Beta: Definition, Calculation, and
Explanation for Investors
By
WILL KENTON
Updated June 30, 2022
Reviewed by
PETER WESTFALL
Fact checked by
AMANDA BELLUCCO-CHATHAM
Investopedia / Yurle Villegas
What Is Beta?
Beta (β) is a measure of the volatility—or systematic risk—of a security or
portfolio compared to the market as a whole (usually the S&P 500). Stocks
with betas higher than 1.0 can be interpreted as more volatile than the
S&P 500.
Beta is used in the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), which describes
the relationship between systematic risk and expected return for assets
(usually stocks). CAPM is widely used as a method for pricing risky
securities and for generating estimates of the expected returns of assets,
considering both the risk of those assets and the cost of capital.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Beta (β), primarily used in the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), is
a measure of the volatility–or systematic risk–of a security or
portfolio compared to the market as a whole.
Beta data about an individual stock can only provide an investor with
an approximation of how much risk the stock will add to a
(presumably) diversified portfolio.
For beta to be meaningful, the stock should be related to the
benchmark that is used in the calculation.
The S&P 500 has a beta of 1.0.
Stocks with betas above 1 will tend to move with more momentum
than the S&P 500; stocks with betas less than 1 with less
momentum.
How Beta Works
A beta coefficient can measure the volatility of an individual stock
compared to the systematic risk of the entire market. In statistical terms,
beta represents the slope of the line through a regression of data points. In
finance, each of these data points represents an individual stock's returns
against those of the market as a whole.
Beta effectively describes the activity of a security's returns as it responds
to swings in the market. A security's beta is calculated by dividing the
product of the covariance of the security's returns and the market's returns
by the variance of the market's returns over a specified period.
The Calculation for Beta Is As Follows:
Beta coefficient(�)=Covariance(��,��)Variance(��)where:
��=the return on an individual stock��=the return on the overa
ll marketCovariance=how changes in a stock’s returns arerelated to
changes in the market’s returnsVariance=how far the market’s data
points spreadout from their average valueBeta
coefficient(β)=Variance(Rm)Covariance(Re,Rm)where:Re=the
return on an individual stockRm=the return on the overall
marketCovariance=how changes in a stock’s returns arerelated to c
hanges in the market’s returnsVariance=how far the market’s data
points spreadout from their average value
The beta calculation is used to help investors understand whether a stock
moves in the same direction as the rest of the market. It also provides
insights into how volatile–or how risky–a stock is relative to the rest of the
market. For beta to provide any useful insight, the market that is used as
a benchmark should be related to the stock. For example, calculating a
bond ETF's beta using the S&P 500 as the benchmark would not provide
much helpful insight for an investor because bonds and stocks are too
dissimilar.
Understanding Beta
Ultimately, an investor is using beta to try to gauge how much risk a stock
is adding to a portfolio. While a stock that deviates very little from the
market doesn’t add a lot of risk to a portfolio, it also doesn’t increase the
potential for greater returns.
In order to make sure that a specific stock is being compared to the right
benchmark, it should have a high R-squared value in relation to the
benchmark. R-squared is a statistical measure that shows the percentage
of a security's historical price movements that can be explained by
movements in the benchmark index. When using beta to determine the
degree of systematic risk, a security with a high R-squared value, in
relation to its benchmark, could indicate a more relevant benchmark.
For example, a gold exchange-traded fund (ETF), such as the SPDR Gold
Shares (GLD), is tied to the performance of gold bullion.1 Consequently, a
gold ETF would have a low beta and R-squared relationship with the S&P
500.
One way for a stock investor to think about risk is to split it into two
categories. The first category is called systematic risk, which is the risk of
the entire market declining. The financial crisis in 2008 is an example of a
systematic-risk event; no amount of diversification could have prevented
investors from losing value in their stock portfolios. Systematic risk is also
known as un-diversifiable risk.
Unsystematic risk, also known as diversifiable risk, is the uncertainty
associated with an individual stock or industry. For example, the surprise
announcement that the company Lumber Liquidators (LL) had been selling
hardwood flooring with dangerous levels of formaldehyde in 2015 is an
example of unsystematic risk.2
Lumber Liquidators. "Lumber Liquidators Provides Update On Laminate Flooring
Sourced From China."
It was risk that was specific to that company. Unsystematic risk can be partially mitigated
through diversification.
Types of Beta Values
Beta Value Equal to 1.0
If a stock has a beta of 1.0, it indicates that its price activity is strongly
correlated with the market. A stock with a beta of 1.0 has systematic risk.
However, the beta calculation can’t detect any unsystematic risk. Adding a
stock to a portfolio with a beta of 1.0 doesn’t add any risk to the portfolio,
but it also doesn’t increase the likelihood that the portfolio will provide an
excess return.
Beta Value Less Than One
A beta value that is less than 1.0 means that the security is theoretically
less volatile than the market. Including this stock in a portfolio makes it
less risky than the same portfolio without the stock. For example, utility
stocks often have low betas because they tend to move more slowly than
market averages.
Beta Value Greater Than One
A beta that is greater than 1.0 indicates that the security's price is
theoretically more volatile than the market. For example, if a stock's beta is
1.2, it is assumed to be 20% more volatile than the market. Technology
stocks and small cap stocks tend to have higher betas than the market
benchmark. This indicates that adding the stock to a portfolio will increase
the portfolio’s risk, but may also increase its expected return.
Negative Beta Value
Some stocks have negative betas. A beta of -1.0 means that the stock is
inversely correlated to the market benchmark on a 1:1 basis. This stock
could be thought of as an opposite, mirror image of the benchmark’s
trends. Put options and inverse ETFs are designed to have negative betas.
There are also a few industry groups, like gold miners, where a negative
beta is also common.
Beta in Theory vs. Beta in Practice
The beta coefficient theory assumes that stock returns are normally
distributed from a statistical perspective. However, financial markets are
prone to large surprises. In reality, returns aren’t always normally
distributed. Therefore, what a stock's beta might predict about a stock’s
future movement isn’t always true.
A stock with a very low beta could have smaller price swings, yet it could
still be in a long-term downtrend. So, adding a down-trending stock with a
low beta decreases risk in a portfolio only if the investor defines risk strictly
in terms of volatility (rather than as the potential for losses). From a
practical perspective, a low beta stock that's experiencing a downtrend
isn’t likely to improve a portfolio’s performance.
Similarly, a high beta stock that is volatile in a mostly upward direction will
increase the risk of a portfolio, but it may add gains as well. It's
recommended that investors using beta to evaluate a stock also evaluate it
from other perspectives—such as fundamental or technical factors—
before assuming it will add or remove risk from a portfolio.
Drawbacks of Beta
While beta can offer some useful information when evaluating a stock, it
does have some limitations. Beta is useful in determining a security's
short-term risk, and for analyzing volatility to arrive at equity costs when
using the CAPM. However, since beta is calculated using historical data
points, it becomes less meaningful for investors looking to predict a stock's
future movements. Beta is also less useful for long-term investments since
a stock's volatility can change significantly from year to year, depending
upon the company's growth stage and other factors. Furthermore, the beta
measure on a particular stock tends to jump around over time, which
makes it unreliable as a stable measure.
What Is a Good Beta for a Stock?
Beta is used as a proxy for a stock's riskiness or volatility relative to the
broader market. A good beta will, therefore, rely on your risk tolerance and
goals. If you wish to replicate the broader market in your portfolio, for
instance via an index ETF, a beta of 1.0 would be ideal. If you are a
conservative investor looking to preserve principal, a lower beta may be
more appropriate. In a bull market, betas greater than 1.0 will tend to
produce above-average returns - but will also produce larger losses in a
down market.
Is Beta a Good Measure of Risk?
Many experts agree that while Beta provides some information about risk,
it is not an effective measure of risk on its own. Beta only looks at a stock's
past performance relative to the S&P 500 and does not provide any
forward guidance. It also does not consider the fundamentals of a
company or its earnings and growth potential.
How Do You Interpret a Stock's Beta?
A Beta of 1.0 for a stock means that it has been just as volatile as the
broader market (i.e., the S&P 500 index). If the index moves up or down
1%, so too would the stock, on average. Betas larger than 1.0 indicate
greater volatility - so if the beta were 1.5 and the index moved up or down
1%, the stock would have moved 1.5%, on average. Betas less than 1.0
indicate less volatility: if the stock had a beta of 0.5, it would have risen or
fallen just half-a-percent as the index moved 1%.
