lesbian case

e) Christian balance – as Christian values shape most legal frameworks, the same
have been used in negotiations although in many cases equality is not achieved
in Christian balances. The ‘coveter’ and the converted are two different entities.

8.3 ACTIVITIES
· Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
· State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
· Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic
Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and local
government

UNIT 9

Regional and International Relations

9.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Define International Relations

o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-operation and
Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and
explain the types and functions of diplomatic missions.
9.2 Definitions;
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in

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 - State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and represented by the
arms of state, that is, government, judiciary and the legislature and which is normally
embodied in the constitution as the right of a group of people to self-determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or
exercising the executive powers of the state that is, representing the nation at international
fora, defending and keeping law and order in the nation, implementing political, economic,
and social policy of the ruling political party. Government is formed by the winner at
general elections and therefore comes and goes where as the state is permanent except
where the country is annexed, secedes or the people become extinct.
9.3 The practice of International relations
9.3.1 Society

People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a nation therefore
the people should have similar political aspirations or interests. The term “society”
supposes the existence of common norms or behavioural patterns within that society.
Such norms determine relations among the members of the society in terms of political
structures or governance; this determines in turn distribution of resources. Political
structure presupposes a hierarchy and hence classes within society. Classes in turn infer
inequalities among the people. In international relations instead of people forming the
society or community we have nations being the members of the international society or
community and hence the existence also of norms or political behaviour, international
political hierarchy and classes, distribution of resources by the international ruling class
and hence the existence of international inequalities. This will be dealt with in full under
international capital below.

9.3.2.International Society.

The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the world’s

history. Vast empires, fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always been the general
picture of politics at the global level. Sovereign nation – states appear on the global
scene about five hundred years ago and evolve and only become the norm in the 16th.
century as principles that govern their conduct take a definitive shape. Before the
development of rules that govern relations between areas or regions or states, relations
between different political entities were characterized by internecine warfare. It was more
a state of nature or survival of the fittest. With the advent of Christianity and its growth,
war and its limitation, conduct and justification became necessary and the notion of the
just war was developed. In his work, “The Summa Theologica,” St. Thomas Aquinas
argued the case for a just war as consisting of;
- It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil

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 - The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote good or the
avoidance or prevention of evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the just war and by
about 1490 Honore Bonet stated “ soldiers were the flail of God who by his permission
make wars upon sinners and sin and make havoc among them in this world as the devils
of hell do in the next”. Not surprising therefore that at about that time the Aztec
civilization was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors and Africa and many parts of the
world seen as containing sinners were subjected to the most cruel and inhuman plunder
and decimation by the European powers. In the same vein Gorge Bush’s “axis of evil”
position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in the Aquinian doctrine. Bush argues that
the war on Iraq - weapons of mass destruction aside - was a just war because that nation
is evil. Who defines evil and by what standard is evil determined? As a result of this
doctrine in international relations it was not possible to develop or for there to evolve
rules that could govern relations between states. Similarly, because of a reversion to the
same old position by the Bush administration, the whole fabric of international law is
strained to breaking point. “Evil” is a value laden term which is highly subjective.
Being a fundamentalist Moslem is interpreted as being evil by Bush and his company
whether one is a suicide bomber or not and no law therefore can restrict regime change in
any nation perceived to be evil. Such international behaviour not only drags the world
backwards but also creates a very dangerous environment in which every nation and
individual takes unilateral action to redress grievances and institutionalise suicidal
tendencies and solutions even at state level like in the case of North Korea.

In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et pacis”, Hugo Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote
principles that were supposed to govern warfare and this became the basis for our modern
international law.

9.3.3 Approaches in the study of international relations

The study of relations between nations is a recent and evolving science. The main
approaches are as follows;

A: Traditional Approaches
1.The classical approach
2.The Idealist approach
3.The Realist and or Rational approach
B: Modern approaches
1.The Strategic approach
2.The billiard ball approach
3.The Cobweb approach
C: The Behavioural approach
1.The global approach or model
2.The regional approach or model

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9.3.3.1 The Traditional Approaches
· .The Classical approach;
The proponents of this approach are to a large extent social contract theorists. Thomas Hobbes
sees the state, as arising out of the need to escape from a state of nature where there is anarchy
and life is insecure, short, nasty and brutal. A state of nature presupposes the non-existence of
society and therefore the non-existence of law. In such a lawless state everyone does as he
pleases and those with more clout survive. In other words the law of the jungle that is “might is
right” and “survival of the fittest” rules supreme. In another sense this approach is also
evolutionist or Darwinian. It infers natural selection that favours the stronger species’ survival
and continuity. To escape from this state of nature at the national or state level people had to
agree to surrender some of their rights to each other and appoint a sovereign authority as
guarantor and arbitrator for and in this social contract. The same arrangement could be said to
hold true within the community of nations or the global society. However as nation states
developed in Europe a state of nature more or less developed in that these states resorted to war
wily nily on the basis of each state’s prerogative of national sovereignty to wage war. All wars
were therefore justifiable. Jean Jacques Rousseau and others saw relations among states as
possessing potential for peace as long as members of a society were willing to enter a clear
contract. The Machiavellian argument was closely echoed by Immanuel Kant and Carl von
Clausewittz in his book “On War,” argues that power is at the heart of interstate relations in that
each state seeks to increase its power at the expense of other states. Alliances, wars and the arms
race were the result of this argument and Europe was plunged into the First World War.

· The Idealist Approach.

The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in so far the toll
in human and material loss were concerned. This led people to treat peace as something
they should deliberately seek and sought to engineer global society in such a way as to
not only create peacefully conditions but also prevent war. This approach was thus
normative prescriptive and pro active. Woodrow Wilson the USA president at the time
and others thus pursued this logic and it resulted in the creation of the LEAGUE OF
NATIONS in 1918. The USA refused to join the league in spite of championing it.
Through covenants or a body of rules collective security it was thought could thus be
assured in the community of nations. This body of thinking or ideology failed to bring
about peaceful coexistence among states and soon after the formation of the League of
Nations after 1927 Italy and Germany went on the warpath and soon after the world was
in another global war. Idealism sought to affect the thinking of global society but this
proved to be a futile exercise.

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 · The Realist or Rational approach.

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from idealism to
rationalism or realism. This means people began to look at the actual practice of relations
among states and sought to explain their behavior rather than to change their behavior. In
a way this approach was a throw back to the classical approach. Hans Morgen Thau a
major proponent of this approach argued that power and self-interest were at the heart of
state behavior. To legitimate pursuit of power and self-interest nations cake iced and
disguised their otherwise questionable and illegitimate behavior moral hyperbole and
legalistic arguments. This fits squarely in the George Bush Jr.s’ conduct of the war in
Iraq. Saddam was said to be evil but that had never been justification for war in modern
society. To legalize action against Sadam, the latter had to possess weapons of mass
destruction and that became the legal basis for war. Having e failed to provide the
evidence of WMDs Bush back tracked to the moral position, that is, Sadam is evil
anyway. War thus is not only inevitable, but also desirable in certain instances and the
issue at stake is not its prevention or avoidance, but its control to achieve desired
outcomes. This approach is thus to a large extent descriptive.

9.3.3.2 The Modern Approaches

· The billiard ball model.
This model builds on the realist approach in that it recognizes states as individual entities
which when and if one entity or ball picks motion naturally on contact with others
produces motion in other balls or states. The internal dynamics of each entity or ball are
seen having no effect on the relative position of the entities.
·The Cob web model
John Burton sees international relations as existing within a complex web or matrix in
which each state is linked to the other directly and indirectly and where motion in or
between components impacts on the rest. This approach is very close to reality in that the
operations of global commerce and industry is such that events in any state immediately
impacts on events in all or in other states. More over cyberspace and efficient transport
communications is threatening to produce a global super culture.
·The Strategic Approach
The proponents of this approach believed and believe in power politics. They strategize
or scheme situations in the global arena that best suit the pursuit of their self-interests.
Former USA secretary of state Henry Kissinger Herman Khan and others emphasized the
use of mathematical models and games theories policy options ranging from total
surrender graduated severity warfare to total annihilation. Policy options according to the
strategists are rationally made on the basis of comparisons of outcomes. The probability
of a favorable outcome was seen as the deciding factor in the action of any state.

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 Deterrence through such policies as mutual assured destruction (MAD) became major
policy positions of the USA as a result of this approach.

9.3.3.3 The Behavioral Approach

This approach makes a methodological departure from previous approaches and
denounces the strategic approach as war mongering immoral and a threat to world peace
and security. Behaviouralists incorporate all social sciences techniques and conclude that
the danger to peaceful co-existence may result from unintentional war due to
misinformation or miscalculation or both. There is an element of correct prognosis in the
approach considering the furor over the role of intelligence over Iraq in assessing the
nature and extant of threat posed by Saddam Hussein. The war in Viet Nam and Iraq are
classical examples of miscalculation and misinformation.
·The global approach
Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a centralized one-world
government with the nation state disappearing.
·The Non-global Approach.
In this model it is envisaged that authority should be decentralized and the state dispensed
with and authority devolved to lower tier structures below the present state level or tier.

9.3.3.4 The Subject matter or issues in International relations

All the above approaches look at relations between nations in one or more of the
following areas;
1. Conflict
2. Cooperation
3. Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in time all
nations are relating to each other in so far as one or all of the three aspects are concerned.

·Conflict

Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost synonymous
with war. World history is the story of when and with whom nations have fought from
time immemorial to date.

· Cooperation

When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining peace and in
dealing with the challenges and problems that mankind faces for example diseases such
as AIDS or disasters such as earth quakes. Cooperation is highly visible and pronounced
even among nations that appear to have no love lost between them in that the UN and
many other world fora provide an avenue for all nations to cooperate in one way or
another.

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 · Competition

Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or commerce
and can manifest itself in the form of alliances and treaties.

9.3.3.5 The global power Balance.

9.3.3.5.1 Power blocs

International relations are therefore about competition, conflict or cooperation among
states. The three Cs produce a global political picture, which is either dominated by one
super power or a group of states that become a super power bloc or a scenario where
power is evenly distributed between two or more blocs or centres. When the Roman
empire of the Caesers came into being by about 160 BC there was no power on earth
strong enough to challenge its hegemony for almost six hundred years up to about 530
AD. Global Power was concentrated in that one super state and it was a uni-polar global
power arrangement. When pagan Rome collapsed the world stage was again dominated
by Papal power the so called Holy Roman Empire for almost 1300 years up to 1789.
Papal power was however effectively challenged by Frances’ Napoleon Bonarparte and
from that time to the end of the second world war power concentration was widely
dispersed among European and Asian nations and no one state or group of states had
monopoly over global power. This was a multi polar global power balance. With the end
of the Second World War the world was split between two power blocs with the Soviet
Union leading the eastern or Warsaw Pact bloc or what is wrongly termed by the west the
communist bloc and the USA leading the NATO or western bloc nations. After
decolonisation of most African and Asian nations from about 1947 the former colonies
formed so-called non- aligned nations. Global politics never the less remained polarised
between the two major blocs and up until the collapse of the War Saw Pact bloc by about
1985. During that period the world was in a nuclear stand off between the two major
powers where each bloc had sufficient nuclear weapons to annihilate the whole world.
The periods’ relations are characterised by what is termed the cold war. The cold war was
in fact a very live and hot war in which the two major blocs sponsored opposing groups
in civil wars in countries termed the Non Aligned nations. The period was marked by
bloody wars in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique and many other nations in
Africa and South America. The politics of the period were based on the philosophy and
ideology of the Strategic school of thought who argued that nuclear deterrence that is;
“having so many nuclear bombs and an unstoppable delivery system which would render
an attack by any one of the two opposing sides simple suicide because the other side
would retaliate in an equally overwhelming response and bring about a mutually assured
destruction (MAD)”. To weaken the other side, the 1970s and early 1980s were marked
by a runaway arms race as the two blocs tried to gain the upper hand. The arms race
proved too expensive for the Soviet Union and following the introduction of the Glasnost
policy by Michael Gorbachev the Soviet President then, the whole War Saw pact military

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 and economic system collapsed and the USA emerged as the unchallenged global
superpower from the 1990s onwards. Global power politics has thus become uni-polar
and the USA has assumed the role of global policeman or and corrector of all rogue states
so called. Other terminology has also begun to be used in global politics for an example
“rogue state” meaning a nation that is ultra nationalistic and refuses to kow tow to USA
bullying, “regime change” meaning the forcible removal from power of state leaders who
are not supportive of American policies, “axis of evil” referring to those countries
opposed to American style of governance. The period also saw a marked increase in
unilateral action by the USA outsides the mechanism of recognised international fora
such as the UN.

9.3.3.5.2 International Terrorism

The period of USA unilateralism has seen a marked increase in terrorism. Terrorism can
be defined as indiscriminate acts of violence against soft targets for an example non-
military installations and un armed civilians. The USA has declared war on global terror
but this terror in the first place appears to have been prompted by USA partiality in
dealing with global problems like in the handling of the Palestinian issue or dealing with
undemocratic as if dealing with democratic states for an example Uganda under
Museveni a non democratically elected government while making lots of fuss about lack
of democracy in Libya and more blatantly parochial the alleged lack of democracy in
Zimbabwe. In any case there is no international that makes it mandatory for any state to
adopt American style democracy. The latter is not holy writ nor is it fool proof neither
fair nor just. Terrorism is bound to grow as the USA leaves groups and individuals with
no other options in redressing their grievances. Terrorism has become the preferred tool
of many marginalized groups as they desperately seek for justice in the resolution of their
grievances.

Global power balances are important in that it is within the framework of this
arrangement that state inter action takes place. As shown above, the multilateral power
structure between 1800 and 1945 produced or created a very unsafe world and led to two
catastrophic wars. The bipolar global power balance between 1945 and 1985 and the
resultant rivalry and arms race of that period saw many developing countries falling
victim to the politics of the day. After 1985 increasing USA unilateralism has bred a new
global scourge called terror. The USA has itself become a terror to many states small and
big if they dare assert their nationalism hence the growth in terrorism. Terrorism is
inherently evil and un acceptable as much as the bellicose attitudes by stronger states that
drive weaker groups to resort to terror tactics.

9.4 International Law.

All states are members of the global community, which has codes of conduct or
behaviour expectations for its members. These behaviour expectations arise out of
custom or agreements. There is there for such a thing as international law. (NB. See
International Law in Module 2. Legal and Parliamentary affairs.) The major deficiency in

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 international law has been its lack of a force back up mechanism that is an army or police
force. Of late there has been attempts to make international more meaningful by
extending its jurisdiction to individual and to the actions of states as it relates to its
citizens.

9.4.1 Jurisdiction of international law.

In its current mould international law affects those countries that are signatories to
conventions and agree to be bound by the provisions of such agreements. The
signatories are also left with the option to accept the conclusions of the International
Court Of Justice or simply to ignore them. The ICJ was formed in 1945 as an organ of
the UN and is based at The Hague in the Netherlands. The disputes that are taken to the
courts are mutually agreed upon and relate to trade or boundary disputes between states.
The action of states against other states is a hardly ever the subject matter of international
Law. Criminal acts by individuals or states have traditionally fallen outside the scope and
jurisdiction of international law. Increasingly however there is a trend toward making
international law more encompassing by the introduction of crimes that can be defined as
acts against humanity e.g. genocide. This has led to the establishment of many
international Tribunals like the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal set up to try NAZI
Germany war criminal after WW2. Other special international tribunals have also been
set to deal the Balkans crisis and the Rwanda genocide of 1991. The UN has also set up
as of 2003 the International Criminal Court and many countries have ratified the treaty.
The USA however has refused to ratify the agreement and has gone on a bullying
campaign coercing small nations to agree not to send USA nationals to the court. In the
meantime The USA is making a lot of noise about sending Charles Taylor to the Special
War crimes Tribunal in Sierra Leone.

9.5 Activities
o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-operation and
Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and
explain the types and functions of diplomatic mission

UNIT 10

DIPLOMACY
10.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

· Define democracy
· Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence

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 · Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) Core interests
ii) Objective interests
iii) Subjective interests
· Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions and
their immunity.
Diplomacy can be defined as “ the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of
official relations between the governments of independent states.” Formal contact
between nations in the global community takes place through the medium of diplomacy
and the interaction of diplomats. Diplomats are the emissaries or representatives of their
governments in other countries and are the direct contact between different governments.
The ministries of foreign affairs in all states have the responsibility for the deployment of
diplomats and the carrying out of the foreign policy of each respective country.

10.2 Foreign policy

Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world affairs.
Foreign policy is determined by each state’s National Interest. The National interest can
be defined as the common interests of all the citizens of a nation. The national interest
arises from the values and aspirations and history of a nation and these are at variance
with the national interests of other nations because of the competitive nature of inter state
relations. Foreign policy objectives relate to power or sovereignty, profit and prestige.
These objectives can be classified as: a) Core interests, b) Objective interests, and c)
Subjective interests.

· Core interests

These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate sacrifice and relate
to self preservation as a nation and revolve round defending the nation and the
perpetuation of a particular social cultural and economic way of life.

· Objective interests

These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the
state that is even when governments come and go objective interests remain unchanged. In
Zimbabwe this may be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives
of this country.

· Subjective interests.

To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will depend upon
the values and subjective assessment of those making a decision and the issue at stake

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 does not relate to self-preservation or perpetuation as a state. Example would be the
decision on whether Zimbabwe remains a member of the Commonwealth or not.

It is around the interests of a state that diplomacy is conducted. This suggests or

presupposes therefore that all diplomats are conversant with the interests of the state that
they represent and will be defending and promoting.

10.3 Zimbabwean Foreign Policy

During the hey day of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe’s foreign policy was
unequivocally non-aligned. This does not amount to saying Zimbabwe was a neutral
state. Zimbabwe, guided by its policy of non-alignment has from independence sought to
establish close relations with states pursuing a socialist ideology. This approach allowed
Zimbabwe to articulate its national interests from a firm ideological base.

· Objective Interests in Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy

- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the Common wealth
and believes in the democratic right without interference from outside to self-
determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a member of
SADC, COMESA, AU and the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent’s history of slavery, colonialism
neo colonialism and the war against these three evil crimes against humanity. In
pursuit of the same fought against banditry and imperial de- stabilization in
Mozambique against RENAMO and in the DRC against imperial sponsored regime
change of the Kabila administration through Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.
· Core Interests
- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and to share it
equally with other Zimbabweans of all races without discrimination.

· Subjective Interests
- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

10.4 The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states that
“nhume/mutumwa haana mbonje” This statement also underlies one of the major
elements of diplomacy namely the inviolability of the diplomatic person and his
possessions. Diplomacy was thus well established in early European states as well as in
all the pre-colonial Zimbabwean states. In Europe diplomacy almost suffered a fatal blow
during the so-called Holy Roman Empire. These were the dark ages of human
civilization.
It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is replaced with permanent
embassies or missions as city-states take root in Italy. By the seventeenth century

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 diplomacy is governed by disjointed rules in Europe and the disputes that arose over
diplomatic precedence and protocol were such that war was always narrowly averted. In
1815 The Congress of Vienna and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalised
diplomatic rules and procedure. It was only in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna
Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse And Immunities that The Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations was ratified. The document covers all aspects of diplomatic activity
in terms of types of missions’ functions and immunities and privileges of diplomatic
personnel

10.4 Setting up diplomatic relations and missions

Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed that all
diplomats posted are acceptable to the receiving state and the host state issues a document
called the agre’ment to indicate their acceptance of the proposed head of mission. The
latter document can be withheld without explanation. The head of mission to be becomes
official after the presentation of credentials at the ceremony where he meets the head of
state of the host county and presents his letter of credence.

10.5 Types of diplomatic missions and representation

Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:
- Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head of state
- Charge’d’ affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of the host state.
- Former British colonies’ heads of mission are termed High commissioners and heads of
mission between non-former British colonies are termed ambassadors extraordinary and
plenipotentiary.

10.6 Privileges and immunities of diplomats

All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in the host state
and exempt from all taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host state’s laws where they
enter into private business. Action incompatible with the status of the diplomats may lead
the host state to request their removal.
Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts by the host
state.

10.7 Functions of diplomatic missions.

The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non substantive and
substantive routine work and b) non routine work.

10.7.1 Non-Substantive routine functions

Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or cocktail
parties, luncheons honour giving ceremonies, parades etc.

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 NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration of births
deaths marriages of citizens from their country residing in the host state issuing,
validating and replacing passports. Dealing with extradition cases and looking after the
interests of citizens from their country in the host state.
(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be carried out
in the diplomatic premises. These include, the processing and issuing of visas, certificates
e.g. certificate of origin and the facilitation of any other commercial activities. )

10.7.2 Substantive Routine work

This work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering. Intelligence gathering is
not an official or declared function of diplomatic missions but they are never the less
used extensively as cover for these nefarious activities. Where the host state observes
abnormally high and audacious levels of espionage they demand the immediate
withdrawal of such personnel and this normally prompts retaliatory action. Reporting is
normally on economic, political, military and social issues. In certain instances it might
be necessary to engage specialized diplomats called Attaches’ in the areas of information
military and economic affairs.

10.7.3 Non-Routine Functions

This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of messages and
attending to direct talks at various levels with the authorities of the host state.

10.8 Activities
· Define democracy
· Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
· Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) core interests
ii) objective interests
iii) subjective interests
· Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions and
their immunity.

UNIT 11

INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

11.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
· Define international capital and imperialism
· Discuss the elements of imperialism
· Discuss the various stages in the development of international capital

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11.1 Introduction.
The current stage in global politics and relations is characterized by a high level of
dominance relations between the weak and the powerful states. Such domination has
been the major feature in relations between sates and within states since time immemorial
and arises out of the structured nature of society national or global. The term society
suggests classes and classes suggest inequalities in the distribution of resources in that
society. Inequalities also suggest contradictions and contradictions suggest motion that is
politics. Thus it can be argued from the outset that the major characteristic of global
relations has been the phenomenon of imperialism.
The study of class formation in societies is termed historical materialism. On the other
hand the study of motion that results from class contradictions is termed dialectical
materialism. “It is the study of society in their essentially contradictory movement.”
Class contradictions arise out of the inequalities or unfair sharing of the resources within
society or exploitation. This sharing is what can be termed political economy. Political
economy of any society therefore reveals the extent and level of exploitation in that
society and the level of dynamics or contradictions in that society. Historical and
dialectical materialism and political economy there for are the tools that can best be used
to analyze the past and present stage in global relations.
Each stage in the evolution of production and exchange has a specific class structure,
which determines relations in the society.

11.2 Stages in the development of Capital

Imperialism can be defined as, “the general tendency of states or groups within states to
exploit other states or groups through relations brought about by force or other subtle
means and to the detriment of the exploited group and the advantage of the dominant
group or state.” Such exploitation becomes manifestly visible through exchange and
production relationships.
Production and exchange have over time evolved through various stages and at each
stage the major feature has been the existence of dominance relationships that is an
exploited class and an exploiting class. At each stage imperialism can be seen to be
mutating or changing until it reaches its present and highest stage as International or
Global Capital. The stages through which capital has evolved are as follows;
1. the Hunter gatherer or communal stage
2. Feudalism
3. Mercantile capital
4. Competitive capital
5. Monopoly capital
6. Finance capital
Capital can be loosely defined as wealth in the form of land, finance or technology
depending on the stage of development of that society which at most is either scarce or
monopolized by a small group within a particular society.

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 While Capital and its monopolization can be traced to the Feudal mode of production or
stage, it can be seen that its nonexistence in the first mode of production namely the
hunter-gatherer stage, was due to the class nature of that society.

11.2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL IN EUROPE

MODE OF CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL

PRODUCTION DIALECTICS ECONOMY
1. Non-existent Class contradictions Non- Free for all economic
Hunter Gather (4000 BC – existent Survival of the specialisation hunting and
1500 BC) fittest in a state of native gathering No ownership
gave rise to the need for
society
2. 1. Aristocracy Exploitation of slave labour Aristocracy owned means of
Slave Society (1500 BC to 2. Soldier e.t.c leading to rebellion against production land and workers-
500 AD) 3. Slaves and latter the ruling elite slaves non paid
colonii
3. 1. Aristocratic Exploitation of serfs led to Barter trade Natural
Feudalism (500 AD to soldiers elite friction between serfs and economy. Extraction of
1700AD) 2. Serfs=half slave landlords surplus through free labour
half worker and rent in kind=produce and
3. Clergy latter money. Land owned by
landlords
4. 1. Aristocracy Workers=Craftsmen Monopolisation of markets by
Mercantile Capital (1700 to 2. Merchants exploitation by Merchants merchants. Surplus value

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1800) 3. Clergy and landlords. extracted through under paid
4. Craftsman Concentration of capital worker and high profit mark
5. Labourer/worker and formation of joint stock up on goods at home and
company led to abroad. Means of production
globalisation of trade and owned by merchants and land
slavery and colonialism owners=land + money
5. 1. Industrialist David Hume, Adam Smith Free trade based on
Competitive Capital 1800 to 2. Worker against merchant monopoly international division of
1900 3. Peasant/leman of capital and markets. labour. Exploitation of
Industrialists + bankers workers by industry.
exploit workers and Monopoly of machines
bankers=former merchants money and land
exploit industrialists

6. Monopoly Capital 1900 to 1. Bankers Worker’s labour under Extraction of surplus value
1945 2. Industrialists valued leading to acute through lending is paying for
3. Workers concentration of capital workers needs not for value
4. Peasants of labour. Monopoly
ownership of capital-land,
money and machines
7. Finance Capital 1945 to 1. Finance institutions Buyers determine prices Selling of Money Export of
present 2. Borrowers Money Monopoly ownership
Of Capital by banks

During the hunter-gatherer mode of production there was no society and no classes.
Extraction of surplus value or exploitation of one class by another class was not possible.
The situation was a free for all and this made life difficult on a state of nature. With the
development of Roman slave society classes developed as well as conflicts as well. The
landowners had slaves who resented being owned and forced to work. The colonii or
freed former slaves and peasants were also exploited by the landowners who made them
pay rent in kind or in cash. These conflicts eventually led to the collapse of the system
and it was replaced by Feudalism. Feudalism as a mode of production was based on a
highly stratified society where extraction of surplus value by those who owned and
monopolised the means of production was for long sustained through force. The serfs or
landless peasants were made to work and pay part of their produce to the landlords who
owned all the land. The major features of all successive modes of production develop at
this stage except the global element, which exists in the last stage or mode of production.
It is this global aspect namely the extraction of surplus value or exploitation from other
countries through the exportation or selling of finance capital that imperialism reaches its
highest and most developed stage.

11.3 Major elements of imperialism

The features that exist in all modes of production except the hunter gather modes are as
follows: -

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 1. Class formation or Societal stratification. This is along the lines of
a) those who own and monopolise the means of production and,
b) those who are exploited or from whom surplus value is extracted.

2. Class Antagonism or Conflict due to exploitation.

3. Collapse of the previous mode of production due to contradiction and;

4. Emergence of another mode of production with different classes and different

contradictions but with exploitation or surplus value extraction being the ever-
unchanging feature.

The current phase or mode of production that is the finance capital mode, is globalised in
that those who own and monopolise the means of production, have been able to mortgage
all economic activity in their home countries and abroad to money that these financial
institutions lend locally in export abroad. The result in the global economy has been
there for marked by:

a) Concentration/monopolisation of capital in global or multilateral financial

institutions.
b) Formation of a class of super rich money owners who extract surplus value or
exploit the world economy through interest on money loaned through such banks
as the IMF the World Bank etc.

c) International division of labour. This has led to other countries being pushed into
being producers of raw materials while others have become producers of
manufactured goods. Producers of raw materials as a global class have
contradictions with those who monopolise finance capital and those who buy their
raw materials at cheap prices determined by the buyer who then manufactures
goods to sell to producers of raw materials. This is exploitation of man by man at
its highest level and is no different from exploitation by force under slavery or
colonialism hence the term neo-colonialism to describe the economic and political
relations between producers of finished goods the develop0ed countries and
producers of raw materials under developed countries or the third world.

11.4 International Economic Relations

The Second Word War marks the beginning point of the present global economic
arrangement. The idealism of the immediate post world war two period led to massive
government led initiatives to bring the shattered economy of the world back to its feet.
By 1979 however this role of government in economic activity was under attack and has
to a large extent been abandoned altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing
of the past and a new ideology emphasising the role of the market in determining all
economic as well as social and political decisions has been adopted.

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In the current economic thinking, cooperation’s or business have total freedom and
collective bargaining and trade unionism and the consumer and citizen in general have
found themselves at the receiving end of the new international economic order. This new
international economic order had by the middle 1990s assumed a new form and
characteristic namely globalisation.

The IMF World Bank and oil Breton Woods financial institutions were formed for the
specific purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing those economic
and social issues that had led and that might lead to new war. The mandate of these
financial institutions was to provide lending for reconstruction and for short-term balance
of payment support. These institutions after 1979 have increasingly taken over individual
governments, economic policies and intervene in national policy will beyond the scope of
their mandate. The post 1945 period saw a massive realignment of global economic
relations with Europe being mortgaged to the U.S.A. under the Marshall Plan which saw
infusion of capital into Europe from the U.S.A. and newly created Breton Woods
financial institutions. The U.S.A. insisted on decolonisation as a condition of giving
financial support to Europe and declared the end to empire. Thus the U.S.A. gained the
empires that Europe lost through decolonisation as it gained unprecedented control of
former colonies through new economic relations specifically the supply of manufactured
goods and the provision of finance capital. Debt becomes the primary form of survival
technique for all former colonies and the supply of new materials from former colonies
was accelerated in order to raise money to pay off the debt. By the end of the 1970s the
so called debt crisis had developed with a new economic global structure which split the
world into producers of raw materials and importers of finance capital and finished goods
and producers of finished goods and exporters of finance capital. This relationship was
marked or characterised by a high level injustice in the form of unequal exchange. The
former colonies in America, Africa and Asia were selling raw materials with little value
added to them at prices set by the buyer that is the developed countries. The latter sell
manufactured goods to the developing countries at high profit margins and over and
above this drain of resources from the south servicing the loans obtained from the north
compounds or increases the flow of resources to the south.

Debt servicing, cheap raw

materials. Imports of finished NORTH
goods and services
Loans And
SOUTH Good Service

The flow of wealth from the South to the North through debt servicing and unequal
exchange is further increased with the insistence on structural adjustment programmes in
the south by the so called donor community that is western governments and the Breton
Woods financial institutions or the North. The catch word on economic structures
adjustment programmes forced on the South are similar to the free market economic

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 policies instituted on the domestic economics of the North which resulted in nett gains for
the super rich and nett loss for the average worker. Average income in the 1980s of the
top 10% of American families increased by 16%, “the top 5% increased by 23%, the top
1% got 50%. The bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the same period.” The
same policies during the same period applied to global policies saw an increase in nett
flows of income to the North and a decrease in income to the South with the result that
IMF policies have led to increased poverty in the South. These policies are what can be
termed globalisation and are hinged upon: -
a) free trade in goods and services between countries through the
removal of trade barriers.
b) free circulation of capital
c) freedom and protection of investments
d) reduction of government expenditure and government interference in the economy.
e) privatisation of parastatals
These points have become the conditionalities for receiving or disbursement
of aid by the North. The result in all instances was that the forced
privatisation saw corporations in the North buying up all privatised
companies in the South so privatised.

Closely related to these policies has been the creation of the UN – World
Trade Organisation (UN – WTO) in 1995. The liberalisation of world trade
under the current requirements is reducing developing countries to
primitive economies as industries close under pressure from unregulated
competition from the North.

The North in the meantime is not removing trade restrictions, which remain
in the form of quarters or strict health requirements in agricultural
products. Moreover subsidies maintained by both the U.S.A. and Europe on
agricultural production is seeing many countries in the South collapsing
economically.

11.5 International Division Of Labour

The global economic arrangement between the South and North has structural linkages,
which perpetuate the inequalities that exist in global economic relations. The North or
developed economies can thus be termed the centre of global economic activity and the
South or developing countries the periphery of economic activity at the international
level. These relations can be diagrammatically represented as follows: -

Centre

Periphery Periphery
Periphery Centre

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 Centre Centre Disharmony of
interests
Periphery Centre Periphery

Harmony of interests
between periphery centre
and centre is the centre.

11.6 Centre Periphery Relations

The centre has those who own and run the economy and the governments. They also
have a periphery that is the workers and the unemployed. The same can be said of both.
The centre in the centre has to have harmony of interests with the centre in the periphery
because both these groups are the beneficiaries in the world economic arrangement. The
peripheries in both divisions have disharmony of interests with the centres because they
are the victims of the system. This relationship demonstrates why it is difficult for the
developing countries to get out of their current position because of the collaboration
between their political leadership with the leadership in the North. It also explains why
the North seeks to influence the selection of leaders in the South and talk about regime
change when they fail to control the electoral processes the South.

11.7 Activities
· Discuss the elements of imperialism
· Discuss the various stages in the development of international capital
· Finance capital has done more harm than good how accurate is this
assessment of policies of the WORLD BANK and IMF

UNIT 12

Development Strategies

12.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by nations for
economic development and growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of appropriate
technology to tap their resources for economic development and growth

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 In a world where there are structural linkages between the North and South that thrive on
the allocation of unequal roles based on historically and political derived positions
development in the South is only a myth.
It is not possible to envisage a situation where the North will allow economic conditions
in the South to develop to such a level or extent or to undermine the supply of their raw
material resources or the continued existence of markets for their goods. Development
has remained elusive in the South especially as long as the North subverts or influences
the political process in the South. Development refers to a situation where the majority
of the people have sufficient levels of literacy, access to education, food, shelter and
health care. Bustling metropolis are not proof of development. Highly segmented
society where a few people enjoy privileged economic advantages while the rest of the
population languish in squalor and poverty in illiteracy and in slums with no access to
health care are clear examples of endemic under development. This scenario is true for
many of Zimbabwe’s neighbours and especially when one compares the health education
and infrastructure in the region. Structural dependence linkages, which create, sustain
and perpetuate the existence of dual economics, are short-term gains that will in the long
term create catastrophic situations. Development approaches have to be long term in
nature and have to take cognisance of the realities in which nations exist as members of
the global community. It has already been demonstrated that former colonies are
structurally dependent and linked to the former colonies through new forms of linkages,
which prohibit development in this neo-colonial relationship.

The problem countries like Zimbabwe face is dependence which perpetuates the
traditional role and position of supplier of raw materials with the result of creating a dual
economy – an affluent metropolis and a poor peasantry. Development therefore can be
viewed from the following angles.

12.2 Interdependence
“This is inevitable in this heterogeneous planet: resources, including fertile land, fresh
water, deposits of minerals and sources of energy are dispersed unevenly over its surface.
In simpler times, populations were concentrated mainly in areas of plentiful resources and
especially those propitious for the growing of food. Such societies could therefore
become more or less self-sufficient and international trade gradually developed mainly to
provide exotic products, which were initially, luxuries but which little by little improved
the general material standard of life. With the impact of technological development, a
vastly greater range of materials was required. The present industrialized economies,
which arose as a consequence of the industrial revolution, were initially based on local
deposits of coal and iron ore. but, as these economies became more sophisticated, their
industries called for a wide variety of materials, many of which had to be imported from
distant lands and this had many consequences including colonization. Interdependence,
then,became an important reality but was seldom recognize politically. Little by little,within this
system human skills and knowledge(especially those of science and technology) became

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the most important of all national resources and we have now reached a situation in
which successful and innovative economies can be created”

12.3 Self Reliance

“Interdependence appears, therefore, to have become a central feature of the
contemporary world. However, it is inevitable that the most powerful of the
nations are the most capable of exploiting it to their own advantage; at least as
the’re short-term vision seems to indicate. Such a situation tends to make the rich
richer and the poor relatively poorer, increasing disharmony, which must in the
end imperil the rich as well as the poor. For the establishment of a stable world
order, therefore, interdependence has to be complemented by self-reliance, which
means, essentially, the capacity to manage interdependence. Without such a
capacity, interdependence can only mean dependence on the part of the many, a
continuing economic and technological colonialism, or just plain poverty.

There are many ingredients within the concept of self-reliance. It is necessary for
instance to have a stable and intelligent government, with partners who may be
well trained and able to command skills in negotiation with partners who may be
stronger. Likewise it is necessary to attain a national competence in science and
technology to provide a sound basis for industrialization and to ensure that
imported technologies are well chosen, intelligently assimilated and assist in
providing the skills which will make possible indigenous innovations and
development. It necessitates also a good level of education and training as well as
the acquisition of management capacities. Self-reliance is thus a very different
concept from that of self-sufficiency; it entails the building up of a capacity, both
institutional and in terms of human skills which enables a country to manage its
resources and affairs effectively so as to benefit to the maximum from
interdependence, rather than to be its passive victim”.

12.4ACTIVITIES
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by nations for
economic development and growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of appropriate
technology to tap their resources for economic development and growth

UNIT 13
Regionalism

13.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Outline the logic and development of regionalism.

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 o Outline the composition purpose, and functions of major regional
organisations (SADC, COMESA, PTA, ECOWAS, AU, EU, ASEAN,
NAFTA).
o Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United
Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
o Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies – UNESCO,
UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
o Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad,
Cida, Sida etc.

13.2 Introduction
Economic and Political integration among Third World countries is normally on a
regional or sub-regional basis. Before taking the merits and demerits of such integration
it is necessary to define first what we mean or what is meant by “region” and
“integration”. The term region will be defined first and integration will be defined latter.
By region is meant:

- “an area of contiguous countries defined usually by geography or by a common

cultural heritage, shared political philosophy or mutual economic interest”.
- Such integration can be seen as falling under: -

i) “Multifunctional geographically comprehensive organisations such as the

Organisation of American States (O.A.S), the Organisation of Africa’s
Unity (O.AU) and the League of Arab States (LAS).

ii) Cooperative or integration-oriented and geographically limited (sub-

regional) organisations such as the European Economic Community (EEC)
and the Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS).

iii) Technical or otherwise narrowly functional organisations such as the

Colombo plan for economic cooperative development.

iv) Economic Commissioners falling under the United Nations such as the
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Economic Commission for Latin
America (ECLA), Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA), and
the Economic Commission for South Asia and the Pacific (ECSAP).

To these can be added in a sub global sense of regional integration regional bodies such
as the British Common Wealth, the Organisation of the Conference of Islamic States and
Africa-Caribbean and Pacific group that falls under the Lome Conventions 1 and 11.
These organisations usually double as loose association with political as well as
economic undertones. It is possible to make further extensions to include the ideological
divide, which form the End-West confrontation, but a broad assumption will be made that

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developing countries do not fall under these groupings. The North-South dialogue can
also be seen as being trans regional.

The logic behind regionalism therefore is economics of scale in production and trade at
the economic level and shared cultural and social values at the political level. The
formation of regional organisation is therefore a logical imperative and answer to the
common problems facing mankind. When the UN was formed article 52(1) of the
Charter provided that:
“Nothing on the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or
agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace
and security as are appropriate for regional action provided that such arrangements or
agencies and their activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of the United
Nations”
Student Exercise

Using the following table fill in the necessary information on or about the following
regional organisations, SADC, COMESA, ECOWAS, AU, SACU, EU.

NAME OF YEAR OF PURPOSE OF MEMBERSHIP

ORGANISATION FORMATION ORGANISATION

13.3 Public International Organisation

Public International Organisation refers to multilateral institutions formed by states for

the purposes of facilitating inter stake cooperation in economic political social and
cultural issues. These organisations arise out of the need to regulate intercourse In
relations between states. The consul and diplomatic mission were the first examples of
formal institutions in relations between states. The existence of problems, which could
not be dealt with by or through the diplomatic mission, gave rise to the development of
the international conference consisting of representatives from various states. The
conference of Vienna (1815), The Paris conference of 1919 etc were ad-hoc conferences
of this nature, which discussed each unique problem as it arose. Associations and unions
had developed by the nineteenth century to replace the mechanism of the conferences.
These unions and associations were either private or public international organisations
such as the International Law Association and the Universal Postal Union respectively.
After World War 2 the idealism of the period resulted in the formation of the League of
Nations, which became the precursor to the United Nations. International Organisations
can be classified according to function as follows: -
a) Administrative organisations e.g. international Postal Union.
b) Political Organisation e.g. the UN.
c) Judicial Organisations e.g. the International court of justice.

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Or classified according to extent or geographical space as follows: -
a) Global
b) Regional

PAGE 106
13.4 Structure of the UN

General Assembly Secretariat Security Council

U.N.O Disarmament
Commission
UNWTO
Committees
UNILO Committee of
Expects
ICAO
Committee No. 1
Political & Security IBRD Military Staff
Committee
IFC
Special Political
Committee IDA
Ad Hoc Bodies
IMF
Committee No. 2
Economic & Financial FAO International
Atomic Agency
UNESCO
Committee No. 3
Social Humanitarian WHO

UPU
Committee No. 4
Trusteeship Council ITU

WMO
Committee No. 5
Administrative & WIPO
Budgetary
UNIDO

Committee No. 6 IFAD

Legal

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The UNWTO was formed in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the objective to enable states to agree among
themselves to reduce and remove or eliminate restrictions on trade. Of all UN organs the
WTO has been cited as the most negative in its operations for an example: -

1. Undermines democracy in the developing World.

2. Perpetuates underdevelopment by exposing weak economies to unfair
competition.
3. WTO regulates and promotes World trade through rules that undermine commerce
and industry in the developing nations etc.

13.5 ACTIVITIES

·Write in full the abbreviated names of the UN organs

· Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United
Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
· Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies – UNESCO,
UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
· Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad, Cida,
Sida etc.

UNIT 14

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)

14.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and
their relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and
as front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural
imperialism and the dependency syndrome.

Non-governmental organisations have become a major feature in international relations

for two reasons: -

a) They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front organisations.

b) Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

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 NGOs are formal organisations formed by private individuals for the specific purpose of
articulating concerns, raising awareness and lobbying governments for legislative or
other political action and soliciting for resources.

NGOs can be classified according to their area of concern or operations namely: -

a) Developmental NGOs

b) Advocacy NGOs

c) Relief NGOs

Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material for use in
alleviating poverty or suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby governments to take
specific action to deal with that type of problems. Relief NGOs solicit for financial and
material resources for use where natural disasters and earthquakes occur.

14.2 The Impact of NGOs’ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of infrastructure

in the rural areas in Zimbabwe. Plan International has together with the ministry of local
government been putting up shallow and deep wells. Other organisations have been
involved in the provision of equipment, construction of clinics and dams. The work of
these organisations while laudable in the short term has produced and fostered a culture
of dependence among Zimbabweans. People who receive these handouts have no sense
of ownership of the items donated and are not only reckless in the use of donated
equipment but abandon such equipment sooner rather than latter. Most wells have been
abandoned in the rural areas because the pumps have broken and no one has bothered to
repair them.

Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe. These organisations have
raised awareness on such issues as women’s rights, the girl child, human rights
democracy and many other areas. These organisations have produced less positive
contribution than the other organisations. It is also these organisations that have been
used by western governments to subvert and undermine the democratic process in
Zimbabwe. These organisation have been highly disruptive of African or local culture
assuming western or foreign values to be superior over local culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe; such
assistance while it averts starvation in the short term has been extremely detrimental in
long-term food security in the country. Instead of coming up with solutions to recurring
drought, people in Zimbabwe look for external assistance. Adopting wrong grains for
food worsens drought effects. Local small grains like sorghum and millet have been safe

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food security reserves in the past but the use of an exotic and foreign grain like maize not
suited to our climate has produced a crisis in food security. The overall picture or effect
is that NGOs have contributed more negatively than positively to Zimbabwe’s welfare.

Front organisations are organisations that are used as cover for some other purposes or
activity. These front organisations have been used to subvert the political process in
Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is sponsored by white Rhodesians to create
an environment that undermines black interests and gains. MISA –Media Institute for
Southern Africa promotes, funds and where necessary encourages the creation of media
that is friendly to western interests. One of MISA’s subsidiaries, the Southern African
Media Development Fund has been active in promoting media hostile to the Zimbabwe
government. The U.S. Agency for International Aid, of a USA, government department,
funds more than fifteen NGOs in Zimbabwe with the specific objective of undermining
the Zimbabwe government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of Transition Initiatives is
funding a hostile and subversive radio station SW radio advocating political uprising in
Zimbabwe. The Communication Assistance Foundation of the Netherlands reportedly
seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe and supports activities of the
“Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups seeking to overthrow the Zimbabwean
government. The Westminster Foundation, a United Kingdom organisation has been
active in supporting all activities aimed at undermining the Zimbabwean government.

14.3 ACTIVITIES
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and
their relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and
as front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural
imperialism and the dependency syndrome.

UNIT 15

THE MEDIA
15.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

· Define Media and explain its role and functions

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 · Critically analyse the following :
· Freedom of Expression
· Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
· Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the behaviour of
Zimbabwe’s media to that of other countries
· Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing
political processes in modern politics
· Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle is not
lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
· Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
· Media definition, roles and functions
15.2 Definition
Media can be defined as a channel through which one communicates. Mass media refers
to the channel through which one or a group of people communicates to a large audience.
It can be print, electronic or digital.
15.3 Roles
It plays 3 primary roles i.e entertains, educates and informs.
15.4 Functions
The media have become one of the central elements of modern societies with some
theorists calling it the FOURTH ESTATE or fourth arm of the state, whose primarily
function is to be a watchdog.

The media is the major ideological apparatus of any state. Nation states use the media to
maintain peace, order, national values, heritage as well as the sovereignty and territorial
integrity.

State

Ideological state apparatus Repressive State

Apparatus
Media police
Education army

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 Religion state security

The Rambai Makashinga jingle for instance successfully entrenched the spirit of
resilience in the hearts and minds of the ordinary Zimbabweans suffering from the
negative effects of successive droughts and sanctions on the economy.

15.5 The media and Identity

Identity: is simply our understanding of who we are. An individual may have multiple
identities & at times it leads to an identity crisis. By belonging to various communities
one can have multiple identities e.g. (A Dynamos Supporter, can be a Christian, a
Polytechnic Student, a Ndebele.)

However, every nation has to promote its own uniqueness and cultural diversity from
other nationalities and cultures. Nonetheless, the greatest threat to such cultural
preservation is the work of media products (cultural products) that transcend national and
geographic boundaries to cultivate western cultures to locals in what has come to be
known as cultural imperialism.Noteworthy is the glamorization of homosexuality in the
entertainment media with countries like Zimbabwe against such practices labeled as
Abusers of Human Rights.

Hence, in the best interests of the preservation of local culture & identity, nations should
fight against the global media influence which is increasingly defining the world for us.
Radio channels on short- wave frequency (which has the widest reach) such as Channel
Africa & Voice of Zimbabwe try to counter that influence and promote an Afro centric
ideology and give the true African view.

15.6 The Media: nation & nationalism

Nation- is a political community sharing cultural background and aspirations. The era of
national galas promoted a national togetherness and the use of national colors (eg
Zimbabwe Independence Silver Jubilee T-shirts & flags) in supporting national causes
even in sports, promotes nationalism. A more localized programming creates a national
ideology against foreign ones (eg the 75% local content policy in Zimbabwe, with some
Moslem states totally disregarding any foreign media content).

15.7 Freedom of Expression and self sensorship

Journalists the world over clamor for media freedom, as they claim it is one of the basic
requirements in any independent nation-state. The current Zimbabwean constitution
guarantees the freedom of Expression in section 20 (5). However, journalists have more
often than not abused their freedom of expression, leading to jeopardization of state
security at times and in other instances disturbing of peace and creating public
despondency through the writing of alarmist stories.

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Understanding that media messages have economic, political, social, and aesthetic
purposes (e.g., to make money, to gain power or authority over others, to present ideas
about how people should think or behave, to experiment with different kinds of symbolic
forms or ideas) help us to understand why all governments provide relative and never
absolute freedom as this will inevitably lead to anarchy. The Oxford Concise dictionary
10th edition defines anarchy as the state of disorder due to lack of government control).
The media has influence on society as a whole (e.g., influence in shaping various
governmental, social, and cultural norms; influence on the democratic process; influence
on beliefs, lifestyles, and understanding of relationships and culture; how it shapes
viewer's perceptions of reality; the various consequences in society of ideas and images
in media)
The media has the ability to influence social and cultural issues (e.g., creating or
promoting causes: U.N. military action, election of political parties; use of media to
achieve governmental, societal, and cultural goals)
This is the reason why the Zimbabwean government enacted laws which makes it a
criminal offense to publish falsehoods, write anything that creates public alarm and
despondence or anything prejudicial to the state, president or his office. The government
of Zimbabwe also recently allowed for the self censorship of journalists through their self
appointed regulatory board known as the Voluntary Media Council. It is however
essential to note that the media framework cannot work in an unregulated fraternity.

15.8 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom

The right to freedom of assembly and association in Zimbabwe is guaranteed under
Article 21 of
the Constitution of Zimbabwe. Commenting on this provision and Article 20 on freedom
of expression, in re Munhumeso &Ors, the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe emphasized
that:
"the importance attaching to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression and
assembly must never be underestimated. They lie at the foundation of a democratic
society and are one of the basic conditions for its progress and for the development of
every man.”

These two essential provisions i.e freedom of expression and assembly have to be well
monitored and governed by the state in the best interests of public safety and public order
to an extent which is reasonably justifiable in a democratic society.

In Zimbabwe just like in Britain, any organization that intends to gather for whatever
reason has to seek police clearing for the maintenance of peace, order and tranquility.
15.9 Comparing the behavior of Zimbabwean media to that of other countries
United States has the largest number of media organizations in the world however the
media is owned and controlled by a few individuals. This makes the media environment

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in the US to be plural (many newspapers & tv stations) but definitely not diverse(as all
the media organizations are singing from the same hymnbook).

Researchers at Sonoma State University in the US looked up the names of the 155 people
who served on the boards of directors of the eleven media companies that dominated the
U.S. media market.

Who are these 155 media elites-directors of the largest combined media news systems in
the world? They include men like: Frank Carlucci, who sits on the board of directors of
Westinghouse (CBS), and was former deputy director of the CIA and later Secretary of
Defense under President Bush. This doesn’t come as a surprise that the Bush
administration like any other government in the world desires to effectively control the
media so that it perpetrates its ideologies and policies.
The U.S. media has lost its diversity and its ability to present different points of view.
Instead, there is homogeneity of news stories and the major media tend to look alike.
The media in the U.S. has created, to use Neil Postman's words, the "best entertained,
least informed society in the world." Americans are ignorant about international affairs
and alienated from their own social issues.

15.10 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing
political processes in modern politics
The ever widening reach of the global media has created a relatively unified international
view of the world. According to the Agenda Setting theory, “the media may not be
successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful
in telling its readers what to think about.” Bernard C Cohen (1963).

The seemingly plural global media has formed a cartel that owns newspapers, magazines,
book publishers, motion picture studios, radio and TV stations globally. Time Warner,
Walt Disney, News Corporation, Viacom and Bertelsmann control almost all global
media of influence and they are also under one controlling hand, hence all the news and
entertainment enjoyed the world over come from one controlling stake.
Realizing the power of the media in controlling the thinking of man, imperialists have
hijacked and manipulated the global media from its educative, informative and
entertaining role to being the major apparatus in the creation and perpetuation of the
Anglo-American hegemony agenda globally.
It therefore doesn’t come as a surprise that a successful land reform program may be
called “chaotic”, an economy under sanctions named “mismanaged and in meltdown”, a
homegrown legislation called “draconian”, by almost if not all of these media houses who
are perpetrating an ideology of their paymasters (He who pays the piper calls the tune).
Through their ill gotten wealth (slavery & colonialism, and other neo-colonial and
imperialist injustices they continue to commit) the imperialists promote their capitalist
system as the only hope for ailing developing economies so that through their set

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financial institutions (IMF, World Bank) they continue to exploit the rich human and
natural resources of African economies.

Frantz Fanon noted that “the last battle of the colonised against the coloniser will often
be the fight of the colonised against each other”. The words are very linked to the
Zimbabwean scenario and relates to what other sections of the Zimbabwean media
community are doing to destroy Zimbabwe in the name of freedom of the media.
For example, the private media, which are usually anti-establishment, refer to the
sanctions that have led to the economic downturn and suffering of the ordinary
Zimbabweans as targeted and claim they are not affecting trade in the country. However,
the public media in Zimbabwe has always maintained that sanctions in Africa in general
and Zimbabwe in particular hurt masses not the government in power because there is no
middle class like in countries of Europe who can effect regime change.
15.11 The role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
The building and maintenance of public support is essential in modern warfare due to the
increasing politicization of warfare, where losses and gains are measured in political
rather than military terms. And if progress cannot be demonstrated during a war, then by
default one is assumed to be losing. Thus, the adage “the battle is not lost on the
battlefield but in the mind,” is very true.

This explains why the American war against terror is glamorized in Western media
though it has led to the indiscriminate killing thousands of innocent civilians which
include defenseless women and children in countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. War on
Terror has been interpreted as an assault on democracy and freedom by Islamic
fundamentalists and has been heavily criticized for the death of innocent souls the world
over though it is positively portrayed in the media.

The media onslaught against Zimbabwean policies is part of the Anglo American warfare
strategy that involves the control of the minds of people and the media support of any of
their policies though they may lead to untold suffering to other people. The third world
Pan- African states, like other developed states also use their indigenous media to counter
the global media positive coverage of Anglo-American policies.

With the growth of global media, the third world countries are creating less of their
culture and buying more of it from the media, hence the continued loss of African
culture. Thus, Africans in general, and Zimbabweans in particular should work together
in the fight against western ideals which are proclaimed in foreign media.

15.12 ACTIVITIES

o Define Media and explain its role and functions

o Critically analyse the following :

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 o Freedom of Expression
o Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
o Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the
behaviour of Zimbabwe’s media to that of other countries
o Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing
political processes in modern politics
o Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle
is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
o Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

References

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NATIONAL & STRATEGIC STUDIES

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 NATIONAL & STRATEGIC STUDIES
DIVISION

KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC PRODUCTION 2011

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