Computer Networking

Febriliyan Samopa
Objectives
• Understand the state-of-the-art in network
protocols, architectures and applications
• Understand how networking research is
done
• Teach the typical constraints and thought
process for networked systems
• How is class different from undergraduate
networking
• Training network programmers vs. training
network researchers

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Network Paradigm
• Why we need network ?
• What is the problem that the only solution is
network ?

The answer to both question is SHARING

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What is the Objective of Networking?
• Communication between applications on
different computers
• Must understand application
needs/demands
• Traffic data rate
• Traffic pattern (bursty or constant bit rate)
• Traffic target (multipoint or single destination,
mobile or fixed)
• Delay sensitivity
• Loss sensitivity

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Four Steps to Networking
• Communicating across a link

• Connecting together multiple links

(internetworking)

• Finding and routing data to nodes on

internetwork

• Matching application requirements

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A First Step
• Creating a link between nodes
• Link: path followed by bits
• Wired or wireless
• Photon or electron
• Broadcast or point-to-point (or both)
• Node: any device connected to a link

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Link Model
• A link model consist of a transmitter that
connected to a receiver by a medium.
• A Transmitter : a node that sends data.
• A Receiver : a node that accept data.

Trans Medium Recei

mitter ver

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Electrical Model
• The transmitter acts as a voltage source in
the close circuit.
• The medium acts as a resistance from
transmitter to receiver and vice versa.
• The receiver acts as a load in closed circuit
• The transmitter will generate series of
voltage (signal) according to the data sends
and arrive in the receiver as series of
voltage that less than the original voltage.

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Electrical Model
Medium
Trans Medium Recei Sour
Load
mitter ver ce
Medium

Link Model Electrical Model

R1 UTP Cable

VS R2 VL

R3

VS : Source Voltage
VL : Load Voltage = Voltage between R2 = Voltage arrived at Receiver
R2 : Resistance of Load BNC Cable
R1, R3 : Resistance of Medium
if medium is symmetric (i.e. UTP Cable) then R1 = R3
if medium is asymmetric (i.e. BNC Cable) then R1 ≠ R3
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Electrical Model
R1 Serial Circuit :
• The current (I) is constant.
VS R2 VL • VS = I x (R1 + R2 + R3)
• VL = I x R2
R3 • Power transmitted by Source (PS) = VS x I
• Power received by Load (PL) = VL x I
• Efficiency (E) = Power received / Power transmitted
= PL/ PS
= (VL x I) / (VS x I) = VL / VS
= (I x R2) / (I x (R1 + R2 + R3))
= R2 / (R1 + R2 + R3)
R1 = (ρ1 / a1) x l
R3 = (ρ3 / a3) x l

ρ = Resistivity, a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how strongly it

resists electric current, constant value, depends on material used as medium.
a = Cross-sectional area of the medium, usually constant value for a particular
medium.
l = Length of the medium.
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Electrical Model
• If the power arrived at receiver (PL) is less than the power
tolerance, the signal cannot be read by the receiver.
• For example, if the tolerance allowed in ethernet is 10%,
then the link will be down (signal can’t be read by receiver)
when efficiency is less than 90% (E < 0.9).
• In the example above, the link will be up if efficiency is
greater than or equal 90% (E ≥ 0.9).
• The value of R2 (load resistance) for a certain technology
is constant and the value of (ρ/a) for a certain media is
constant so :
R1 = (ρ1 / a1) x l ➔ R1 = c1 x l; R2 = (ρ2 / a2) x l ➔ R2 = c2 x l
this means that the only variabel that determine the
efficiency is the length of medium (distance between
sender and receiver). 11
Packet Transmission Modes
• Unicast
• Transmission to single specific receiver
• Broadcast
• Transmission to all network nodes
• Multicast
• Transmission to specific subset of nodes
• Anycast
• Transmission to one of a specific subset of
nodes

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Types of Links

Point-to-Point Multiple Access

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What are Switched Networks?
• Switch: moves bits Switched Network
between links
• Packet switching
• Circuit switching

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Back in the Old Days…

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Then Came TDM…
• Synchronous time division multiplexing

Multiplex (mux) Demultiplex (demux)

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TDM Logical Network View

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TDM Variety
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

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Packet Switching (Internet)

Packets

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Packet Switching
• Interleave packets from different sources
• Efficient: resources used on demand
• Statistical multiplexing
• General
• Multiple types of applications
• Accommodates bursty traffic
• Addition of queues

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Statistical Multiplexing Gain
• 1 Mbps link; users require 0.1 Mbps when
transmitting; users active only 10% of the
time
• Circuit switching: can support 10 users
• Packet switching: with 35 users, probability
that >=10 are transmitting at the same time
< 0.0017

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Characteristics of Packet Switching
• Store and forward
• Packets are self contained units
• Can use alternate paths – reordering
• Contention
• Congestion
• Delay

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Second Step: Internet[work]
• A collection of Internet[work]
interconnected
networks
• Host: network
endpoints (computer,
PDA, light switch, …)
• Router: node that
connects networks
• Internet vs. internet
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Challenge
• Many differences between networks
• Address formats
• Performance – bandwidth/latency
• Packet size
• Loss rate/pattern/handling
• Routing
• How to translate between various network
technologies

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Third Step: How To Find Nodes?

Internet

Computer 1 Computer 2

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Naming
• Humans use readable host names
• E.g. www.cmu.edu
• Globally unique (can correspond to multiple
hosts)
• Naming system translates to physical
address
• E.g. DNS translates name to IP Address (e.g.
128.2.11.43)
• Address reflects location in network

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Domain Name System

What’s the IP address for www.cmu.edu?

It is 128.2.11.43

Computer 1 Local DNS Server

DNS server address manually configured into OS

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Packet Routing/Delivery
• Each network technology has different local
delivery methods
• Address resolution provides delivery
information within network
• E.g., ARP maps IP addresses to Ethernet
addresses
• Local, works only on a particular network
• Routing protocol provides path through an
internetwork

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Network:Address Resolution Protocol

Broadcast: who knows the

Ethernet address for 128.2.11.43?

Ethernet

Unicast: Yes, it is
08-00-2c-19-dc-45

Ethernet

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Internetwork: Datagram Routing

Routers send
packet to next
closest point H R

H
R R
H

R
H
R
R H: Hosts
H R: Routers

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Routing
• Forwarding tables at each router populated by
routing protocols.
• Warning: Routed vs Routing Protocols
• Routed Protocols used between routers to direct user’s
traffic. Examples: IP, IPX
• Routing Protocols used only between routers to
maintain tables. Examples: RIP, OSPF, BGP.
• Original Internet: manually updated
• Routing protocols update tables based on “cost”
• Exchange tables with neighbors or everyone
• Use neighbor leading to shortest path

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Fourth Step: Application Demands
• Reliability
• Corruption
• Lost packets
• Flow and congestion control
• Fragmentation
• In-order delivery
• Etc…

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What if the Data gets Corrupted?

Problem: Data Corruption

GET index.html GET windex.html

Internet

Solution: Add a checksum

0,9 9 6,7,8 21
X
4,5 7 1,2,3 6

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What if the Data gets Corrupted?
Sophisticated Solution: Add a CRC

X
6,7,8 CRC Code 1,2,3 CRC Code

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What if Network is Overloaded?

Problem: Network Overload

Solution: Buffering and Congestion Control

• Short bursts: buffer
• What if buffer overflows?
• Packets dropped
• Sender adjusts rate until load = resources
• Called “congestion control”

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Dropping Packets
• There are two methods exist
• WINE Methods
• The Idea : An older wine is better than the fresh one
• This methods will drop packets starting from the
youngest until the congestion is relieved
• MILK Methods
• The Idea : A fresh milk is better than the old one
• This methods will drop packets starting from the
oldest until the congestion is relieved

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What if the Data gets Lost?

Problem: Lost Data

GET index.html
Internet

Solution: Timeout and Retransmit

GET index.html
GET index.html
Internet
GET index.html

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What if the Data Doesn’t Fit?

Problem: Packet size

• On Ethernet, max IP packet is 1.5kbytes

• Typical web page is 10kbytes

Solution: Fragment data across packets

ml x.ht inde GET

GET index.html

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What if the Data is Out of Order?

Problem: Out of Order

ml inde x.ht GET

GET x.htindeml

Solution: Add Sequence Numbers

ml 4 inde 2 x.ht 3 GET 1

GET index.html

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Network Functionality Summary
• Link
• Multiplexing
• Routing
• Addressing/naming (locating peers)
• Reliability
• Flow control
• Fragmentation
• Etc….

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What is Layering?
• Modular approach to network functionality
• Example:

Application
Application-to-application channels

Host-to-host connectivity

Link hardware

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Protocols
• Module in layered structure
• Set of rules governing communication
between network elements (applications,
hosts, routers)
• Protocols define:
• Interface to higher layers (API)
• Interface to peer
• Format and order of messages
• Actions taken on receipt of a message

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Layering Characteristics
• Each layer relies on services from layer
below and exports services to layer above
• Interface defines interaction
• Hides implementation - layers can change
without disturbing other layers (black box)

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Layering

User A User B

Application

Transport

Network

Link

Host Host

Layering: technique to simplify complex systems

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Layer Encapsulation

User A User B

Get index.html

Connection ID

Source/Destination

Link Address

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Protocol Demultiplexing
• Multiple choices at each layer

FTP HTTP NV TFTP

TCP UDP
Network IP TCP/UDP
IPX IP
Type Protocol Port
Field Field Number
NET1 NET2 … NETn

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E.g.: OSI Model: 7 Protocol Layers
• Physical: how to transmit bits
• Data link: how to transmit frames
• Network: how to route packets
• Transport: how to send packets end2end
• Session: how to tie flows together
• Presentation: byte ordering, security
• Application: everything else

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The Transport Layer
• The transport layer “DIRECTS PACKETS”,
splits it up into smaller units if need be,
pass these to the network and ensure that
the pieces are traveling in an orderly
fashion.
• A series of protocols are also established in
this layer to ensure proper flow of the
packets.
• You can basically describe the Transport
Layer as a “TRAFFIC COP”.

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The Session Layer
• The session layer allows different machines
to establish sessions between themselves.
• Once communications are established,
encryption then begins both parties.

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The Presentation Layer
• The Presentation Layer’s job is managing data
structures and converting from the representation
used inside the computer to the network standard
representation an visa versa.
• In English terms, the Presentation layer basically
takes the packets and re-assembles them so you
can open the e-mail or the attachment.
• If any packets got lost along the way, or were
damaged, then the Presentation layer will send a
sign to the sender that it requires the specific
packet.

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The Application Layer
• The Application layer contains a variety of
protocols that are commonly required.
• One of Application layer function is file
transfer.
• Different file systems have different file
naming conventions, different ways of
representing text lines, and so on.
• Transferring a file between two different
systems requires handling and other
incompatibilities.

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OSI Layers and Locations

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Host Switch Router Host

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Example: Transport Layer
• First end-to-end layer
• End-to-end state
• May provide reliability, flow and congestion
control

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Example: Network Layer
• Point-to-point communication
• Network and host addressing
• Routing

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Is Layering Harmful?
• Sometimes..
• Layer N may duplicate lower level functionality
(e.g., error recovery)
• Layers may need same info (timestamp, MTU)
• Strict adherence to layering may hurt
performance

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