Mechanisms of Machinery

(MEng 3071)
CHAPTER 2: LINKAGES

By Amanuel A, A.

April 2022 G.C

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 Linkages
A linkage is a kinematic chain in which one of the
links is fixed to the ground which usually is the frame.
A linkage permits relative motion between its links and
may have one or more degrees of freedom.
A linkage with zero or negative degree of freedom is a
structure which does not allow any relative motion
between the links.
There are very many linkages formed by different
connections of members.
The members of linkages are connected so as to
produce the motion required by the design.

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 Four-bar Linkage
The kinematic linkage shown in Fig.
2.1 is known as the four-bar linkage.
The conventional numbering system
is to label the ground or frame as
link 1, and then to number links
clockwise around the mechanism
"loop" as shown in Fig. 2.1.

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Four-bar Linkage

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 Motion of a four-bar mechanism

The type of motion that a four-bar linkage executes

depends on the proportional size of its links.

There are three basic types of motion which a four-bar

linkage can produce.

These basic types of motion are characterized by the

terms crank-rocker to indicate that link 2 rotates and link 4

oscillates.

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Double crank to indicate that both the driver and
follower rotate; and
Double-rocker to indicate that both the driver and
follower oscillate through certain angles.

Grashof's condition:

Grashof’s 4-bar linkage: A linkage that contains one or

more links capable of undergoing a full rotation.

A linkage is Grashof’s if:

where: S = shortest link length, L = longest,

P, Q = intermediate length links

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Non Grashof 4 bar: No link can rotate 360 if:

S+L>P+Q

In Grashof’s linkage at least one link will be capable of making a full
revolution with respect to the ground plane.

In non-Grashof’s linkage no link will be capable of a complete

revolution relative to any other link.

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 Grashof's Law
Grashof's law is stated as follows:
I. If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest
links is less than or equal to the sum of the lengths of
the other two links, then;
a) two different crank rockers will be formed when
the shortest link is the crank and either of the
adjacent links is the fixed link;
b) a double crank will be formed when the shortest
link is the fixed link;

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 c) a double rocker will be formed when the link
opposite the shortest link is the fixed link.
d) change point mechanism, the sum of two sides is the
same as the sum of the other two.
Having this equality, the change point mechanism can
be positioned such that all the links become collinear.
The most familiar type of change point mechanism is a
parallelogram linkage.

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The frame and coupler are the same length, and so are the

two pivoting links.

Thus, the four links will overlap each other.

In that collinear configuration, the motion becomes

indeterminate.

The motion may remain in a parallelogram arrangement, or

cross into an anti parallelogram, or butterfly, arrangement.

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II. If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest
links is greater than the sum of the lengths of the
other two, only a double-rocker mechanism will be
formed.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A nose wheel assembly for a small

aircraft is shown in Figure below.
Classify the motion of this four-bar
mechanism based on the configuration
of the links.
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 Inversions of four bar chain mechanism
Different mechanisms can be obtained by fixing different links
of the same kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the
mechanism.

By changing the fixed link, the number of mechanisms which can
be obtained is equal to the number of links.

Excepting the original mechanism, all other mechanisms will be

known as inversions of original mechanism.

The inversion of a mechanism does not change the motion of its

links relative to each other.

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 Inversions of four bar chain mechanism
1. Crank-rocker mechanism:

◦ In this mechanism, either link 1 or link 3 is fixed. Link 2 (crank) rotates

completely and link 4 (rocker) oscillates.

Link 3 fixed
Link 1 Fixed
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 Inversions of four bar chain mechanism
2. Double crank mechanism.
Here link 2 is fixed and both links 1 and 3 make complete rotation but with
different velocities.

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 Inversions of four bar chain mechanism
3. Double rocker mechanism.
In this mechanism, link 4 is fixed. Link 2 makes complete rotation, whereas
links 1 & 3 oscillate

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 Inversions of four bar chain mechanism
If S + L > P + Q, all inversions of the four bar chain mechanism will be
triple-rockers in which no link can fully rotate.

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Inversions of non-Grashoff’s four bar linkage

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4/7/2022 18
 Four-bar Linkage
The links of a four-bar mechanism should be proportional in such a way
that locking is avoided.

Position A’B’O4 shows the case of locking.

When link 2 is rotating completely, there is no danger of linkage

locking. However, if link 2 oscillates, care must be taken in
proportioning the links to avoid locking.

For such a position link four can move in any of the two directions as
indicated
4/7/2022 in the figure. 19
 Four-bar Linkage- Transmission Angle
The angle  between the coupler 3 and the output link 4
(follower) is called the transmission angle.

The equation for the transmission angle can be derived as

follows. From fig 2.3
z 2  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos2  r32  r42  2r3r4 cos

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 Four-bar Linkage- Transmission Angle
From which we obtain the transmission angle.

  cos 
1  r1
2
 r2
2
 r3
2
 r 4  2 r1r2 cos 2 
2

 2 r r 
 3 4 
In general, for good force transmission to the output
link, the transmission angle should be in the range of

40o< <140o.

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 Slider-Crank Mechanism
Slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism
with three revolute joints, or turning pairs and a prismatic
joint or a sliding pair.

In the slider crank mechanism, commonly

- link 1 is the frame, considered to be fixed;
- link 2 is the crank which is the driver (rotating motion);
- link 3 is the connecting rod, the link b/n the driver & follower;
- link 4 is the slider which is the driven element (reciprocating)
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 Slider-Crank Mechanism
The slider crank mechanism converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion and vice-versa.

It is commonly applied in internal combustion engines.

Inversion of the Slider-Crank Mechanism

In an n -link kinematic chain, choosing each link in turn as

the frame yields n distinct kinematic inversions of the chain,
n different mechanisms.

It is thus obvious, that four inversions of a single slider

crank chain are possible.
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Inversions of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
Figure a shows the basic slider-crank mechanism, as found in most
internal combustion engines today.
Link 4, the piston, is driven by the expanding gases and forms the input;

link 2, the crank, is the driven output.

The frame is the cylinder block, link l.

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Inversions of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
Figure b shows the same kinematic chain; however,
it is now inverted and link 2 is stationary.
Link 1, formerly the frame, now rotates about the
revolute at A.
This inversion of the slider-crank mechanism was used
as the basis of the rotary engine found in early aircraft.

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 Inversions of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
Another inversion of the same slider-crank chain is shown in
Fig. c;

it has link 3, formerly the connecting rod, as the frame link.

This mechanism was used to drive the wheels of early steam

locomotives, link 2 being a wheel.

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 Inversions of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
Figure d. The fourth and final inversion of the slider-crank
chain has the piston, link 4, stationary.
Although it is not found in engines, by rotating the figure
90° clockwise this mechanism can be recognized as part of
a garden water pump.

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4/7/2022 28
 The Scotch Yoke mechanism
In this mechanism, the slider is guided by the frame.

When the link rotates, the slider A’ reciprocates in the

vertical slot.

It gives exact simple harmonic motion of the slider in

response to a constant speed input to the crank.

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 The Scotch Yoke mechanism
The displacement of the slider x in moving from A to A’ is
given by
x  r(1  cost )

Substituting  = t, the displacement is

x  r  r cos  r(1  cos )

The velocity and acceleration of the follower is

dx
v  r sin t  r sin
dt
d 2x
a  2  r 2 cost  r 2 cos
d t
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 Quick-Return Mechanism
Many times mechanisms are designed to perform repetitive operations.

During these operations for a certain period the mechanisms will be

under load known as working stroke and the remaining period is known

as the return stroke, the mechanism returns to repeat the operation

without load.

The ratio of time of working stroke to that of the return stroke is

known a time ratio.

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Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools to
give a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke.
The various quick return mechanisms commonly used are
i) Drag link.
ii) Crank and slotted lever mechanism,
iii) Whitworth
Quick return mechanisms are combinations of simple
linkages which give a quick return-stroke of the follower
for a constant angular velocity of the driver.

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 Quick-Return Mechanism
The quick return mechanism has a slower work stroke and a
quick return stroke.

In the design of quick-return mechanisms, the ratio of the

crank angle for the working stroke to that of the return stroke
is known as the time-ratio.

The time-ratio for quick-return mechanisms is always greater

than unity to give a slower cutting stroke and a faster return
stroke.

angle of cutting stroke

time ratio  1
angle of return stroke
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Quick-Return Mechanism

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 Quick-Return Mechanism
The shaping machine is
used to machine flat
metal surfaces especially
where a large amount of
metal has to be removed.
As the disc rotates the
top of the machine moves
forwards and backwards,
pushing a cutting tool.
The cutting tool removes
the metal from work which
is carefully bolted down.

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 Types of Quick Return Mechanism
Drag Link Mechanism
The drag link mechanism is developed by connecting two

four-bar linkage in series.

Schematically, it is shown in Fig. below. Links 1, 2, 3 and 4

comprise a four-bar drag link mechanism in which both

links 2 and 4 rotate 360 degrees or make crank rocker

based on dimensions.
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Types of Quick Return Mechanism
Drag Link Mechanism

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Drag Link Mechanism
Links 1, 4, 5 and 6 comprise a four-bar crank-slider

mechanism.

The two four-bar mechanisms are connected via the

triangle-shaped link 4, known as ternary link, and they

have a common ground link 1.

Assembling the two four-bar mechanisms in this way

results in a single six-bar mechanism.

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Types of Quick Return Mechanism
Drag link mechanism
For a constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will rotate at a non-uniform
velocity.
For a clockwise rotation of link 2 the cutting stroke makes an angle a
(C'02C") and the return stroke makes an angle β. Hence the time ratio is
given by
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
Q=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
∝
Q=
𝛽

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 Types of Quick Return Mechanism
Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism

This mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines,

slotting machines and in rotary internal combustion
engines.

In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming the

turning pair is fixed.

The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a

reciprocating steam engine. The driving crank CB revolves
with uniform angular speed about the fixed center C.

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 A sliding block attached to the crank pin at B slides

along the slotted bar AP and thus causes AP to oscillate

about the pivoted point A.

A short link PR transmits the motion from AP to the ram

which carries the tool and reciprocates along the line of

stroke R1R2. The line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1R2) is

perpendicular to AC produced.

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Crank and slotted lever quick return motion
mechanism

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 Crank and slotted lever quick return
motion mechanism
In the extreme positions, AP1 and AP2 are tangential to the circle and
the cutting tool is at the end of the stroke.

The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the
position CB1 to CB2 (or through an angle β) in the clockwise direction.

The return stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the position CB2
to CB1 (or through angle α) in the clockwise direction.

Since the crank has uniform angular speed, therefore,

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 Crank and slotted lever quick return motion
mechanism
Since the tool travels a distance of R1 R2 during cutting and return stroke, therefore travel
of the tool or length of stroke

 The angle made by the forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle described
by the return stroke.
 Since the crank rotates with uniform angular speed, therefore the return stroke is
completed within shorter time. Thus it is called quick return motion mechanism.

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Whitworth quick return mechanism
This mechanism is mostly used in shaping and slotting machines.

In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming the turning pair is fixed.

The link 2 corresponds to a crank in a reciprocating steam engine.

The driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed. The

slider (link 4) attached to the crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar

PA (link 1) which oscillates at a pivoted point D.

The connecting rod PR carries the ram at R to which a cutting tool is

fixed. The motion of the tool is constrained along the line RD produced,

i.e. along a line passing through D and perpendicular to CD.

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 Whitworth quick return
mechanism

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Whitworth quick return mechanism -Shaping Machine

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Whitworth quick return mechanism
When the driving crank CA moves from the position CA1 to CA2
(or the link DP from the position DP1 to DP2) through an angle in
the clockwise direction, the tool moves from the left hand end of
its stroke to the right hand end through a distance 2PD.
Now when the driving crank moves from the position CA2 to CA1
(or the link DP from DP2 to DP1 ) through an angle β in the
clockwise direction, the tool moves back from right hand end of
its stroke to the left hand end.
The time taken during the left to right movement of the ram (i.e.
during forward or cutting stroke) will be equal to the time taken
by the driving crank to move from CA1 to CA2. Similarly, the time
taken during the right to left movement of the ram (or during
the idle or return stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the
driving crank to move from CA2 to CA1.

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 Whitworth quick return mechanism
Since the crank link CA rotates at uniform angular velocity therefore
time taken during the cutting stroke (or forward stroke) is more than
the time taken during the return stroke.

In other words, the mean speed of the ram during cutting stroke is
less than the mean speed during the return stroke.

The ratio between the time taken during the cutting and return
strokes is given by

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 Toggle Mechanisms
Simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in
a straight line at one point in their motion.

The mechanical advantage of the simple toggle above is the

velocity ratio of the input point A to the output point B.

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Toggle Mechanisms

Mechanical advantage
FB x vA
  tan   
FA y vB

As angle α approaches 90o, CA & AB come in to toggle.

This type of mechanism is used in punch presses, riveting

machines, stone crusher, etc

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Stone Crusher Toggle Mechanisms
The stone crusher shown uses two toggle
linkages in series to obtain high mechanical
advantage.

When links 2 and 3 are in toggle, links 4 & 5

are also in toggle to produce high crushing
force needed.

When link 2 reaches the lowest point of its

stroke, it comes into toggle with link 3 and at
the same time links 4 and 5 come into toggle
with each other.

This configuration results in a very large

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 Straight Line Mechanism
These are mechanisms which can generate straight lines from
rotary motion. Point on one of the links moves in a straight line
with out the need of guides.

Converts rotary motion into straight line motion.

Watt mechanism
Produces an approximate straight line motion

For equal lengths of links 2 & 4, the tracing point P traces an

approximate straight line.

This will happen if AP/PB = O4B/O2A.

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 Straight Line Mechanism
Tchebicheff’s Mechanism

 The relationship that assures the link BC lies

vertically when it is at the extremes of its travel.
CD = BC + SQRT(AB2 – AD2 )
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Parallel Mechanism
Used to produce parallel motions & reproducing
motions at different scale.

Common Example
◦ The Pantograph

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 The Pantograph
Used to enlarge or reduce
trajectories to different scales.

Commonly used in cutting tools to

duplicate complicated shapes to
desired scales.

Links 2, 3, 4, & 5 form a

parallelogram

Link 3 is extended to contain

point C and point E lies on the
intersection of lines O2C and DB.

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 The Pantograph
A pen attached at E reproduces the movement of C to a reduced scale
and vise versa i.e. the motion of E is parallel to that of C.
To produce this parallel motion the necessary condition to be satisfied
for all positions of C is

O2C
 const.
O2 E
for any position of C, triangle O2DE is similar to triangle CBE.
O2 E O2 D
  const.
EC CB

The ratio of the sizes of the figures at C and E is

size of figure at C O2C

size of figure at E O2 E
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 Intermittent Motion Mechanism
Converts continuous motion into intermittent motion.

Common examples are the Geneva Mechanism & ratchet mechanism.

Geneva Mechanism.
 Provides intermittent rotary motion.

 During one cycle of the crank, the Geneva wheel rotates through

fraction part of a revolution.

 The circular segment attached to the crank locks the wheel

against rotation when the roller is not engaged.

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 Locking-slid Geneva
In the position shown, the drive pin P
2 is about to enter the slot to index
the Geneva, whereas the locking pin
P1 is just clearing out the slot of the
Geneva.

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 Ratchet Mechanism
This mechanism is used in producing intermittent
rotary motion member.

A ratchet and Pawl mechanism consists of a

ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in the
figure.

When the lever 4 carrying pawl is raised, the

ratchet wheel rotates in the counter clock wise
direction (driven by pawl).

As the pawl lever is lowered the pawl slides over

the ratchet teeth.

One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the ratchet

from reversing.

4/7/2022 are used in watches and counting

Ratchets 60
 Steering Gear Mechanism
Used to change the direction of the wheel axle with
respect to the chassis which enables motion of an
automobile in any desired direction.

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