Structures for Architecture

Integrated Design Project II (ARCH4092), February, 2024, By:- Abdo B.

Structures
Definition
Everything even intangible things as thought, emotions
and social relationships frequently have definite pattern
called Structure
It can be defined as (Dictionaries)

“the organization or interrelation of all

parts of a whole.”
Structures
Definition
Structure of buildings

can be defined as the assemblage of those parts that

exist for the purpose of maintaining shape and
stability.
Structure of a Building
The primary function of a
building structure is to
support and transmit the
loads and forces to the
ground.

Structures is a way of
achieving the most
strength from the least
material through the most
appropriate arrangement of
elements with a form
suitable for its intended use
Consideration
Building Loads
 Dead loads
 Live loads
 Earth quake loads
 Wind loads
 Earth pressure
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Load combinations
Loads (continued)
Wind Load (WL) –
Resulting loads
yields
 Lateral load on walls
 Downward and
upward pressure on
roofs
Loads (continued)
Earthquake Loads
(EQ)
 Seismic load based on
building mass, type
and configuration.
 Vertical and lateral
forces (dynamic)
 Building codes can
simplify loading
Load Path through a
simple building
A “good” design?
 The building dead load is the only known
load. All other forces will vary in
magnitude, duration and location.
 The building is designed for design load
possibilities that may never occur.
 The structural efficiency of a building is
measured as the ratio of dead to live load.
The building designer strives to keep the
ratio low.
Concrete Structures
Concrete is a stone like material obtained by carefully
mixing
cement,
sand,
gravel( crushed rocks or
other aggregated )
water,

and allowing the product to cure for hardening.

Therefore:
Aggregates make up
60-75% of total volume
of concrete.
• 25-40% cement
(absolute volume of cement = 7-15% ;
water = 14-21%)
• Up to 8% air (depending on top size of
coarse aggregate)
Reinforced Concrete – Steel in Concrete Straw in Mud
Concrete Structures
Advantages
It has considerable compressive strength as compared to most other
materials.

Great resistance to the action of fire and water and, in fact, is the
best structural material available for situation where water is present.

Reinforcing concrete structures are very rigid

It is a low-maintenance material

Economical material for different construction.

Moldable to any desired shape in forms while plastic.

A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared to

other materials such as structural steel.
Disadvantages
very low tensile strength, referring the use of expensive tensile
reinforcement.
Formwork is very expensive. Hence it should be obvious that
when efforts are made to improve the economy of reinforced
concrete structures the major emphasis is on reducing formwork
costs.
large dead weight has a great effect on bending moments.

Quality control is very difficult

Difficult to dismantle after hardening

Difficult to supervise after pouring.

Steel structures
Characteristics of Steel as Used in Building

Composition:
Steel consists of layers of iron ore, coke (a form of carbon), and
limestone.
Strength and malleability of the steel are functions of the carbon
content. Carbon contents are as follows:
1) Cast iron= 3-4% carbon
2) High carbon steel= less than 2% carbon
3) Milled steel= 3/10 of 1% carbon
Production process of steel:
1) Approximates proportion: 7 parts iron ore, to 3 parts coke, to 1 part limestone,
to 16 parts air.
2) Coke is burned.
3) Oxidation with air produces carbon monoxide.
4) Limestone is combined with the ore, reacting with impurities in the ore to
produce a slag.
5) Carbon monoxide from step 3 reacts with the ore to produce elemental iron.
6) Result is molten steel, which is cast into ingots.
7) Hot ingots are squeezed between rollers into rectangular
shapes called blooms.
8) Blooms are rolled into structural shapes (at 1260 degrees C).
Structural Steel
Steel Section
The typical types of steel elements:
1) Wide Flange: The I- bean, or H-beam. “Flange” refers to the horizontal parts of the
“I”, the vertical part is known as the “web”. Flanges range between 8” and 30” in
height. If the web height exceeds the flange width the section is an “I”, if the
flange width exceeds the web height, the section is an “H”.

2) Channel: The “C” flange. Flanges range between 2” and 4” while webs range
between 3” and 24”.

3) Angle: The “L” shape. The angle can be equal (typical sizes are 8”x8”, 1”x1”),
or unequal (typical sizes are 6”x8”, and 1”x2”).
 Nomenclature:
· W12x26. The letter refers to the type of cross section (in this case, wide
flange); the first number refers to the nominal depth of the section (web
height plus flange thicknesses). The second number refers to weight per foot
of length.

· Thus W12x26 refers to a wide flange beam, with a 12” depth weighing
26lbs. For each foot of length.

Letter designations of cross sections:

1) W= wide flange
2) L= angle
3) C=channel
4) Wt= structural tee
 Steel Construction
Basic Principles of Steel Construction:

1) Members made in factory- assembled on site.

2) Steel members are used to frame buildings (much like wood

framing). The basic members used are beams, columns, and joists.

3) Shapes are standardized depending on use.

4) Steel is very hard, and strong in both tension and compression.

5) Because steel is so strong, it can be used to create large open

spaces. The openness of space in steel frame buildings makes for
increased flexibility in partitioning interiors.

6) Strength of steel is compromised by extreme heat, which results in

buckling.
Steel Construction
Joining steel elements together:
The most common method of joining members in a steel frame is with bolts, using
smaller steel angles as transitional elements.

1) Beam into column flange

2) Beam into column web

Welding:
The process of melting two steel elements together to form a monolithic form. It is
very expensive, and rarely used.
Fire Protection:
· Under extreme heat, steel is subject to buckling and twisting, which can result in
structural failure.
· The building code specifies that steel frame buildings of more than one storey must
have a certain amount of sheathing over structural steel elements, which provides a
greater amount of time until heat reaches the member.
Methods of fire protecting steel frames:
1) Masonry, or concrete surrounding the members. This was the first
method used, but is not often used today because of cost, and the extra
weight which must be compensated for in a stronger structure.

2) Plaster covering: this is the most common method for fire protecting steel
frames today.
a. Lath and plaster covering
b. Gypsum board: the same drywall used for walls
c. Spray on plaster: consisting of a fiber combined with a binding
agent. This method is very light in weight.
Floors and roofs in steel frame buildings:
1) Metal corrugated decking with…
a. Poured concrete, which forms the basic subfloor.
b. Wood or timber decking on top.
c. Gypsum board slabs on top (for roofing).

2) Precast concrete decking suspended on steel beams.

3) Poured in place concrete slabs, with or without lost forms.
Advantages of steel as a structural Material
Advantages of steel as a structural Material
THE SPACE FRAMES
INTRODUCTION
A space frame is a truss-like,
Definition lightweight rigid structure constructed
Simplified from interlocking struts in a geometric
pattern. Space frames usually utilize a
space frame multidirectional span, and are often
roof with the used to accomplish long spans with
half- few supports. They derive their
strength from the inherent rigidity of
octahedron the triangular frame; flexing loads
highlighted (bending moments) are transmitted as
in blue tension and compression loads along
the length of each strut.

Light weight, strong, three

dimensional and modular
structure
INTRODUCTION

Many architects and engineers

throughout the world have expressed
their design freedoms with Space
Frame Systems.

The simplicity of these systems

provides a natural link between
yesterday and today. For this reason,
designers have specified Space Frame
Systems for an increasing variety of
renovation and remodeling
applications. The modular systems
allow fast track delivery and job site
assembly
INTRODUCTION
Some space frame applications include:

Parking canopys
Hotel/Hospital/commercial building
entrances
Commercial building lobbies
INTRODUCTION

Some advantages of space frame systems

over conventional systems are:

Random column placement

Column-free spaces

Minimal perimeter support

Controlled load distribution

Redundant integrity

Design freedom

Supports all types of roofing

Exposing building exterior to view adds

color, texture and style
 Brief history and development of systems
Alexander Graham Bell may be considered
the first to construct modular space grids.
It is not well known that the inventor of the
telephone, Alexander Graham Bell (1847 -
1922), experimented with space truss
structures made of octahedral and
tetrahedral units early in this century. He
appreciated the dual properties of high
strength and lightweight exhibited by these
rigid structural forms and incorporated
them into several of his projects.

The MERO system was the first

commercial space grid system.

Despite Bell's construction of modular space

trusses early this century, the MERO system
Bell's interest was primarily in using them to was the first space grid system widely available
make rigid frames for aeronautical engineering commercially. This was developed in Germany
by Dr. Ing. Max Mengeringhausen (1903 -
“the use of tetrahedral cells is not limited to
1988) but was not introduced until the early
the construction of a framework for kites &
1940s.
flying-machines”
Brief history and development of systems

Mero The MERO system is probably the

most elegant concept for the
construction of space grid
structures, the connection of
circular tube members to 'ball'
joints at the nodes by a single
concealed bolt. It developed from
Mengeringhausen's study of natural
structures such as wheat stalks and
bamboo canes. The name MERO
derives from an abbreviation of the
original name Mengeringhausen
Rohrbauweise.
Brief history and development of systems

Mero Usually the members are circular

hollow steel or aluminum tubes
that have tapered cone sections
welded to each end (complete with
connection bolt and sleeve) and
the nodes are hot forged solid steel
or drop forged aluminum spheres
with drilled and tapped holes and
profiled to receive the tube ends. It
is also possible to use laminated
timber members that have short
tubular steel inserts at the ends for
connection to the nodes.
Brief history and development of systems

Mero Geometry Originally the MERO system had

only one type of standard joint, a
sphere with 18 threaded holes and
machined bearing surfaces at
angles of 45, 60 and 90° to each
other. A series of standard bar
lengths were also produced
However, with modern numerically
controlled precision drilling
techniques, holes may now be at
almost any required angle and
members are manufactured to the
appropriate length thus allowing
great flexibility in geometry.
Brief history and development of systems

Mero There are, of course, many examples

of MERO space frames worldwide as
one would expect for a system nearly
60 years old and there are many
A new MERO alternative node joints and member
space frame cross sections. The MERO system uses
roof for the
Stadium in the most common method of space
Al Ain ; UAE truss construction consisting of
individual bars connected at 'ball'
shaped node joints. The popularity of
this system has endured to the
present day and there are now many
The MERO system it is not only used for alternatives based on the MERO ball
building structures but also for shop joint concept
displays and exhibition stands using
light weight materials.
 Brief history and development of systems
In Canada, the Triodetic system,
Triodetic system
predominantly using aluminium as the
material for the bars and joints, was
introduced by Fentiman Bros. of
Ottawa.

Advances in analytical capabilities led

to further developments of new
systems and the use of space grids for
longer spans.
Brief history and development of systems
Space frame Concepts
 Two-way spanning structural systems are very efficient.
 Basic one-way spanning structures, such as beams and plane trusses, must
transmit any load applied to them directly to their supports. If, however, a grid
of connected intersecting beams is formed in the horizontal plane, a load
applied to one beam will be distributed to all other beams in the grid and thus
to all of the supports. An efficient load sharing system has been produced - a
single-layer grid. A common example of this type of structure in buildings is the
coffered reinforced concrete slab where the orthogonal ribs produced by the
coffering effectively form a grid of intersecting beams supporting a thin floor
slab
When spans exceed 10 to 15 m
the use of beam elements in the
grid becomes uneconomical and
trusses are used to form a
double-layer grid (space grid or
space frame).
Space frame Concepts

The double-layer grid usually consists of two parallel horizontal grids connected
with a pattern of vertical and/or inclined (web) elements between the two plane
grids. This three-dimensional structural form is commonly known as a space
frame or space grid and is one of the most efficient and lightweight structural
systems. There are many examples of similar structures in nature, the internal
structure of some bones, for instance, where considerable strength is required
whilst weight is at a premium.

These types of space grid carry loads by different structural actions and in
strict engineering terminology the majority of 'space frame' structures are in
fact space trusses. Space trusses rely primarily on truss action achieved
through full triangulation of the structure and the individual bars or
members primarily carry axial tension or compression forces as long as the
loads are applied directly to the node joints. On the other hand space
frames that are not triangulated resist the applied loads by rigid frame
action which develops bending, shear and axial forces in all elements even
when loads are only applied to the joints.
Space Trusses
• An elementary space truss consists of 6
members connected at 4 joints to form a
tetrahedron.
• A simple space truss is formed and can be
extended when 3 new members and 1 joint are
added at the same time.

• In a simple space truss, m = 3n - 6 where m is

the number of members and n is the number
of joints.
• Conditions of equilibrium for the joints provide
3n equations. For a simple truss, 3n = m + 6
and the equations can be solved for m member
forces and 6 support reactions.

• Equilibrium for the entire truss provides 6

additional equations which are not
independent of the joint equations.
Space grid geometry - thinking in 3 dimensions

To form a stable pin-jointed structure in two-

dimensional space a fully triangulated structure
must be formed.
In three-dimensional, pin-jointed structures it is a
necessary condition for stability that,
n = 3j - 6
where
n = number of bars in the structure
j = number of joints in the structure
6 is the minimum number of support reactions.
The advantages and disadvantages of using space grids
There are many benefits to be gained from the use of space grid structures, including

Structural efficiency,
Reduced deflections,
Integration of services,
Ease of construction,
and Regularity.

The principal advantages of space grids are as follows:

All elements of the space grid contribute to the load carrying capacity.
Loads are distributed more evenly to the supports.
Deflections are reduced compared to plane structures of equivalent span,
depth and applied loading, assuming that the structural elements are of
similar size.
The open nature of the structure between the two plane grids allows easy
installation of mechanical and electrical services and air-handling ducts
within the structural depth.
The advantages and disadvantages (cont.)
The principal advantages of space grids are as follows:
The statical redundancy of space grids means that, in general, failure of
one or a limited number of elements, for instance, the buckling of a
compression member, does not lead to overall collapse of the structure.
 Space grid structures are resistant to damage caused by fire, explosion or
seismic activity.
Modular space grids are usually factory fabricated (thus producing accurate
components) easily transportable and simple to assemble on site.
Within reason supports can be located almost anywhere in plan.

 For ease of construction, most space grids have a regular grid pattern
which may be exploited architecturally to great effect. If the colour chosen
for the structure contrasts with the colour of the cladding, or against the sky
in fully glazed applications, particularly striking effects can be achieved. In
fact the colour chosen for the grid as well as the grid pattern can influence
the perceived weight of the structure even more than the actual member
sizes.
The advantages and disadvantages (cont.)
The disadvantages to using space grids are associated with
cost,
complexity,
problems of fire protection,
and standardised layout.
There are few disadvantages to using space grids but some are described below:
The main criticism of space grids is their cost, which can be high when
compared with alternative structural systems. . This is particularly true
when space grids are used for short spans (>20-30m)
Visually, space grid structures are very 'busy'. They are rarely seen in plan
or in true elevation and at some viewing angles the lightweight structure can
appear to be very dense.
The number and complexity of joints can lead to longer erection times on
site.
When space grids are used to support floors some form of fire protection
may be required.
The advantages and disadvantages (cont.)

There are few disadvantages to using space grids but

some are described below:

The standardized modular nature of most space grids

can impose a geometric discipline of their own. This
sometimes makes difficult the use of irregular plan
shapes and imposes control on the location of supports.
 Support locations
The choice of the most advantageous support locations will, of course, depend on the
plan form of the structure, however, the positions chosen will have a considerable
influence on the structural efficiency.

Full edge support is more

economical for the space grid
than having corner supports
only although additional
foundation costs may be
incurred.

The maximum forces in the

space frame are less in the
former case and the vertical
deflections are also much
smaller.
 Support locations

Tree supports reduce forces in the bracing (Drawing: John Chilton)

 Edge profiles
There are three common edge profiles for space grids.
The three common edge profiles for space grids are:

 vertical edge
cornice edge
mansard edge.
However, the architect is not limited to these
profiles as special edge details can be
manufactured to order and fixed to the standard
nodes or modules but there will obviously be a cost
penalty.
Edge profiles

Common edge
profiles:
(a)vertical,
(b)cornice and
(c)mansard.
(Drawing: John
Chilton)
 General construction details
As long span structures, space grids require a suitable set of fixed and
sliding bearings to enable them to resist lateral loads whilst allowing
thermal expansion / contraction to take place.

A bearing allowing
movement in one
direction whilst
restraining
movement in the
orthogonal direction
is shown here.
Alternatively, the space grid may be rigidly fixed to some or all of its supports.
In this case, both the space grid and the sub-structure must be designed to
cater for the forces generated by temperature change.
General construction details

As most space grid

applications are for
roofs it is necessary to
provide adequate falls
for rainwater run-off
and an additional pre-
camber may be applied
to counteract the
expected vertical
deflection under load.
 Summary
Space grids are two-way spanning double layer structural systems and are
very efficient.

Space grids are generally of modular construction.

Space grids offer significant advantages compared with their

disadvantages.

There is a wide range of different configurations for space grid structures.

Space grid structures are now an accepted form of construction for long
span roofs (over 30 m).

Some systems are also economic when used for shorter spans, particularly
in situations where the aesthetic of the regular grid can be appreciated.

They provide flexibility of form and support location.

Thank you!