International Journal of Human Resource Studies

ISSN 2162-3058
2021, Vol. 11, No. 4S

A Local Approach Toward Multicultural Counseling in

Malaysia
Nurul Syahida Mohd Ayob
Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology
Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Siti Aishah Hassan (Corresponding author)

Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology
Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Mohd Hamdan Mohamed Nordin

Institute for Social Science Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Received: Oct. 8, 2021 Accepted: Nov. 8, 2021 Online published: Nov. 25, 2021
doi:10.5296/ijhrs.v11i4S.19254 URL: https://doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v11i4S.19254

Abstract
Malaysia is a multicultural and multi-religious country. The importance of multicultural
counseling has been widely recognized and discussed. Counselors need to be
multiculturally-knowledgeable when dealing with multicultural clients. The effectiveness of
counseling may likely be improved by integrating Malaysian approaches that are tailored to
this country’s traditions and insights, into the current conventional counseling practices. Most
of these counseling and psychotherapy theories are based on, and biased towards, the
Euro-American culture. Novice counselors in particular frequently reported a lack of skills in
dealing with culturally-diverse clients. Multicultural counseling competency is an
evolutionary progress that is meant to achieve an effective treatment, and greater inclusion of
minorities in mainstream society. Therefore, this paper highlights multicultural counseling

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competencies and the evolution of counseling in Malaysia. Using narrative method literature
review, this paper presents local approaches toward counseling in Malaysia, based on various
religions, which are specifically focused on an Islamic approach. This paper then compares
and contrasts the local approaches with those of the conventional Western based counseling
methods. Some recommendations that merit further investigation are highlighted for future
studies.
Keywords: multicultural, multicultural counseling competency, counseling Malaysia,
multi-religious country, novice counselors
1. Introduction
Currently, in the year 2021, Malaysia’s population is estimated at 32.7 million with sex ratio
is 106 males to every 100 females. Bumiputra is the majority with 69.8 percent of the
population, followed, the Chinese population composition with 22.4 percent and while
Indians and others are 6.8 percent. The composition of the population clearly shows Malaysia
is a multicultural and multi-religious country. Therefore, understanding Malaysian culture
and traditions is necessary for addressing multicultural counseling approaches (Mohan &
Sorooshian, 2012). Multicultural competency is an element that cannot be ignored by
counselors if they have the intention to meet the needs of diverse client groups (Hassan &
Shuen, 2014). Being from a developed multicultural society, multicultural counseling training
is necessary in most counseling education and training programs. It is pertinent to consider
cultural norms for the effectiveness of the counseling service to be relevant to the intended
population (Khoshbooii et al., 2021).
For future growth to take place, Mohan & Sorooshian (2012) emphasized that counselors
need to incorporate various therapeutic approaches into their practice techniques, such as
multicultural approaches that give attention to religion, communities, and traditions from a
Malaysian context. According to Hassan & Shuen (2014), it is necessary to practice
multicultural counseling in Malaysia, as Malaysia is a multicultural and multi-religious
country. In fact, the importance of multicultural counseling has also been widely recognized
and discussed (Ping & Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2017). Hence, counselors need to be
multiculturally competent when dealing with multicultural clients. As Malaysia aims to
become a developed nation, Hassan (2015) stated that mental health issues are not necessarily
similar to those observed amongst developed nations (Noor et al., 2014). Moreover, the
Malaysian society is not yet familiar with the counseling concept, as most Malaysians still do
not fully understand and are unaware of its importance, which may be based on the fear that
they might be labeled as “Gila” (Mohan & Sorooshian, 2012).
Therefore, the effectiveness of counseling should be improved by integrating Malaysian
approaches that suit the needs of this country’s traditions and insights, into that of the current
conventional counseling practices. Most of the counseling and psychotherapy theories are
based on, and biased towards, the Euro-American healing traditions (Hassan & Shuen, 2014).
Hassan and Shuen (2014) added that these theories are built around their values, which may
not always be applicable and suitable for Malaysian clients, who are from different cultural
traditions and believe in different religions such as Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.

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In addition, Barden et al. (2014) also stated that novice counselors frequently reported a lack
of skills in dealing with culturally diverse clients. Thus, one way for counselors to challenge
and improve their current worldviews and assumptions would be culturally sensitive, by
engaging in cultural immersion techniques, in order to develop multicultural counseling
competencies. As stated by Ping & Aga Mohd Jaladin (2017), multicultural counseling
competencies is an evolutionary progress, which is meant to achieve an effective treatment,
and much greater inclusion of minorities from the mainstream society.
A good introduction answers these questions in just a few pages and, by summarizing the
relevant arguments and the past evidence, gives the reader a firm sense of what was done and
why (Beck & Sales, 2001, pp. 100-102).
1.2 Objective of the Study
The aim of this study is to highlight multicultural counseling competencies and the evolution
of counseling in Malaysia. Accordingly, this paper presents local approaches toward
counseling in Malaysia, based on various religions, which are specifically focused on an
Islamic approach. This paper then compares and contrasts the local approaches with those of
the Western based counseling methods.
2. Method
There are three basic forms of literature reviews, namely narrative reviews, qualitative
systematic reviews, and quantitative systematic reviews. Narrative review is beneficial
instructional papers since they condense a lot of information into a comprehensible style. It is
useful for giving a general overview of a subject and frequently describes the history or
development of a problem or its management (Green et al., 2006). Narrative review is
frequently used as instructional papers to keep practitioners up to date and easier to read and
more comprehensible as compared to systematic review. Therefore, this paper adopts
narrative review and the sources listed in table 1 were used to gather information for this
paper. Basically, the source of the literature gathered are from accessible UPM subscribed
data based and open sources such as google scholar.
Table 1. Sources of literature used in this narrative review paper

No Sources

1 Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences.

2 Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development.

3 Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

4 Journal for International Counselor Education.

5 The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.

6 Asian Social Science.

7 Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research.

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8 Counseling and Values.

9 International Journal of Business and Social Science.

10 Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences.

11 Mental Health and Learning Disabilities Research and Practice.

12 Malaysia Online Journal of Psychology & Counselling.

13 Journal of Black Studies.

14 Journal of Counseling and Development.

15 International journal of environmental research and public health.

16 Social indicators research.

17 International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling

18 Journal for International Counselor Education

19 Journal of Chiropractic Medicine

20 Contemporary Issues in Malaysian Psychology

21 Jurnal Psikologi Malaysia

22 International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism

23 Mental Health and Learning Disabilities Research and Practice

24 Nursing times

2.1 Multicultural Counseling Competency

A multiculturally competent counselor as defined by Robinson & Morris (2000), is a
counselor who is aware, knowledgeable, and has the right skills in the areas of their own
culture, as well as that of their clients. They are able to engage sensitively with clients who
are culturally diverse, pertaining to the needs of their clients.
Sue et al. (1992) defined a multiculturally competent counselor as a counselor who
participates actively in the process of becoming aware of his or her own assumptions about
human behavior, values, biases, preconceived notions, personal limitations, and so on, and so
forth. The counselor is also someone who is actively attempts to understand the worldviews
of his or her culture differently across the clientele without negative judgments, as well as
actively develops and practices appropriate, relevant, and sensitive intervention strategies and
skills for working with his or her culturally different clients (Ping & Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2017;
Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2011). Barden et al. (2014) also added the development of multicultural
counseling competencies which can be enhanced through exposure with people from different
backgrounds, as it may help to develop cultural empathy, improve the individual’s awareness,
self-efficacy, and also their multicultural skills.
Therefore, in short, multicultural counseling competencies pertain to appropriate cultural
awareness, knowledge, and skills, when dealing with culturally diverse clients (Hassan &

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Shuen, 2014). According to Aga Mohd Jaladin (2011), Malaysian counselors appear to
practice a systematic and culture-sensitive counseling basis when engaging with culturally
different clients from a Malaysian context. However, there are some necessary qualities
which are needed and reflects how a multiculturally competent counselor works (Aga Mohd
Jaladin, 2011) such as (a) Background knowledge and experiences of the counselors, (b)
Multicultural awareness, (c) Multicultural knowledge, (d) Multicultural understanding and (e)
Multicultural skills.
2.2 Evolution of Counseling in Malaysia
According to Mohan & Sorooshian (2012), guidance and counseling started in Malaysia
through the work and leadership of the counseling profession in the United States, as it did
across most of the world. Ng (2007) stated that counseling in Malaysia was established
through the education systems, and addiction therapy, and counselors were placed into either
school/university settings, or drug rehabilitation centers (Scorzelli, 1987).
Counselors are those who received formal training from recognized universities, and have a
certified license from the Board of Counsellors under the 1998 Act. Ping & Aga Mohd
Jaladin (2017) added that there are three major differences amongst the governing ministries
that help in coordinating the mental health-related services. The most well-known counseling
association is the Persatuan Kaunseling Malaysia (PERKAMA).
The Lembaga Kaunselor Malaysia (LKM; 2011) code of ethics by PERKAMA is a set of
guidelines for the profession, published by the Malaysia Board of Counsellors. Most
employers in Malaysia require their counselors to be registered under LKM to comply with
the Act 580 (Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2017).
The Department of Statistics Malaysia (2021) disclosed that a multicultural population of
32.75 million (including 3.01 million of noncitizens) along with the US Central Intelligence
Agency’s 2010 data, that 69.7% were Malays, who were mainly Muslims (61.3%); 22.5%
were Chinese, who were mainly Buddhists (19.8%), Confucianism, Taiosts, and other
traditional Chinese religions (1.3%), with some were Christians (9.2%); and 6.8% were
Indians, who were mainly Hindus (6.3%); while a small population were categorized as
others (1.0%) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2021). Bahasa Melayu is the first language in
Malaysia, and English Language is the second language (Mohan & Sorooshian, 2012).
However, Malaysians tend to mix languages and dialects in daily conversations.
Ng (2007) stated that each culture in Malaysia has different roots, and has experienced
cultural adaptations. For example, “bumiputera”, is associated with the Malays and other
indigenous groups such as the Iban, Kadazan and Bajau, while the Chinese and Indians were
brought into Malaysia during the British colonization from Southern China and India,
respectively. In addition, faith-beliefs have also been found to be associated with
culture.Although the official religion in Malaysia is Islam, the Malaysia constitution does
allow the freedom to practice other religions (Ng, 2007).
There is an increasing alertness in integrating native Malaysian values with that of the
Western counseling approaches (Ng, 2007). According to Smith (2003), Malaysian culture is

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already “hybrid” in nature, and all ethnic groups in this country have undergone a certain
level of assimilation and toleration toward one another, which helps the society to live in
harmony as a whole (Ng, 2007). However, Mohan and Sorooshian (2012) said that the
importance of counseling benefits should be further promoted across this society. Therefore,
counselors in Malaysia need to have multicultural competence for providing professional
services to a diverse population. Therefore, it is impossible to ignore the importance of
multicultural counseling competence in a multicultural country like Malaysia (Ping & Aga
Mohd Jaladin, 2017).
The method section describes in detail how the study was conducted, including conceptual
and operational definitions of the variables used in the study, as different types of studies will
rely on different methodologies. However, a complete description of the methods used
enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of the methods, and the reliability and the
validity of the results. It also permits experienced investigators to replicate the study. If the
manuscript is an update of an ongoing or earlier study, and the method has been published in
detail elsewhere, one may refer the reader to that source, and simply give a brief synopsis of
the method used in this section.
2.3 Religion-Based
Young et al. (2007) defined religion as “the specific organized and codified form through
which individuals may express their spirituality”. In terms of multiculturally competent
practices, religion and/or spirituality is an often-neglected area (Scott et al., 2016). The
authors stated that this needs to be reinforced by the individual, who noted that “counselors
are less skilled in dealing with faith or religion as this area is often not a target of
multicultural training”. Thus, it is crucial for counselors to be aware and understand the
religion, or spiritual aspect of their clients, so that they are prepared for all multicultural
issues.
Currently, the largest religious group in the world are Christians. However, Muslims are
expected to be equally large by 2050 (Mintert et al., 2020). Thus, as stated by Mintert et al.,
(2020), it is reported that clients often want to discuss the religious or spiritual aspects of
their backgrounds while receiving therapy. Malaysia is unique in its diversity in religion, as
religion is an important sociocultural value, and will always be a part of the life for each
individual in Malaysia (Mohan & Sorooshian, 2012). Typically: (a) Malays-Islam, (b)
Chinese-Buddhism, (c) Indians-Hinduism, (d) Taoism, (e) Christians, (f) Aboriginal peoples
and (g) animism.
Based on Ng (2007), Malaysians are generally diverse regarding mental health views, and
also for seeking alternatives. Most of the psychiatric patients in Malaysia first sought
magico-religious treatments, before seeking professional care (Ng, 2007). Hence, although
multicultural counseling is based on the universal principles of counseling psychology, it is
very difficult for many counselors to practice without any recourse to that of religion (Hassan
& Shuen, 2014).
2.3.1 Islamic Counseling

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Based on the Islamic background in Malaysia, of which Muslims are the largest population in
Malaysia at 61.3% (Ping & Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2017), some Islamic psychologists have
started integrating Islamic perspectives into counseling practices (Haque & Masuan, 2002).
Ng (2007) stated that, Dr. Azhar Md. Zain, a psychiatrist who is trained in the U.K on
cognitive and behavioral therapy, returned to Malaysia in 1994, and proposed the use of
cognitive and behavioral therapy in Malaysia. Later on, Azhar and other practitioners began
integrating religious and sociocultural elements within the conventional approach, which
produced good results. They received positive feedback for this religious-oriented
psychotherapy from their patients, because it was in line with their values and identities.
Since then, Islamic approaches showed significant growth in Malaysia (Haque & Masuan
2002).
The Islamic perspective views on religion should not be forced onto people. Muslims do have
the obligatory duty to spread the message of God regardless of backgrounds but Islam does
not compel people to follow it (Hassan & Shuen, 2014). Islamic counseling is based on
Islamic perspectives of human nature, which integrates spirituality into the counseling
process (Haque & Masuan, 2002). This approach aims to focus on the underlying
psychological needs from a religion-based perspective, which emphasizes spiritual
approaches based on worshipping God, and the responsibilities as the servants of God.
2.3.2 Measures and Covariates
Include in the Method section information that provides definitions of all primary and
secondary outcome measures and covariates, including measures collected but not included in
this report. Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., written questionnaires, interviews,
observations) as well as methods used to enhance the quality of the measurements (e.g., the
training and reliability of assessors or the use of multiple observations). Provide information
on instruments used, including their psychometric and biometric properties and evidence of
cultural validity.
2.3.3 Human Nature
Based on Hassan (2015), Langgulung (2001) explained that human nature is made up of two
elements, namely, the physical (Jasd) elements, which are from the realm of creation (‘alam
al-khalq); and the spiritual (Ruh), which are from the realm of order (‘alam al-amr). There is
‘the soul’ that connects the physical and the spiritual. The soul is further explained, and
comes in three different forms (Qalb, Aql & Nafs), as illustrated in Figure 1.
Based on the works of the past Muslims scholars, Langgulung (2001) explained the
summarized meaning of the four concepts that constitute human consciousness (Hassan,
2015). “Nafs is the place of bad conduct, whereas Ruh is the source of life and the place of
good conduct. Ruh is soft, pure and free from the influence of the Nafs. It came from Allah
and its existence is unobservable; it is also the place of love and mercy, whereas the Qalb is
the place of knowledge and the channels of perceptions. The Qalb cannot perceive unless it is
free from the influence of the five senses. As for Aql, it is used for knowledge coming
through the five senses using the thinking process. It is lower in rank than the Qalb. It is

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because both Nafs and Ruh attempt to drag the Qalb to its side, and the Qalb is sometimes
influenced by the Ruh, and other times by the Nafs.”
Therefore, he then ranked Nafs, Aql, Qalb and Ruh in ascending order, as shown in Figure 1.
Accordingly, Hassan (2001) and Hassan et al. (2005) suggested that the dimensions of human
nature can be philosophically viewed as a six-layer sphere. The spirit is the core of the sphere,
which always remains pure. Then, it is followed by Qalb, which is considered an emotional
dimension. Then, Aql has the intellectual dimension, followed by Nafs, the physiological
dimension. This is then followed by Jasd, the physical, and Insan, the social dimensions of a
human being, as the last layer. Figure 2 below demonstrates the six-layer sphere (Hassan,
2015).
According to Zakaria and Akhir (2017), some practitioners in Malaysia have applied Islamic
theories and modules which have been formulated according to this country’s society, such as
(1) The Modification Model; a practice of conventional counseling through the
implementation of Islamic teachings, and the exclusion of non-Islamic or non-Shariah
compliances based on its interventions and strategies; (2) Integrative Models, through the
integration of the conventional approaches, and traditional Islamic techniques, with both
disciplines respecting original identities, and following scientific methods, including Islamic
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (iCBT), Cognitive al-Deen Counseling, and Spiritual
Counseling (Kaunseling Bina Jiwa, KBJ); (3) Traditional Models which are meant as
counseling approach based on the Quran, the Sunnah (the sayings, deeds and tacit approvals
of Prophet Muhammad, PBUH) and literatures by Muslim scholars, such as Al-Ghazali’s
Models in counseling, Prophetic Style Counseling, and Asma Allah al-Husna Counseling
Therapy.
Although the Muslim counselors have the obligatory duty to spread Islamic teachings, they
also (counselors) need to maintain the global standard of professionalism associated with
counselling (Hassan & Shuen, 2014). Therefore, there should be no hindrance in counseling
relationships for counselors and clients, regardless of religions and ideologies, because the
focus of the assistance process should be along the goals of the counseling. However, it is
undeniable that there are certain things which need to be well thought-out, as Islam is a
religion with its own circumvented principles, and Muslims are meant to abide to it.
2.4 Chinese and Others Local Approaches
Chinese are the second largest group in Malaysia, and they are varied in their dialectic
subculture, education background, generation, demography, and also degree of assimilation
into the mainstream culture in Malaysia (Ting & Foo, 2021). According to Ng (2007), the
Chinese perspectives on mental health are also varied, as its heavily influenced by ancient
Chinese philosophy, as well as animistic and folk religious beliefs (Haque, 2005). The
Chinese philosophical views on good health are regulated by ch’i (air or breath), which is a
balance of physical, mental, and spiritual functions. The Chinese tend to reach out for help
from Chinese physicians who use herbs, acupuncture, or ch’i-gong (a form of martial art) to
re-balance the ch’i in their body. Haque (2005) added that situational expectations, especially
in the family and society, are considered appropriate for an individual’s well-being. When an

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individual is believed to be hysterically possessed by unwelcome spirits, Ng (2007) stated

that the families usually seek help from their place of worship, or folk religious rituals, to get
rid or appease the spirits.
Therefore, having a cultural sensitivity, awareness and knowledge towards different groups in
the Chinese society in Malaysia is crucial toward becoming a competent counselor. Ting and
Foo (2021) also stated that counselors should be trained with therapy skills, as there are
specific issues which have been seen among Chinese in Malaysia, for example, (a)
Cognitive-behavior therapy- The Chinese American community with its education and
moralistic elements, and (b) A solution-focused approach- Chinese who prefer a practical
approach, and quick solution.
In addition, having knowledge on the Chinese community’s resources and traditional wisdom
would be very helpful for the counselors when dealing with much more traditional Chinese,
as many of them still practice folk religions like Taoists and ancestral worships (Ting & Foo,
2021). Hence, knowing about these local practices as an added knowledge also can help
improve cultural competency.Ting and Foo (2021) further elaborated that counselors also are
encouraged to talk to different religious leaders in the Chinese community for wider exposure,
as there are some Chinese practitioners who have started integrating religious approaches in
their practices, such as Buddhist therapists using mindfulness and meditation, and Christian
therapists using prayers and scriptures.
Studies also found that Malaysian counselors perceived multicultural counseling
competencies which varied across the society, such as Malays, Chinese, and Indians. Among
these three major ethnic groups in Malaysia, according to Aga Mohd Jaladin (2017), Indians
showed a significant and positive interrelated correlation with the perceived multicultural
counseling competencies. The author stated that this was consistent with the
Holcomb-McCoy and Myers (1999) study, where the general perception on being a minority
boosted the counselor’s multicultural competence. Traditionally, Haque (2005) stated that
Indians viewed mental health as being heavily influenced by Hinduism. According to the
Vedas, they considered health as an integration of three elements: the body, mind, and soul.
Mental health is related to diet (Haque, 2005). Similar to Buddhist philosophy, as some of the
Indians may also be Buddhist, mental health is related to Karma, i.e., the fruit of one’s actions,
and also practicing the right mindset and delivering the right kind of action (Haque, 2005).
Like the Chinese, Indians also usually seek help from their priests at Hindu temples (Ng,
2007).
Generally, for non-Muslims, Christianity and Buddhism are the two major religions which
have shaped the mental health views in Malaysia (Ng, 2007).
2.5 Conventional Western Approach
The conventional counseling models, such as psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, and
existentialism, have generally dominated the process of counseling. Hussein Rassool (2015)
categorized these theories as (a) Directive counseling; Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Rational
Emotive Behavioral Therapy, Gestalt, (b) Non-directive counseling, which is a Person

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Centered Therapy, (c) Eclectic counseling; the best/most suitable approach and technique
from across different theories, that met the needs of the clients, (d) Integrative counseling,
where, counselors combine elements from across different theories and models, and
integrates them into a new model.
In terms of theoretical approaches in Malaysia, Mohamad and Ab Rahman (2011) stated that
the Person-centered approach is the most widely used, followed by the Rational Emotive
Behavioral Therapy (REBT), and the eclectic approach. Other theories seem to be less used,
as they are not very suitable with the needs of the clients from a Malaysian context, as they
may contradict with the client’s religious principles (Mohamad & Ab Rahman, 2011). The
selection of these approaches have been identified to be influenced by several factors, such as
(a) Religious backgrounds, (b) Family backgrounds, (c) Personality, and (d) Influence from
former counselor educators.
According to Mohamad and Ab Rahman (2011), counseling services in Malaysia have
increased gradually to both public and private sectors, which is in line with the increased
awareness regarding mental health issues among Malaysians. From a Malaysian context, the
early stages of counseling services are greatly influenced by the American style, where most
of the lecturers obtained their training from institutions in the United States of America.
According to Aga Mohd Jaladin (2011), the general counselling process consists of three
stages, which are before counseling, during counseling, and after counseling. Aga Mohd
Jaladin (2011) provided a theoretical model on the mechanisms and processes involved when
engaging with multicultural clients:
The cross-cultural counseling processes
In general, Malaysian counselors are found to focus on the pre-counseling stage, and
cross-cultural relationship building, such as attending skills, and accepting clients
unconditionally, which are meant as the critical stages for successfully engaging with clients
from culturally different backgrounds. The theoretical model consists of three mechanisms
and processes:
a. Before counseling: making culturally appropriate preparations for counselling.
Aga Mohd Jaladin (2011) suggested three (3) findings at this stage: the awareness and
knowledge of counselors regarding their own cultures, as well as clients; the counselor’s
awareness of their own cultural background, the self-perceived attributes and competencies,
and the counselor’s awareness, basic knowledge, and understanding on culturally challenging
issues, and the strategies to handle them with suitable multicultural approaches in Malaysia.
All these essential elements may contribute to the effectiveness of multicultural counseling.
Hence, counselors must develop these multicultural competencies as preparations, before
engaging with issues related to culture and diversity.
b. During counseling: engaging with culture and diversity
This stage is characterized by the three general counseling processes; therapeutic
cross-cultural relationship, multicultural case conceptualization, and culturally-appropriate

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interventions. In order to further describe this process, Aga Mohd Jaladin (2011) associated it
with 4 necessary elements (i) Discussing the cultural differences in order to remain engaged,
(ii) Using a culturally sensitive and appropriate framework when assessing the client’s issues,
(iii) Setting culturally appropriate counseling goals, and (iv) Developing a culturally sensitive
and appropriate intervention.
The author emphasized that the most critical stage is where the counselor needs to be
multiculturally competent when dealing with cultural differences that happen to exist
between themselves and the clients, beforehand. Only then they can further continue with the
relationship. Therefore, counselors need to be well-prepared with basic background
knowledge and skills, and be able to think creatively when engaging with culturally
challenging clients/issues.
c. After counseling: evaluating the counseling outcomes
Based on the findings, there are three crucial elements at this stage; the perceived progress
across former clients, the counselor’s level of satisfaction, and lessons learnt from the
engagement experience (Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2011). Counselors usually expect that when there
is a positive change, or progress observed in their former clients, then it reflects that the
counseling was successful. The perceived progress that counselors usually attribute to the
client’s overall satisfaction are their readiness to change, self-acceptance, better
self-understanding, awareness of their own feelings, and the willingness of following-up with
the counselors. In addition, counselors are also encouraged to frequently assess their own
counseling engagement by reflecting on their own satisfaction levels at the end of the
relationship (Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2011).
Appropriate identification of research participants is critical toward the science and practice
of psychology, particularly for generalizing the findings, making comparisons across
replications, and using the evidence in research syntheses, and secondary data analyses. If
humans participated in the study, it is important to report the eligibility and exclusion criteria,
including any restrictions based on the demographic characteristics.
2.6 Comparison of the Local Approaches the Conventional Western Approaches
Counseling approaches in Malaysia are mostly taken from the Western models. Aga Mohd
Jaladin (2017) discussed some comparative multicultural counseling competence frameworks
between Malaysian and the Western world. A study conducted by Aga Mohd Jaladin (2017)
revealed that the multicultural counseling competence of professional counselors in Malaysia
consists of five aspects; multicultural understanding, multicultural knowledge, micro cultural
skills, multicultural awareness, and macro cultural skills. This finding is consistent with the
findings from Holcomb-McCoy and Myers (1999), which also found five aspects of
multicultural counseling competence. However, there are some similarities and distinctions
shared across both studies, which dealt with the cultural awareness, knowledge, and skill
aspects found in both studies, which is summarized as shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Differences of the approaches

Differences Local Approaches Conventional Western Approach

Theories Islamic Psychospiritual, Al-Ghazali Cognitive Behavior Therapy,

Counseling, Al-Balkhi Rational Emotive Behavioral
Psychotherapy, Cognitive Addin Therapy, Gestalt counseling, Person
Maqasid Shariah Discernment Centered Counselling
Counseling, DHT Counseling

We vs I Use “we” indicating value for Use “I” indicating value of

collectivism. individualism
valuing a harmonious relationship,
the importance of face-saving, and
religious orientation.

Family vs Individual Malaysian consider families as an Systemic Family Counseling/

important resource, however, most Therapy emphasis on involvement
of the counseling training in of family members in the counseling
Malaysia have focused on sessions
individual-based sentiments, with
minimal weight on family
structures.

Family & friend vs Clients need to gain the confidence Professional help seeking is valued
professional helps and trust first, before seeking instead of family and friends
counseling to talk about the
confidential aspects of one’s life,
which is very much valued.
They preferred someone they know
instead of total stranger

Cultural Differences on “self- shame, and face-saving reactions sell-disclosure is considered as

disclosure” for self-disclosure especially related effective techniques
to family matters

Having a much better understanding of Malaysian culture can be obtained by looking deeper
at its culture, values, and norms (Mohan & Sorooshian, 2012). Mohan and Sorooshian (2012)
further explained that Malaysian values are deep-rooted and different from the Western one,
for example, respecting, more emphasis more on ‘we’ than ‘I’, valuing a harmonious
relationship, the importance of face-saving, and religious orientation. Whereas, from an
international perspective, Manery (2000) said that some values which differentiate
Malaysians with that of the Western culture are the importance of the extended family, shame,
and face-saving reactions, pressure for academic achievement, authoritarianism, and men as
being the head of the family. Hassan and Shuen (2014) also added that among the main
values of Euro- Americans is the aspect of individualism. In short, the most important
dimension is individualism versus collectivism (Mohan & Sorooshian, 2012).
In addition, the Malaysian society needs to gain the confidence and trust first, before seeking
counseling to talk about the confidential aspects of one’s life, which is very much valued
(Mohan & Sorooshian, 2012). Self-disclosure of one’s personal issues are a reflection of both
the individual’s life and their family structure. Thus, most families place a strong emphasis on

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exercising privacy. Despite the fact that Malaysian people consider families as an important
resource, however according to Ng (2007), most of the counseling training in Malaysia have
focused on individual-based sentiments, with minimal weight on family structures. It was
only recently that family counseling was integrated into the curriculum. The emphasis on
face-saving could be a factor that contributes to this norm (Ng, 2007). In the Western society,
being assertive is much more encouraged. Malaysian people value respect, and by being too
assertive, it might not be appropriate in a Malaysian context. (Mohan & Sorooshian , 2012)
3. Recommendation
Various approaches can be seen to have been used by counselors to provide counseling to
those in need (Mohamad & Ab Rahman, 2011). Examples given by Mohan and Sorooshian
(2012) showed a lack of self-awareness, insight, and feelings, and behavioral problems.
These issues can be managed with appropriate suitable techniques and approaches, where
many have taken lightly the importance of counseling in managing one’s common daily life
issues.
Counseling plays a vital role in lives, where it can provide professional help with the use of
different counseling approaches, such that it is deemed suitable to address the concerns of the
clients. From a Malaysian context, Mohan and Sorooshian (2012) stated that Malaysians are
still doubtful or unaware about counseling, which has hindered them from seeking aid. In
many cases, face-saving has been the primary factor, due to the social stigma that still
prevails within Malaysian society, regarding mental health issues. Hence, as suggested by
Aga Mohd Jaladin (2011), to develop much more meaningful counseling relevance from a
Malaysian context, it is crucial for the counselors to use approaches which are suitable with
the values and needs of the Malaysian people. This brings us to the basic characteristics of
how to be a multiculturally competent counselor, as previously explained by Aga Mohd
Jaladin (2011). Counseling courses and training programs should be designed by integrating
all five components of multicultural competence for counselors to nurture in-depth
multicultural counseling programs (Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2017). Possibly, the novices could be
the first to be familiarized to the five fundamental elements of being multiculturally
competent counselors.
It is certain that counseling courses and training from a Malaysian context are very significant
in fostering counselors to become multiculturally competent (Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2011). For
instance, pre-service counselors have to possess basic knowledge on Malaysian cultures, and
reflect on the meaning of these cultures from within their own cultural selves. This benefits
the novices in increasing their own awareness on cultural identity of themselves and their
clients, and become much more knowledgeable to recognize issues that arise from a specific
cultural context, and become much more skillful in dealing with such issues from a
counseling context. Whereas, for active counselors, they should have more opportunities to
join professional development training, such as additional training programs on the
understanding and practice of multicultural counseling, as it helps to expand their skills when
dealing with clients that are culturally different. The participation in such training programs
can improve the counselor’s multicultural competencies (Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2011).

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Another area of concern according to Ng (2007) had to do with language barriers. He further
elaborated that circumstantial information showed that to find therapists for non-Malay or
non-English speakers is somehow difficult. Therefore, counselors who are able to
communicate across multi-languages are greatly in demand. Hence, multilingual abilities can
be emphasised as a criteria when selecting counseling graduates, as well as in the curriculum
pertaining to counselors training (Ng, 2007). This certainly will have an implication in
becoming a competent multicultural counselor.
Ping and Aga Mohd Jaladin (2017) noted that in Malaysia, there is not much cultural and
social mixing in counseling agencies, which creates an environment where counselors do not
get to work with culturally diverse clients, due to the categorization of counseling agencies
based on specific languages and religions. This has caused counselors difficulty in improving
their multicultural skills. As stressed by Ping and Aga Mohd Jaladin (2017), practical
experience is essential for counselors to learn from. Therefore, integrating the practical
approach into the current syllabus of theory-based counseling programs should be enhanced
much more, for example, from site visits, culturally-related programs, individuals, and group
counseling with culturally different clients, to gain first-hand experiences, for example, on
culturally sensitive issues, such as religion, sexuality, and the LGBT community, to
ultimately enable students to become better counselors pertaining to multicultural
competencies (Ping & Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2017)
In addition to that, Barden et al. (2014) suggested that cultural immersion programs can be
one of the opportunities provided to counselors as a form of their first-hand experiences, for
witnessing the challenges faced by the minorities, identifying the relationship of culture with
one’s behavior, and the importance for counselors to be culturally sensitive. This was also
supported by Aga Mohd Jaladin (2017), as counseling courses and training programs should
highlight the real-world elements in the curriculum, to better educate and train counselors.
Exposing students to the diversity of cultural languages and traditions during immersions
help to boost multicultural skills, and the self-efficacy needed for novices to be much more
appropriately suited to assess cultural differences (Barden et al., 2014). Likewise et al. (2013)
added that the most critical experience of the immersion phase is to engage in counseling
related activities, such as conducting group counseling, working in schools with students, and
doing art therapy at domestic violence shelters with community members.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, counselors in Malaysia generally already possess an adequate idea of
multicultural counseling, where most of the counselors are already aware, knowledgeable,
and are able to identify the socio-cultural background of the client's beliefs and values.
Counselors in Malaysia mostly viewed themselves to be multiculturally competent. They
viewed themselves to be mostly competent in multicultural knowledge, and understanding
various such aspects. They were found to be least competent in multicultural awareness and
associated skills. This is in contrast with the findings among the US counselors, who viewed
themselves to be most competent on multicultural awareness aspects, and the least competent
on the knowledge aspect.

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Malaysian counselors perceived multicultural counseling competence as being varied by

culture, education background, and training. Indians, compared to other major cultural groups
in Malaysia, showed a significant and positive interrelated correlation with the perceived
multicultural counseling competency. This finding was consistent with Western cultural
findings, where the general perception on being a minority boosts the counselor’s
multicultural competence. In short, the overall finding showed a connection between ethnic
groups and multicultural counseling competencies, and between the counselor’s professional
education, development training, and multicultural counseling competencies. Through such
understanding, counselors are expected to be able to handle multicultural issues such as
racism, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping and ethnocentrism, much better. Therefore, it
is important for counselors to have creativity in the adaptation of skills, knowledge, and
techniques learnt, in order to contribute toward the sensitivity, efficiency, and effectiveness of
counseling services provided.
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Appendix A
The Heading to Appendix A

Figure 1: Human Consciousness

Source : Hassan, (2015).

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Appendix B
The Heading to Appendix B

Figure 2: Dimensions of Human Nature,

Source : Hassan, (2015).

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Appendix C
The Heading to Appendix C

Figure 3: Theoretical model for engagement process with culturally different clients
described by counsellors.

Source: Aga Mohd Jaladin (2011)

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