BIO 103: PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMATICS (2

CREDIT UNITS)
‘The urge to classify is a fundamental human instinct;
like the predisposition to sin, it accompanies us into
the world at birth and stays with us to the end’.

A. Tindell Hopwood, 1959.

Definition of Plant Taxonomy/Systematics:

Taxonomy is defined as the study of classification,
including its basis, principles, procedures and rules – the
theory and practice of classification – rather than its final
product, a system of classification. Or the organization of
plant species based on their evolutionary relationships and
morphological similarities. It aims to understand the
diversity of plant life and to create a taxonomic
classification system that reflects the evolutionary
relationships among different plant groups. It involves the
use of both traditional morphological, and more recent,
molecular techniques to infer evolutionary relationships
among different taxa, and to establish a comprehensive
and stable classification of the plant kingdom. It involves
the following:

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 i. Identification – the process of placing individual
plants into groups or classes or taxa that have been
established a priori.
ii. Classification – the ordering of plants into a
hierarchy of groups or classes on the basis of their
relationships, i.e., of their associations, contiguity,
similarity, or all of these. The end product is an
arrangement or system of classification designed to
express inter-relationships of plant, and to serve as a
filling system. Three kinds of classification are used
in plant taxonomy. These are artificial, natural and
phylogenetic classifications.
iii. Nomenclature – application of distinctive technical
names to taxa in accordance with a set of
international rules. Or the system of naming plants,
including the procedures and rules.

Aims of Plant Taxonomy:

i. To provide a convenient method of identification and
communication.
ii. To provide a classification which, as far as possible,
expresses the natural relationships of organisms.
iii. To detect evolution at work, discovering its processes
and interpreting its results.

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CLASSIFICATION
The units of classification and the Taxonomic
hierarchy:
Botanical classification involves the assembling of plants
or members into taxa (taxonomic groups) based on
relationships existing among individual members. Each
plant belongs to a series of consecutive ranks. The basic
botanical taxa (derived from the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) are the following,
proceeding from the highest rank to the lowest: Division,
Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. The list may
be increased to 23 degrees by addition of subordinate
categories usually with the prefix sub-. This expanded list
translated into English is as follows: Kingdom, Division,
Subdivision, Class, Subclass, Order, Suborder, Family,
Subfamily, Tribe, Subtribe, Genus, Subgenus, Section,
Subsection, Series, Subseries, Species, Subspecies,
Variety, Subvariety, Form and Subform. This order must
not be altered, but the list may be augmented still further
by supplementary categories, provided these do not lead
to confusion or error. These taxa or different levels of
groups are recognized as a series of hierarchical
categories. The hierarchical categories are abstract entities

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in that they can only be defined by their positions relative
to others, while the taxonomic groups are real such that
they represent discrete sets of organisms in nature.

An illustration using the common West African plant,

Aspilia africana:
Kingdom……Plant Kingdom
Division……Spermatophyta (seed plants)
Class……Angiospermae
Subclass……Dicotyledoneae
Order……Asterales
Family……Compositae (or Asteraceae)
Subfamily……
Tribe……Heliantheae
Subtribe……
Genus……Aspilia
Section……
Series……
Species……africana
Subspecies……
Variety……africana

NB: The groups have special endings: thus orders end

in –ales; families end in –aceae, and subfamilies end in

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–oideae, tribes end in –eae, while subtribes end in –
inae. Certain unusual endings have, however, been
conserved through convention and long usage, as in the
Family Compositae or the grass Family Gramineae.

NOMENCLATURE
The guidelines for plant classification and nomenclature
are provided in the form of code (ICBN) which is revised
and adopted at International Botanical Congresses, each
of which is named after the town or city within which the
congress is held. Thus, we have the Montreal Code, the
Edinburgh Code, the Seattle Code, etc. The main purpose
of the code, according to the Seattle Code published in
1972, is ‘the provision of stable methods of naming
taxonomic groups, avoiding and rejecting the use of
names which may cause error or ambiguity or throw
science into confusion. Next in importance is the
avoidance of ‘useless creation of names’. The Code
consists of ‘Principles’ and ‘Rules and
Recommendations’. The Rules and Recommendations set
out the details of the Principles, with examples and
illustrations.

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The following is a simplified (and unofficial) exposition
and explanation of the major principles and practices
specified in the ICBN:

PRINCIPLES
Principles I – Botanical nomenclature is independent of
zoological nomenclature, in the sense that the name of a
plant must not be rejected merely because it is identical
with the name of an animal [e.g., Corydalis, a flowering
plant, and Corydalis, a lark].
Principle II – The application of names of taxonomic
groups is determined by means of nomenclatural types
(see section on ‘Typification”).
Principle III – The naming of taxonomic groups is based
on priority of publication.
Principle IV – Each taxonomic group can bear only one
correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the
Rules, except in specified cases.
Principle V – Scientific names of plants are Latin or are
treated as Latin.
Principle VI – The rules of nomenclature are retroactive
except when expressly limited.

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 Names of Taxa:
Names of the higher taxa – The choice of names of taxa
of ranks higher than order is not governed by rules similar
to those applying to taxa of ordinal rank or lower, but
there are definite recommendations concerning the forms
of the names.

Names of Orders – The name of an Order is taken from

that of its type family and has the ending –ales. [e.g.,
Rosales, Liliales, Urticales].

Names of Families – The name of a family is a plural

adjective used as a substantive (noun); it is formed by
adding the suffix –aceae to the stem of the name of its
type genus or a synonym of this name, even if it is
illegitimate [e.g., Solanaceae (from the genus Solanum);
Rosaceae (from the genus Rosa); Anachardiaceae (from
the genus Anachardium); Euphorbiaceae (from the genus
Euphorbia), etc.]. The following names, sanctioned by
long usage, are treated as exceptions to the rule: Palmae,
Gramineae, Cruciferae, Leguminosae, Guttiferae,
Umbelliferae, Labiatae and Compositae.

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Names of Genera – The name of a genus is a
(substantive) noun, or an adjective used as a substantive,
in a singular nominative case. Generic names are
generally Latin or Greek nouns. It may be one of the
following:
i. Descriptive with to some characteristic present in
the included species or taxon. For example,
Xanthoxylem (meaning ‘yellow wood’),
Circocarpus (meaning ‘coiled fruit’).
ii. The aboriginal name of the plant. E.g., Quercus (the
old Greek name for oak).
iii. A name in honour of a person. E.g., Adansonia after
Adanson.

Botanists who are forming generic names should comply

with the following:
i. To use Latin terminations (or endings) as far as
possible.
ii. To avoid names not readily adaptable to the Latin
tongue.
iii. Not to make names very difficult to pronounce.
iv. Not to make names by combining words from
different languages.

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 v. Not to dedicate genera to persons quite unconnected
with botany or at least with natural science [and not
to dedicate taxa of lower rank, e.g., species, to
persons who had nothing to do with their discovery
or characterization].
vi. To give feminine form of all personal generic names,
whether they commemorate a man or a woman.

When a new name for a genus, subgenus, or section is

taken from the name of a person, it should be formed in
the following manner:
a. When the name of the person ends in a vowel (e.g., a,
e, i, o, and u) the letter a is added (thus Bouteloua
after Boutelou; Ottoa after Otto; Sloanea after
Sloane), except when the name ends in the letter a,
when ea is added (Collaea after Colla).
b. When the name of the person ends in a consonant, the
letters ia are added (e.g., Ramondia after Ramond;
Adansonia after Adanson), except when the name
ends in er, when a is added (e.g., Kernera after
Kerner). In Latinized names ending in us, this
termination is dropped before adding the suffix (e.g.,
Dillenia from Dillenius).

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Names of Species – The name of a species is a binary
combination consisting of the name of the genus
followed by a single specific epithet or name (which
may be an adjective or a substantive). The epithet [a
descriptive word used to characterize the species, e.g.,
alba, or a noun in the genitive singular such as occurs
when a species is named in honour of a person (e.g.,
smithii or the adjectival form, e.g., smithiana)] must be
either a single word or a compound joined by hyphens,
e.g., Adiantum capillus-veneris for the maidenhair fern.
[It must not consist of two or more separate words]. Most
frequently, the feminine ending is –a, the masculine –us
and the neuter -um or –on, but is not always true. Trees
are regarded as feminine!!

When a new specific or infra specific epithet is taken

from the name of a man, it should be formed in the
following manner:
a. When the name of the person ends in a vowel, the
letter i is added (e.g., bureaui from Bureau), except
when the name ends in an a, when e is added (thus
balansae from Balansa).
b. When the name ends in a consonant, the letters ii are
added (thus ramondii from Ramond; Harrisonii from

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 Harrison), except when the name ends in –er, when i
is added (thus kerneri from Kerner).

The same provisions apply to epithets formed from the

names of women. When these have a substantival form,
they are given a feminine termination or ending (e.g.,
Cyperidium hookerae, Scabiosa olgae, Omphalodes
luciliae).

Names of varieties and other infraspecific taxa – For

nomenclatural purposes, a species or any taxon below the
rank of a species is regarded as the sum of its subordinate
taxa, if any. If there is more than one variety, one receives
the name of the species as a whole (e.g., Viola pedata var.
pedata; Aspilia africana var. africana). The other
varieties of the same species are given epithets similar to
specific epithets (e.g., Viola pedata var. lineariloba).

Citation of Authors’ names

For a plant’s name to be accurate, the name of the
publishing author (or a combination of joint authors)
should accompany it. This enables one to trace the
original description and to ascertain its type and the year
of publication.

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 a. If a name of a taxonomic group was proposed but not
validly published by one author, but subsequently
was published validly and ascribed to him (or her) by
another author who supplied the description, the
name of the later author may be appended or added to
the citation with the connecting word ex. For
example, Capparis lasiantha R. Brown ex D. C.
means that R. Brown supplied the basic name
(basionym) but did not validly publish it. Later De
Candolle validly published the name using his (D. C.)
description. Had R. Brown supplied the name as well
as the description, the connecting word would have
been in instead of ex.
b. If a species is described in one genus by one author
and later transferred to another genus by another
author, the name of the first author who supplied the
basic name of the plant is cited in brackets followed
by the name of the author who made the transfer.
E.g., Sisymbrium murale L. is now Diplotaxis
muralis (L.) D. C.

Transference
When a species is transferred to another genus without a
change in rank, the original specific epithet must be

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retained (as with Chromolaena odorata from Eupatorium
odoratum) unless in its new position it becomes
illegitimate, as happens when the genus to which the
species is transferred already contains a different plant
with the same epithet (i.e., the combination or epithet is
already preoccupied in the new genus). In such a case, a
new epithet or name must be given to the transferred
species.

Effective publication of names

In order to be validly published, a name of a taxon of
recent plants must be both (1) effectively published, and
(2) accompanied by a description of the taxon or by a
reference (direct or indirect) to a previously and
effectively published description of it [OR in order to be
validly published, a name of a new taxon of recent plant
must be accompanied by a Latin diagnosis or by a
reference to a previously and effectively published Latin
diagnosis]. A name is not effectively published unless it is
printed and distributed (sale, exchange or gift), for
example, in a book or a journal, etc. Handwritten names
and descriptions, no matter how they are reproduced, are
ineffective. Microfilm from typewriting is also not
effective. Names proposed provisionally and not clearly

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accepted by their author as representing new taxa are not
published validly. For example, publication of one name
and another new name as an alternative for use by those
who prefer it is not valid.

Rejection of Names
A name or epithet must not be rejected, changed or
modified merely because it is inappropriate or
disagreeable; or because another is preferable or better
known; or because the earlier name has lost its original
meaning.

Illegitimate Names:
Nomenclatural rejection:
i. Later homonyms – a name is illegitimate if it is a
later homonym, i.e., if it is identical with a properly
published name previously applied to another group.
E.g., Astragalus rhizanthus Royle (1835) and
Astragalus rhizanthus Boiss (1843). The second
species (or plant) is known properly as Astragalus
cariensis Boiss (1849).
ii. A name must be rejected if it is used in different
senses and has become a source of persistent
confusion or error.

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 Taxonomic rejection:
i. A name must be rejected if it is based on a
monstrosity.
ii. A name must be rejected if it is based on discordant
elements unless one of the elements can be selected
as a satisfactory type. E.g., a name applied to a
supposed group of plants with the characters derived
from two or more entirely discordant elements
appearing in the type specimen (e.g., a host and
parasite taken to be a single specimen).
iii. A name must be rejected if it is later taxonomic
synonym in situations where two species are united.

Division and Union of Groups

Division of groups – when a genus is divided into two or
more groups, the generic name must be retained for one
of them, and when a species (or a taxon of lower rank) is
divided into two or more species (or taxa of lower rank),
the specific (or other) epithet must be retained for the
species (or other taxon) that includes the type specimen.
Union of groups – when two or more taxa of the same
rank are united, the oldest legitimate name or (for taxa
below the rank of genus) the oldest legitimate epithet is

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retained. The names Acacia cuspidate Schlecht (1838)
and Acacia texensis Torr. and Gray (1840) were applied
to members of the same population. If the group is to be
treated as one species, its name must be Acacia cuspidate.
If the names or epithets are of the same dates, the author
who unites the groups has the right to choose one of them.

Change of rank
When a tribe becomes a family, when a subgenus
becomes a genus, when a subdivision of a species
becomes a species, or when the reverse of these changes
takes place, and in general when a group changes its rank,
the earliest legitimate name or epithet given to the group
in its new rank is valid, unless that name or the resulting
association or combination is a later homonym. [NB: A
name does not have priority outside its own rank]

Synonyms, Homonyms and Tautonyms

Synonyms – Different names applied to the same taxon. It
is common practice to distinguish between nomenclatural
(homotypic) and taxonomic (heterotypic) synonyms.
i. Nomenclatural synonyms – different names based on
the same type (specimen). They may be in different

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 taxa of the same rank, e.g., species in different genera
or at different ranks within the same taxon, i.e., as
varieties or subspecies of the same species. Since
they are based on the same type, their identity is not
in question, although there may be a difference in
opinion as to their taxonomy.
ii. Taxonomic synonym – a different name based on a
different type (specimen), but taxonomic judgement
indicates identity equal to a previously described
taxon.

Homonym – The same name applied to two or more

different taxa.
Tautonym – Generic and specific names being exact
duplicate. E.g., Linaria linaria.

Orthography and orthographic variants

Orthography – The spelling of words. Plants names must
be spelt as they were originally published, unless the
original spelling was definitely wrong or could be shown
to be a misprint.

Orthographic variants (paranyms) – Two or more

different spellings of the same name or names of two or

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more taxa that have spellings so similar that they are
likely to be confused. E.g., Lycopersicon esculentum and
Lycopersicum esculentum. (which of these two names
refers to the tomato plant?).

TYPIFICATION OR THE TYPE CONCEPT

In botanical nomenclature, a type or typus is designated
by an author for the name of a new taxon. A type or typus
is defined as that constituent element of a taxon to which
the name of the taxon is permanently associated whether
as a correct name or a synonym. According to the type
concept, there is a ‘typical’ representative of every taxon,
that is, the member of the taxon or group that ‘best
presents the essential characteristics of that group’. When
a new species or variety is described, the description
should always refer to a type specimen, which is often
deposited in a designated, ‘recognized’, herbarium [by the
author(s)]. Thus, for nomenclatural purposes, each species
or variety is based upon a type specimen designated by
the author(s) at the time of publication of the name. The
type is usually a gathering or collection of specimens with
which the name or epithet denoting a species or a taxon of
lower rank is associated permanently. The designation of
a type affords a means of determining exactly which plant

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the author was naming. The name of each genus is based
on a type species and, therefore, upon its type specimen.
Each family name is based upon a type genus and
indirectly, therefore, upon the type specimen of the type
species of the type genus. Each ordinal name is based
upon a type family. E.g., Rosaceae is the type family of
the order Rosales.

Kinds of types
i. A Holotype – a holotype is the single specimen
designated as the type specimen by the original
author at the time of publication of his/her species
(taxon).
ii. An Isotype – a duplicate specimen of the holotype
from the single collection that contained the holotype
[i.e., it is collected at the same time and the same
place (as the holotype) and by the same person and
not indicated to be considered different].
iii. A Syntype – a syntype is either (a) one of two or
more specimens cited by the author when no
holotype was designated, or (b) one of two or more
specimens designated together as the type. E. g., one
specimen including flowers and another including
fruits may have been cited or specified

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 simultaneously as the type. This procedure ordinarily
is not recommended, because the specimens may not
be actually of the same taxon.
iv. A Lectotype – a lectotype is the type specimen
selected from among the syntype or isotype (or the
original specimens designated or studied by the
publishing author) by a subsequent author in the
absence of a holotype or when the originally
designated holotype is missing or destroyed. The
lectotype should be chosen, if possible, from among
the specimens actually seen by the author when
he/she described his/her species, but not from
duplicates of them from other herbaria. When a
lectotype is chosen and published as such, it must be
retained unless it could be shown that the choice was
unsuitable.
v. A Neotype – a neotype is a specimen selected to
serve as a nomenclatural type when all the type
material is irretrievably lost. It is not really a type but
a specimen chosen to serve as a reference type. It
simply represents a later taxonomic opinion of
someone as to what the type should be. [a proxy
type].

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 vi. A Paratype – a paratype is a specimen or element
other than the holotype or isotype cited with the
original description. It is taxonomically important as
the holotype, because, like the syntype, it represents
the original author’s species concept so far as it is
covered by his/ her description.
vii. A Topotype – a topotype is a specimen collected at
the same place as the holotype, but at a different time
or by a different collector or both. It has no official
status.

When the rank of a taxon is changed (e.g., from species to

variety) or is transferred to another taxon (genus), it
automatically retains the same type since the epithet is
permanently associated with the type. Sometimes it is
found that the name of a taxon is invalid for
nomenclatural reason. When this happens and if no
epithet is available, it is given a new name (nomen
novum) with reference back to the original description
under the old name. The type of nomen novum is
automatically the old one. However, if the new name is
accompanied by a Latin diagnosis or description, then it is
not necessary that the original type be retained.

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TAXONOMIC CHARACTER
Although it is organisms (or life cycles of organisms)
which are classified, it is their characters which provide
the evidence used in classification. Ideally, the whole
organism (i.e., all its attributes) should be used. However,
since each individual possesses thousands of potential
attributes or characters, practical difficulties impose a
limitation on the number of characters used.

A character is defined as any attribute (or descriptive

phrase) referring to form, structure or behavior which the
taxonomist separates from the whole organism for a
particular purpose such as comparison or interpretation.
OR: An attribute of an organism that can be considered a
variable independently of any other attribute [the
independence referred to here is logical rather than
functional – thus while we can consider hairiness of stem
and hairiness of leaves as independent logically, the
attributes are not necessarily functionally independent].

For practical purposes, a character may be defined as any

feature whose expression can be measured, counted or
otherwise assessed (e.g., seed weight is a feature that can
be measured, just as stamen length). Characters as such

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are abstract entities. It is their expressions or states that
taxonomists deal with. For example, stamen number as a
character is abstract, while stamen number, say 5, an
expression of the character, is real. For purposes of
comparison, a character must be divisible into two or
more states (including presence and absence in qualitative
features).

Types of characters
i. Analytical characters – used for identification,
characterization and delineation. They are relatively
very rare and are used at the subspecies level.
ii. Synthetic characters – used to embrace smaller
groups into larger ones.

Characters may be quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative characters are features that can be assessed
by size, weight, length, etc., while qualitative characters
are features relating to form (e.g., leaf arrangement,
placentation type, etc.). Characters can also be considered
as ‘good’ or ‘bad’. A good character has the following
features: not subject to wide variation within the sample
being considered; does not have a high intrinsic genetic
variability; not easily susceptible to environmental

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modification, and; shows consistency, i.e., agrees with the
correlation of characters existing in a natural system of
classification which was constructed without their use.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION
When plants have been classified and named, it is still
necessary to provide means for other people to identify
them. The identification of a plant specimen is its
determination as being identical with or similar to another
and already known plant. Plant identification is made
generally by means of one of several different methods or
combination of methods, and no one can be said to be
better than another.

When the unknown plant is collected from a known

locality, the common practice is to refer to a book
accounting for the plants of that region. This contains
usually the analytical keys and descriptions. The first step
is the determination of the families to which the unknown
plant belongs. Knowing the name of the family, one can
turn the keys to genera for determining the generic name
and then for the specific identity of the plant to the

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species key. Since, for many reasons, the identity and
name of the plant obtained may be incorrect, it is always
safe to check the description of the plant to ensure that
there is a reasonable agreement between the characters
observed in the unknown plant and those given in the
description of the plant presumesd to be.

Another method is the utilization of the floras and

checklist of the particular region. These comprise usually
an index to the plants known for that locality and
generally provide other important or pertinent habit,
distributional and frequency data.

A third method is the identification by means of

monographs or revisionary works accounting for the
particular family, genus or section.

Taxonomic keys
Taxonomic keys are devices used for indentifying an
unknown plant. A taxonomic key may be artificial
analytical devise or arrangement whereby a choice is
provided between two contradictory propositions
resulting in acceptance of one and rejection of the other.
A key may have a single pair of contradictory (couplet)

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characters or it may be composed of an extensive series of
these.

In writing keys, the taxonomist pays attention to the

following technical points:
i. Inclusion of all the relatively stable
distinguishing characters
ii. Statement of measurements- Use of comparative
terms alone is vague. For example, ‘long’ vs.
‘short’, ‘narrow’ vs. ‘broad’ and ‘tall’ vs. ‘taller’.
A range of measurements, such as ‘4-6 cm.’ vs. ‘8-
12 cm.’ is more definite and meaningful.
iii. Employment of only two opposed leads- Some
keys are written with more than two leads at a
given level, but often a third lead is overlooked,
and to distinguish between two leads is simpler
than to search among several.
iv. Selection of the same noun to begin each pair of
opposed leads- The following are examples:
flowers vs. flowers, inflorescence vs. inflorescence,
prickles vs. prickles, fruits vs. fruits, etc. The same
practice is recommended for each additional
subject within the lead. Nouns should come first;

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modifiers should follow. This organization
facilitates rapid scanning of the key.

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