CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Subject Code: ES 111
Units: 2 UNITS
Section: CE1-D
Schedule: TUE. 6:00PM – 8:00PM
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE 4 OUTLINE
I. INTRODUCTION
II. DEFINITION
III. TECHNICAL AREAS OF STUDY TO GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
B. SOIL MECHANICS
C. ROCK MECHANICS
D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
E. SOIL IMPROVEMENT
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
Geotechnical Engineering
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

Geotechnical Engineering is the technical specialty that deals with soil and rock as supporting
materials for structures.

It deals with the various foundation types that work between the structure and the ground.

In addition, it deals with the stability of soil or rock slopes whose failure may cause loss of
human lives or damage to property
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

TECHNICAL AREAS OF STUDY GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
B. SOIL MECHANICS
C. ROCK MECHANICS
D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY - is a basic science that is concerned with the study of the history of the Earth,
the rocks of which it is composed and the changes that it has undergone or is undergoing. In
short, geology is the science of rocks and earth processes.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY deals with the application of geologic fundamentals to

engineering.

One obvious example of the application of engineering geology is the mapping of active
seismic faults that are to be avoided when making plans for human habitat development,
roadway construction, or power plant construction
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A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Soils are formed from rock as it is acted upon by physical, chemical, and biological forces.
Depending on the viewpoint, there are three basic definitions of soil namely:
1. from an engineering viewpoint, soil is any earthy material that can be removed with a
spade, shovel or bulldozer and is the product of natural weathering. This soil includes
gravel and sand deposits;
2. from a geological viewpoint, soil may be considered as the superficial unconsolidated
mantle of disintegrated and decomposed rock material; and
3. from a pedological (soil science) viewpoint, soil is the weathered transformation
product of the outermost layer of the solid crust, differentiated into horizons varying in
type and amounts of mineral and organic constituents, usually unconsolidated and of
various depths.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Rocks serve as parent material for natural soil formation.

They are also used as ground foundation support and the crushed rock fragments are used
as major construction materials.
In general, rock classification may be made on the basis of:
a. geological origin and genesis,
b. rock mass strength, and
c. weathering and environmental factors.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS:
• Igneous rocks have solidified from a molten or partly molten siliceous solution. This
molten solution is called magma. When magma cools and solidifies in direct contact with
the atmosphere it is referred to as extrusive, while cooling in the substance leads to an
intrusive formation.
• Sedimentary rocks are naturally consolidated or unconsolidated transported materials.
• Metamorphic rocks form as a result of subjecting igneous or sedimentary rocks to
elevated temperatures and pressures.

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Abundance 80% 5% 15%
Common Rock Examples Granite & Basalt Sandstone and limestone Schist and Gneiss
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
COMMON ROCK EXAMPLES
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Structural Geology is the study of the ways in which rocks or sediments are arranged and
deformed on the earth. It involves all three rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
Soil mechanics is a branch of mechanics that studies the mechanical properties of various
types of soil and its strength at different moisture-content levels..

It provides the scientific base upon which design formulas and codes are developed for
everyday engineering design practice.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
Karl von Terzaghi, ‘The influence of modem Soil Studies on the
Design and Construction of Foundations’ commented on
foundations as follows:
“―Foundations can appropriately be described as a necessary
evil. If a building is to be constructed on an outcrop of sound
rock, no foundation is required. Hence, in contrast to the
building it which satisfies specific needs, appeals to the
aesthetic sense, and fills its matters with pride, the
foundations merely serve as a remedy for the deficiencies of
whatever whimsical nature has provided for the support of the
structure at the site which has been selected. On account of
the fact that there is no glory attached to the foundations, and
that the sources of success or failures are hidden deep in the
ground, building foundations have always been treated as
step children; and their acts of revenge for the lack of attention
can be very embarrassing.”
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
Some topics encountered in Soil Mechanic:
1. Soil Phase Relationship
2. Soil Permeability
3. Seepage
4. Effective Stress/Pressure and Pore Water Pressure
5. Stress Distribution In Soil Due to Surface Loads
6. Compressibility and Consolidation
7. Shear Strength in Soil
8. Soil Exploration
9. Stability of Slopes
10. Lateral Earth Pressure
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
1. Soil Phase Relationship
Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete but is a particulate
material. Soil mass is generally a three-phase system. It consists of solid particles, liquid
and gas.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
2. Soil Permeability
A material is permeable if it contains continuous voids. All materials such as rocks,
concrete, soils etc. are permeable. The flow of water through all of them obeys
approximately the same laws.

The permeability of soils has a decisive effect on the stability of foundations, seepage
loss through embankments of reservoirs, drainage of subgrades, excavation of open cuts in
water bearing sand, rate of flow of water into wells and many others.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
2. Soil Permeability
Laboratory Test for Hydraulic conductivity (k) – constant rate for certain soil:

Constant Head Test Falling Head Test Field Pumping Test

LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
3. Seepage
a. the interaction between soils and percolating water has an important influence on: 1.
the design of foundations and earth slopes,
b. the quantity of water that will be lost by percolation through a dam or its subsoil.

The pressure that is exerted on the soil due to

the seepage of water is called the seepage
force or pressure.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
4. Effective Stress/Pressure and Pore Water Pressure
The pressure transmitted through grain to grain at the contact points through a soil
mass is termed as intergranular or effective pressure.

It is known as effective pressure since this pressure is responsible for the decrease in
the void ratio or increase in the frictional resistance of a soil mass.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
5.. Stress Distribution in Soil Due to Surface Loads
Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil-mass due to external vertical
loadings are of great significance in the prediction of settlements of buildings, bridges,
embankments and many other structures. Equations have been developed to compute
stresses at any point in a soil mass on the basis of the theory of elasticity.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
6. Compressibility and Consolidation
The compressibility characteristics of a soil mass might be due to any or a combination
of the following factors:
a. Compression of the solid matter.
b. Compression of water and air within the voids.
c. Escape of water and air from the voids.

Consolidation - gradual compression occurring simultaneously with a flow of water out of

the mass and with a gradual transfer of the applied pressure from the pore water to the
mineral skeleton.
Swelling – The process opposite to consolidation. Increase in water content due to an
increase in the volume of voids.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
6. Compressibility and Consolidation
Phases of Settlement
1. Elastic Settlement – known as Immediate Settlement

2. Primary Consolidation – Expulsion of water

3. Secondary Consolidation – adjustment soil fabrics

LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
7. Shear Strength in Soil
One of the most important and the most controversial engineering properties of soil is
its shear strength or ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces within a mass
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
8. Soil Exploration
The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the essential information on
the subsoil is called Soil Exploration or Soil Investigation.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
9. Stability of Slopes
In Stability of Slope, Factor of Safety (FS) is considered

TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY:

𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑰𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬𝑺
F.S. = 𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬𝑺
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
9. Stability of Slopes
Slopes of earth are of two types
a. Natural Slopes - are those that exist in nature and are formed by natural
causes.
> Infinite slope > Finite slope

b. Manmade Slopes
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
9. Stability of Slopes
Causes of Failure of Slopes: The important
factors that cause instability in a slope and
lead to failure are:
 Gravitational Force
 Force due to seepage of water
 Erosion of the surface of slopes due to
flowing water
 The sudden lowering of water adjacent to a
slope
 Forces due to earthquakes
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
10. Lateral Earth Pressure
Structures that are built to retain
vertical or nearly vertical earth banks or
any other material are called retaining
walls.
Retaining walls may be constructed of
masonry or sheet piles.
Retaining walls may retain water also.
The earth retained may be natural soil or
fill.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

B. SOIL MECHANICS
10. Lateral Earth Pressure
Types of Rigid Retaining Wall:
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

C. ROCK MECHANICS
Rock Mechanics is the subject concerned with the study of the response of rock to an
applied disturbance caused by natural or engineering processes.

Rock Engineering deals with the engineering applications of the basic principles and
the information available in the subjects of engineering geology and rock mechanics in an
economic way.

All these subjects are closely concerned with several engineering disciplines such as
civil, mining, petroleum and geological engineering.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

C. ROCK MECHANICS
Orientation of Planes and Lines:
Some of common terms:
 Dip (Ψ) - also known as the true dip, is the steepest
inclination of the plane to horizontal.
 Apparent dip (α) - is the inclination of any arbitrary
line on the plane to horizontal, which is always less
than the true dip.
 Strike - is the trace (or intersection) of the dipping
plane with the horizontal reference plane. It is also
the orientation of the horizontal line drawn on the
dipping plane. It is perpendicular to the dip
direction.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Two categories of Foundation:
 Shallow Foundation – less than 3meters
 Deep Foundation – Greater than 3 meters

SHALLOW FOUNDATION: Types of Footing:

a. plain concrete foundation;
b. stepped reinforced concrete foundation;
c. reinforced concrete rectangular
foundation; and
d. reinforced concrete wall foundation.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
SHALLOW FOUNDATION: Bearing Pressure
and Settlement
When we design a foundation, we must see
that the structure is safe on two counts. They are,
a. The supporting soil should be safe from
shear failure due to the loads imposed on it by the
superstructure, safe from shear failure criteria
(allowable bearing pressure)
b. The settlement of the foundation should be
within permissible limits. Safe from settlement
criteria (safe bearing pressure)
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
SHALLOW FOUNDATION: Combined and Mat
Footing
1. Cantilever footing. A cantilever or strap footing
normally comprises two footings connected by
a beam called a strap. A strap footing is a
special case of a combined footing.
2. Combined footing. A combined footing is a long
footing supporting two or more columns in one
row.
3. Mat or raft foundations. A mat or raft
foundation is a large footing, usually supporting
several columns in two or more rows.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
DEEP FOUNDATION: Pile Foundation
According to the method of construction, there are three types of piles. They are:
a. Driven piles b. Cast-in-situ piles c. Driven and cast-in-situ
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
DEEP FOUNDATION: Pier Foundation
Drilled piers may be described under four types.
a. Straight-shaft end-bearing piers develop their
support from end-bearing on strong soil, "hardpan" or
rock. The overlying soil is assumed to contribute
nothing to the support of the load imposed on the pier.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
DEEP FOUNDATION: Pier Foundation
Drilled piers may be described under four types.
b. Straight-shaft side wall friction piers pass through
overburden soils that are assumed to carry none of the
load and penetrate far enough into an assigned bearing
stratum to develop design load capacity by side wall
friction between the pier and bearing stratum.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
DEEP FOUNDATION: Pier Foundation
Drilled piers may be described under four types.
c. Combination of straight shaft side wall friction and
end bearing piers are of the same construction as the
two mentioned above, but with both side wall friction
and end bearing assigned a role in carrying the design
load. When carried into rock, this pier may be referred
to as a socketed pier or a "drilled pier with rock socket".
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

D. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
DEEP FOUNDATION: Pier Foundation
Drilled piers may be described under four types.
d. Belled or under reamed piers are piers with a
bottom bell or under ream. A greater percentage of the
imposed load on the pier top is assumed to be carried
by the base.
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

E. SOIL IMPROVEMENT
When a structure must be placed at a site with very weak soil, various techniques can
be used to improve the soil properties.
• Soil Grouting
• Geosynthetic Fabrics or textile
• Soil Improvement
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

E. SOIL IMPROVEMENT
When a structure must be placed at a site with very weak soil, various techniques can
be used to improve the soil properties.
• Soil Grouting
• Geosynthetic Fabrics or textile
• Soil Improvement: t is frequently termed soil stabilization, which in its broadest sense is
alteration of any property of a soil to improve its engineering performance.
 It increases shear strength
 Reduces Permeability
 Reduces Compressibility
LECTURE 4: CURRENT FIELDS/CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

E. SOIL IMPROVEMENT
The methods of soil improvement considered in this topic are:
END