LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES

IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

Jovelle M. Reyes

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 Table of Contents

Module 1: Language and Society 1

Introduction 1
Learning Outcomes 2
Lesson 1. Relationship between Language and Society 3
Lesson 2. Key Terms in Language and Society 4
Lesson 3. Language Variation and Varieties 8
Assessment Task 15
Summary 16
References 16

Module 2: Multilingual and Language Policy 17

Introduction 17
Learning Outcomes 17
Lesson 1. Understanding Multilingualism 18
Lesson 2. Linguistic Rights and the Philippine Language Situation 20
Lesson 3. Language Choices as the Core of Language Policy 27
Lesson 4. Language Policy: What is it and What can it do 29
Assessment Task 32
Summary 34
References 34
Course Code: EL107

Course Description: The course provides a survey of local and

international basic education language programs and policies that
account for issues and communications relevant to the engagement of
teachers in school settings.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. Establish connections between language planning and policy with the
concepts of multilingualism, linguistic diversity, and linguistic rights;
2. Acquaint yourself with the diverse language-in-education policies
present in Southeast Asia;
3. Assess bilingual education programs, encompassing both weak and
strong forms, to evaluate their effectiveness;
4. Gain a critical understanding of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education (MTB-MLE); and
5. Recognize and analyze issues and challenges arising from the
implementation of different language policies and

Course Requirements:

▪ Class Standing - 60%

▪ Major Exams - 40%

Periodic Grade 100%

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim Exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30% (Prelim Grade) + 70 % [60% (Activity 5-7) +
40% (Midterm Exam)]
FINAL GRADE = 30% (Midterm Grade) + 70 % [60% (Activity 8-10) +
40% (Final Exam)]
 MODULE 1
LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

Introduction

Language, our fundamental tool for thought, perception, and expression, stands
at the core of our identity. Languages undergo continuous evolution, at times transforming
into entirely new varieties, introducing subtle nuances in how we present ourselves to
others. Much like fish in water and water in fish, humans exist within language, and
language is embedded within humanity. Additionally, diverse perspectives exist on the
origin of language, its acquisition or learning, and the relevant policies implemented in
different countries. Some nations are monolingual, while others are bilingual, and
multilingualism is prevalent in countries that experienced colonization. Despite being
perceived as a hindrance to development in some cases, multilingualism should be
viewed as a strength and accomplishment rather than criticized as a failure. In
relationships, diversity fosters individual quests for identity, control, status, and similar life
pursuits. It's essential to recognize that such differences are inherent and may lead to
variations in attitudes and resulting identity conflicts. This discussion will delve into key
concepts related to language and society, language diversity and development, language
policy and development, and language attitude and development, respectively.

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 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

1. Understand the fundamental concept of the relationship between language

and society.
2. Discuss the role of language in reflecting cultural norms, values, and
identity within a society.
3. Define essential terms related to the study of language and society.
4. Understand the sociolinguistic concepts of speech community, authority in
language, and the physiological and anatomical configuration of humanity.

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Lesson 1. Relationship between Language and Society

A. Social Structure and Linguistic Behavior/Structure

According to Jaspers, Ostman, and Verschueren (2010), and Wardhaugh (2006),
social structure can either influence or determine linguistic structure and/or behavior. In
other words, society has a significant impact on our language, shaping meanings,
attitudes, and preferences by defining what is deemed acceptable or not. Each
individual's perception, attitude, and identity play a role in this linguistic influence.
Scholars argue that while one group may accept a certain language and its associated
meanings, it might be considered offensive or insulting by others. Understanding when,
where, and how to use language is crucial, as illustrated by phenomena such as "age-
grading," where language usage varies among different age groups. Varieties of
language reflect regional, social, ethnic, and gender-related factors, influencing specific
ways of speaking and conversing based on social requirements.

B. Linguistic Relativity in Language and Society-Linguistic

Behavior/Structure and Social Structure
Another perspective on the relationship between language and society, in direct
contrast to the first, suggests that linguistic structure and/or behavior can influence or
determine social structure (Wardhaugh, 2006). This concept, known as the principle of
linguistic relativity, argues that the characteristics of a language can affect various
aspects of life. The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, as outlined by Jourdan & Tuite (2006),
posits that language conditions speech habits, which, in turn, organize and generate
specific patterns of thought. Essentially, language plays a role in determining thought
processes.

C. The Bidirectional Relationship in Language and Society

Dittmar's (1976:238) bidirectional relationship argument proposes that "speech
behavior and social behavior are in a state of constant interaction, and material living
conditions are an important factor in the relationship." This third perspective highlights a
bi-directional influence, indicating that language and society can mutually impact each
other.

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D. Designation in Language and Society
Koul (1983) noted that language mirrors society as distinctly as society is mirrored in it.
The scholar emphasizes the need for specific references to linguistic attributes like
personal names, surnames, nicknames, and other nomenclatures. These elements are
argued to reflect the socio-cultural, socio-economic, socio-political, religious, and
linguistic patterns of society. Furthermore, in everyday communication, the utilization of
kinship terms, modes of address, and greetings serves as representatives of the socio-
cultural milieu of a given society, playing a significant role in the language's use within
society and the sociology of language.

E. Authority in Language and Society

Numerous scholars (Cameron, 1998; Phillips & Hardy, 1997; Habermas, 1995; Elen,
1993; Lynch & Woogla, 1990; Duck, 1982; Sacks et al., 1974; etc.) have identified that
individual or group epistemological and moral responsibility, context and audience, issue
sensitivity, gender, class, status, political accountability, religious power (God),
education, and professionalism either grant or deny people the right or legitimacy to use
language. This includes expressing or manipulating their thoughts, ideas, and
messages, acting as constraints in language and society (Jaspers, Ostman &
Verschueren, 2010).

F. The Physiological and Anatomical Configuration of Humanity

Human beings are uniquely created anatomically and physiologically to create and
eloquently produce language for communication, distinguishing them from other
intelligent and capable animals such as bees, chimpanzees, birds (e.g., parrots), dogs,
etc. Humans are born with a language faculty in the cerebrum, serving as a
sophisticated powerhouse to process and produce language.

Lesson 2. Key Terms in Language and Society

Sociolinguistic and Sociology of Language
Sociology of language directs its attention to the impact of language on society, while
sociolinguistics is concerned with how society influences language (Spolsky & Francis,
2007). Significantly, the sociology of language aims to comprehend how individual and

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group language use affects social dynamics. It delves into questions of who has the
'authority' to use particular languages, with whom, and under what conditions. It explores
how language shapes individual or group identity based on the linguistic options available
to them.
Various scholars have defined sociolinguistics with similar implications, describing it as
the study of the relationship between languages, language use, and social context. In
essence, sociolinguistics represents another facet of language, beyond its structural
aspects like sound, grammar, and cognition (Owen, 2011). It is the study of language in
relation to society (Hudson, 1996:4) and involves investigating the relationships between
language and society to gain a better understanding of language structure and how
languages function in communication (Wardhaugh, 2006:13).
According to Ellis (2005), the primary objective of sociolinguistics is to explain how
speakers' variable linguistic variations correlate with variations in their social
characteristics. It focuses on the correlation between language use and social status,
describing language use as a social phenomenon. Sociolinguistics attempts to establish
causal links between language and society, addressing questions about what language
contributes to making communities possible and how communities shape their
languages. As a meeting ground for linguists and social scientists, sociolinguistics
encompasses two centers of gravity: micro- and macro-sociolinguistics, representing
different orientations and research agendas. Both perspectives are considered crucial for
a comprehensive understanding of language as a social phenomenon.
Micro-sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influences the way people
talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such
as class, gender, and age. On the other hand, macro-sociolinguistics studies what
societies do with their languages, including attitudes, and attachments that account for
the functional distribution of speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, and
interaction of speech communities.

Speech Community

The definition of a speech community is a subject of debate in sociolinguistic

literature, with varying emphasis placed on two key points: shared community
membership and shared linguistic communication. A speech community, within the
realm of sociolinguistics, refers to a more or less distinct group of individuals who use

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language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves. These
communities can include members of a profession with specialized jargon, distinct social
groups like high school students or hip hop fans, and even online communities such as
internet forums. To be considered part of a speech community, individuals must possess
communicative competence, enabling them to use language appropriately in specific
situations.

Language Planning
Language planning, also known as language policy, involves deliberate, well-
calculated efforts to influence the function, structure, and acquisition of languages within
a speech community or country/state. Dialect, in sociolinguistics, encompasses
phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, and semantic attributes that distinguish
one group of speakers from another within the same language. Dialectologists focus on
studying dialects, while variationist sociolinguists explore social variations within dialects,
examining how variation is rule-governed.

The Dialect Continuum and the Dilemma

The dialect continuum presents a dilemma wherein adjacent dialects are highly
similar, but as one moves away, the similarities decrease. This raises questions about
mutual intelligibility, defining when dialects become separate languages. Idiolect refers
to the unique language variety spoken by an individual, acknowledging the inherent
variation among speakers of a language.

Sociolect
Sociolect, often used interchangeably with social dialect, is defined as a variety
or dialect associated with the social background of its speakers rather than geographical
considerations. It reflects the language spoken by a specific social group, class, or
subculture, with determinants including gender, age, occupation, and other factors for
purposes such as secrecy, professionalism, or expressiveness.

Regional Dialects
Regional dialects are linguistic differentiations based on longstanding geographic
isolation or separation. These arise when a group is isolated due to natural barriers like
mountains or rivers, leading to unique linguistic characteristics that distinguish regional

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dialects. Common misperceptions about dialects include viewing them as substandard,
incorrect, or synonymous with slang. The sociolinguistic fact is that everyone speaks a
dialect, and the linguistic criterion to differentiate language from dialect is often mutual
intelligibility.
Language Accent
Accent is a specific manifestation of a language spoken by a subgroup of its
speakers, characterized by distinct phonological features (as defined on a webpage).
Every individual possesses an accent, just as they have a dialect. The distinction is not
about possessing or lacking an accent or dialect; rather, it pertains to the particular
accent or dialect one employs. In essence, individuals can share the same dialect while
employing different accents, although these two aspects often correlate. Generally
speaking, an accent refers to the distinctive manner in which a person sounds when
speaking.

There are two primary types of accents:

1. Foreign accent: This occurs when an individual speaks one language but
incorporates rules or sounds from another. For example, someone encountering
difficulty pronouncing certain sounds in a second language may substitute similar
sounds from their native language, resulting in a pronunciation that sounds unfamiliar or
foreign to native speakers of that language.

2. Regional accent: This reflects the way a group of people speaks their native
language, influenced by their geographical location and social groups. Those living in
close proximity develop a shared way of speaking, or accent, which differs from the
speech patterns of other groups in different locations. Examples include a Tagalog
accent or a Visayan accent.

Language Contact
Language contact occurs when different languages, accents, and dialects
intersect, a phenomenon that becomes more prevalent with enhanced communication
and improved travel facilitating national and international connections. Historically, such
contact has often occurred under circumstances of social inequality, stemming from
events like wars, conquests, colonialism, slavery, and migrations, both forced and

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 voluntary. In addition to instances of inequality, more amicable encounters related to
urbanization or trade have been documented, along with situations characterized by
relative equality (as observed in works by Sorensen in 1967 and Sankoff in 1980).
The outcomes of language contact can vary: in some instances, and locations, it
has been transitory, leading to short-lived language loss and assimilation. Conversely,
other historical situations have resulted in prolonged stability and acceptance among the
bi- or multilingual population. In its simplest terms, language contact is defined as the
concurrent use of more than one language in the same place and at the same time.

Lesson 3. Language Variation and Varieties

Language Variation

Language with its different varieties is the subject matter of socio-linguistics. Socio-
linguistics studies the varied linguistic realizations of socio-cultural meanings which in a sense are
both familiar and unfamiliar and the occurrence of everyday social interactions which are
nevertheless relative to particular cultures, societies, social groups, speech communities,
languages, dialects, varieties, and styles. That is why language variation generally forms a part
of socio-linguistic study.

Language can vary, not only from one individual to the next, but also from one sub-section
of speech-community (family, village, town, and region) to another. People of different age, sex,
social classes, occupations, or cultural groups in the same community will show variations in their
speech. Thus, language varies in geographical and social space. Variability in a social dimension
is called sociolectical. According to socio-linguists, a language is code. There exist varieties
within the code. And the factors that cause language variation can be summarized in the following
manner:

• Nature of participants, their relationship (socio-economic, sexual, occupational, etc.

• Number of participants (two face-to-face, one addressing a large audience, etc.)
• Role of participants (teacher/student priest / parishioner /father/son/husband/wife, etc.)
• Function of speech event (persuasion, request for information ritual, verbal, etc.)
• Nature of medium (speech, writing, scripted speech, speech reinforced by gesture, etc.)
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 • Genere of discourse (scientific, experiment, sport, art, religion, etc.)
• Physical setting (noisy / quiet / public / private / family / formal/familiar/unfamiliar, etc.

Language Varieties

Language varies from region to region, class to class, profession to profession, person to
person, and even situation to situation. Socio-linguistics tends to describe these variations in
language with reference to their relationship with society. It shows that the relationship between
language variation and society is rather a systematic relationship. It manifests that there are four
major social factors involved in this variation: socio-economic status, age, gender, and ethnic
background of the user or users of the language. Due to all these four factors language differs on
four levels chiefly:
1. Phonological Level
2. Lexical Level
3. Syntax Level
4. Discourse Level

In other words, variation within a language with reference to its use or user can be defined
in terms of ‘difference of linguistic items’. R. A. Hudson in his Sociolinguistics manifests:
“What makes a language variety different from another is linguistic items that it includes,
so we may define a variety of language as a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution”.
So, to describe language varieties, on one side there are linguistic items and on the other
there is ‘social distribution’. Let’s take two different social classes for example: Middle Class and
Working Class. Language of Working Class is different from that of Middle Class. The choice of
vocabulary of one class is quite different from the other. Middle class uses more adjective, adverbs
and impersonal pronouns. Whereas Working class uses active and simple words and here is
lesser use of adjective, adverbs and impersonal pronouns. Lower class speech (restricted code)
is more direct with simple grammatical construction in contrast with middle class speech
(elaborated code). If a person wants to ask for the cake placed on table, person of working class
may ask another person: “shove those buns mate”. A middle-class person will say the same thing
in rather different way: “Please pass the cake”

In the following, six major language verities will be discussed, namely:

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 1. Idiolect
2. Register
3. Diglossia
4. Pidgin
5. Lingua Franca
6. Esperanto
Idiolect:

Each person exhibits differences in various aspects when compared to those around
them, spanning from eating habits to clothing choices, showcasing unique features. Similarly,
individual language usage is marked by distinct linguistic characteristics, referred to as an
idiolect. David Crystal, in his Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, defines idiolect as the
"linguistic system of an individual—one's personal dialect." This linguistic system encompasses a
person's preferences in vocabulary, grammatical structures, and a distinctive pronunciation style,
essentially constituting an individual's phonology, syntax, and lexicon. For example, variations in
pitch, tone, and use of catch phrases contribute to the uniqueness of one's idiolect. Idiolect
stands as a personal speech variety within a broader speech community, distinguishing an
individual's speech from others, in contrast to sociolect, which varies with social class.
Additionally, there exists a distinct scheme for categorizing language varieties based on usage,
where register plays a pivotal role.

Register:

Register, a diatypic variety or variety according to use, is determined by the social

activity being engaged in, expressing the diversity of social processes. Registers
represent ways of saying different things and can differ in semantics, lexicogrammar,
and sometimes phonology, based on the nature of the social activity. Extreme cases
include restricted languages or languages for special purposes, while typical instances
involve occupational varieties, such as technical or semi-technical languages. The
principal controlling variables for registers are field (type of social action), tenor (role
relationships), and mode (symbolic organization).
“A variety of language defined according to its use in a social situation”. The language of
an individual varies from situation to situation. On some occasions people talk very formally, on
some other occasions they talk technically as well as formally. On some other occasions they
become informal yet technical and sometimes informal and non-technical. Following is the
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example of all these ‘levels of formalities’:

Formal technical: “We obtained some sodium chloride.”

Formal non-technical: “We obtained some salt.”
Informal technical: “We got some sodium chloride.”
Informal non-technical: “We got some salt.”

There are two other levels: Slang, and vulgar. Question is that why a person adopts these
different levels of formalities? Halliday tries to describe it in terms of ‘three dimensions.
In Michael Halliday's "Language as Social Semiotic," register is defined as "A complex
scheme of communicative behaviour," with three dimensions: Field, Tenor, and Mode. These
dimensions play a crucial role in determining the speaker's choice of linguistic items. Field refers
to the purpose and subject matter of communication, answering the question of why and about
what the communication is. For instance, a doctor communicating with colleagues may use
medical terminology, constituting a medical register. The concept of Tenor involves considering
the recipient of the communication, determining how the language is tailored. For example, a
doctor communicating with a patient would use simpler language. Tenor also influences speech
differently when communicating with a teacher compared to a friend. Mode refers to the means
of communication, with language varying based on whether it is a letter, direct conversation, or
an essay, even if discussing the same topic.

‘Register’ as a language variety differs from dialect_ sociolect and idiolect. These
differences are:

Register vs. Dialect

• Register is a language variety according to use
• Dialect is language variety according to user

✓ It may be related to any particular profession or situation

✓ It may be related to any region or social class
✓ It shows what the user of language is doing.
✓ It shows who the user is.

• Register is a set of particular linguistic items to be used in a particular situation

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 • Dialect is a set of linguistic items to be used by people of particular area or class.

Up till now the different variations within a language were being dealt but there are certain
situations where two or more languages are used which causes such variations that are beyond
the range of one language. One of these variations is known as pidgin. There is a situation in
which two or more languages are used with in a society. That is known as ‘Diglossia’. Let’s discuss
the situation.

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 Diglossia:

The concept of diglossia explores situations in bilingual or multilingual communities

where two languages or dialects are used differently based on social contexts. Accent, defined
by phonological elements, reflects how individuals sound when speaking, and everyone has an
accent and dialect. Foreign accents occur when someone speaks a language using the rules
or sounds of another language. Diglossia, introduced by Charles Ferguson for English, refers
to a stable language situation where two very different varieties of the same language are
used. Ferguson's theory states that a society is 'diglossic' when two 'divergent' varieties of the
same language are in use, one highly codified. Examples include Arabic-speaking countries
with Classical Arabic and Vernaculars and Greece with Katharevousa and Dhimotiki. Joshua
Fishman later extended the term to societies where two different languages are used, making
almost all societies potentially diglossic. In this context, Pakistani society, with Punjabi, Urdu,
and English having different statuses, exemplifies a diglossic society. Different languages in a
society can merge, leading to a new mixture called Pidgin.

Pidgin:
Pidgin is an 'odd mixture' of two languages, not a divergent variety of a single language
but a fusion of two or more languages. David Crystal defines pidgin as a language with a
markedly reduced grammatical structure, lexicon, and stylistic range compared to other
languages. It serves as the native language for non-native speakers and emerges when two
mutually unintelligible speech communities attempt to communicate. The lexifier, one particular
language, contributes the main vocabulary to the pidgin. Early "pre-pidgin" is restricted in use
and variable in structure, while later "stable pidgin" develops its own grammatical rules, distinct
from the lexifier. Pidgin names, such as "Chinglish" and "Engrish," reflect the emergence of
vocabulary. As pidgin evolves, it becomes more complex. Pidgin arises out of the practical
need for communication between two distinct language communities lacking a common
language, earning it the label of a 'contact language.' R. A. Hudson in Sociolinguistics
describes pidgin as a variety specifically created for communication with another group, not
used by any community for communication among themselves. Pidgin develops when neither
community learns the language of the other due to various reasons, sometimes due to practical
impossibility or urgent needs for business or politics.

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 Most of the present pidgins have developed in European colonies. A few examples are
Hawaii Creole English, AAVE, Papiamentu “Geordie Cameroon Pidgin Krio “Singlish” Tok Pisin,
and Bislama. Out of these, many have developed as Creoles.
The major difference between pidgin and Creole is that the former has no native speakers
but the later has. When any pidgin is acquired by children of any community it becomes Creole.
At that time it develops its new structures and vocabulary. In other words when a pidgin becomes
‘lingua franca’ it is called Creole.
An old example of pidgin, that later developed into creole, was “lingua franca”. It referred
to a mix of mostly Italian with a broad vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek,
and Arabic. This mixed language was used for communication throughout the medieval and
early modern Middle East as a diplomatic language. The term “lingua franca” has since become
common for any language used by speakers of different languages to communicate with one
another.

Lingua Franca:

The term "lingua franca," first documented in 1619, refers to a standard language
or pidgin utilized for communication among groups with different native languages.
Originating from a pidgin based on French and Italian in the Mediterranean, it serves
various purposes, such as trade, diplomacy, administration, scholarly pursuits, and
scientific endeavors, earning alternative names like working language, bridge language,
or vehicular language. Lingua franca arises when individuals speaking different
languages need to communicate, fostering habitual use among those with diverse
mother tongues.
Defined by UNESCO in 1953 as a language habitually used by people with
different native languages, lingua franca facilitates communication among mutually
unintelligible languages. Sociolinguistics delves into the complex issues of prestige,
standard, and non-standard dialects, examining the social values and stigmatization
associated with certain dialects based on geography, ethnicity, and class.

Esperanto:
The idea of a universal language is at least as old as the Biblical story of Babel and its fall.
In the 18th century, some rationalist natural philosophers sought to recover the Edenic language
that was confused in the city of Babel. Gottfried Leibniz, 18th century German rationalist
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philosopher, marked many elements relating to the possibility of universal language in his work.
Later on, many scholars and philosophers worked on this idea. Some stressed on finding the most
ancient language assuming that it would be closer to the Edenic whereas some other stressed on
‘planning’ a ‘universal language’ considering the most common structures of human languages.
The major practical out come was the development of Esperanto. Esperanto is a planned
language intended for use between people who speak different native languages.

Assessment Tasks

Learning Task A:

Direction: Read each task carefully. Prepare this after the lesson.
1. Draw a Venn diagram illustrating the overlapping and distinct features of
sociolinguistics and the sociology of language. Label shared and unique
characteristics.
2. In a group, discuss and list examples of speech communities from
various contexts (e.g., professional, social, online). Identify
commonalities in how language is used within these communities
3. Create a simple storyboard depicting scenarios related to the dialect
continuum and register. Include captions explaining how these concepts
manifest in different social situations.

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 Summary

In Lesson 1, we explore the intricate relationship between language and society,

examining how social structures can impact linguistic behaviors. Scholars such as Jaspers,
Ostman, Verschueren, and Wardhaugh discuss the influence of society on language, shaping
meanings, attitudes, and preferences. The bidirectional relationship, as proposed by Dittmar,
highlights the constant interaction between speech and social behaviors. Koul emphasizes how
language reflects societal attributes, and the concept of authority in language underscores the
factors that grant legitimacy to language use. The lesson also touches on the physiological
configuration of humanity, illustrating how humans are uniquely equipped for language. In
Lesson 2, key terms such as sociolinguistics, speech community, language planning, dialect
continuum, sociolect, and lingua franca are introduced, contributing to a comprehensive
understanding of the intricate dynamics between language and society.

References

Avermaet, P. V. (2021). The Current Trends in Language Policies for Multilingualism. Retrieved
from FutureLearn: [Link]
practices/0/steps/22643

Devin, T. M. (2019). How Many People Speak Tagalog, And Where Is It Spoken? Date of
Retrieval 1-9-23
HTTPS://[Link]/EN/MAGAZINE/HOW-MANY-PEOPLE-SPEAK-TAGALOG

Tupas, R., & Lorente, B. P. (2021). A ‘New’ Politics of Languagein the Philippines:
BilingualEducation and the New Challengeof the Mother Tongues. Retrieved from
[Link]
ngual_education_and_the_new_challenge_of_the_mother_tongues

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 Module 2
Multilingualism and Language Policy

Introduction

The question "What is multilingualism?" goes beyond its apparent simplicity, as

decades of intense discussions have been dedicated to defining the characteristics of a
multilingual person. Explanations and descriptions of communities identified as multilingual vary
significantly, influenced by researchers' diverse backgrounds and ideologies. Multilingualism, in
essence, refers to the coexistence of several languages within a country, community, or city. It
involves the use of three or more languages, reflecting the ability to speak multiple languages.
Scholars often consider multilingualism as 'a natural state of humankind,' and neuroscientists
delve into its implications for the brain organization of individuals who speak multiple languages
(Flynn, 2016).
This module emphasizes the individual aspects of bilingualism and multilingualism,
focusing on the acquisition of multilingual competence. It explores tentative explanations for
additive multilingualism and discusses the implications for multilingual education.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

1. Understand multilingualism by providing a definition and exploring the factors that

contribute to the vitality of this phenomenon.
2. Appreciate and acknowledge the significance of linguistic diversity within a
multilingual society.
3. Compose a reaction essay discussing the implications of having a national
language in the context of a multilingual environment.
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Lesson 1. Understanding Multilingualism

Bilingualism and multilingualism form a diverse and interdisciplinary field. The prefixes
"bi-" and "multi-" indicate the study of the construction, processing, and comprehension of two
and multiple languages, respectively. While bilingualism specifically refers to the use of two
languages, in everyday language, it often encompasses multilingualism as well. Multilingualism
involves the use of more than one language by an individual or a group of speakers. It is
observed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers globally, with over half of
Europeans proficient in at least one language beyond their native tongue. Many, however,
predominantly read and write in a single language. Multilingualism proves advantageous,
particularly in the context of global trade and cultural engagement, facilitating participation in
globalization. With the internet providing easy access to information, individuals can
increasingly experience multiple languages. Those proficient in several languages are also
known as polyglots.

TYPES OF BILINGUALISM BASED ON SOCIAL STATUS

b. Additive bilingualism: In this type, the new language and culture develop concurrently
with the mother tongue. Both the original language/culture and the new one are
perceived positively, evolving in a complementary manner.
c. Subtractive bilingualism: This category involves the perception of the new language
and culture as more "prestigious," acquired at the expense of the mother tongue. This
often leads to a gradual, if partial, loss of the native language. Unfortunately, it is
common for children to lose the ability to communicate with their grandparents in their
country of origin because they cease using that language.

TYPES OF BILINGUALISM BASED ON FLUENCY AND COMPETENCE

a. Balanced bilingualism: This type occurs when two languages are spoken with equal
fluency and competence. For instance, a bilingual person might maintain connections
with their original community while regularly using the language of the new community.
b. Dominant bilingualism: In this case, one language is spoken with greater fluency and
competence than the other. According to the Dynamic Systems Theory (De Bot, Lowie
& Verspoor, 2005), language acquisition is a complex process involving both
"forgetting" and "acquiring," where the phrase "use it (the language) or lose it" aptly
18
 applies.
TYPES OF BILINGUALISM BASED ON AGE OF ACQUISITION OF THE LANGUAGES
a. Simultaneous bilingualism: This occurs when parents speak two different languages
and decide to use their respective mother tongues with their child. As a result, the
child is simultaneously exposed to two languages from birth.
b. Sequential bilingualism: In the context of a family migrating to another country, the
child becomes immersed in the language of that country. Consequently, they
develop competence in one or more languages in addition to their mother tongue. In
some instances, if exposure is extensive (such as in school or playing with friends),
the new language may become dominant compared to the first language (which
might be used primarily with family members).

MYTHS CONCERNING MULTILINGUALISM

Multilingualism seems to be the norm in the world. As already mentioned, more people
in the world are bi- or multilingual than monolingual. However, prejudices and
misconceptions about multilingualism are still widespread.
1. Learning two or more languages entails an excessive cognitive load. It may have
adverse effects on general cognitive development. NO: From birth, our brain is
perfectly able to "handle" two or more languages. Numerous research studies have
demonstrated that bilingualism's benefits on a cognitive level are much more
significant than the disadvantages. 9 LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN
MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES
2. It may be better to delay one of the languages to become "stable" before
introducing the other. NO: Parents may discover that introducing the second
language late may be too difficult.
3. Bilingual children mix up the two languages and are confused. NO: Bilingual
children switch from one language to the other, but the changes always follow
precise rules. Children are not confused by the use of two languages. On the
contrary, they develop the ability to select the appropriate words from the
appropriate language based on the interaction context.
4. If the parents of a child speak two different languages, the child will naturally
become bilingual. NO: If there is not enough exposure to the minority language (the
one that is not the language of the environment), the child might not develop
enough competence in this language.
5. Having to learn more languages is too difficult for students with dyslexia. NO:
19
 Multilingualism being the norm in the world, it is known that practically all children
can learn more languages in a naturalistic context. Indeed, learning several
languages in a school context with 3 to 4 lessons a week and homework on top may
be too much for some children. However, there is no reason to exempt dyslexic
students from starting to learn another language.

Lesson 2. Linguistic Rights and the Philippine Language

Situation

Linguistic Rights
Linguistic rights, at its core, encompass the fundamental entitlement of
individuals to utilize their language when interacting with fellow members of their
linguistic community, irrespective of the language's status. These rights safeguard
the individual and collective freedom to select one's language or languages for
communication in both private and public domains.

The Evolution of Linguistic Rights: A Historical Journey

1. Pre-1815:
- Language rights were addressed in bilateral agreements but were not part of
international treaties, as seen in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).

2. Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815):

- After the conclusion of Napoleon I's empire-building, seven European major
powers signed the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, granting Poles in
Poznan the right to use Polish alongside German for official business. National
constitutions in this phase also started protecting the language rights of
national minorities.

3. Between World I and World War II:

- Under the League of Nations, Peace Treaties and major international
conventions included clauses protecting minorities in Central and Eastern
Europe. This involved the right to private language use and provision for

20
 instruction in primary schools through the medium of one's language. Many
national constitutions followed suit, although not all signatories provided rights to
minority groups within their borders.

4. 1945–1970s:
- The post-World War II era saw international legislation for the protection of
human rights within the United Nations framework. This focused on individual
and collective rights for oppressed groups, emphasizing self-determination.

5. Early 1970s Onwards:

- A renewed interest in minority rights, including language rights, emerged. The
UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic,
Religious, and Linguistic Minorities reflected this shift, emphasizing the
importance of linguistic rights for minorities.

The Significance of Linguistic Rights

The primary objective of linguistics, akin to other intellectual disciplines, is to
enhance our knowledge and comprehension of the world. Given that language is a
universal and fundamental aspect of all human interactions, the insights gained from
linguistics have numerous practical applications.

Types of Linguistic Rights

1. Right to Speak One's Own Language in Legal, Administrative, and Judicial Acts:
- This linguistic right ensures individuals have the entitlement to express
themselves in their native language in various legal, administrative, and judicial
proceedings.

2. Right to Receive Education in One's Own Language:

- Individuals possess the right to receive education in their native language,
emphasizing the importance of linguistic inclusivity in the educational sphere.

3. Right for Media to be Broadcast in One's Own Language:

- This linguistic right guarantees access to media content broadcast in one's native
language, recognizing the importance of linguistic diversity in media representation.

21
Linguistic Rights in the International Arena

1. The Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights (1996):

Approved in Barcelona, Spain, this declaration underscores linguistic rights
as a fundamental human right. It grants equal linguistic rights to all language
communities, encompassing regional and immigrant minority languages.

2. UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966):

Provides international legal provisions for the protection of minorities. Article
27 specifically states that individuals of linguistic minorities cannot be denied
the right to use their own language.

3. UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic,

Religious, and Linguistic Minorities (1992):
This declaration makes modest obligations on states, emphasizing
opportunities for education in the mother tongue for individuals belonging to
minority groups.

4. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989):

Acknowledges the child's right to their cultural identity, language, and values.
Articles 29 and 30 emphasize respect for a child's own language, even in
cases of minority or immigrant status.

LINGUISTIC RIGHTS IN THE NATIONAL DOMAIN

Article XIV, Sections 6–9 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution outlines the provisions
for linguistic rights in the national context.

1. SECTION 6: National Language Development

- The national language of the Philippines is Filipino. It is envisioned to continually
evolve and be enriched based on existing Philippine and other languages. The
government, subject to legal provisions and the discretion of Congress, is tasked
with promoting the use of Filipino as an official medium of communication and
language of instruction in the educational system.
22
2. SECTION 7: Official Languages
- For communication and instruction purposes, the official languages of the
Philippines are Filipino and, unless specified otherwise by law, English. Regional
languages are recognized as auxiliary official languages in their respective regions
and function as auxiliary media of instruction. Spanish and Arabic are encouraged on
a voluntary and optional basis.

3. SECTION 8: Constitution Language

- The Constitution itself will be promulgated in both Filipino and English.
Furthermore, translations into major regional languages, Arabic, and Spanish are
mandated to ensure accessibility and inclusivity.

4. SECTION 9: National Language Commission

- The Congress is entrusted with establishing a national language commission.
This commission, comprising representatives from various regions and disciplines, is
assigned the responsibility of initiating, coordinating, and promoting research for the
development, propagation, and preservation of Filipino and other languages.

Instruments Protecting Linguistic Rights

1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

Article 2: Freedom from Discrimination
Guarantees entitlement to all freedoms listed in the UDHR without
discrimination based on race, color, sex, language, religion, political
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status.

2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

Article 27: Minority Rights
Ensures the right for members of religious, ethnic, or linguistic minorities
to enjoy their culture, practice their religion, and use their language.

3. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

Article 17: Media Access for Children
Recognizes the crucial role of mass media in a child's development,
23
 encouraging the dissemination of information and material for the
promotion of social, spiritual, moral well-being, and physical and mental
health.
Article 29: Goals of Child Education
Outlines objectives for child education, emphasizing the development of
personality, respect for human rights, cultural identity, language, and
values.
Article 39: Recovery and Reintegration
Mandates appropriate measures to promote the physical and
psychological recovery and social reintegration of a child victim of
neglect, exploitation, abuse, torture, or armed conflicts.
Article 40: Rights of Child in Legal Proceedings
(1) Recognizes the right of every child alleged or accused to be treated in
a manner consistent with the promotion of the child's dignity, worth,
respect for human rights, and reintegration into society, considering
the child's age.
(2) To this end, and having regard to the relevant provisions of
international instruments, States Parties shall, in particular, ensure
that: (vi) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if the child
cannot understand or speak the language used.

Articles 13, 14, and 16, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples

Article 13
1. Indigenous peoples have the right to revitalize, use, develop, and transmit to
future generations their histories, languages, oral traditions, philosophies, writing
systems, and literatures, and to designate and retain their own names for
communities, places, and persons.
2. States shall take effective measures to ensure that this right is protected and also
to ensure that indigenous peoples can understand and be understood in political,
legal, and administrative proceedings, where necessary through the provision of
interpretation or by other appropriate means.

24
Article 14
1. Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational
systems and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner
appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning.
2. Indigenous individuals, particularly children, have the right to all levels and forms
of education of the State without discrimination.
3. States shall, in conjunction with indigenous peoples, take effective measures, in
order for indigenous individuals, particularly children, including those living
outside their communities, to have access, when possible, to an education in
their own culture and provided in their own language.

Article 16
1. Indigenous peoples have the right to establish their own media in their own
languages and to have access to all forms of non-indigenous media without
discrimination.
2. States shall take effective measures to ensure that State-owned media duly
reflect indigenous cultural diversity. States, without prejudice to ensuring full
freedom of expression, should encourage privately owned media to adequately
reflect indigenous cultural diversity.

Philippine Language Situation

Philippine Languages

The Philippines, consisting of 7100 islands, has given rise to the emergence of
various languages. There are approximately 150 languages in the Philippines,
depending on classification (Future Learn, 2022; Temelkova, 2022; Wikipedia, 2023).
Spanish served as the official language during the Spanish colonization, with free
public Spanish schooling established in 1863. Similarly, Spanish was the national
language during the First Republic, as stipulated by the 1989 Malolos Constitution
(Future Learn, 2022; Temelkova, 2022).
During the US occupation, English was introduced in schools. In 1935, the
Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish (Future Learn,
2022; Temelkova, 2022).

25
 The linguistic landscape of the Philippines has also been shaped by immigrant
communities, contributing languages such as Sindhi, Japanese, Indonesian, Hindi,
German, Arabic, Malay, Vietnamese, Korean, Tamil, and various forms of Chinese
(Future Learn, 2022; Temelkova, 2022; Wikipedia, 2023).

Filipino vs Tagalog

Filipino and Tagalog share similarities but are not identical. Tagalog is the
dialect spoken by the Tagalog ethnolinguistic group, while Filipino is the modernized
version of Tagalog that has evolved over time (Future Learn, 2022; Lingualinx,
2023).
In 1937, Tagalog became the national language of the Philippines. However,
this decision sparked controversy as Cebuanos outnumbered Tagalogs at that time
(Gtelocalize, 2020; Proactive Thoughts, nd). In 1973, under President Marcos'
regime, a new version of Tagalog was developed and renamed "Filipino." This
initiative aimed to establish a "new civilization," incorporating features from other
languages and altering the alphabet to include additional letters (Koyfman, 2019;
Coulthard, 2021; Future Learn, 2022).

Major and Minor Languages

There are 12 major Philippine languages spoken by a significant number of

people. These include Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Iloko, Bikol,
Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Tausug, Maguindanaoan, Maranao, and Chabacano
(Varlyproject, 2021).
Minor languages, spoken by smaller populations within specific areas, are
controversial to classify. Different criteria, such as demographic, socio-political, and
ethno-social definitions, are used to determine minority languages (Owens, 2013;
Wikipedia, 2023).

Local Languages and Literacy

The Department of Education (DepEd) introduced Mother Tongue-based

Multilingual Education in public schools in 2012. Twelve languages, including
Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Iloko, Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray,
26
 Tausug, Maguindanaoan, Maranao, and Chabacano, were selected for usage. In
2013, seven more languages were introduced to the Mother Tongue-based
Multilingual Education program (Ronda, 2012; Mendoza, 2012; Varlyproject, 2021).

Lesson 3. Language Choice as the Core of Language

Policy
The purpose of Language Policy is multifaceted and encompasses various
objectives aimed at shaping linguistic dynamics within a society. Primarily, it involves
official actions taken by a government through legislative measures, court decisions,
or policy formulations to delineate how languages are utilized. This includes the
cultivation of language skills essential for meeting national priorities and ensuring the
rights of individuals or groups to use and preserve their languages. Language Policy
plays a crucial role in identifying a community or nation, serving as a reflection of its
cultural diversity and linguistic richness. Additionally, it serves as a means to an end
in the development of a distinct identity, fostering a sense of belonging and unity
among its members. In essence, Language Policy is a tool employed by
governments to navigate the intricate balance between linguistic diversity, national
priorities, and the preservation of cultural identity.

The role of Language Choice in Education is pivotal and extends to the very
core of the education system. The language policy in education serves as the
guiding principle that determines the language used to disseminate knowledge at
various educational levels. In the context of language choice, particularly in the
Philippines, English and Filipino occupy a central position. These languages play a
crucial role in uniting individuals and fostering productivity, all while contributing to
the promotion of national identity.
The adoption of English and Filipino as mediums of communication in
education has been ingrained not only in the minds of learners but also in
educational materials such as books. This deliberate choice of language serves as a
unifying force, creating a shared platform for learning and understanding among
diverse linguistic communities. The use of the standard language, English, has
become a norm in educational settings, shaping classroom environments and
influencing the content of educational materials.

27
 Imagine an alternative scenario where English and Filipino are not the media of
communication in education. In such a setting, the classroom dynamics would likely
be marked by linguistic diversity, making communication challenging. The language
of teaching and learning would vary significantly, hindering effective knowledge
dissemination. Moreover, the content of educational materials, including books,
would be shaped by different linguistic influences, potentially leading to a lack of
standardized knowledge transfer.

Recognizing the void and emptiness...

• Our fundamental essence lies in our "Language Choice."
• It imparts to us our identity, strength, capability, and in its absence, we would
lack all these aspects – our essence.
• Language Choice, now acknowledged as the central element of Language
Policy, emphasizes that our language decisions constitute the essence of
Language Policy.

Language choices are significantly influenced by the sociolinguistic context,

encompassing factors such as location, involved participants, and the subject matter.
When selecting a language, we take into account the subject – what is being
discussed, the setting – where the conversation will occur, and the participants –
who is involved.
Language selection varies across different domains. The choice of language
varies depending on the specific domains.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE CHOICE AND LANGUAGE POLICY

In understanding the intricate relationship between language choice and language
policy, it is essential to categorize countries based on their linguistic and ethnic
complexity, as it significantly influences the formulation and implementation of
language policies.

Type 1 – Ethnolinguistically Homogeneous Countries

• Comprising nations that are ethnolinguistically homogeneous, these
countries may have linguistic minorities, yet these groups are often
geographically or socially marginalized.
• The term "homogeneous" signifies a population unified by a single ethnicity
28
 or language.
Type 2 – Dyadic or Triadic Countries
• Encompassing countries with two or more ethnolinguistic groups of equal
number and power, this type involves the coexistence of two or three
languages.
• Examples include Canada, where both French and English are spoken;
Israel, with Arabic and Hebrew; and Belgium, where Dutch, French, and
German are official languages.
Type 3 – Mosaic Society or Multiethnic Space
• Enabling countries with five or more ethnic groups, this category involves
the presence of five or more languages.
• Examples of such diverse countries include Serbia, boasting ten official
languages; Moldova; South Africa, with 11 official languages; Zimbabwe,
recognizing 16 official languages; Papua New Guinea, with a staggering
839 languages spoken among its seven million population; India, with 22
major languages; Indonesia; Nigeria; and the Philippines, ranking among
the top 10 linguistically diverse countries globally.

Lesson 4. Language Policy: What is it and What can it do

LANGUAGE - a system of communication used by a particular country.

POLICY - prudent or expedient (improper and immoral action) conduct or action.

LANGUAGE POLICY – is what a government does either officially through

legislation, court decisions or policy to determine how languages are used,
cultivate language skills needed to meet national priorities or to establish the rights of
individuals or groups to use and maintain languages.

McCarty (2011) defines language policy as "a complex sociocultural process

[and as] modes of human interaction, negotiation, and production mediated by
relations of power. According to Spolsky (2004), language policy refers to
“language practices, beliefs, and management decisions of a community or polity”. It
“constitutes an attempt by someone to manipulate the linguistic behavior of some
29
community for some reason” (Burton 2013, p.3, in Monje, 2019, p.4)

Language practices involve observable behaviors and choices, encompassing

the selection of linguistic features and language varieties. On the other hand,
language beliefs pertain to the values assigned to these varieties and features.
Language management refers to the explicit and observable efforts made by
individuals or groups claiming authority over participants in a particular domain to
modify their practices or beliefs.
Language policy serves as a mechanism for situating language within the
social structure, determining access to political power and economic resources. It
involves explicit or implicit language planning by official bodies, including ministries
of education, workplace managers, or school administrators.

Various official bodies engage in language policy/planning:

1. Education: Language policy in education aims at disseminating knowledge at

various levels.
2. Workplace: In workplace settings, employees are expected to communicate
in an honest, clear, efficient, client-oriented, polite, and professional manner.
3. School Administrators: Language policy is implemented across the curriculum
and in oral language use across various educational levels.

Countries often adopt language policies to either favor or discourage the use of
specific languages. While historical language policies primarily aimed to promote one
30
official language at the expense of others, contemporary approaches focus on
protecting and promoting regional and ethnic languages facing viability threats.
Governments implement language policy through official channels, such as
legislation, court decisions, or explicit policies. The reasons behind language policy
decisions are often contingent on historical factors. For instance, the 1994 Toubon
law mandated the use of French in all TV broadcasts, requiring foreign-language
programs to be dubbed. Additionally, radio stations were compelled to play at least
40 percent French music for most of the day as part of the language policy.
Language policy holds significant influence over the right to use and maintain
languages, affecting their status and determining which languages are nurtured. The
importance of language policy lies in its substantial impact on language viability and,
consequently, individual rights.

The process of language planning involves four phases:

1. Selection: This phase involves choosing a language variety to fulfill specific

functions within a given society.
2. Codification: Codification entails creating a linguistic standard or norm for the
selected linguistic code. It comprises three stages: graphization (developing a
writing system), grammaticalization (establishing rules/norms of grammar), and
lexicalization (identifying vocabulary).
3. Elaboration: Elaboration pertains to the terminology and stylistic development of
a codified language to meet the communicative demands of modern life and
technology. The primary focus is on the production and dissemination of new
terms.
4. Implementation (Acceptance): Implementation involves promoting decisions
made in the selection and codification stages. This may include the
development of marketing strategies and the production of books, pamphlets,
newspapers, and textbooks utilizing the newly codified standard.

31
 Assessment Tasks

Learning Task A:

Direction: Answer the following questions.

1. Multilingualism is considered a RULE or a common phenomenon. What do you think prompts

or drives people to become multilinguals?

2. What does a multilingual mean to you at this point?

Learning Task B:
Direction: Go to [Link] and register (for free). Once you have activated
your account, browse through the website and answer the following questions:

2. What is the final count of established languages in the Philippines, as of date?

3. Browse through the listed Philippine language. Identify at least five languages
that are familiar to you.
32
4. For each language listed, what can you find in the description beside it? What
are those information?

5. In the status link, you will find the different status assigned to the languages.
Choose at least five from the list and explain what it means (e.g., The first
status identified is wider communication: - What does this mean?) Do the same
for the others.
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

33
 Summary

Linguistic rights, integral to individual and collective freedom, grant people the
entitlement to use their language in various aspects of life, irrespective of its status.
This concept has evolved through historical milestones, beginning with bilateral
agreements pre-1815 and progressing to international treaties post-World War II. The
significance of linguistic rights is underscored by various instruments, including the
Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights and the UN International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights. In the Philippines, the 1987 Constitution outlines linguistic rights,
emphasizing the development and enrichment of Filipino as the national language.
The country's linguistic landscape, influenced by historical factors and immigrant
communities, highlights the complex interplay between major and minor languages.
The introduction of Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education by the Department of
Education reflects efforts to promote linguistic inclusivity at the local level. Overall,
linguistic rights are crucial for preserving cultural identity, fostering inclusivity, and
promoting

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