PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS

PHYSICS
■ MECHANICS
■ HEAT
■ ELECTRICITY
■ ELECTRONICS
■ OPTICS
■ ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
■ SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS
IN TRUSTED LEYBOLD QUALITY
Experiments have become an indispensable
part of education. Indispensable because the
combination of theoretical knowledge with
experimental learning sessions ensures
sustainable and successful learning.

We provide a wide range of high-quality

experiments from all areas of physics. Our
proven LEYBOLD quality guarantees durability
and safety during the complete experiment setup.

MORE THAN
500 EXPERIMENTS
IN VARIOUS
PHYSICS RANGES

These are available in several versions (e.g. with

or without PC support) which can be adapted to
the time requirements and student’s level of
knowledge. The experiments are supported
FURTHER EXPERIMENTS by manuals, which includes clear step by step
instructions, sample measurements and
ARE AVAILABLE AT safety advices.

OUR WEBSITE UNDER We will advise you personally and demonstrate

our experiments for you.

WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM Have fun experimenting!

CONTENT
TRADITION AND INNOVATION II-III
MOBILE-CASSY 2 IV-V
X-RAY FUNDAMENTAL & PROFESSIONAL VI-VII
PHOTONICS VIII
LOGIC BOARDS IX
DOCUMENT CENTER X-XI
OVERVIEW OF EXPERIMENTS XII-XIII
HOW TO USE THIS CATALOGUE XIV

P1 MECHANICS 1

P2 HEAT 63

P3 ELECTRICITY 87

P4 ELECTRONICS 149

P5 OPTICS 165

P6 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 229

P7 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS 275

REGISTER 293
 TRADITION AND INNOVATION
EXPERIMENTS FOR STUDENT PRACTICALS AND
DEMONSTRATIONS FOR MORE THAN 160 YEARS
DEMO-MULTIMETER

The LD DIDACTIC Group is a

world-leading manufacturer of
1898 high-quality scientific and technical
training systems.

Our teaching systems have been making a

decisive contribution to the transfer of
knowledge in schools, further education
colleges and universities, and also in the
1973 industrial sector, for generations.

Founded in 1850 in Cologne, LD DIDACTIC

can look back on 160 years of company
history. This former subsidiary of LEYBOLD,
a Cologne company of long-standing
tradition, sees itself as an innovative
1991 supplier of quality products and sells
these products and complete solutions
under the brand names LEYBOLD,
ELWE Technik and FEEDBACK.

2004

Our many years of experience and our

innovative technical potential combined
with the close cooperation with teachers
and trainers from the relevant fields enable
us to offer targeted solution to our customers
and at the same time make complex topics
in biology, chemistry, physics and technology
transparent for the student.

2014
II WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
EXPERIMENTATION PREMIUM PRODUCTS
WITH PASSION „made in Germany“
Our staff develop with great passion tailor-made We manufacture high-quality products
solutions for our customers. Tailor-made because and complete solutions for our customers
they are matched to school type and teaching content, daily at two sites in Germany.
but also because they have been developed in close
cooperation with teachers and trainers. Our tried and trusted LEYBOLD
quality is recognised not only
Our aim is to make the everyday planning and in Germany, but also world-
execution of lessons easier for teachers. We also wide, and is our guarantee
aspire to teach complex topics to students clearly for technically demanding
and transparently and to awaken their enthusiasm products of the highest
for scientific subjects. quality standard.

VISIT US
In our showrooms in
Huerth and Mannheim
you are able to ex-
perience our products
and complete
solutions first hand.

We cordially invite you

to visit us.

III
MOBILE-CASSY 2
THE ONLY ONE MEASURING DEVICE YOU WILL
NEED FOR MEASURED VALUES IN PHYSICS

MOBILE-CASSY 2
(524 005)

THE MEASURING DEVICE

FOR STUDENT EXPERIMENTS
IN NATURAL SCIENCES

The new generation of our Mobile-CASSY

impresses through its
 universal connection possibilities,
 intuitive operation,
 fast recording of measured values and
 its graphics capability
Set-up of the experiment: Compound pendulum
with rotation sensor S This results in a wide range of applications
from student experiments to demonstrations.

THE CORE Graphics display: 9 cm (3.5“), colour QVGA

Operation: large capacitive touch wheel (42 mm)
TECHNICAL DATA
Resolution: 12 bit
Integrated measurement
ranges Voltage: ±0.1/±0.3/±1/±3/±10/±30 V
Integrated measurement
ranges Current: ±0.03/±0.1/±0.3/±1/±3 A
Integrated measurement
ranges Temperature: -200 ... +200 °C / -200 ... +1200 °C
Sensor connections: 2 (CASSY sensors and sensors M)
Sampling rate: max. 100,000 values/second
Time resolution of the
timer inputs: 20 nanoseconds
Loudspeaker: integrated for key tones and GM counter
HIGH-CONTRAST DISPLAY SHOWN AT tube (can be disabled as required)
ORIGINAL SIZE AND RESOLUTION Data storage device: integrated micro SD card for more than
From the display icons, above the measured value, a thousand measurement files and screen
the measurement channels are shown and can shots, optionally also via a USB stick
be selected. Whilst the icons below on the right Battery capacity: 14 watt-hours (AA size, replaceable)
are accessing the set-up menues and other
displays through the touch wheel .
 THE UNIVERSAL
CONNECTION POSSIBILITIES

1
2 CASSY SENSORS
1 all CASSY sensors and sensor boxes
are supported

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

2 directly via 4 mm safety sockets

2 NEW SENSORS M
3
2 e.g. for the light barriers in the
Advanced Science Kit Set MEC 6

3 NiCr-Ni TEMPERATURE PROBE

4 via a type K socket

USB STICK
5 for the simple transfer of
measured data and screen shots

4 6
PC
6
7 via USB cable with full
5 CASSY Lab 2 support

8
CHARGER (SUPPLIED)
7 with status display

KENSINGTON LOCK
8
as anti-theft protection

WIRELESS LAN (OPTIONAL)

9 for wireless data transfer e.g. to a
PC with CASSY Lab 2 or a tablet

V
 FOR EVERY REQUIREMENT
AND EVERY BUDGET
The LEYBOLD X-ray system has a modular structure and enables the individual
configuration of the separate appliances, so that you only buy what you actually need.

In addition to the basic equipment, you can choose your accessories for basic experiments
(FUNDAMENTAL Experiments) or advanced applications (PROFESSIONAL Experiments)
depending on the experiment requirements.

BASIC
EQUIPMENT

X-RAY APPARATUS
The X-ray apparatus is available in two
variants - as a basic apparatus or as a
complete apparatus with a Mo tube,
goniometer and NaCl monocrystal. If you
wish to use other tubes, the X-ray basic
apparatus is the most flexible solution.

You can extend the X-ray apparatus with

a drawer for your accessories irrespective
of this.

Goniometer TUBES
No matter whether you are In addition to the Mo tube, there are
interested in Bragg spectra, other tubes, which are more suitable for
X-ray energy spectra or computed special areas of application, e.g. Cu tube
tomography, you will be happy for Debye-Scherrer diagrams, Ag tube for
with the precision and high X-ray fluorescence due to its high
resolution of the goniometer. energy K-lines, W or Au tubes for
radiation and computed tomography
due to their high intensity.

VI
 X-RAY ENERGY
DETECTOR
The X-ray energy detector exposes
energy-dispersive X-ray spectra with the
CASSY system. Using the X-ray energy
spectra, various chemical elements can
be easily distinguished by means of their
characteristic X-ray radiation and their
mass fraction can also be determined.
This also confirms the Compton effect.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY BRAGG SPECTRA

MODULE With the complete apparatus
with a Mo tube, you have
The X-ray apparatus has a laterally installed
everything you need for captur-
fluorescent screen, on which X-rays can be
ing your first Bragg spectrum.
seen directly. The computed tomography
Other available monocrystals
module captures this visible X-ray image
and/or X-ray tubes offer several
and the software provided there controls
possible variations.
the rotation of the object in the X-ray
apparatus through 360° and carries out
the back projection of the X-ray image
for the real-time 3D reconstruction.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
PRO
If the resolution of the computed tomo-
graphy module is insufficient, the X-ray
image sensor provides the solution with its
megapixel resolution and its 12-bit grey
scale. With this, voxel resolutions up to an
edge length of below 50 µm are possible.
The X-ray image sensor also provides a
comfortable and fast solution for Laue
diagrams.

HD accessory GOLD TUBE

With the HD accessory consisting of a The gold tube is the Leybold tube with
high-resolution collimator and counter the highest intensity. It is particularly
tube holder with narrow gaps and new suitable for capturing X-ray images,
software, the angular resolution of the Laue diagrams or computed tomograms.
goniometer increases to 0.01°. Bragg In addition to the Tungsten tube, it is
spectra with a 4-fold resolution are also the only tube whose Bragg spectra
possible with this. consist of L-lines.

VII
 PHOTONICS
EDUCATIONAL KITS
Laser and advanced optics
For higher education and university level
Wide range of experiments with educational manuals
Sophisticated topics, easy to setup

BASICS

■ Gas, Fibre and Solid-state Lasers

■ open frame setup
■ hands-on experiments

SHORT LIST OF TOPICS

■ He-Ne Laser and Nd:YAG Laser from setup to physics
■ Semi conductor lasers
■ Interferometers (Michelson, Mach-Zehnder, Fabry-Perot)
■ Heterodyne Interferometer
■ Non-linear optics
■ Special relativity (Laser Gyroscope)

FOR MORE INFORMATION ON OUR PHOTONICS RANGE,

PLEASE REFER TO CHAPTER P5.8 (STARTING PAGE 206)
IN THIS CATALOG.

VIII WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
LOGIC BOARDS
THE ENTRY INTO THE DIGITAL ELECTRONICS!
LOGIC BOARD 1 (571 401) LOGIC BOARD 2 (571 402)
Introducing the basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, XOR) The second board is used for advanced topics. The adders
used in digital electronics. These are used to investigate the are investigated as practical examples of combinatorical
laws of logical operations (de Morgan’s law, associative law logic (logic circuits without feedback). Various flip-flop
and distributive law) and non-feedback logic circuits (switch circuits add students’ knowledge on circuits with feedback
networks). Finally simple flip-flop circuits with feedback are like shift registers or latches. Applications of digital tech-
assembled to study storage of information. nology will be investigated, e.g. multiplexing, demultiplex-
ing and the topics of digital-to analogue and analogue-
Switch states are indicated by means of an LED at to-digital conversion are covered.
each output.
GATES:
GATES: ■ NOT
■ AND ■ NAND
■ OR
■ NOT FLIP-FLOPS:
■ NAND ■ RS-flip-flop
■ XOR ■ D-flip-flop

FLIP-FLOPS: ADDITIONAL:
■ RS-flip-flop ■ RC module for construction of a multivibrator
■ D-flip-flop ■ Adders
■ RC module for construction of a multivibrator ■ AD converter/DA converter
■ 7 segment display

FOR MORE INFORMATION ON OUR LOGIC BOARDS, PLEASE REFER TO CHAPTER P4.5.1 TO 4.5.3 IN THIS CATALOG.

IX
EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTIONS

THE
DIE ELEKTRONISCHE
DOCUMENT CENTER IS
THE
LEYBOLD-BIBLIOTHEK
ELECTRONIC LEYBOLD
LIBRARY
Anzeige und Verwaltung von Schülerversuchslitera-
tur,
Anleitungen für Demonstrationsversuche
For
oderinformation on experimentsin einem Programm
Gebrauchsanweisungen
for students and demonstration experiments
Automatische Aktualisierung aller Dokumente durch
DOWNLOAD THE kostenlose Online-Updates
DOCUMENT CENTER For operation manuals
FREE OF CHARGE: Komfortable fehlertolerante Schlagwort- und
WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM Katalognummernsuche

X
IN THE DOCUMENT CENTER
THE DOCUMENT CENTER OFFERS
■ Leaflets (demonstration instructions) with link to CASSY LAB 2 and Spektralab

■ Experiments for students as interactive pdf files:

■ Easy-to-understand worksheets for students

■ Complete information with experiment results for teachers
■ Ability to go from student to teacher version and back with one mouse click
■ Student documents can be filled out on the computer and stored or printed out as a protocol

■ Sorted into literature packages – facilitates and encourages the compilation of own test series

■ Free-of-charge online update of literature packages following initial acquisition

HOW DOES IT WORK?

The literature packages are clearly displayed in a table of contents, which is structured to guide you to the
document you need. The more literature packages you have installed, the more entries are listed in the table of
contents. Once the system has been installed, the documents can be set to update automatically if desired.

The convenient, fault-tolerant search function helps you find the right document rapidly.

Student version with typewriter tool for filling out Teacher version with an example of the solution and
protocols on the computer notes about the experiments

XI
 P1 P1.1 Measuring methods P1.2 Forces P1.3 Translational motions
of a mass point
P1.4 Rotational motions of
a rigid body
Measuring lengths, Static effects of forces,
MECHANICS measuring volume and force as vector, lever, block One-dimensional motions Rotational motions, conser-
density, determining the and tackle, inclined plane, on Fletcher’s trolley and on vation of angular momen-
gravitational constant friction the linear air track, conserva- tum, centrifugal force,
tion of linear momentum, Motions of a gyroscope,
free fall, angled projection, moment of inertia, conser-
two-dimensional motions on vation of Energy
the air table
page 1 page 3 page 6 page 12 page 26

P2 P2.1 Thermal expansion P2.2 Heat transfer P2.3 Heat as a form of

energy
P2.4 Phase transitions
Thermal expansion of Thermal conductivity, solar Latent heat and vaporiza-
HEAT solids and liquids, thermal collector Mixing temperatures, heat tion heat, measuring vapor
anomaly of water capacities, converting pressure, critical tempera-
mechanical and electrical ture
energy into heat

page 63 page 65 page 68 page 70 page 74

P3 P3.1 Electrostatics
Basic experiments on elec-
P3.2 Fundamentals
of electricity
P3.3 Magnetostatics P3.4 Electromagnetic
induction
Basic experiments on
ELECTRICITY trostatics, Coulomb‘s law,
field lines and equipotential
Charge transfer with magnetostatics, magnetic Voltage impulse, induc-
drops of water, Ohm‘s law, dipole moment, effects of tion in a moving conductor
lines, effects of force in Kirchhoff‘s laws, circuits force in a magnetic field, loop, induction by means of
an electric field, charge with electrical measuring a variable magnetic field,
distributions on electrical Biot-Savart‘s law
instruments, conducting eddy currents, transformer,
conductors, definition of electricity by means of measuring the earth’s mag-
capacitance, plate capacitor electrolysis, experiments on netic field
page 87 page 89 electrochemistry page 104 page 111 page 115

P4 P4.1 Components and

basic circuits
P4.2 Operational amplifier P4.3 Open- and closed-
loop control
P4.5 Digital electronics
Internal design of an opera- Simple combinations, logic
ELECTRONICS Current and voltage sources, tional amplifier, operational Closed-loop control circuits, analog inputs and
special resistors, diodes, amplifier circuits outputs
diode circuits, transistors,
transistor circuits, optoelec-
tronics

page 149 page 151 page 159 page 161 page 162

P5 P5.1 Geometrical optics P5.2 Dispersion

and chromatics
P5.3 Wave optics P5.4 Polarization
Reflection and refraction, Diffraction, two-beam Basic experiments, bire-
OPTICS laws of imaging, image dis- Refractive index and interference, Newton‘s rings, fringence, optical activity
tortion, optical instruments dispersion, color mixing, Michelson interferometer, and polarimetry, Kerr effect,
absorption spectra, other types of interfero- Pockels effect, Faraday
reflection spectra meters, white-light reflec- effect
tion holography, transmis-
sion holography
page 165 page 167 page 171 page 176 page 189

P6 P6.1 Introductory
experiments
P6.2 Atomic shell
Balmer series of hydrogen,
P6.3 X-rays physics
Detection of X-rays,
P6.4 Radioactivity
Detecting radioactivity,
ATOMIC AND Oil-spot experiment, Mil- emission and absorption
spectra, inelastic collisions of
attenuation of X-rays,
Physics of the atomic shell,
poisson distribution, radio-
likan experiment, specific active decay and half-life,
NUCLEAR electron charge, Planck‘s electrons, Franck-Hertz ex-
periment, electron spin reso-
X-ray energy spectroscopy,
structure of X-ray spectrums,
attenuation of α-, β- and γ
PHYSICS constant, dual nature of
wave and particle, Paul trap
nance, normal Zeeman effect,
optical pumping (anomalous
compton effect at X-rays,
X-ray tomography
radiation

Zeeman effect)
page 229 page 231 page 239 page 250 page 261

P7 P7.1 Properties of crystals P7.2 Conduction

phenomena
P7.3 Magnetism P7.4 Scanning probe
microscopy
Crystal structure, x-ray Dia-, para- and ferromag-
SOLID-STATE scattering, elastic and plas- Hall effect, electrical netism, ferromagnetic Scanning tunneling micro-
tic deformation conductivity in solids, hysteresis scope
PHYSICS photoconductivity,
luminescence,
thermoelectricity,
superconductivity
page 275 page 277 page 281 page 288 page 290

XII WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
P1.5 Oscillations P1.6 Wave mechanics P1.7 Acoustics P1.8 Aero- and
Simple and compound Transversal and longitudi- Sound waves, oscillations hydrodynamics
pendulum, harmonic oscil- nal waves, wave machine, of a string, wavelength and Barometric measurements,
lations, torsion pendulum, circularly polarized waves, velocity of sound, reflection bouyancy, viscosity, surface
coupling of oscillations propagation of water waves, of ultrasonic waves, inter- tension, introductory
interference of water waves, ference of ultrasonic waves, experiments on aerodynam-
resonances Acoustic Doppler effect, ics, measuring air resistance,
fourier analysis, ultrasound measurements in a wind
in media tunnel
page 32 page 39 page 45 page 55

P2.5 Kinetic theory P2.6 Thermodynamic cycle

of gases Hot-air engine: qualitative
Brownian motion of mol- and quantitative experi-
ecules, gas laws, specific ments, heat pump
heat of gases, real gases

page 77 page 81

P3.5 Electrical machines P3.6 DC and AC circuits P3.7 Electromagnetic oscil- P3.8 Free charge P3.9 Electrical
Basic experiments on Circuit with capacitor, cir- lations and waves carriers in a vacuum conduction in gases
electrical machines, electric cuit with coil, impedances, Electromagnetic oscillator cir- Tube diode, tube triode, Spontaneous and non-
generators, electric motors, measuring-bridge circuits, cuit, decimeter-range waves, Maltese-cross tube, Perrin spontaneous discharge,
three-phase machines measuring AC voltages and propagation of decimeter- tube, Thomson tube gas discharge at reduced
AC currents, electrical work range waves along lines, pressure, cathode rays and
microwaves, propagation
and power, electromechani- of microwaves along lines,
canal rays
cal devices directional characteristic of
page 122 page 126 dipole radiation page134 page 140 page 145

P5.5 Light intensity P5.6 Velocity of light P5.7 Spectrometer P5.8 Photonics
Quantities and measuring Measurement according Prism spectrometer, grating Basic Optics, optical appli-
methods of lighting engi- to Foucault/Michelson, spectrometer cations, optical imaging and
neering, laws of radiation measuring with short light colour, laser basics, solid
pulses, measuring with an state laser, optical fibres,
electronically modulated technical applications
signal

page 195 page 198 page 202 page 206

P6.5 Nuclear physics P.6.6 Quantum physics

Demonstrating paths of Quantum optics, particles
particles, Rutherford scat-
tering, Nuclear magnetic
resonance, α spectroscopy,
γ spectroscopy, Compton ef-
fect, properties of radiation
particles
page 265 page 272

P7.5 Applied solid-state

physics
X-ray fluorescence analysis

page 292

XIII
 HOW TO USE THIS CATALOGUE
PAGE STRUCTURE

Section MECHANICS
Subsection TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

Experiment set-up P1.3.4

Topic CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM

Experiment P1.3.4.5
Newton‘s third law and laws of collision
- Recording and evaluating with two
Each experiment is ultrasonic motion sensors and CASSY
identified by a P and
a four-digit number.

Newton‘s third law and laws of collision - Recording and evaluating with two ultrasonic motion sensors and
CASSY (P1.3.4.5)

Short description
In the experiment P1.3.4.5 the way of the two trolleys are measured
of the experiment during an elastic or inelastic collision. This is done with two ultrasonic
P1.3.4.5

sensors. v(t) and a(t)-diagrams are determined by the Sensor-CASSY.

Cat. No. Description The forces F 1(t) and F 2(t) can be calculated from the accelerations a1(t)
Equipment list 337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1
and a2(t) and the masses m1 and m2 of the trolleys. It is confirmed that
F 1(t) = -F 2(t) applies during the collision. It follows the conservation of
337 110 Trolley 2 momentum during the whole collision process:
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1 ∆p1 + ∆p2 = ∫ F1(t )dt + ∫ F2 (t )dt = ∫ (F1(t ) + F2 (t ))dt = 0
337 473 Impact spring, soft 1 In addition, the center of mass motion s 3(t) is observed and it can be
Display of available 524 013
524 220
Sensor-CASSY 2
CASSY Lab 2
1
1
showed that the speed v3(t) of the center of gravity during the whole
collision process is constant. This shows alternative the conservation of

CASSY® device 524 0701 Ultrasonic motion sensor S 2

momentum during the whole collision process:
m1 ⋅ v1 + m2 ⋅ v 2 p
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 2 v3 = = = const .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
301 25 Support block 2
340 89ET5 Coupling plugs, 4 mm, set of 5 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

Experiment results

CASSY® marking
CASSY ®

Path, velocity and momentum transfer during the collision

20 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM

XIV WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
P1 MECHANICS

P1.1 MEASURING METHODS 3

P1.2 FORCES 6
P1.3 TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT 12
P1.4 ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY 26
P1.5 OSCILLATIONS 32
P1.6 WAVE MECHANICS 39
P1.7 ACOUSTICS 45
P1.8 AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS 55

1
P1 MECHANICS

P1.1 MEASURING METHODS P1.5 OSCILLATIONS

P1.1.1 Measuring lengths 3 P1.5.1 Simple and compound pendulum 32-33
P1.1.2 Measuring volume and density 4 P1.5.2 Harmonic oscillations 34
P1.1.3 Determining the gravitational constant 5 P1.5.3 Torsion pendulum 35-36
P1.5.4 Coupling of oscillations 37-38
P1.2 FORCES
P1.2.1 Static effects of forces 6 P1.6 WAVE MECHANICS
P1.2.2 Force as vector 7 P1.6.1 Transversal and longitudinal waves 39
P1.2.3 Lever 8 P1.6.2 Wave machine 40
P1.2.4 Block and tackle 9 P1.6.3 Circularly polarized waves 41
P1.2.5 Inclined plane 10 P1.6.4 Propagation of water waves 42
P1.2.6 Friction 11 P1.6.5 Interference of water waves 43
P1.6.6 Resonances 44
P1.3 TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS
OF A MASS POINT P1.7 ACOUSTICS
P1.3.2 One-dimensional motions on Fletcher’s trolley 12-14 P1.7.1 Sound waves 45
P1.3.3 One-dimensional motions on the linear air track 15-17 P1.7.2 Oscillations of a string 46
P1.3.4 Conservation of linear momentum 18-20 P1.7.3 Wavelength and velocity of sound 47-49
P1.3.5 Free fall 21-22 P1.7.4 Reflection of ultrasonic waves 50
P1.3.6 Angled projection 23 P1.7.5 Interference of ultrasonic waves 51
P1.3.7 Two-dimensional motions on the air table 24-25 P1.7.6 Acoustic Doppler effect 52
P1.7.7 Fourier analysis 53
P1.4 ROTATIONAL MOTIONS P1.7.8 Ultrasound in media 54
OF A RIGID BODY
P1.4.1 Rotational motions 26 P1.8 AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS
P1.4.2 Conservation of angular momentum 27 P1.8.1 Barometric measurements 55
P1.4.3 Centrifugal force 28 P1.8.2 Bouyancy 56
P1.4.4 Motions of a gyroscope 29 P1.8.3 Viscosity 57-58
P1.4.5 Moment of inertia 30 P1.8.4 Surface tension 59
P1.4.6 Conservation of Energy 31 P1.8.5 Introductory experiments on aerodynamics 60
P1.8.6 Measuring air resistance 61
P1.8.7 Measurements in a wind tunnel 62

2 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
MEASURING METHODS

P1.1.1
MEASURING LENGTHS

P1.1.1.1
Using a caliper gauge with vernier

P1.1.1.2
Using a micrometer screw

P1.1.1.3
Using a spherometer to determine
bending radii

Left to right: Using a caliper gauge with veniert (P1.1.1.1), Using a micrometer crew (P1.1.1.2),
Using a spherometer to determine bending radii (P1.1.1.3)

The caliper gauge, micrometer screw and spherometer are precision

measuring instruments; their use is practiced in practical measuring
exercises.
P1.1.1.2
P1.1.1.3
P1.1.1.1

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P1.1.1.1, the caliper gauge is used to determine the
outer and inner dimensions of a test body. The vernier scale of the
311 54 Precision vernier callipers 1 caliper gauge increases the reading accuracy to 1/20 mm.
311 83 Precision micrometer 1 Different wire gauges are measured in the experiment P1.1.1.2. In this
550 35 Copper resistance wire, 0.2 mm diam., 100 m 1 exercise a fundamental difficulty of measuring becomes apparent,
550 39 Brass resistance wire, 0.5 mm diameter, 50 m 1 namely that the measuring process changes the measurement object.
Particularly with soft wire, the measured results are too low because the
311 86 Spherometer 1
wire is deformed by the measurement.
460 291 Plane mirror, 11.5 cm x 10 cm 1
The experiment P1.1.1.3 determines the bending radii R of watch-glasses
662 092 Cover slips 1 using a spherometer. These are derived on the basis of the convexity
664 154 Watch glass dish, 80 mm diam. 1 height h at a given distance r between the feet of the spherometer,
664 157 Watch glass dish, 125 mm diam. 1 using the formula
r2 h
R= +
2h 2

Vertical section through the measuring configuration with spherometer

Left: object with convex surface, Right: Object with concaves surface

3
MECHANICS
MEASURING METHODS

P1.1.2
MEASURING VOLUME AND
DENSITY

P1.1.2.1
Determining the volume and
density of solids

P1.1.2.2
Determining the density of liquids
using the plumb bob

P1.1.2.3
Determining the density of liquids
using the pycnometer after Gay-Lussac

P1.1.2.4
Determining the density of air

Determining the density of air (P1.1.2.4)

Depending on the respective aggregate state of a homogeneous sub-

stance, various methods are used to determine its density
P1.1.2.2
P1.1.2.3
P1.1.2.4
P1.1.2.1

m
r=
Cat. No. Description V
m: mass, V : volume
362 04 Overflow vessel 1
The mass and volume of the substance are usually measured separately.
590 08ET2 Measuring cylinders, 100 ml, set of 2 1 To determine the density of solid bodies, a weighing is combined with a
590 06 Plastic beaker 1 volume measurement. The volumes of the bodies are determined from
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1 the volumes of liquid which they displace from an overflow vessel. In
311 54 Precision vernier callipers 1
the experiment P1.1.2.1, this principle is tested using regular bodies for
which the volumes can be easily calculated from their linear dimensions.
315 05 Single-pan suspension balance 311 1 1 1
To determine the density of liquids, the plumb bob is used in the
352 52 Steel balls, 30 mm, set of 6 1
experiment P1.1.2.2. The measuring task is to determine the densities of
361 63 Cubes (2x) and ball (1x) 1 water-ethanol mixtures. The Plumb bob determines the density from the
590 33 Gauge blocks, set of 2 1 buoyancy of a body of known volume in the test liquid.
309 42 Colouring, red, 10 g 1 To determine the density of liquids, the pyknometer after Gay-Lussac is
362 025 Plumb bob 1 used in the experiment P1.1.2.3. The measuring task is to determine the
densities of water-ethanol mixtures. The pyknometer is a pear-shaped
315 011 Hydrostatic balance 1
bottle in which the liquid to be investigated is filled for weighing. The
315 31 Set of weights, 10 mg to 200 g 1 volume capacity of the pyknometer is determined by weighing with a
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1 1 liquid of known density (e.g. water).
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 2 2 In the experiment P1.1.2.4, the density of air is determined using a sphere
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1 1 of known volume with two stop-cocks. The weight of the enclosed air is
666 145 Gay-Lussac pycnometer, 50 ml 1 determined by finding the difference between the overall weight of the
air-filled sphere and the empty weight of the evacuated sphere.
379 07 Sphere with 2 stopcocks, glass, 1 l 1
667 072 Support ring for round flask, 250 ml, cork 1
375 58 Hand vacuum pump 1

4 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
MEASURING METHODS

P1.1.3
DETERMINING THE
GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT

P1.1.3.1
Determining the gravitational constant
with the gravitation torsion balance
after Cavendish - Measuring the
excursion with a light pointer

Determining the gravitational constant with the gravitation torsion balance after Cavendish - Measuring the
excursion with a light pointer (P1.1.3.1)

The heart of the gravitation torsion balance after Cavendish is a light-

weight beam horizontally suspended from a thin torsion band and
having a lead ball with the mass m2 = 15 g at each end. These balls
P1.1.3.1

Cat. No. Description are attracted by the two large lead spheres with the mass m1 = 1.5 kg.
Although the attractive force
332 101 Gravitation torsion balance 1 m1 ⋅ m2
F =G⋅
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 r2
313 05 Table stop-clock 1 r : distance between sphere midpoints

311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 is less than 10 -9 N, it can be detected using the extremely sensitive
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
torsion balance. The motion of the small lead balls is observed and
measured using a light pointer. Using the curve over time of the motion,
301 03 Rotatable clamp 1
the mass m1 and the geometry of the arrangement, it is possible to
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 determine the gravitational constant G using either the end-deflection
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 method or the acceleration method.
In the end-deflection method, a measurement error of less than 5 %
can be achieved through careful experimenting. The gravitational force
is calculated from the resting position of the elastically suspended
small lead balls in the gravitational field of the large spheres and the
righting moment of the torsion band. The righting moment is deter-
mined dynamically using the oscillation period of the torsion pendulum.
The acceleration method requires only about 1 min. observation time.
The acceleration of the small balls by the gravitational force of the large
spheres is measured, and the position of the balls as a function of time
is registered.
In the experiment P1.1.3.1, the light pointer is a laser beam which is
reflected in the concave reflector of the torsion balance onto a scale. Its
position on the scale is measured manually point by point as a function
of time.

Oscillations of the gravitation torsion balance around the final

equilibrium position SII

5
MECHANICS
FORCES

P1.2.1
STATIC EFFECTS OF FORCES

P1.2.1.1
Expansion of a helical spring

P1.2.1.2
Bending of a leaf spring

Left: Expansion of a helical spring (P1.2.1.1), Right: Bending of a leaf spring (P1.2.1.2)

Forces can be recognized by their effects. Thus, static forces can e.g. de-
form a body. It becomes apparent that the deformation is proportional to
the force acting on the body when this force is not too great.
P1.2.1.2
P1.2.1.1

Cat. No. Description The experiment P1.2.1.1 shows that the extension s of a helical spring is
directly proportional to the force F s . Hooke’s law applies:
352 07ET2 Helical spring, 10 N/m, set of 2 1 Fs = −D ⋅ s
352 08ET2 Helical spring, 25 N/m, set of 2 1 D: spring constant
340 85 Weights, each 50 g, set of 6 1 1
The experiment P1.2.1.2 examines the bending of a leaf spring arrested
301 21 Stand base MF 2 2 at one end in response to a known force generated by hanging weights
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 2 2 from the free end. Here too, the deflection is proportional to the force
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 1 acting on the leaf spring.
301 25 Support block 1
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1
301 29 Pointer, pair 1 1
340 811ET2 Plug-in axles, set of 2 1
352 051ET2 Leaf springs, set of 2 1
666 615 Universal bosshead 1
686 50ET5 Metal plates, set of 5 1
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1

Schematic diagram of bending a leaf spring

6 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
FORCES

P1.2.2
FORCE AS VECTOR

P1.2.2.1
Composition and resolution of forces

Composition and resolution of forces (P1.2.2.1_b)

The nature of force as a vectorial quantity can be easily and clearly

P1.2.2.1 (b)

verified in experiments on the adhesive magnetic board. The point of

application of all forces is positioned at the midpoint of the angular
Cat. No. Description scale on the adhesive magnetic board, and all individual forces and the
angles between them are measured. The underlying parallelogram of
301 301 Adhesive magnetic board 1 forces can be graphically displayed on the adhesive magnetic board to
314 215 Circular dynamometer, 5 N 2 facilitate understanding.
301 331 Magnetic base with hook 1 In experiment P1.2.2.1, a force F is compensated by the spring force
of two dynamometers arranged at angles a1 and a2 with respect to F.
352 08ET2 Helical spring, 25 N/m, set of 2 1
The component forces F1 and F 2 are determined as a function of a1 and a2.
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 This experiment verifies the relationships
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 1 F = F1 ⋅ cos α1 + F2 ⋅ cos α 2
301 300 Demonstration panel frame 1 and
0 = F1 ⋅ sin α1 + F2 ⋅ sin α 2

Parallelogram of forces

7
MECHANICS
FORCES

P1.2.3
LEVER

P1.2.3.1
One-sided and two-sided lever

P1.2.3.2
Wheel and axle as a lever with
unequal sides

Wheel and axle as a lever with unequal sides (P1.2.3.2)

In physics, the law of levers forms the basis for all forms of mechanical
transmission of force. This law can be explained using the higher-level
P1.2.3.2

concept of equilibrium of angular momentum.

P1.2.3.1

Cat. No. Description The experiment P1.2.3.1 examines the law of levers:
F1 ⋅ x1 = F2 ⋅ x2
342 60 Lever, 1 m 1
for one-sided and two-sided levers. The object is to determine the force
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 1 1
F 1 which maintains a lever in equilibrium as a function of the load F 2,
314 45 Spring balance, 2 N 1 1 the load arm x 2 and the power arm x1.
314 46 Spring balance, 5 N 1 1 The experiment P1.2.3.2 explores the equilibrium of angular momentum
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 using a wheel and axle. This experiment broadens the understanding of
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1 the concepts force, power arm and line of action, and explicitly proves
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 that the absolute value of the angular momentum depends only on the
force and the distance between the axis of rotation and the line of
342 75 Multiple pulley and moment disc 1
action.

One-sided and two-sided lever (P1.2.3.1)

8 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
FORCES

P1.2.4
BLOCK AND TACKLE

P1.2.4.1
Fixed pulley, loose pulley and block and
tackle as simple machines

Fixed pulley, loose pulley and block and tackle as simple machines (P1.2.4.1)

The fixed pulley, loose pulley and block and tackle are classic examples of
simple machines. Experiments with these machines represent the most
accessible introduction to the concept of work in mechanics.
P1.2.4.1

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P1.2.4.1, the block and tackle is set up on the lab
bench using a stand base. The block and tackle can be expanded to
342 28 Block and tackle D 1 three pairs of pulleys and can support loads of up to 20 N. The pulleys
315 36 Set of weights, 0.1 kg to 2 kg 1 are mounted virtually friction-free in ball bearings.
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
314 181 Precision dynamometer, 20 N 1
341 65 Pulley 2*

* additionally recommended

Setup with block and tackle

9
MECHANICS
FORCES

P1.2.5
INCLINED PLANE

P1.2.5.1
Inclined plane: force along the plane
and force normal to the plane

P1.2.5.2
Determining the coefficient of static
friction using the inclined plane

Inclined plane: force along the plane and force normal to the plane (P1.2.5.1)

The motion of a body on an inclined plane can be described most

easily when the force exerted by the weight G on the body is vectorially
P1.2.5.2

decomposed into a force F 1 along the plane and a force F 2 normal to

P1.2.5.1

Cat. No. Description the plane. The force along the plane acts parallel to a plane inclined at
an angle a, and the force normal to the plane acts perpendicular to the
341 21 Inclined plane 1 1 plane. For the absolute values of the forces, we can say:
314 141 Precision dynamometer, 1 N 1 F1 = G ⋅ sin α and F2 = G ⋅ cos α
342 10 Wooden blocks for friction experiments, pair 1 This decomposition is verified in the experiment P1.2.5.1. Here, the two
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 forces F 1 and F 2 are measured for various angles of inclination a using
precision dynamometers.
The experiment P1.2.5.2 uses the dependency of the force normal to
the plane on the angle of inclination for quantitative determination of
the coefficient of static friction µ of a body. The inclination of a plane
is increased until the body no longer adheres to the surface and begins
to slide. From the equilibrium of the force along the plane and the
coefficient of static friction
F1 = µ ⋅ F2 we can derive µ = tan α

Calculating the coefficient of static friction (P1.2.5.2)

10 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
FORCES

P1.2.6
FRICTION

P1.2.6.1
Static friction, sliding friction
and rolling friction

Static friction, sliding friction and rolling friction (P1.2.6.1)

In discussing friction between solid bodies, we distinguish between

static friction, sliding friction and rolling friction. Static friction force
is the minimum force required to set a body at rest on a solid base
P1.2.6.1

Cat. No. Description in motion. Analogously, sliding friction force is the force required to
maintain a uniform motion of the body. Rolling friction force is the
315 36 Set of weights, 0.1 kg to 2 kg 1 force which maintains the uniform motion of a body which rolls on
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 6 another body.
314 47 Spring balance, 10 N 1 To begin, the experiment P1.2.6.1 verifies that the static friction force
F H and the sliding friction force F G are independent of the size of the
342 10 Wooden blocks for friction experiments, pair 1
contact surface and proportional to the resting force G on the base
surface of the friction block. Thus, the following applies:
FH = µH ⋅ G and FG = µG ⋅ G
The coefficients µH and µG depend on the material of the friction
surfaces. The following relationship always applies:
µH > µ G
To distinguish between sliding and rolling friction, the friction block is
placed on top of multiple stand rods laid parallel to each other. The
rolling friction force F R is measured as the force which maintains the
friction block in a uniform motion on the rolling rods. The sliding friction
force F G is measured once more for comparison, whereby this time the
friction block is pulled over the stand rods as a fixed base (direction of
pull = direction of rod axes). This experiment confirms the relationship:
FG > FR

Comparison of sliding (point) and rolling friction (triangle)

11
MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.2
ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON FLETCHER’S TROLLEY

P1.3.2.1
Path-time diagram of straight
motion - Recording the time with
an electronic stopclock

Path-time diagram of straight motion - Recording the time with an electronic stopclock (P1.3.2.1_c)

Fletcher’s trolley is the classical experiment apparatus for investigating

linear translational motions. The trolley has a ball bearing, his axles are
P1.3.2.1 (c)

spring-mounted and completely immerged in order to prevent being

Cat. No. Description overloaded. The wheels are designed in such a way that the trolley centers
itself on the track and friction at the wheel flanks is avoided.
337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1 Using extremely simple means, the experiment P1.3.2.1 makes the
337 110 Trolley 1 definition of the velocity v as the quotient of the path difference Ds
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1* and the corresponding time difference Dt directly accessible to the
students. The path difference Ds is read off directly from a scale on
315 410 Slotted mass hanger, 10 g, small 1
the track. The electronic measurement of the time difference is started
315 418 Slotted weight, 10 g, grey 4 and stopped using two light barriers. To enable investigation of uniform-
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1 ly accelerated motions, the trolley is connected to a thread which is
337 462 Combination light barrier 2 laid over a pulley, allowing various weights to be suspended.
337 463 Holder for combination spoked wheel 1
337 464 Combination spoked wheel 1
575 471 Counter S 1
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 2

* additionally recommended

Path-time diagram of a linear motion (P1.3.2.1)

12 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.2
ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON FLETCHER’S TROLLEY

P1.3.2.2
Path-time diagram of straight motion -
Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P1.3.2.3
Definition of the Newton as a unit of
force - Recording and evaluating with
CASSY

P1.3.2.4
Path-time diagram of straight motion -
Recording and evaluating with
VideoCom

Path-time diagram of straight motion - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P1.3.2.2_a)

time while the experiment is running, the relationship between the

P1.3.2.2 (a)

P1.3.2.3 (a)

motion and the diagram is extremely clear.

P1.3.2.4

In the experiment P1.3.2.3, a calibrated weight exercises an accelerating

Cat. No. Description
force of 1 N on a trolley with the mass 1 kg. As one might expect, CASSY
337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1 1 1 shows the value
337 110 Trolley 1 1 1 m
a =1
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1* 1* s2
315 410 Slotted mass hanger, 10 g, small 1 1 for the acceleration. At the same time, this experiment verifies that the
315 418 Slotted weight, 10 g, grey 4 4
trolley is accelerated to the velocity
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1 1 1 m
v =1
s
337 462 Combination light barrier 1 1
337 464 Combination spoked wheel 1 1 1
in the time 1 s.
683 41 Holding magnet for track 1 1 1 The single-line CCD video camera VideoCom represents in the
experiment P1.3.2.4 a new, easy-to-use method for recording one-
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
dimensional motions. It illuminates one or more bodies in motion with
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
LED flashes and images them on the CCD line with 2048-pixel resolu-
524 074 Timer S 1 1 tion via a camera lens (CCD: charge-coupled device). A piece of retro-
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 1 reflecting foil is attached to each of the bodies to reflect the light rays
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 back to the lens. The current positions of the bodies are transmitted to
337 115 Newton weights 1 the computer up to 160 times per second via the USB interface. The
automatically controlled flash operates at speeds of up to 1/800 s, so
337 463 Holder for combination spoked wheel 1
that even a rapid motion on the linear air track or any other track can
337 47USB VideoCom 1
be sharply imaged. The software supplied with VideoCom represents the
300 59 Camera tripod 1 entire motion of the bodies in the form of a path-time diagram, and also
501 38 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, black 4 enables further evaluation of the measurement data.
additionally required:
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

* additionally recommended

The experiment P1.3.2.2 looks at motion events which can be trans-

mitted to the combination spoked wheel by means of a thin thread on
Fletcher‘s trolley. The combination spoked wheel serves as an easy-
CASSY ®

running deflection pulley. The signals of the combination light barrier Comparison of sliding
are recorded by the computer-assisted measuring system CASSY and (point) and rolling friction
converted to a path-time diagram. As this diagram is generated in real (triangle)

13
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.2
ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON FLETCHER’S TROLLEY

P1.3.2.5
Accelerated motions with
an acceleration sensor

Accelerated motions with an acceleration sensor (P1.3.2.5)

Fletcher’s trolley is the classical experiment apparatus for investigating

linear translational motions. The trolley has a ball bearing, his axles are
P1.3.2.5

spring-mounted and completely immerged in order to prevent being over-

Cat. No. Description loaded. The wheels are designed in such a way that the trolley centers
itself on the track and friction at the wheel flanks is avoided.
337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1 In the experiment P1.3.2.5 the acceleration of a cart is recorded from
337 110 Trolley 1 within the system using a wireless, bluetooth connected and batte-
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1 ry powered Pocket-CASSY equipped with a 3D acceleration sensor.
The gravitational forces and accelerations are measured in different
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1
situations.
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
524 0424 3D acceleration sensor S 1
300 761 Support blocks, set of 6 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Acceleration, velocity and path of the trolley

14 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.3
ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON THE LINEAR AIR TRACK

P1.3.3.1
Path-time diagram of straight
motion - Recording the time with
forked light barrier

Path-time diagram of straight motion - Recording the time with forked light barrier (P1.3.3.1_a)

The advantage of studying linear translational motions on the linear air

P1.3.3.1 (d)

track is that interference factors such as frictional forces and moments

P1.3.3.1 (a)

of inertia of wheels do not occur. The sliders on the linear air track are
Cat. No. Description fitted with an interrupter flag which obscures a light barrier. By adding
additional weights, it is possible to double and triple the masses of the
337 501 Air track 1 1 sliders.
337 53 Air supply 1 1 Using extremely simple means, the experiment P1.3.3.1 (a) makes the
667 823 Power controller 1 1 definition of the velocity v as the quotient of the path difference Ds and
the corresponding time difference Dt directly accessible to the students.
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 1
The path difference Ds is read off directly from a scale on the track. The
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 2 electronic measurement of the time difference is started by switching
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 2 off the holding magnet. The instantaneous velocity of the slider can also
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 be calculated from the obscuration time of a forked light barrier and the
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 width of the interrupter flag. To enable investigation of uniformly acce-
lerated motions, the slider is connected to a thread which is laid over a
524 074 Timer S 1
pulley, allowing weights to be suspended.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
Using extremely simple means, the experiment P1.3.3.1 (d) makes the
575 471 Counter S 1 definition of the velocity v as the quotient of the path difference Ds and
additionally required:
1
the corresponding time difference Dt directly accessible to the students.
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) The path difference Ds is read off directly from a scale on the track. The
electronic measurement of the time difference is started by using a light
barrier. The instantaneous velocity of the slider can also be calculated
from the obscuration time of a forked light barrier and the width of
the interrupter flag. To enable investigation of uniformly accelerated
motions, the slider is connected to a thread which is laid over a pulley,
allowing weights to be suspended.
CASSY ®

Path-time diagram for uniform motion (P1.3.3.1)

15
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.3
ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON THE LINEAR AIR TRACK

P1.3.3.4
Path-time and velocity-time diagrams
of straight motion - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

P1.3.3.5
Uniformly accelerated motion with
reversal of direction - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

P1.3.3.6
Kinetic energy of a uniformly
accelerated mass - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

Path-time and velocity-time diagrams of straight motion - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P1.3.3.4)

The computer-assisted measurement system CASSY is particularly

suitable for simultaneously measuring transit time t, path s, velocity v
P1.3.3.4-6

and acceleration a of a slider on the linear air track. The linear motion
Cat. No. Description of the slider is transmitted to the motion sensing element by means of a
lightly tensioned thread; the signals of the motion sensing element are
337 501 Air track 1 matched to the CASSY measuring inputs by the Timer S.
337 53 Air supply 1 The PC supports significantly the evaluation of the measured data.
667 823 Power controller 1 Alternatively the measured data can be exported in table format to
external data evaluation.
337 462 Combination light barrier 1
The object of the experiment P1.3.3.4 is to study uniform and uniformly
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
accelerated motions on the horizontally aligned linear air track.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
In the experiment P1.3.3.5 the patch, velocity and acceleration of a
524 074 Timer S 1 slider is record, which moves uphill on an inclined plane, then stops,
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 moves downhill, reflected elastically at the lower end and oscillated
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 several times back and forth.
additionally required: The experiment P1.3.3.6 records the kinetic energy
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) m 2
E= ⋅v
2
of a uniformly accelerated slider of the mass m as a function of the time
and compares it with the work
W = F ⋅s
which the accelerating force F has performed. This verifies the
relationship
E (t ) = W (t )
CASSY ®

Path-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time diagram

16 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.3
ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON THE LINEAR AIR TRACK

P1.3.3.7
Confirming Newton‘s first and
second laws for linear motions -
Recording and evaluating
with VideoCom

P1.3.3.8
Uniformly accelerated motion with
reversal of direction - Recording and
evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.3.9
Kinetic energy of a uniformly
accelerated mass - Recording and
evaluating with VideoCom

Confirming Newton‘s first and second laws for linear motions - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom (P1.3.3.7)

The object of the experiment P1.3.3.7 is to study uniform and uniformly

accelerated motions of a slider on the linear air track and to represent
P1.3.3.7-9

these in a path-time diagram. The software also displays the velocity v

Cat. No. Description and the acceleration a of the body as a function of the transit time t,
and the further evaluation verifies Newton‘s equation of motion
337 501 Air track 1 F = m⋅a
337 53 Air supply 1 F : accelerating force
667 823 Power controller 1 m: mass of accelerated body
337 47USB VideoCom 1 In the experiment P1.3.3.8 the patch, velocity and acceleration of a
300 59 Camera tripod 1 slider is record, which moves uphill on an inclined plane, then stops,
moves downhill, reflected elastically at the lower end and oscillated
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1
several times back and forth.
501 38 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, black 4
The experiment P1.3.3.9 records the kinetic energy
additionally required:
1 m 2
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) E= ⋅v
2
of a uniformly accelerated slider of the mass m as a function of the time
and compares it with the work
W = F ⋅s
which the accelerating force F has performed. This verifies the
relationship
E (t ) = W (t )

Investigating uniformly accelerated motions with VideoCom

17
MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.4
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM

P1.3.4.1
Energy and linear momentum in elastic
collision - Measuring with two forked
light barriers

P1.3.4.2
Energy and linear momentum in
inelastic collision - Measuring with
two forked light barriers

P1.3.4.3
Rocket principle: conservation of
momentum and reaction

Energy and linear momentum in elastic collision - Measuring with two forked light barriers (P1.3.4.1_c)

The use of a track makes possible superior quantitative results when

P1.3.4.2 (c)

verifying the conservation of linear momentum in an experiment.

P1.3.4.1 (c)

P1.3.4.3

In the experiments P1.3.4.1 and P1.3.4.2, the obscuration times Dti of

Cat. No. Description two light barriers are measured, e.g. for two bodies on a linear track
before and after elastic and inelastic collision. These experiments inve-
337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1 1 stigate collisions between a moving body and a body at rest, as well as
337 110 Trolley 2 2 collisions between two bodies in motion. The velocities
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1 1 d
vi =
337 112 Impact spring for track 1 ∆ti
d : width of interrupter flags
337 462 Combination light barrier 2 2
575 451 Counter P 1 1 the momentum values
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 2 2 pi = mi ⋅ v i
337 501 Air track 1 mi : masses of bodies

337 53 Air supply 1 and the energies

667 823 Power controller 1 1
Ei = ⋅ mi ⋅ v i2
337 561 Jet slider with dynamometric device 1 2
314 081 Precision dynamometer, 0.01 N 1 of the bodies before and after collision can be calculated and compared.
In the experiment P1.3.4.3, the recoil force on a jet slider is measured for
different nozzle cross-sections using a sensitive dynamometer in order
to investigate the relationship between repulsion and conservation of
linear momentum.

18 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.4
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM

P1.3.4.4
Newton‘s third law and laws of
collision - Recording and evaluating
with VideoCom

Newton‘s third law and laws of collision - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom (P1.3.4.4_a)

The single-line CCD video camera is capable of recording pictures at

P1.3.4.4 (a)

a rate of up to 160 pictures per second. This time resolution is high

enough to reveal the actual process of a collision (compression and ex-
Cat. No. Description tension of springs) between two bodies on the track. In other words,
VideoCom registers the positions s1(t) and s 2(t) of the two bodies, their
337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1 velocities v1(t) and v 2(t) as well as their accelerations a1(t) and a2(t)
337 110 Trolley 2 even during the actual collision. The energy and momentum balance
can be verified not only before and after the collision, but also during
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1
the collision itself.
337 112 Impact spring for track 2
The experiment P1.3.4.4 records the elastic collision of two bodies with
337 47USB VideoCom 1 the masses m1 and m2. The evaluation shows that the linear momentum
300 59 Camera tripod 1 p ( t ) = m1 ⋅ v1 ( t ) + m2 ⋅ v 2 ( t )
additionally required:
1 remains constant during the entire process, including the actual collisi-
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
on. On the other hand, the kinetic energy
m1 2 m
E (t ) = ⋅ v1 ( t ) + 2 ⋅ v 22 ( t )
2 2
reaches a minimum during the collision, which can be explained by the
elastic strain energy stored in the springs. This experiment also verifies
Newton‘s third law in the form
m1 ⋅ a1 ( t ) = −m2 ⋅ a2 ( t )
From the path-time diagram, it is possible to recognize the time t 0 at
which the two bodies have the same velocity
v1 ( t0 ) = v 2 ( t0 )
and the distance s 2 - s1 between the bodies is at its lowest. At time t 0,
the acceleration values (in terms of their absolute values) are greatest,
as the springs have reached their maximum tension.

Confirmation of Newton‘s third law

19
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.4
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM

P1.3.4.5
Newton‘s third law and laws of collision
- Recording and evaluating with two
ultrasonic motion sensors and CASSY

Newton‘s third law and laws of collision - Recording and evaluating with two ultrasonic motion sensors and
CASSY (P1.3.4.5)

In the experiment P1.3.4.5 the way of the two trolleys are measured
during an elastic or inelastic collision. This is done with two ultrasonic
P1.3.4.5

sensors. v(t) and a(t)-diagrams are determined by the Sensor-CASSY.

Cat. No. Description The forces F 1(t) and F 2(t) can be calculated from the accelerations a1(t)
and a2(t) and the masses m1 and m2 of the trolleys. It is confirmed that
337 130 Track, 1.5 m 1 F 1(t) = -F 2(t) applies during the collision. It follows the conservation of
337 110 Trolley 2 momentum during the whole collision process:
337 114 Additional weights, pair 1 ∆p1 + ∆p2 = ∫ F1(t )dt + ∫ F2 (t )dt = ∫ (F1(t ) + F2 (t ))dt = 0
337 473 Impact spring, soft 1 In addition, the center of mass motion s 3(t) is observed and it can be
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 showed that the speed v3(t) of the center of gravity during the whole
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 collision process is constant. This shows alternative the conservation of
momentum during the whole collision process:
524 0701 Ultrasonic motion sensor S 2
m1 ⋅ v1 + m2 ⋅ v 2 p
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 2 v3 = = = const .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
301 25 Support block 2
340 89ET5 Coupling plugs, 4 mm, set of 5 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Path, velocity and momentum transfer during the collision

20 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.5
FREE FALL

P1.3.5.1
Free fall: time measurement with the
contact plate and the counter S

Free fall: time measurement with the contact plate and the counter S (P1.3.5.1)

To investigate free fall, a steel ball is suspended from an electromagnet.

It falls downward with a uniform acceleration due to the force of gravity
P1.3.5.1

F = m⋅g
Cat. No. Description m: mass of ball, g: gravitational acceleration
as soon as the electromagnet is switched off. The friction of air can
336 23 Contact plate, large 1
be regarded as negligible as long as the falling distance, and thus the
336 21 Holding magnet 1 terminal velocity, are not too great; in other words, the ball falls freely.
336 25 Holding magnet adapter with a release mechanism 1 In the experiment P1.3.5.1, electronic time measurement is started as
575 471 Counter S 1 soon as the ball is released through interruption of the magnet current.
301 21 Stand base MF 2 After traveling a falling distance h, the ball falls on a contact plate,
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 3 stopping the measurement of time t. The measurements for various
falling heights are plotted as value pairs in a path-time diagram. As the
300 46 Stand rod, 150 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
ball is at rest at the beginning of timing, g can be determined using the
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 relationship
311 23 Scale with pointers 1 1
h= g ⋅ t2
501 25 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, red 1 2
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1
501 35 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, red 1
501 36 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, blue 1

Path-time diagram of the free fall of the ball

21
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.5
FREE FALL

P1.3.5.3
Free fall: multiple measurements
with the g ladder

P1.3.5.4
Free fall: Recording and evaluating
with VideoCom

Free fall: multiple measurements with the g ladder (P1.3.5.3)

The disadvantage of preparing a path-time diagram by recording the

P1.3.5.3
P1.3.5.4

measured values point by point is that it takes a long time before the de-
Cat. No. Description pendency of the result on experiment parameters such as the initial velocity
or the falling height becomes apparent. Such investigations become much
529 034 g ladder 1 simpler when the entire measurement series of a path-time diagram is
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 recorded in one measuring run using the computer.
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 In the experiment P1.3.5.3, a ladder with several rungs falls through a
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 forked light barrier, which is connected to the CASSY computer interface
device to measure the obscuration times. This measurement is equivalent
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
to a measurement in which a body falls through multiple equidistant light
524 074 Timer S 1 barriers. The height of the falling body corresponds to the rung width.
337 47USB VideoCom 1 The measurement data are recorded and evaluated using CASSY Lab. The
300 59 Camera tripod 1 instantaneous velocities are calculated from the obscuration times and the
337 472 Falling body 1 rung width and displayed in a velocity-time diagram v(t). The measurement
points can be described by a straight line
336 21 Holding magnet 1
v (t ) = v 0 + g ⋅ t
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
g: gravitational acceleration
300 46 Stand rod, 150 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
whereby v0 is the initial velocity of the ladder when the first rung passes
the light barrier.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
In the experiment P1.3.5.4, the motion of a falling body is tracked as a
501 38 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, black 4
function of time using the single-line CCD camera VideoCom and evalua-
additionally required: ted using the corresponding software. The measurement series is displayed
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) directly as the path-time diagram h(t). This curve can be described by the
general relationship
1
s = v0 ⋅ t + g ⋅ t2
2
CASSY ®

Path-time and acceleration-time diagrams of the falling body

22 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.6
ANGLED PROJECTION

P1.3.6.1
Point-by-point recording of the
projection parabola as a function
of the speed and angle of projection

P1.3.6.2
Principle of superposing: comparison
of inclined projection and free fall

Principle of superposing: comparison of inclined projection and free fall (P1.3.6.2)

The trajectory of a ball launched at a projection angle a with a projec-

tion velocity v 0 can be reconstructed on the basis of the principle of
P1.3.6.2

superposing. The overall motion is composed of a motion with constant

P1.3.6.1

Cat. No. Description velocity in the direction of projection and a vertical falling motion. The
superposition of these motions results in a parabola, whose height and
336 56 Projection apparatus, large 1 1 width depend on the angle and velocity of projection.
301 06 Bench clamp 2 2 The experiment P1.3.6.1 measures the trajectory of the steel ball point
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 by point using a vertical scale. Starting from the point of projection,
the vertical scale is moved at predefined intervals; the two pointers of
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1
the scale are set so that the projected steel ball passes between them.
311 22 Vertical rule 1 The trajectory is a close approximation of a parabola. The observed
300 11 Saddle base 1 deviations from the parabolic form may be explained through friction
649 42 Tray, 552 mm x 197 mm x 48 mm 1 1 with the air.
688 108 Quartz sand, 1 kg 1 1 In the experiment P1.3.6.2, a second ball is suspended from a holding
336 21 Holding magnet 1 magnet in such a way that the first ball would strike it if propelled in
the direction of projection with a constant velocity. Then, the second
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1
ball is released at the same time as the first ball is projected. We can
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 observe that, regardless of the launch velocity v 0 of the first ball, the
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 two balls collide; this provides experimental confirmation of the prin-
301 07 Simple bench clamp 1 ciple of superposing.
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1
501 35 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, red 1
501 36 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, blue 1

Schematic diagram comparing angled projection and free fall (P1.3.6.2)

23
MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.7
TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON THE AIR TABLE

P1.3.7.1
Uniform linear motion and uniform
circular motion

P1.3.7.2
Uniformly accelerated motion

P1.3.7.3
Two-dimensional motion on an
inclined plane

P1.3.7.4
Two-dimensional motion in response
to a central force

P1.3.7.5
Superposing translational and
rotational motion on a rigid body

Uniform linear motion and uniform circular motion (P1.3.7.1)

The air table makes possible recording of any two-dimensional motions of

a slider for evaluation following the experiment. To achieve this, the slider
P1.3.7.1-3

is equipped with a recording device which registers the position of the

P1.3.7.4
P1.3.7.5

Cat. No. Description slider on metallized recording paper every 20 ms.

The aim of the experiment P1.3.7.1 is to examine the instantaneous velocity
337 801 Air table 1 1 1 of straight and circular motions. In both cases, their absolute values can
352 10 Helical spring, 3 N/m 1 be expressed as
∆s
v=
∆t
where Ds is the straight path traveled during time Dt for linear motions and
the equivalent arc for circular motions.
In the experiment P1.3.7.2, the slider without an initial velocity moves on
the air table inclined by the angle a. Its motion can be described as a one-
dimensional, uniformly accelerated motion. The marked positions permit
plotting of a path-time diagram from which we can derive the relationship
1
s= ⋅ a ⋅ t 2 where a = g ⋅ sin α
2
In the experiment P1.3.7.3, a motion „diagonally upward“ is imparted on the
slider on the inclined air table, so that the slider describes a parabola. Its
motion is uniformly accelerated in the direction of inclination and virtually
uniform perpendicular to this direction.
The aim of the experiment P1.3.7.4 is to verify Kepler’s law of areas. Here,
the slider moves under the influence of a central force exerted by a centrally
mounted helical screw. In the evaluation, the area
∆A = r × ∆s
“swept” due to the motion of the slider in the time Dt is determined from the
radius vector r and the path section Ds as well as from the angle between
the two vectors.
The experiment P1.3.7.5 investigates simultaneous rotational and trans-
lational motions of one slider and of two sliders joined together in a fixed
manner. One recorder is placed at the center of gravity, while a second
is at the perimeter of the “rigid body” under investigation. The motion is
described as the motion of the center of gravity plus rotation around that
Relationship between circular motion and (tangential) uniform rectilinear motion center of gravity.

24 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
TRANSLATIONAL MOTIONS OF A MASS POINT

P1.3.7
TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS
ON THE AIR TABLE

P1.3.7.6
Two-dimensional motion of two
elastically coupled bodies

P1.3.7.7
Experimentally verifying the equality
of a force and its opposing force

P1.3.7.8
Elastic collision in two dimensions

P1.3.7.9
Inelastic collision in two dimensions

Elastic collision in two dimensions (P1.3.7.8)

The air table is supplied complete with two sliders. This means that this
apparatus can also be used to investigate e.g. two–dimensional collisions.
In the experiment P1.3.7.6, the motions of two sliders which are elastically
P1.3.7.6-9

coupled by a rubber band are recorded. The evaluation shows that the
Cat. No. Description common center of gravity moves in a straight line and a uniform manner,
while the relative motions of the two sliders show a harmonic oscillation.
337 801 Air table 1
In the experiment P1.3.7.7, elastically deformable metal rings are attached
to the edges of the sliders before the start of the experiment. When the
two rebound, the same force acts on each slider, but in the opposite direc-
tion. Therefore, regardless of the masses m1 and m2 of the two sliders, the
following relationship applies for the total two-dimensional momentum
m1 ⋅ v1 + m2 ⋅ v 2 = 0
The experiments P1.3.7.8 and P1.3.7.9 investigate elastic and inelastic
collisions between two sliders. The evaluation consists of calculating the
total two-dimensional momentum
p = m1 ⋅ v1 + m2 ⋅ v 2
and the total energy
m1 2 m2 2
E= ⋅ v1 + ⋅ v2
2 2
both before and after collision.

Elastic impact. Addition of the impulse vectors.

25
 MECHANICS
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY

P1.4.1
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS

P1.4.1.1
Path-time diagrams of rotational
motions - Time measurement with
the counter

P1.4.1.2
Path-time diagrams of rotational
motions - Recording and evaluating
with CASSY

Path-time diagrams of rotational motions - Time measurement with the counter (P1.4.1.1_a)

The low-friction Plexiglas disk of the rotation model is set in uniform

or uniformly accelerated motion for quantitative investigations of rota-
P1.4.1.1 (a)

tional motions. Forked light barriers are used to determine the angular
P1.4.1.2

Cat. No. Description velocity; their light beams are interrupted by a 10° flag mounted on the
rotating disk. When two forked light barriers are used, measurement of
347 23 Rotation model 1 1 time t can be started and stopped for any angle j (optional possible).
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 This experiment determines the mean velocity
575 471 Counter S 1 ϕ
ω=
t
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 1
If only one forked light barrier is available, the obscuration time Dt
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 1
is measured, which enables calculation of the instantaneous angular
301 07 Simple bench clamp 1 1
velocity
337 462 Combination light barrier 1
10°
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 ω=
∆t
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 The use of the computer-assisted measured-value recording system
524 074 Timer S 1 CASSY facilitates the study of uniform and uniformly accellerated
336 21 Holding magnet 1 rotational motions. A thread stretched over the surface of the rotation
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 model transmits the rotational motion to the motion sensing element
whose signals are adapted to the measuring inputs of CASSY by a box.
300 11 Saddle base 1
In the experiment P1.4.1.1, the angular velocity w and the angular
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
acceleration a are recorded analogously to acceleration in translational
additionally required: motions. Both uniform and uniformly accelerated rotational motions are
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
investigated. The results are graphed in a velocity-time diagram w(t).
In the case of a uniformly accelerated motion of a rotating disk initial-
ly at rest, the angular acceleration can be determined from the linear
function
ω = α⋅t
The topic of the experiment P1.4.1.2 are homogeneous and constantly
accellerated rotational motions, which are studied on the analogy of
homogeneous and constantly accellerated translational motions.
CASSY ®

26 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY

P1.4.2
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR
MOMENTUM

P1.4.2.1
Conservation of angular momentum
in elastic rotational collision

P1.4.2.2
Conservation of angular momentum
in inelastic rotational collision

Conservation of angular momentum in elastic rotational collision (P1.4.2.1_b)

Torsion impacts between rotating bodies can be described analogously

P1.4.2.1-2 (b)

to one-dimensional translational collisions when the axes of rotation of

the bodies are parallel to each other and remain unchanged during the
collision. This condition is reliably met when carrying out measurements
Cat. No. Description using the rotation model. The angular momentum is specified in the
form
347 23 Rotation model 1
L = l ⋅ω
524 431 Light barrier M 2 I: moment of inertia, ω: angular velocity
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
The principle of conservation of angular momentum states that for any
torsion impact of two rotating bodies, the quantity
L = l1 ⋅ ω1 + l 2 ⋅ ω2
before and after impact remains the same.
The experiments P1.4.2.1 and P1.4.2.2 investigate the nature of elastic
and inelastic torsion impact. Using two light barriers and the measuring
system CASSY, the obscuration times of two interrupter flags are re-
gistered as a measure of the angular velocities before and after torsion
impact.
CASSY ®

27
 MECHANICS
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY

P1.4.3
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

P1.4.3.3
Centrifugal force of an orbiting body
- Measuring with the central force
apparatus and CASSY

Centrifugal force of an orbiting body - Measuring with the central force apparatus and CASSY (P1.4.3.3)

The centrifugal force apparatus S enables experimental investigation

of the centrifugal force F as a function of the rotating mass m, the
P1.4.3.3

distance r of the mass from the centre of rotation and the angular velo-
Cat. No. Description city w, thus making it possible to confirm the relation
F = m ⋅ ω2 ⋅ r
524 068 Centrifugal force apparatus S 1 r : radius of orbit, ω: angular velocity
521 49 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V 1
for the centrifugal force.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
In the centrifugal force apparatus S, the centrifugal force F acting on
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 a rotating mass m is transmitted via a lever with ball-and-socket joint
524 074 Timer S 1 and a push pin in the axis of rotation to a leaf spring, whose deflection
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 is measured electrically by means of a bridge-connected strain gauge.
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 In the measuring range relevant for the experiment, the deformation of
the leaf spring is elastic and thus proportional to the force F.
301 06 Bench clamp 1
In the experiment P1.4.3.3, the relationship
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
F ∝ w2
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 is derived directly from the parabolic shape of the recorded curve F(w).
To verify the proportionalities
additionally required:
1 F ∝ r, F ∝ m
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
curves are recorded and evaluated for different orbit radii r and various
masses m.
CASSY ®

Centrifugal force F as a function of the angular velocity w

28 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY

P1.4.4
MOTIONS OF A GYROSCOPE

P1.4.4.3
Precession of a gyroscope

P1.4.4.4
Nutation of a gyroscope

Precession of a gyroscope (P1.4.4.3)

Gyroscopes generally execute extremely complex motions, as the

axis of rotation is supported at only one point and changes directions
P1.4.4.3
P1.4.4.4

constantly. We distinguish between the precession and the nutation of

Cat. No. Description a gyroscope.
The aim of the experiment P1.4.4.3 is to investigate the precession of
348 20 Gyroscope 1 1 a gyroscope. The precession frequency f P is measured by means of the
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 1 rotary motion sensor S, the rotary frequency f of the gyroscope disk by
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1 1 means of the reflextion light barrier, each in combination with CASSY.
The dependance of the precession frequency f P on the applied force, i.e.
337 468 Reflection light barrier 1 1
the torque M and the rotary frequency f is determined quantitatively.
590 021 Double spring clip 1 1 The relationship
524 074 Timer S 1 1 M 1
ωP = ⋅
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 I ω
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 applies for the corresponding angular frequencies wP and w and for a
additionally required: known moment of inertia I of the gyroscope around its axis of symmetry.
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) In the experiment P1.4.4.4, the nutation of a force-free gyroscope is
investigated. The nutation frequency f N is measured by means of the
rotary motion sensor S, the rotary frequency f of the gyroscope disk by
means of the reflextion light barrier, each in combination with CASSY.
The dependance of the nutation frequency f N on the rotary frequency f
is determined quantitatively. The relationship
l ⋅ω
ωN =
l⊥
applies for the corresponding angular frequencies wN and w and for
known moments of inertia I of the gyroscope around its axis of symmetry
(rotational axis of the gyroscope disk) and I⊥ around the pivotal point
(point of support) of the axis.
CASSY ®

Precession of the gyroscope

29
MECHANICS
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY

P1.4.5
MOMENT OF INERTIA

P1.4.5.1
Definition of moment of inertia

P1.4.5.2
Moment of inertia and body shape

P1.4.5.3
Confirming Steiner’s theorem

Definition of moment of inertia (P1.4.5.1), Moment of inertia and body shape (P1.4.5.2), Confirming Steiner’s
theorem (P1.4.5.3)

For any rigid body whose mass elements mi are at a distance of r i from the
axis of rotation, the moment of inertia is
P1.4.5.2
P1.4.5.3
P1.4.5.1

l = ∑ mi ⋅ ri 2
Cat. No. Description i

For a particle of mass m in an orbit with the radius r, we can say

347 801 Torsion axle 1 1 1
l = m⋅r2
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 1
The moment of inertia is determined from the oscillation period of the
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 1 1
torsion axle on which the test body is mounted and which is elastically
347 81 Cylinders for torsion axle, set 1 joined to the stand via a helical spring. The system is excited to harmo-
347 82 Sphere for the torsion axle 1 nic oscillations. For a known directed angular quantity D, the oscillation
347 83 Circular disc for the torsion axle 1 period T can be used to calculate the moment of inertia of the test body
using the equation
2
T 
l = D⋅ 
 2π 
In the experiment P1.4.5.1, the moment of inertia of a ”mass point” is
determined as a function of the distance r from the axis of rotation. In this
experiment, a rod with two weights of equal mass is mounted transversely
on the torsion axle. The centers of gravity of the two weights have the
same distance r from the axis of rotation, so that the system oscillates
with no unbalanced weight.
The experiment P1.4.5.2 compares the moments of inertia of a hollow
cylinder, a solid cylinder and a solid sphere. This measurement uses two
solid cylinders with equal mass but different radii. Additionally, this expe-
riment examines a hollow cylinder which is equal to one of the solid cylin-
ders in mass and radius, as well as a solid sphere with the same moment
of inertia as one of the solid cylinders.
The experiment P1.4.5.3 verifies Steiner’s law using a flat circular disk.
Here, the moments of inertia IA of the circular disk are measured for
various distances a from the axis of rotation, and compared with the
moment of inertia IS around the axis of the center of gravity. This experi-
ment confirms the relationship
I A − IS = M ⋅ a 2
Steiner‘s theorem (P1.4.5.3)

30 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ROTATIONAL MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY

P1.4.6
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

P1.4.6.1
Maxwell‘s wheel

P1.4.6.2
Maxwell‘s wheel - Recording
and evaluating with ultrasonic
motion sensor

Maxwell‘s wheel (P1.4.6.1)

The law of conversation of energy states that the total amount of

energy in an isolated system remains constant over time. Within this
P1.4.6.2

system the energy can change form, for instance potential in kinetic
P1.4.6.1

Cat. No. Description energy. In the daily experience (also during experiments) energy appa-
rently is lost. The reason for this is a change to an energy form which is
331 22 Maxwell‘s wheel 1 1 not considered like the friction.
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 Experiment P1.4.6.1 is used to examine the conservation of energy at
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 the Maxwell’s wheel. During the experiment potential energy Epot is
transformed to kinetic energy Ekin due a translational motion (Etrans) and
575 471 Counter S 1
a rotational motion (Erot). For different heights times and velocities are
336 25 Holding magnet adapter with a release mechanism 1 measured. From the data one can determine the inertia of the Maxwell’s
311 23 Scale with pointers 1 1 wheel. With a known inertia, one can calculate the gravitational acce-
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 leration.
301 25 Support block 1 In the experiment P1.4.6.2 the conservation of energy at the Maxwell’s
301 21 Stand base MF 2 2 wheel is studied. The position and velocity, required for calculation of
kinetic energy, is measured with an ultrasonic motion sensor.
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 2 3
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 2 2
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 7
524 0701 Ultrasonic motion sensor S 1
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
CASSY ®

31
MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.1
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND
PENDULUM

P1.5.1.1
Determining the gravitational
acceleration with a simple pendulum

P1.5.1.2
Determining the acceleration of
gravity with a reversible pendulum

Determining the gravitational acceleration with a simple pendulum (P1.5.1.1_a)

A simple, or “mathematic” pendulum is understood to be a point-shaped

mass m suspended on a massless thread with the length s. For small de-
P1.5.1.2 (a)
P1.5.1.1 (a)

flections, it oscillates under the influence of gravity with the period

Cat. No. Description s
T = 2π ⋅
g
346 39 Ball with pendulum suspension 1
Thus, a mathematic pendulum could theoretically be used to determine
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 1
the gravitational acceleration g precisely through measurement of the
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 oscillation period and the pendulum length.
346 111 Reversible pendulum 1 In the experiment P1.5.1.1, the ball with pendulum suspension is used to
determine the gravitational acceleration. As the mass of the ball is much
greater than that of the steel wire on which it is suspended, this pendulum
can be considered to be a close approximation of a mathematic pendu-
lum. Multiple oscillations are recorded to improve measuring accuracy.
For gravitational acceleration, the error then depends essentially on the
accuracy with which the length of the pendulum is determined.
The reversible pendulum used in the experiment P1.5.1.2 has two edges
for suspending the pendulum and two sliding weights for “tuning” the
oscillation period. When the pendulum is properly adjusted, it oscillates
on both edges with the same period
sred
T0 = 2π ⋅
g
and the reduced pendulum length sred corresponds to the very precisely
known distance d between the two edges. For gravitational accelera-
tion, the error then depends essentially on the accuracy with which the
oscillation period T0 is determined.

Measurement diagram for reversible pendulum (P1.5.1.2)

32 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.1
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND
PENDULUM

P1.5.1.3
Oscillations of a rod pendulum

P1.5.1.4
Dependency of period of the oscillation
of a rod pendulum on the amplitude

P1.5.1.5
Determination of the acceleration due
to gravity on earth by means of a rod
pendulum

P1.5.1.6
Pendulum with changeable acceleration
due to gravity (variable g-pendulum)

Oscillations of a rod pendulum (P1.5.1.3)

In the experiment P1.5.1.3, the oscillation of a rod pendulum, i.e.

an simple physical pendulum is investigated. Using the rotary motion
P1.5.1.3-5

sensor S the oscillation of the pendulum is recorded as a function of

P1.5.1.6

Cat. No. Description time. Angle a(t), velocity w(t) and acceleration a(t) are compared. In
addition, the effective length of the pendulum is determined from the
346 20 Physical pendulum 1 1 measured oscillation period T.
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1 1 In the experiment P1.5.1.4, the dependance of the period T on the
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 amplitude A of a oscillation is investigated. For small deflections the
oscillation of an pendulum is approximately harmonic and the period
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
is independant from the amplitude. For high deflections this approxi-
301 21 Stand base MF 2 2 mation is no longer satisfied: the higher the amplitude is the larger the
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 2 period.
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 In experiment P1.5.1.5, the rod pendulum is applied as reversible
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 pendulum. The value of the acceleration due to gravity is determined.
additionally required: The pendulum is set up at two pivot points at opposite sides of the rod.
1 1 The position of two sliding weights influences the period. When the
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
pendulum is properly adjusted, it oscillates on both edges with the same
period T. The effective pendulum length lr corresponds to the distance d
between the two pivot points. The acceleration due to gravity is calcu-
lated form the effective pendulum length lr and the period T.
In the experiment P1.5.1.6, a pendulum with variable acceleration due to
gravity (variable g pendulum) is assembled and investigated. The oscilla-
tion plane is tilted. Therefore, the acceleration due to gravity is reduced.
This leads to different oscillation periods depending on the tilt. In the
experiment the dependance of the period on the tilt angle is determined.
Additionally, the acceleration due to gravity on different celestial bodies
is simulated.
CASSY ®

Oscillations of the pendulum

33
 MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.2
HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.2.1
Oscillations of a spring pendulum -
Recording the path, velocity and
acceleration with CASSY

P1.5.2.2
Determining the oscillation period
of a spring pendulum as a function
of the oscillating mass

Oscillations of a spring pendulum - Recording the path, velocity and acceleration with CASSY (P1.5.2.1)

When a system is deflected from a stable equilibrium position, oscillations

can occur. An oscillation is considered harmonic when the restoring force
P1.5.2.1-2

F is proportional to the deflection x from the equilibrium position.

Cat. No. Description F =D⋅x
D: directional constant
352 10 Helical spring, 3 N/m 1 The oscillations of a spring pendulum are often used as a classic example
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 1 of this.
336 21 Holding magnet 1 In the experiment P1.5.2.1, the harmonic oscillations of a spring pen-
337 462 Combination light barrier 1 dulum are recorded as a function of time using the motion transducer
337 464 Combination spoked wheel 1 and the computer-assisted measured value recording system CASSY.
In the evaluation, the oscillation quantities path x, velocity v and acce-
524 074 Timer S 1
leration a are compared on the screen. These can be displayed either as
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 functions of the time t or as a phase diagram.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 The experiment P1.5.2.2 records and evaluates the oscillations of a spring
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 pendulum for various suspended masses m. The relationship
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 D
T = 2π ⋅
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 m
300 46 Stand rod, 150 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 for the oscillation period is verified.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2
301 08 Clamp with hook 1
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Path, velocity and acceleration of the pendulum

34 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.3
TORSION PENDULUM

P1.5.3.1
Free rotational oscillations -
Measuring with a hand-held stopclock

P1.5.3.2
Forced rotational oscillations -
Measuring with a hand-held stopclock

Free rotational oscillations - Measuring with a hand-held stopclock (P1.5.3.1)

The torsion pendulum after Pohl can be used to investigate free or forced
harmonic rotational oscillations. An electromagnetic eddy current brake
P1.5.3.2

damps these oscillations to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the

P1.5.3.1

Cat. No. Description set current. The torsion pendulum is excited to forced oscillations by
means of a motor-driven eccentric rod.
346 00 Torsion pendulum 1 1 The aim of the experiment P1.5.3.1 is to investigate free harmonic rota-
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1 tional oscillations of the type
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 1 ϕ ( t ) = ϕ0 ⋅ cos ωt ⋅ e − δ ⋅t where ω= ω02 − δ2
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 ω0 : characteristic frequency of torsion pendulum
562 793 Plug-in power supply for torsion pendulum 1
To distinguish between oscillation and creepage, the damping constant
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 d is varied to find the current I0 which corresponds to the aperiodic
limiting case. In the oscillation case, the angular frequency w is deter-
mined for various damping levels from the oscillation period T and the
damping constant d by means of the ratio
ϕn +1 −δ⋅ T
=e 2
ϕn
of two sequential oscillation amplitudes. Using the relationship
ω2 = ω02 − δ2
we can determine the characteristic frequency w0.
In the experiment P1.5.3.2, the torsion pendulum is excited to oscillations
with the frequency w by means of a harmonically variable angular mo-
mentum. To illustrate the resonance behavior, the oscillation amplitudes
determined for various damping levels are plotted as a function of w2 and
compared with the theoretical curve
M0 1
ϕ0 = ⋅
l
( )
2
ω2 − ω02 + δ2 ⋅ ω2
I: moment of inertia of torsion pend
dulum

Resonance curves for two different damping constants (P1.5.3.2)

35
 MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.3
TORSION PENDULUM

P1.5.3.3
Free rotational oscillations -
Recording with CASSY

P1.5.3.4
Forced harmonic and chaotic
rotational oscillations -
Recording with CASSY

Free rotational oscillations - Recording with CASSY (P1.5.3.3)

The computer-assisted CASSY measured-value recording system is ideal

for recording and evaluating the oscillations of the torsion pendulum.
P1.5.3.3
P1.5.3.4

The numerous evaluation options enable a comprehensive comparison

Cat. No. Description
between theory and experiment. Thus, for example, the recorded data
346 00 Torsion pendulum 1 1 can be displayed as path-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time
diagrams or as a phase diagram (path-velocity diagram).
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
The aim of the experiment P1.5.3.3 is to investigate free harmonic
rotational oscillations of the general type
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 .

524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1 1 ϕ ( t ) = (ϕ(0) ⋅ cos ωt + ϕ(0) ⋅ sin ωt ) ⋅ e − δt

501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 where ω = ω02 − δ2
562 793 Plug-in power supply for torsion pendulum 1 where ω0 : characteristic frequency of torsion pendulum
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 This experiment investigates the relationship between the initial
additionally required:
1 1 deflection j(0) and the initial velocity w(0). In addition, the damping
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) constant d is varied in order to find the current l0 which corresponds to
the aperiodic limiting case.
To investigate the transition between forced harmonic and chaotic
oscillations, the linear restoring moment acting on the torsion pendu-
lum is deliberately altered in the experiment P1.5.3.4 by attaching an
additional weight to the pendulum. The restoring moment now corres-
ponds to a potential with two minima, i.e. two equilibrium positions.
When the pendulum is excited at a constant frequency, it can oscillate
around the left minimum, the right minimum or back and forth between
the two minima. At certain frequencies, it is not possible to predict
when the pendulum will change from one minimum to another. The
torsion pendulum is then oscillating in a chaotic manner.
CASSY ®

Potential energy of double pendulum with and without additional mass

36 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.4
COUPLING OF OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.4.1
Coupled pendulum - Measuring
with a hand-held stopclock

P1.5.4.2
Coupled pendulum - Recording
and evaluating with VideoCom

Coupled pendulum - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom (P1.5.4.2)

Two coupled pendulums oscillate in phase with the angular frequency

P1.5.4.2

w+ when they are deflected from the equilibrium position by the same
P1.5.4.1

Cat. No. Description amount. When the second pendulum is deflected in the opposite direc-
tion, the two pendulums oscillate in phase opposition with the angular
346 45 Double pendulum 1 1 frequency w–. Deflecting only one pendulum generates a coupled oscilla-
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2 2 tion with the angular frequency
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 2 2 ω+ + ω−
ω=
2
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 4 in which the oscillation energy is transferred back and forth between the
two pendulums. The first pendulum comes to rest after a certain time,
460 97 Metal rule, 0.5 m 1 1
while the second pendulum simultaneously reaches its greatest amplitu-
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1 1 de. Then the same process runs in reverse. The time from one pendulum
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 stand still to the next is called the beat period TS. For the corresponding
337 47USB VideoCom 1 beat frequency, we can say
300 59 Camera tripod 1 ωs = ω+ − ω−
additionally required:
1
The aim of the experiment P1.5.4.1 is to observe in-phase, phase-opposed
PC with Windows 2000/XP/Vista/7/8 (x86 or x64) and coupled oscillations. The angular frequencies w+, w–, ws and w are
calculated from the oscillation periods T+, T–, TS and T measured using a
stopclock and compared with each other.
In the experiment P1.5.4.2, the coupled motion of the two pendulums
is investigated using the single-line CCD camera VideoCom. The results
include the path-time diagrams s1(t) and s2(t) of pendulums 1 and 2, from
which the path-time diagrams s+(t) = s1(t) + s2(t) of the purely in-phase
motion and s–(t) = s1(t) - s2(t) of the purely opposed-phase motion are
calculated. The corresponding characteristic frequencies are determined
using - Fourier transforms. Comparison identifies the two characteristic
frequencies of the coupled oscillations s1(t) and s2(t) as the characteristic
frequencies w+ of the function s+(t) and w+ of the function s–(t).

Phase shift of coupled oscillation - recorded with VideoCom (P1.5.4.2)

37
 MECHANICS
OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.4
COUPLING OF OSCILLATIONS

P1.5.4.3
Coupling of longitudinal and
rotational oscillations with the
helical spring after Wilberforce

P1.5.4.4
Coupled pendulum - Recording
and evaluating with CASSY

Coupled pendulum - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P1.5.4.4)

Wilberforce’s pendulum is an arrangement for demonstrating coupled

P1.5.4.3
P1.5.4.4

longitudinal and rotational oscillations. When a helical spring is elon-

Cat. No. Description gated, it is always twisted somewhat as well. Therefore, longitudinal
oscillations of the helical screw always excite rotational oscillations
346 51 Wilberforce‘s pendulum 1 also. By the same token, the rotational oscillations generate longi-
311 22 Vertical rule 1 tudinal oscillations, as torsion always alters the spring length somewhat.
The characteristic frequency f T of the longitudinal oscillation is de-
300 11 Saddle base 1
termined by the mass m of the suspended metal cylinder, while the
313 17 Hand-held stop-watch II, mechanical 1 characteristic frequency f R of the rotational oscillation is established by
346 03 Pendulums with axle, pair 1 the moment of inertia I of the metal cylinder. By mounting screwable
340 85 Weights, each 50 g, set of 6 1 metal disks on radially arranged threaded pins, it becomes possible to
314 04ET5 Support clip, for plugging in, set of 5 1 change the moment of inertia I without altering the mass m.
352 10 Helical spring, 3 N/m 1 The first step in the experiment P1.5.4.3 is to match the two frequencies
f T und f R by varying the moment of inertia I. To test this condition, the
579 43 Motor and tachogenerator, STE 4/19/50 2
metal cylinder is turned one full turn around its own axis and raised 10 cm
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 at the same time. When the frequencies have been properly matched, this
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 body executes both longitudinal and rotational oscillations which do not
301 25 Support block 2 affect each other. Once this has been done, it is possible to observe for
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 any deflection how the longitudinal and rotational oscillations alternately
come to a standstill. In other words, the system behaves like two classical
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 2
coupled pendulums.
301 21 Stand base MF 2
Two coupled pendulums swing in experiment P1.5.4.4 in phase with a
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 frequency f1 when they are deflected from the rest position by the same
additionally required: distance. When the second pendulum is deflected in the opposite direc-
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) tion, the two pendulums oscillate in opposing phase with the frequency
f 2. Deflecting only one pendulum generates a coupled oscillation with the
frequency
f1 + f2
fn =
2
in which oscillation energy is transferred back and forth between the two
pendulums. The first pendulum comes to rest after a certain time, while
the second pendulum simultaneously reaches its greatest amplitude. The
time from one standstill of a pendulum to the next is called Ts. For the
CASSY ®

Coupling of longitudinal and rotational oscillations with the corresponding beat frequency, we can say
helical spring after Wilberforce (P1.5.4.3)
fs = f1 − f2

38 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
WAVE MECHANICS

P1.6.1
TRANSVERSAL AND
LONGITUDINAL WAVES

P1.6.1.1
Standing transversal waves
on a thread

P1.6.1.2
Standing longitudinal waves
on a helical spring

Transversal and longitudinal waves (P1.6.1)

A wave is formed when two coupled, oscillating systems sequentially

P1.6.1.2
P1.6.1.1

execute oscillations of the same type. The wave can be excited e.g. as
Cat. No. Description a transversal wave on an elastic string or as a longitudinal wave along a
helical spring. The propagation velocity of an oscillation state - the phase
686 57ET5 Rubber cords, 3 m, set of 5 1 1 velocity v - is related to the oscillation frequency f and the wavelength l
301 21 Stand base MF 2 2 through the formula
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 1 v = λ⋅f
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 2 1 When the string or the helical spring is fixed at both ends, reflections
666 615 Universal bosshead 1 occur at the ends. This causes superposing of the “outgoing” and reflected
waves. Depending on the string length s, there are certain frequencies at
301 25 Support block 1 1
which this superposing of the waves forms stationary oscillation patterns
314 04ET5 Support clip, for plugging in, set of 5 1 1 – standing waves. The distance between two oscillation nodes or two
579 42 Motor with rocker, STE 2/19 1 1 antinodes of a standing wave corresponds to one half the wavelength.
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 The fixed ends correspond to oscillation nodes. For a standing wave with
301 29 Pointer, pair 1 1
n oscillation antinodes, we can say
λn
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 s =n⋅
2
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
This standing wave is excited with the frequency
352 07ET2 Helical spring, 10 N/m, set of 2 1
v
352 08ET2 Helical spring, 25 N/m, set of 2 1 fn = n ⋅
2s

The experiment P1.6.1.1 examines standing string waves. The relationship

fn ∼ n
is verified.
The experiment P1.6.1.2 looks at standing waves on a helical spring. The
relationship
fn ∼ n
is verified. Two helical springs with different phase velocities v are
provided for use.

39
MECHANICS
WAVE MECHANICS

P1.6.2
WAVE MACHINE

P1.6.2.1
Wavelength, frequency and phase
velocity of travelling waves

Wavelength, frequency and phase velocity of travelling waves (P1.6.2.1)

The “modular wave machine” equipment set enables us to set up a

horizontal torsion wave machine, while allowing the size and complexity
of the setup within the system to be configured as desired. The module
P1.6.2.1

Cat. No. Description consists of 21 pendulum bodies mounted on edge bearings in a rotating
manner around a common axis. They are elastically coupled on both
401 20 Wave machine, basic module 1 2 sides of the axis of rotation, so that the deflection of one pendulum
401 22 Drive module for wave machine 1 propagates through the entire system in the form of a wave.
401 23 Damping module for wave machine 1 The aim of the experiment P1.6.2.1 is to explicitly confirm the relationship
v = λ⋅f
401 24 Brake unit for wave machine 2
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1 between the wavelength l, the frequency f and the phase velocity v. A
stopclock is used to measure the time t required for any wave phase to
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1
travel a given distance s for different wavelengths; these values are then
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 used to calculate the phase velocity
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 s
v=
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 1 t
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1 The wavelength is then “frozen” using the built-in brake, to permit
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 measurement of the wavelength l. The frequency is determined from
the oscillation period measured using the stopclock. When the recom-
mended experiment configuration is used, it is possible to demonstrate
all significant phenomena pertaining to the propagation of linear trans-
versal waves. In particular, these include the excitation of standing
waves by means of reflection at a fixed or loose end.

Relationship between the frequency and the wavelength of a propagating wave

40 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
WAVE MECHANICS

P1.6.3
CIRCULARLY POLARIZED
WAVES

P1.6.3.1
Investigating circularly polarized
thread waves in the experiment
setup after Melde

P1.6.3.2
Determining the phase velocity of
circularly polarized thread waves
in the experiment setup after Melde

Investigating circularly polarized thread waves in the experiment setup after Melde (P1.6.3.1)

The experiment setup after Melde generates circularly polarized string

waves on a string with a known length s using a motordriven eccentric.
P1.6.3.2

The tensioning force F of the string is varied until standing waves with
P1.6.3.1

Cat. No. Description the wavelength

2s
λn =
401 03 Vibrating thread apparatus 1 1 n
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 n: number of oscillation nodes
451 281 Stroboscope 1 appear.
315 05 Single-pan suspension balance 311 1 In the experiment P1.6.3.1, the wavelengths ln of the standing string
waves are determined for different string lengths s and string masses m
at a fixed excitation frequency and plotted as a function of the respective
tensioning force F m. The evaluation confirms the relationship
F
λ∝
m*
with the mass assignment
m
m* =
s
m: string mass, s: string length
In the experiment P1.6.3.2, the same measuring procedure is carried out,
but with the addition of a stroboscope. This is used to determine the exci-
tation frequency f of the motor. It also makes the circular polarization of
the waves visible in an impressive manner when the standing string wave
is illuminated with light flashes which have a frequency approximating
that of the standard wave. The additional determination of the frequency
f enables calculation of the phase velocity c of the string waves using the
formula
c = λ⋅f
as well as quantitative verification of the relationship
F
c=
m*

Wavelength l of thread waves as a function of the tension force F, the thread

length s and thread density m* (P1.6.3.1)

41
MECHANICS
WAVE MECHANICS

P1.6.4
PROPAGATION OF WATER
WAVES
P1.6.4.1
Exciting circular and straight
water waves
P1.6.4.2
Huygens’ principle in water waves
P1.6.4.3
Propagation of water waves in
two different depths
P1.6.4.4
Refraction of water waves
P1.6.4.5
Doppler effect in water waves
P1.6.4.6
Reflection of water waves at a
straight obstacle
P1.6.4.7
Reflection of water waves at
curved obstacles

Exciting circular and straight water waves (P1.6.4.1)

Fundamental concepts of wave propagation can be explained particularly

clearly using water waves, as their propagation can be observed with the
P1.6.4.4-7
P1.6.4.2
P1.6.4.3

naked eye.
P1.6.4.1

Cat. No. Description The experiment P1.6.4.1 investigates the properties of circular and straight
waves. The wavelength l is measured as a function of each excitation
401 501 Ripple tank D 1 1 1 1 frequency f and these two values are used to calculate the wave velocity
313 033 Electronic time clock P 1 v = f ⋅l
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 The aim of the experiment P1.6.4.2 is to verify Huygens’ principle. In this
experiment, straight waves strike an edge, a narrow slit and a grating. We
can observe a change in the direction of propagation, the creation of circu-
lar waves and the superposing of circular waves to form one straight wave.
The experiments P1.6.4.3 and P1.6.4.4 aim to study the propagation of
water waves in different water depths. A greater water depth corresponds
to a medium with a lower refractive index n. At the transition from one
“medium” to another, the law of refraction applies:
sin α1 λ1
=
sin α 2 λ 2
α1, α 2 : angles with respect to axis of incid
dence in zone 1 and 2
λ1, λ 2 : wavelength in zone 1 and 2
A prism, a biconvex lens and a biconcave lens are investigated as practical
applications for water waves.
The experiment P1.6.4.5 observes the Doppler effect in circular water
waves for various speeds u of the wave exciter.
The experiments P1.6.4.6 and P1.6.4.7 examine the reflection of water
waves. When straight and circular waves are reflected at a straight wall,
the “wave beams” obey the law of reflection. When straight waves are
reflected by curved obstacles, the originally parallel wave rays travel in
either convergent or divergent directions, depending on the curvature of
the obstacle. We can observe a focusing to a focal point, respectively a
divergence from an apparent focal point, just as in optics.

Convergent beam path behind a biconvex lens (P1.6.4.4)

42 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
WAVE MECHANICS

P1.6.5
INTERFERENCE OF WATER
WAVES

P1.6.5.1
Two-beam interference of
water waves

P1.6.5.2
Lloyd’s experiment on water waves

P1.6.5.3
Diffraction of water waves at a slit
and at an obstacle

P1.6.5.4
Diffraction of water waves at a
multiple slit

P1.6.5.5
Standing water waves in front
of a reflecting barrier

Two-beam interference of water waves (P1.6.5.1)

Experiments on the interference of waves can be carried out in an easily

understandable manner, as the diffraction objects can be seen and the
P1.6.5.1-4
P1.6.5.5

propagation of the diffracted waves observed with the naked eye.

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P1.6.5.1, the interference of two coherent circular waves
is compared with the diffraction of straight waves at a double slit. The two
401 501 Ripple tank D 1 1 arrangements generate identical interference patterns.
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 The experiment P1.6.5.2 reproduces Lloyd’s experiment on generating
two-beam interference. A second wave coherent to the first is generated
by reflection at a straight obstacle. The result is an interference pattern
which is equivalent to that obtained for two-beam interference with two
discrete coherent exciters.
In the experiment P1.6.5.3, a straight wave front strikes slits and obsta-
cles of various widths. A slit which has a width of less than the wave-
length acts like a point-shaped exciter for circular waves. If the slit width is
significantly greater than the wavelength, the straight waves pass the slit
essentially unaltered. Weaker, circular waves only propagate in the shadow
zones behind the edges. When the slit widths are close to the wavelength,
a clear diffraction pattern is formed with a broad main maximum flanked
by lateral secondary maxima. When the waves strike an obstacle, the two
edges of the obstacle act like excitation centers for circular waves. The
resulting diffraction pattern depends greatly on the width of the obstacle.
The object of the experiment P1.6.5.4 is to investigate the diffraction of
straight water waves at double, triple and multiple slits which have a fixed
slit spacing d. This experiment shows that the diffraction maxima become
more clearly defined for an increasing number n of slits. The angles at
which the diffraction maxima are located remain the same.
The experiment P1.6.5.5 demonstrates the generation of standing waves
by means of reflection of water waves at a wall arranged parallel to the
wave exciter. The standing wave demonstrates points at regular intervals
at which the crests and troughs of the individual traveling and reflected
waves cancel each other out. The oscillation is always greatest at the
midpoint between two such nodes.

Diffraction of water waves at a narrow obstacle (P1.6.5.3)

43
MECHANICS
WAVE MECHANICS

P1.6.6
RESONANCES

P1.6.6.1
Demonstration of resonance
vibrations

P1.6.6.2
Demonstration of standing waves
on a thread

P1.6.6.3
Demonstration of standing waves
on a helical spring

Demonstration of resonance vibrations (P1.6.6.1)

The study of resonance phenomena is an essential topic not just physics

but also in applied sciences. A resonance occurs when the excitation
P1.6.6.2
P1.6.6.3

frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillation system.

P1.6.6.1

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P1.6.6.1 the leaf spring model is stimulated with
different frequencies f and thus examined for resonances. Hence the
346 54 Leaf spring resonance model 1 wavelength l of the vibrations can be identified.
587 09 Vibration generator 1 1 1 c
l=
522 561 Function generator P 1 1 1 f
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 2 2 c: propagation speed
309 50 Demonstration cord 1 In the experiment P1.6.6.2 a transversal wave is generated. By moving a
340 921ET2 Pulley 100 mm Ø, plug-in, pair, set of 2 1 cord up and down, the wave will be reflected at the fixed end and runs
683 10 Weight, 0.1 kg 1
back on the cord. For defined frequencies, certain points will being fixed
(nodal) while others (antinodes) oscillate with high amplitude.
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 2 1
In the experiment P1.6.6.3, a longitudinal wave at a helical spring is
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 2 1
observed. By moving one end up and down and the other end is fixed,
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 1 reflects the wave there and runs back. Again for defined frequencies,
301 25 Support block 1 certain points of the spring remain at rest while others oscillate.
352 11 Helical spring, 2.7 N/m 1
301 08 Clamp with hook 1

44 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.1
SOUND WAVES

P1.7.1.2
Acoustic beats - Displaying on
the oscilloscope

P1.7.1.3
Acoustic beats - Recording
with CASSY

Acoustic beats - Recording with CASSY (P1.7.1.3_a)

Acoustics is the study of sound and all its phenomena. This discipline
deals with both the generation and the propagation of sound waves.
P1.7.1.3 (a)
P1.7.1.2

The experiment P1.7.1.2 demonstrates the wave nature of sound. Here,

Cat. No. Description acoustic beats are investigated as the superposing of two sound waves
generated using tuning forks with slightly different frequencies f 1 and
414 72 Resonance tuning forks, pair 1 1 f 2 . The beat signal is received via a microphone and displayed on the
586 26 Multi-purpose microphone 1 1 oscilloscope. By means of further (mis-) tuning of one tuning fork by
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 moving a clamping screw, the beat frequency
575 35 Adapter, BNC/4 mm, 2-pole 1 fs = f2 − f1

300 11 Saddle base 1 1 is increased, and the beat period (i. e. the interval between two nodes
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 of the beat signal)
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
TS =
additionally required: fS
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) is reduced.
In the experiment P1.7.1.3, the acoustic beats are recorded and evalu-
ated via the CASSY computer interface device. The individual frequen-
cies f 1 and f 2, the oscillation frequency f and the beat frequency f S are
determined automatically and compared with the calculated values
f1 + f2
f =
2
fs = f2 − f1
CASSY ®

Acoustic beats

45
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.2
OSCILLATIONS OF A STRING

P1.7.2.1
Determining the oscillation
frequency of a string as a function
of the string length and tension

Determining the oscillation frequency of a string as a function of the string length and tension (P1.7.2.1)

In the fundamental oscillation, the string length s of an oscillating string

corresponds to half the wavelength. Therefore, the following applies for
the frequency of the fundamental oscillation:
P1.7.2.1

Cat. No. Description c

f =
2s
414 01 Monochord 1
where the phase velocity c of the string is given by
314 201 Precision dynamometer, 100.0 N 1
F
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 c=
A⋅ρ
524 074 Timer S 1 F : tensioning force, A: area of cross-section, ρ: den
nsity
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
In the experiment P1.7.2.1, the oscillation frequency of a string is de-
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 termined as a function of the string length and tensioning force. The
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 measurement is carried out using a forked light barrier and the com-
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 puter-assisted measuring system CASSY, which is used here as a high-
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 resolution stop-clock. The aim of the evaluation is to verify the relati-
onships
additionally required:
1 f ∝ F
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
and
1
f ∝
s
CASSY ®

Frequency f as a function of the string length s

46 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.3
WAVELENGTH AND
VELOCITY OF SOUND

P1.7.3.1
Kundt‘s tube: determining the
wavelength of sound with the
cork-powder method

P1.7.3.2
Determining the wavelength
of standing sound waves

Kundt‘s tube: determining the wavelength of sound with the cork-powder method (P1.7.3.1)

Just like other waves, reflection of sound waves can produce standing
waves in which the oscillation nodes are spaced at
P1.7.3.2
P1.7.3.1

λ
d=
Cat. No. Description 2
Thus, the wavelength l of sound waves can be easily measured at
413 01 Kundt‘s tube 1
standing waves.
460 97 Metal rule, 0.5 m 1
The experiment P1.7.3.1 investigates standing waves in Kundt’s tube.
586 26 Multi-purpose microphone 1 These standing waves are revealed in the tube using cork powder which
587 08 Broad-band speaker 1 is stirred up in the oscillation nodes. The distance between the oscilla-
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 tion nodes is used to determine the wavelength l.
587 66 Reflection plate 1 In the experiment P1.7.3.2, standing sound waves are generated by
300 11 Saddle base 3
reflection at a barrier. This setup uses a function generator and a
loudspeaker to generate sound waves in the entire audible range.
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
A microphone is used to detect the intensity minima, and the wave-
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 length l is determined from their spacings.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1

Determining the wavelength of standing sound waves (P1.7.3.2)

47
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.3
WAVELENGTH AND
VELOCITY OF SOUND

P1.7.3.3
Determining the velocity of sound
in air as a function of the temperature

P1.7.3.4
Determining the velocity of sound
in gases

Determining the velocity of sound in air as a function of the temperature (P1.7.3.3)

Sound waves demonstrate only slight dispersion, i.e. group and phase
P1.7.3.3
P1.7.3.4

velocities demonstrate close agreement for propagation in gases. Therefore,

Cat. No. Description we can determine the velocity of sound c as simply the propagation speed
of a sonic pulse. In ideal gases, we can say
413 60 Apparatus for sound velocity 1 1
p⋅κ Cp
516 249 Stand for tubes and coils 1 1 c= where κ =
ρ CV
587 07 Tweeter 1 1 p: pressure, ρ: density, κ: adiabatiic coefficient
586 26 Multi-purpose microphone 1 1 Cp , CV : specific heat capacities
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
The experiment P1.7.3.3 measures the velocity of sound in the air as a func-
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
tion of the temperature J and compares it with the linear function resulting
524 034 Timer box 1 1 from the temperature-dependency of pressure and density
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 ϑ m
c ( ϑ ) = c ( 0 ) + 0 .6 ⋅
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 °C s
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 The value c(0) determined using a best-fit straight line and the literature
300 11 Saddle base 2 2 values p(0) and r(0) are used to determine the adiabatic coefficient k of air
460 97 Metal rule, 0.5 m 1 1 according to the formula
c (0) ⋅ ρ (0)
2
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
κ=
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 1 p (0)
660 999 Minican pressurised gas canister, carbon dioxide 1 The experiment P1.7.3.4 determines the velocity of sound c in carbon
660 984 Minican pressurised gas canister, helium 1 dioxide and in the inert gases helium and neon. The evaluation demon-
660 985 Minican pressurised gas canister, neon 1 strates that the great differences in the velocities of sound of gases are
essentially due to the different densities of the gases. The differences in the
660 980 Fine regulating valve for minican gas canisters 1
adiabatic coefficients of the gases are comparatively small.
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1
604 481 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 4 mm diam., DIN 12865 1
604 510 Tubing connector, 4...15 mm 1
additionally required:
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

48 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.3
WAVELENGTH AND
VELOCITY OF SOUND

P1.7.3.5
Determining the velocity of
sound in solids

Determining the velocity of sound in solids (P1.7.3.5)

In solid bodies, the velocity of sound is determined by the modulus of

P1.7.3.5

elasticity E and the density r. For the velocity of sound in a long rod,
Cat. No. Description we can say
E
413 651 Metal rods, 1.5 m, set of 3 1 c=
ρ
300 46 Stand rod, 150 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
In the case of solids, measurement of the velocity of sound thus yields a
587 251 Rochelle salt crystal (piezo-electric element) 1
simple method for determining the modulus of elasticity.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
The object of the experiment P1.7.3.5 is to determine the velocity of
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 sound in aluminum, copper, brass and steel rods. This measurement ex-
301 07 Simple bench clamp 1 ploits the multiple reflections of a brief sound pulse at the rod ends.
501 38 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, black 2 The pulse is generated by striking the top end of the rod with a hammer,
additionally required: and initially travels to the bottom. The pulse is reflected several times
1 in succession at the two ends of the rod, whereby the pulses arriving at
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
one end are delayed with respect to each other by the time Dt required
to travel out and back. The velocity of sound is thus
2s
c=
∆t
s: length of rod
To record the pulses, the bottom end of the rod rests on a piezoelectric
element which converts the compressive oscillations of the sound pulse
into electrical oscillations. These values are recorded using the CASSY
system for computer-assisted measured-value recording.
CASSY ®

Velocity of sound in different materials

49
MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.4
REFLECTION OF
ULTRASONIC WAVES

P1.7.4.1
Reflection of planar ultrasonic
waves at a plane surface

P1.7.4.2
Principle of an echo sounder

Reflection of planar ultrasonic waves at a plane surface (P1.7.4.1)

the transducer. By the same token, ultrasonic waves excite mechanical

P1.7.4.2
P1.7.4.1

oscillations in the piezoelectric body.

Cat. No. Description The aim of the experiment P1.7.4.1 is to confirm the law of reflection
“angle of incidence = angle of reflection” for ultrasonic waves. In this
416 000 Ultrasonic transducer, 40 kHz 2 2 setup, an ultrasonic transducer as a point-type source is set up in the
416 014 Generator, 40 kHz 1 1 focal point of a concave reflector, so that flat ultrasonic waves are gene-
416 015 AC amplifier 1 1 rated. The flat wave strikes a plane surface at an angle of incidence a and
389 241 Concave mirror 1 is reflected there. The reflected intensity is measured at different angles
using a second transducer. The direction of the maximum reflected inten-
416 020 Sensor holder for concave mirror 1
sity is defined as the angle of reflection b.
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1
The experiment P1.7.4.2 utilizes the principle of an echo sounder to de-
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 2 termine the velocity of sound in the air, as well as to determine distances.
460 43 Small optical bench 2 An echo sounder emits pulsed ultrasonic signals and measures the time
460 40 Swivel joint with protractor scale 1 at which the signal reflected at the boundary surface is received. For the
587 66 Reflection plate 1 1 sake of simplicity, the transmitter and receiver are set up as nearly as
possible in the same place. When the velocity of sound c is known, the
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
time difference t between transmission and reception can be used in the
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2 relationship
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 2s
c=
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 t
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 to determine the distance s to the reflector or, when the distance is
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 known, the velocity of sound.
666 615 Universal bosshead 1
361 03 Spirit level 1
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
300 11 Saddle base 3
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1

When investigating ultrasonic waves, identical, and thus interchangeable

transducers are used as transmitters and receivers. The ultrasonic waves
are generated by the mechanical oscillations of a piezoelectric body in Echo sounder signal

50 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.5
INTERFERENCE OF
ULTRASONIC WAVES

P1.7.5.1
Beating of ultrasonic waves

P1.7.5.2
Interference of two ultrasonic beams

P1.7.5.3
Diffraction of ultrasonic waves
at a single slit

P1.7.5.4
Diffraction of ultrasonic waves
at a double slit, a multiple slit
and a grating

Beating of ultrasonic waves (P1.7.5.1)

Experiments on the interference of waves can be carried out in a com-

P1.7.5.2
P1.7.5.3
P1.7.5.4

prehensible manner using ultrasonic waves, as the diffraction objects

P1.7.5.1

Cat. No. Description are visible with the naked eye. In addition, it is not difficult to generate
coherent sound beams.
416 000 Ultrasonic transducer, 40 kHz 3 3 2 2 In the experiment P1.7.5.1, beating of ultrasonic waves is investiga-
416 015 AC amplifier 1 1 1 1 ted using two transducers which are operated using slightly different
416 014 Generator, 40 kHz 2 1 1 1 frequencies f 1 and f 2. The signal resulting from the superposing of the
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1
two individual signals is interpreted as an oscillation with the periodically
varying amplitude
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1
A ( t ) ∼ cos ( π ⋅ ( f2 − f1 ) ⋅ t )
300 11 Saddle base 3 2
311 902 Rotating platform with motor drive 1 1 1 The beat frequency f S determined from the period TS between two beat
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 nodes and compared with the difference f 2 – f1.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1 In the experiment P1.7.5.2, two identical ultrasonic transducers are
operated by a single generator. These transducers generate two cohe-
524 031 Current source box 1 1 1
rent ultrasonic beams which interfere with each other. The interference
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1 1 pattern corresponds to the diffraction of flat waves at a double slit when
501 031 Connecting lead, protected, 8 m, screened 1 1 1 the two transducers are operated in phase. The measured intensity is thus
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 greatest at the diffraction angles a where
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 1 1 λ
sin α = n ⋅ where n = 0, ±1, ±2,…
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 1 d
λ: wavelength, d : spacing of ultrasonic transducers
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 1
The experiments P1.7.5.3 and P1.7.5.4 use an ultrasonic transducer as a
point-shaped source in the focal point of a concave reflector. The flat
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1 1
ultrasonic waves generated in this manner are diffracted at a single slit,
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1 1 1 a double slit and a multiple slit. An ultrasonic transducer and the slit are
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 2 mounted together on the turntable for computer-assisted recording of
416 020 Sensor holder for concave mirror 1 1 the diffraction figures. This configuration measures the diffraction at a
single slit for various slit widths b and the diffraction at multiple slits and
416 021 Frame with holder 1 1
gratings for different numbers of slits N.
416 030 Grating and slit for ultrasonics experiments 1 1
389 241 Concave mirror 1 1
additionally required:
1 1 1
CASSY ®

PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

51
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.6
ACOUSTIC DOPPLER EFFECT

P1.7.6.1
Investigating the Doppler effect
with ultrasonic waves

P1.7.6.2
Investigating the Doppler effect
with ultrasonic waves - Recording
and evaluating with CASSY

Investigating the Doppler effect with ultrasonic waves (P1.7.6.1)

The change in the observed frequency for a relative motion of the trans-
P1.7.6.2
P1.7.6.1

mitter and receiver with respect to the propagation medium is called the
Cat. No. Description
acoustic Doppler effect. If the transmitter with the frequency f 0 moves at a
416 000 Ultrasonic transducer, 40 kHz 2 2 velocity v relative to a receiver at rest, the receiver measures the frequency
416 015 AC amplifier 1 1 f0
f =
v
416 014 Generator, 40 kHz 1 1 1−
c
501 031 Connecting lead, protected, 8 m, screened 1 1
c: velocity of sound
501 644 Two-way adapters, black, set of 6 1 1
If, on the other hand, the receiver moves at a velocity v relative to a trans-
685 44ET4 Batteries, 1.5 V (AA), set of 4 1 1
mitter at rest, we can say
337 07 Trolley with electric drive 1 1
 v
460 81 Precision metal rail, 100 cm 2 2 f = f0 ⋅  1 + 
 c
460 85 Rail connector 1 1
The change in the frequeny f – f0 is proportional to the frequency f0. Investi-
460 88 Feet for metal rails, pair 1 1
gation of the acoustic Doppler effect on ultrasonic waves thus suggests itself.
460 95ET5 Clamp riders, set of 5 1 1
In the experiment P1.7.6.1, two identical ultrasonic transducers are used
416 031 Accessories for acoustic Doppler effect 1 1
as the transmitter and the receiver, and differ only in their connection.
575 471 Counter S 1
One transducer is mounted on a measuring trolley with electric drive,
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 while the other transducer is at rest on the lab bench. The frequency of
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 the received signal is measured using a digital counter. To determine the
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 speed of the transducer in motion, the time Dt which the measuring trolley
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 2 requires to traverse the measuring distance is measured using a stopclock.
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 In the experiment P1.7.6.2, two identical ultrasonic transducers are used
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1 as transmitter and receiver. One transducer is mounted on a measu-
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
ring trolley with electric drive, while the other transducer is at rest on
the lab bench. The frequency of the received signal is measured using a
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 2
high-resolution digital counter inside the CASSY. The Sensor-CASSY 2 in
608 100 Stand ring with clamp, 70 mm diam. 1 1
conjunction with the laser motion sensor S measures the speed of the
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 transducer in motion.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
524 034 Timer box 1
524 073 Laser motion sensor S 1
CASSY ®

300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1

additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) Propagation of sound with the sound source and the observer at rest

52 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.7
FOURIER ANALYSIS

P1.7.7.1
Investigating fast Fourier transforms:
simulation of Fourier analysis
and Fourier synthesis

P1.7.7.2
Fourier analysis of the periodic
signals of a function generator

P1.7.7.3
Fourier analysis of an electric
oscillator circuit

P1.7.7.4
Fourier analysis of sounds

Fourier analysis of an electric oscillator circuit (P1.7.7.3)

Fourier analysis and synthesis of sound waves are important tools in

P1.7.7.2
P1.7.7.3
P1.7.7.4
P1.7.7.1

acoustics. Thus, for example, knowing the harmonics of a sound is

Cat. No. Description important for artificial generation of sounds or speech.
The experiments P1.7.7.1 and 1.7.7.2 investigate Fourier transforms of
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1 1
periodic signals which are either numerically simulated or generated
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 using a function generator.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 In the experiment P1.7.7.3, the frequency spectrum of coupled electric
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 4 oscillator circuits is compared with the spectrum of an uncoupled oscil-
562 14 Coil, 500 turns 2 lator circuit. The Fourier transform of the uncoupled, damped oscillation
578 15 Capacitor, 1 µF, STE 2/19 2 is a Lorentz curve
γ2
579 10 Push button (NO), STE 2/19 1 L ( f ) = L0 ⋅
( f − f0 )
2
577 19 Resistor, 1 W, STE 2/19 1 + γ2

577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 1 in which the width increases with the ohmic resistance of the oscillator
577 21 Resistor, 5.1 W, STE 2/19 1 circuit. The Fourier-transformed signal of the coupled oscillator circuits
577 23 Resistor, 20 W, STE 2/19 1
shows the split into two distributions lying symmetrically around the
uncoupled signal, with their spacing depending on the coupling of the
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1
oscillator circuits.
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1
The aim of the experiment P1.7.7.4 is to conduct Fourier analysis
524 059 Microphone S 1 of sounds having different tone colors and pitches. As examples, the
additionally required: vowels of the human voice and the sounds of musical instruments are
1 1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) analyzed. The various vowels of a language differ mainly in the ampli-
tudes of the harmonics. The fundamental frequency f 0 depends on the
pitch of the voice. This is approx. 200 Hz for high-pitched voices and
approx. 80 Hz for low-pitched voices. The vocal tone color is determined
by variations in the excitation of the harmonics. The audible tones of
musical instruments are also determined by the excitation of harmonics.
CASSY ®

Coupled oscillator circuit with its Fourier transform

53
MECHANICS
ACOUSTICS

P1.7.8
ULTRASOUND IN MEDIA

P1.7.8.1
Optical determination of the velocity
of sound in liquids

P1.7.8.2
Laser diffraction at an ultrasonic
wave in liquids (Debye-Sears-Effect)

Laser diffraction at an ultrasonic wave in liquids (Debye-Sears-Effect) (P1.7.8.2)

Todays acousto-optic modulators are important building parts for tele-

communication and rely on the interaction of sound and light in media.
P1.7.8.2
P1.7.8.1

Density variations created by ultrasound are used as diffraction gratings.

Cat. No. Description
Experiment P1.7.8.1 measures the wavelength of a standing ultrasound
417 11 Ultrasound generator, 4 MHz 1 1 wave in different liquids. The local variation of density in the liquid is
made visible on screen by geometrical projection.
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1
Experiment P1.7.8.2 demonstrates the classic Debye-Sears-Effect, i.e. the
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 5 4
diffraction of laser light by a phase grating created by ultrasound in a
471 791 Diode laser, 635 nm, 1 mW 1 1 liquid. This is the basic principle of an acusto-optic modulator.
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1
460 25 Prism table 1 1
477 02 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 100 x 50 mm 1 1
460 380 Cantilever arm 1 1
382 35 Thermometer, -10...+50 °C/0.1 K 1 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1
441 531 Screen 1 1
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 1 1
672 1210 Glycerin, 99 %, 250 ml 1
671 9740 Ethanol, denaturated, 250 ml 1
673 5700 Sodium chloride, 250 g 1

Debye-Sears Effect, Diffraction at an ultrasound grating (P1.7.8.2)

54 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.1
BAROMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS

P1.8.1.1
Definition of pressure

P1.8.1.2
Hydrostatic pressure as a
non-directional quantity

Definition of pressure (P1.8.1.1)

In a gas or liquid at rest, the same pressure applies at all points:

F
p=
P1.8.1.2
P1.8.1.1

A
Cat. No. Description It is measurable as the distributed force F acting perpendicularly on an
area A.
361 30 Gas syringes with holder, set of 2 1
The experiment P1.8.1.1. aims to illustrate the definition of pressure
315 456 Slotted weight, 100 g 6
as the ratio of force and area by experimental means using two gas
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 syringes of different diameters. The pressure is the same in both gas
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 syringes. Thus, we can say for the forces F 1 and F 2 acting on the gas
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 syringes
361 57 Liquid pressure gauge with U-tube manometer 1 F1 A1
=
F2 A2
361 575 Glass vessel for liquid pressure gauge 1
A1, A2 : cross-section areas
The experiment P1.8.1.2 explores the hydrostatic pressure
p = ρ⋅g ⋅h
∆x ρ: density, g: gravitational acceleration
mm in a water column subject to gravity. The pressure is measured as a
function of the immersion depth h using a liquid pressure gauge. The
6 displayed pressure remains constant when the gauge is turned in all
directions at a constant depth. The pressure is thus a non-directional
quantity.
4

0
0 2 4 6 8 h
mm
Pressure-gauge reading as a function of the immersion depth (P1.8.1.2)

55
MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.2
BOUYANCY

P1.8.2.1
Confirming Archimedes’ principle

P1.8.2.2
Measuring the buoyancy as a
function of the immersion depth

Confirming Archimedes’ principle (P1.8.2.1)

Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyancy force F acting on any

immersed body corresponds to the weight G of the displaced liquid.
P1.8.2.2
P1.8.2.1

The experiment P1.8.2.1 verifies Archimedes’ principle. In this experi-

Cat. No. Description ment, a hollow cylinder and a solid cylinder which fits snugly inside
it are suspended one beneath the other on the beam of a balance.
362 02 Archimedes‘ cylinder 1 1 The deflection of the balance is compensated to zero. When the solid
315 011 Hydrostatic balance 1 cylinder is immersed in a liquid, the balance shows the reduction in
315 31 Set of weights, 10 mg to 200 g 1 weight due to the buoyancy of the body in the liquid. When the same
liquid is filled in the hollow cylinder the deflection of the balance is once
664 111 Beaker, DURAN, 100 ml, tall 1
again compensated to zero, as the weight of the filled liquid compen-
664 113 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, tall 1 1 sates the buoyancy.
672 1210 Glycerin, 99 %, 250 ml 1 1 In the experiment P1.8.2.2, the solid cylinder is immersed in various
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1 1 liquids to the depth h and the weight
314 141 Precision dynamometer, 1 N 1 G = ρ⋅g ⋅A⋅h
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 ρ: density, g: gravitational acceleration, A: crosss-section
of the displaced liquid is measured as the buoyancy F using a precision
dynamometer. The experiment confirms the relationship
F ∼ρ
As long as the immersion depth is less than the height of the cylinder,
we can say:
F ∼h
At greater immersion depths the buoyancy remains constant.

Measuring the buoyancy as a fuction of the immersion depth (P1.8.2.2)

56 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.3
VISCOSITY

P1.8.3.1
Assembling a falling-ball viscosimeter
to determine the viscosity of viscous
fluids

P1.8.3.2
Falling-ball viscosimeter: measuring
the viscosity of sugar solutions as a
function of the concentration

P1.8.3.3
Falling-ball viscosimeter: measuring
the viscosity of Newtonian liquids as
a function of the termperature

Assembling a falling-ball viscosimeter to determine the viscosity of viscous fluids (P1.8.3.1)

The falling-ball viscometer is used to determine the viscosity of liquids

by measuring the falling time of a ball. The substance under investiga-
P1.8.3.2
P1.8.3.3

tion is filled in the vertical tube of the viscosimeter, in which a ball falls
P1.8.3.1

Cat. No. Description through a calibrated distance of 100 mm. The resulting falling time t
is a measure of the dynamic viscosity h of the liquid according to the
379 001 Guinea-and-feather apparatus 1 equation
336 21 Holding magnet 1 η = K ⋅ ( ρ1 − ρ2 ) ⋅ t
352 54 Steel ball, 16 mm 1 ρ2 : density of the liquid under study
336 25 Holding magnet adapter with a release mechanism 1 whereby the constant K and the ball density r1 may be read from the
575 471 Counter S 1 test certificate of the viscosimeter.
510 48 Magnets, 35 mm Ø, pair 1 The object of the experiment P1.8.3.1 is to set up a falling-ball
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 viscosimeter and to study this measuring method, using the viscosity of
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 glycerine as an example.
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 The experiment P1.8.3.2 investigates the relationship between vis-
cosity and concentration using concentrated sugar solutions at room
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
temperature.
301 11 Clamp with jaw clamp 1
In the experiment P1.8.3.3, the temperature regulation chamber of the
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 viscosimeter is connected to a circulation thermostat to measure the
672 1210 Glycerin, 99 %, 250 ml 6 dependency of the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid (e. g. olive oil) on the
590 08ET2 Measuring cylinders, 100 ml, set of 2 1* temperature.
311 54 Precision vernier callipers 1*
OHC S-200E Electronic balance, CS200E 1*
665 906 Höppler falling ball viscometer 1 1
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 1
666 7681 Circulation thermostat SC 100-S5P 1
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 2

* additionally recommended

57
MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.3
VISCOSITY

P1.8.3.4
Hagen-Poiseuille Law

Hagen-Poiseuille Law (P1.8.3.4)

For a Newtonian liquid (i.e. laminar case) the volume flow rate J and the
pressure difference Dp are related by the Hagen-Poiseuille law:
P1.8.3.4

π ⋅ ∆p ⋅ r 4
J=
Cat. No. Description 8 ⋅η ⋅ L
η: Viscosity of the liquid,
665 195 Capillary tube, 300 mm x 5 mm, 0.8 mm diam. 1 L: Length of the e cappillary tube,
665 196 Capillary tube, 300 mm x 8 mm, 2 mm diam. 1 r: radius of the capillary tube
665 205 Capillary tube, 300 mm x 8 mm, 1 mm diam. 1
In the experiment P1.8.3.4 the Hagen-Poiseuille law can be verified
667 510 Capillary tube 1 by using several kind of capillary tubes and various effective level
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 differences to get variant pressure difference.
590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1
LDS 00001 Stopwatch, digital 1
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1
362 05 Discharge vessel 1
665 752 Measuring cylinder, 25 ml, with plastic base 1
608 160 Mohr clip, 50 mm 1
665 227 Connector, straight, 4 ... 8 mm diam. 1
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1
667 197 Silicone tubing, 4 mm diam., 1 m 1
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 09 Bosshead S 2
648 01 Storage tray S8-FN 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1
460 135 Ocular with scale 1*
460 317 Optical bench, S1 profile, 0.5 m 1*
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 2*

* additionally recommended

58 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.4
SURFACE TENSION

P1.8.4.1
Measuring the surface tension
using the „break-away“ method

P1.8.4.2
Measuring the surface tension
using the „break-away“ method -
Recording and evaluating
with CASSY

Measuring the surface tension using the „break-away“ method (P1.8.4.1)

To determine the surface tension s of a liquid, a metal ring is suspended

horizontally from a precision dynamometer or a force sensor. The metal
P1.8.4.2

ring is completely immersed in the liquid, so that the entire surface is

P1.8.4.1

Cat. No. Description wetted. The ring is then slowly pulled out of the liquid, drawing a thin
sheet of liquid behind it. The liquid sheet tears when the tensile force
367 46 Surface tension determination device 1 1 exceeds a limit value
664 175 Crystallisation dish, 95 mm diam., 300 ml 1 1 F = σ ⋅ 4π ⋅ R
314 111 Precision dynamometer , 0.1 N 1 R: edge radius

311 53 Vernier callipers 1 1 The experiments P1.8.4.1 and P1.8.4.2 determines the surface tension
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 1 of water and ethanol. It is shown that water has a particularly high sur-
face tension in comparison to other liquids (literature value for water:
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
0.073 Nm-1, for ethanol: 0.022 Nm-1).
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 08 Clamp with hook 1
671 9740 Ethanol, denaturated, 250 ml 1 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1 1
524 060 Force sensor S, ±1N 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

59
 MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.5
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS
ON AERODYNAMICS
P1.8.5.1
Static pressure in a reduced cross-section
- Measuring the pressure with the precision
manometer
P1.8.5.2
Determining the volume flow with a Venturi
tube - Measuring the pressure with the
precision manometer
P1.8.5.3
Determining the wind speed with a Prandtl
pressure probe - Measuring the pressure with
the precision manometer
P1.8.5.4
Static pressure in a reduced cross-section -
Measuring the pressure with a pressure sensor
and CASSY
P1.8.5.5
Determining the volume flow with a Venturi
tube - Measuring the pressure with a pressure
sensor and CASSY
P1.8.5.6
Determining the wind speed with a Prandtl
pressure probe- Measuring the pressure with a
pressure sensor and CASSY

Static pressure in a reduced cross-section - Measuring the pressure with the precision manometer (P1.8.5.1)

The study of aerodynamics relies on describing the flow of air through

a tube using the continuity equation and the Bernoulli equation. These
P1.8.5.4-5
P1.8.5.1-2
P1.8.5.3

P1.8.5.6

state that regardless of the cross-section A of the tube, the volume flow
.
Cat. No. Description V =v⋅A
373 041 Suction and pressure fan 1 1 1 1 v : flow speed

373 091 Venturi tube with multimanoscope 1 1 and the total pressure
373 10 Precision manometer 1 1 ρ 2
p0 = p + ps where ps = ⋅v
2
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2 1 1
p: static pressure, ps : dynamic pressure, ρ: density of air
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1
remain constant as long as the flow speed remains below the speed of sound.
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
Note: In the experiments P1.8.5.1 - P1.8.5.3, the precision manometer
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1
is used to measure pressures. In addition to a pressure scale, it is pro-
373 13 Prandtl pressure probe 1 1 vided with a further scale which indicates the flow speed directly when
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 measuring with the pressure head sensor. In the experiments P1.8.5.4
524 066 Pressure sensor S, ±70 hPa 1 1 - P1.8.5.6 the pressure is measured with a pressure sensor and recorded
using the universal measuring instrument Mobile-CASSY.
In order to verify these two equations, the static pressure in a Venturi
tube is measured for different cross-sections in the experiments P1.8.5.1
and P1.8.5.4. The static pressure decreases in the reduced cross-section,
as the flow speed increases here.
The experiments P1.8.5.2 and P1.8.5.5 uses the Venturi tube to measure
the volume flow. Using the pressure difference Dp = p 2 - p1 between
two points with known cross-sections A1 and A2, we obtain
2 ⋅ ∆p ⋅ A22
v1 ⋅ A1 =
(
ρ ⋅ A22 − A12 )
The experiments P1.8.5.3 and P1.8.5.6 aims to determine flow speeds.
Here, dynamic pressure (also called the “pressure head”) is measured
using the pressure head sensor after Prandtl as the difference between
the total pressure and the static pressure, and this value is used to
calculate the speed at a known density r.
CASSY ®

60 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.6
MEASURING AIR RESISTANCE
P1.8.6.1
Measuring the air resistance as a function
of the wind speed - Measuring the wind
speed with the precision manometer
P1.8.6.2
Drag coefficient cW: relationship between air
resistance and body shape - Measuring the
wind speed with the precision manometer
P1.8.6.3
Pressure curve on an airfoil profile -
Measuring the pressure with the precision
manometer
P1.8.6.4
Measuring the air resistance as a function
of the wind speed - Measuring the pressure
with a pressure sensor and CASSY
P1.8.6.5
Drag coefficient cW: relationship between air
resistance and body shape - Measuring the
wind speed with a pressure sensor and CASSY
P1.8.6.6
Pressure curve on an airfoil profile -
Measuring the pressure with a pressure
sensor and CASSY

Measuring the air resistance as a function of the wind speed - Measuring the wind speed with the precision mano-
meter (P1.8.6.1)

A flow of air exercises a force F W on a body in the flow which is parallel

to the direction of the flow; this force is called the air resistance. This
P1.8.6.4-5
P1.8.6.1-2
P1.8.6.3

P1.8.6.6

force depends on the flow speed v, the cross-section A of the body

Cat. No. Description perpendicular to the flow direction and the shape of the body. The in-
fluence of the body shape is described using the so-called drag coeffi-
373 041 Suction and pressure fan 1 1 1 1 cient c W, whereby the air resistance is determined as:
373 06 Open aerodynamics working section 1 1 1 1 r 2
Fw = cw ⋅ ⋅v ⋅ A
373 071 Aerodynamics accessories 1 1 1 2
373 075 Measurement trolley for wind tunnel 1 1 Note: In the experiments P1.8.6.1 - P1.8.6.3, the precision mano-
meter is used to measure pressures. In addition to a pressure scale, it is
373 14 Sector dynamometer, 0.65 N 1 1
provided with a further scale which indicates the flow speed direct-
373 13 Prandtl pressure probe 1 1 1 1
ly when measuring with the pressure head sensor. In the experiments
373 10 Precision manometer 1 1 P1.8.6.4 - P1.8.6.6 the pressure is measured with a pressure sensor and
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 2 1 1 recorded using the universal measuring instrument Mobile-CASSY.
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 The experiments P1.8.6.1 and P1.8.6.4 examines the relationship
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 1 between the air resistance and the flow speed using a circular disk.
The flow speed is measured using a pressure head sensor and the air
373 70 Air foil model 1 1
resistance with a dynamometer.
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1
The experiments P1.8.6.2 and P1.8.6.5 determines the drag coefficient
524 066 Pressure sensor S, ±70 hPa 1 1
c w for various flow bodies with equal cross-sections. The flow speed is
measured using a pressure head sensor and the air resistance with a
dynamometer.
The aim of the experiments P1.8.6.3 and P1.8.6.6 is to measure the
static pressure p at various points on the underside of an airfoil pro-
file. The measured curve not only illustrates the air resistance, but also
explains the lift acting on the airfoil.
CASSY ®

61
 MECHANICS
AERO- AND HYDRODYNAMICS

P1.8.7
MEASUREMENTS IN
A WIND TUNNEL

P1.8.7.1
Recording the airfoil profile polars
in a wind tunnel

P1.8.7.2
Measuring students’ own airfoils
and panels in the wind tunnel

P1.8.7.3
Verifying the Bernoulli equation -
Measuring the pressure with the
precision manometer

P1.8.7.4
Verifying the Bernoulli equation -
Measuring the pressure with
a pressure sensor and CASSY

Recording the airfoil profile polars in a wind tunnel (P1.8.7.1)

The wind tunnel provides a measuring configuration for quantitative

experiments on aerodynamics that ensures an airflow which has a
P1.8.7.1-2

constant speed distribution with respect to both time and space. Among
P1.8.7.3
P1.8.7.4

Cat. No. Description other applications, it is ideal for measurements on the physics of flight.
In the experiment P1.8.7.1, the air resistance f W and the lift FA of an
373 12 Wind tunnel 1 1 1 airfoil are measured as a function of the angle of attack a of the airfoil
373 041 Suction and pressure fan 1 1 1 against the direction of flow. In a polar diagram, F W is graphed as a
373 075 Measurement trolley for wind tunnel 1 1 1 function of FA with the angle of attack a as the parameter. From this
polar diagram, we can read e. g. the optimum angle of attack.
373 08 Aerodynamics accessories 2 1
In the experiment P1.8.7.2, the students perform comparable measure-
373 14 Sector dynamometer, 0.65 N 1
ments on airfoils of their own design. The aim is to determine what form
373 13 Prandtl pressure probe 1 1 an airfoil must have to obtain the smallest possible quotient F W / FA at
373 10 Precision manometer 1 a given angle of attack a.
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 The experiments P1.8.7.3 and P1.8.7.4 verify the Bernoulli equation.
524 066 Pressure sensor S, ±70 hPa 1 The difference between the total pressure and the static pressure is
measured as a function of the cross-section, whereby the cross-section
of the wind tunnel is gradually reduced by means of a built-in ramp. If
we assume that the continuity equation applies, the cross-section A
provides a measure of the flow speed v due to
v 0 ⋅ A0
v=
A
v 0 : flow speed at cross-section A0
The experiment verifies the following relationship, which follows from
the Bernoulli equation:
1
∅p ∼
A2
CASSY ®

62 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
P2 HEAT

P2.1 THERMAL EXPANSION 65

P2.2 HEAT TRANSFER 68
P2.3 HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY 70
P2.4 PHASE TRANSITIONS 74
P2.5 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 77
P2.6 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE 81

63
P2 HEAT

P2.1 THERMAL EXPANSION P2.4 PHASE TRANSITIONS

P2.1.1 Thermal expansion of solids 65 P2.4.1 Latent heat and vaporization heat 74
P2.1.2 Thermal expansion of liquids 66 P2.4.2 Measuring vapor pressure 75
P2.1.3 Thermal anomaly of water 67 P2.4.3 Critical temperature 76

P2.2 HEAT TRANSFER P2.5 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

P2.2.1 Thermal conductivity 68 P2.5.1 Brownian motion of molecules 77
P2.2.2 Solar collector 69 P2.5.2 Gas laws 78
P2.5.3 Specific heat of gases 79
P2.3 HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY P2.5.4 Real gases 80
P2.3.1 Mixing temperatures 70
P2.3.2 Heat capacities 71 P2.6 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
P2.3.3 Converting mechanical energy into heat 72 P2.6.1 Hot-air engine: qualitative experiments 81-82
P2.3.4 Converting electrical energy into heat 73 P2.6.2 Hot-air engine: quantitative experiments 83-84
P2.6.3 Heat pump 85

64 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
THERMAL EXPANSION

P2.1.1
THERMAL EXPANSION
OF SOLIDS

P2.1.1.1
Thermal expansion of solids -
Measuring using STM equipment

P2.1.1.2
Thermal expansion of solids -
Measuring using the expansion
apparatus

P2.1.1.3
Measuring the linear expansion
of solids as a function of temperature

P2.1.1.4
Thermal expansion of solids -
Recording and evaluating with CASSY

Thermal expansion of solids - Measuring using the expansion apparatus (P2.1.1.2)

P2.1.1.2

P2.1.1.2
P2.1.1.3

P2.1.1.3
P2.1.1.4

P2.1.1.4
P2.1.1.1

P2.1.1.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

301 21 Stand base MF 2 2 524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1

301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 2 2 666 615 Universal bosshead 1
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 302 68 Stand ring with stem, 13 cm diam. 1
301 25 Support block 2 666 685 Wire gauze, 160 mm x 160 mm 1
301 09 Bosshead S 2 2 666 711 Butane gas burner 1
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 1 666 712ET3 Butane cartridge, 190 g, set of 3 1
664 248 Erlenmeyer flask, Boro 3.3, 50 ml, narrow neck 1 1 additionally required:
1
667 2545 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 17...23 mm diam. 1 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

665 226 Connector, straight, 6 ... 8 mm diam. 1 1

The relationship between the length s and the temperature J of a liquid
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 1 2 1
is approximately linear:
664 183 Petri dishes 1
s = s0 ⋅ (1 + α ⋅ ϑ)
314 04ET5 Support clip, for plugging in, set of 5 1
s0 : length at 0 °C, ϑ: temperature in °C
340 82 Double scale 1
381 331 Pointer for linear expansion 1 The linear expansion coefficient a is determined by the material of the
solid body. We can conduct measurements on this topic using e.g. thin
381 332 Aluminium tube, 44 cm x 8 mm diam. 1 1
tubes through which hot water or steam flows.
381 333 Iron tube, 44 cm x 8 mm diam. 1 1
In the experiment P2.1.1.1, steam is channeled through different tube
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1
samples. The thermal expansion is measured in a simple arrangement, and
303 22 Alcohol burner, metal 1 the dependency on the material is demonstrated.
381 341 Longitudinal expansion apparatus D 1 1 The experiment P2.1.1.2 measures the increase in length of various tube
361 152 Dial gauge with holder 1 1 samples between room temperature and steam temperature using the
382 34 Thermometer, -10...+110 °C/0.2 K 1 1 1 expansion apparatus. The effective length s0 of each tube can be defined
303 28 Steam generator 1 as 200, 400 or 600 mm.
664 185 Petri dishes 1 In the experiment P2.1.1.3, a circulation thermostat is used to heat the
666 7681 Circulation thermostat SC 100-S5P 1
water, which flows through various tube samples. The expansion appara-
tus measures the change in the lengths of the tubes as a function of the
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 2
temperature J.
686 53ET5 Round tins with cap, set of 5 1
CASSY ®

In the experiment P2.1.1.4, steam is channeled through different tube

524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 samples. The thermal expansion is measured with a rotary motion sensor.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1

65
 HEAT
THERMAL EXPANSION

P2.1.2
THERMAL EXPANSION
OF LIQUIDS

P2.1.2.1
Determining the volumetric
expansion coefficient of liquids

Determining the volumetric expansion coefficient of liquids (P2.1.2.1_c)

In general, liquids expands more than solids when heated. The rela-
tionship between the Volume V and the temperature J of a liquid is
P2.1.2.1 (c)

approximately linear here:

Cat. No. Description V = V0 ⋅ (1 + γ ⋅ ϑ)
V0 : volume at 0 °C, ϑ: temperature in °C
382 15 Dilatometer 1
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 When determining the volumetric expansion coefficient g, it must be
remembered that the vessel in which the liquid is heated also expands.
666 767 Hotplate, 1500 W, 180 mm diam. 1
In the experiment P2.1.2.1, the volumetric expansion coefficients of
664 104 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, squat 1
water and methanol are determined using a volume dilatometer made
315 05 Single-pan suspension balance 311 1 of glass. An attached riser tube with a known cross-section is used to
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 measure the change in volume. i.e. the change in volume is determined
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 from the rise height of the liquid.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 2
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1
CASSY ®

66 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
THERMAL EXPANSION

P2.1.3
THERMAL ANOMALY
OF WATER

P2.1.3.1
Investigating the density
maximum of water

Investigating the density maximum of water (P2.1.3.1_c)

When heated from a starting temperature of 0 °C, water demonstrates

a critical anomaly: it has a negative volumetric expansion coefficient
P2.1.3.1 (c)

up to 4 °C, i.e. it contracts when heated. After reaching zero at 4 °C,

Cat. No. Description the volumetric expansion coefficient takes on a positive value. As the
density corresponds to the reciprocal of the volume of a quantity of
667 505 Anomaly of water apparatus 1 matter, water has a density maximum at 4 °C.
666 8451 Magnetic stirrer 1 The experiment P2.1.3.1 verifies the density maximum of water by
664 195 Glass tanks 1 measuring the expansion in a vessel with riser tube. Starting at room
temperature, the complete setup is cooled in a constantly stirred water
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm diam. 1
bath to about 1 °C, or alternatively allowed to gradually reach the am-
307 66 Tubing (rubber) 1 bient temperature after cooling in an ice chest or refrigerator. The rise
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 height h is measured as a function of the temperature J. As the change
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 in volume is very slight in relation to the total volume V0, we obtain the
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 density
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1  A 
ρ ( ϑ) = ρ ( 0°C ) ⋅  1 − ⋅ h ( ϑ) 
608 100 Stand ring with clamp, 70 mm diam. 1  V0 
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 A: cross-section of riser tube
CASSY ®

Relative density of water as a function of the temperature

67
 HEAT
HEAT TRANSFER

P2.2.1
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

P2.2.1.1
Determining the thermal conductivity
of building materials using the single-
plate method

P2.2.1.2
Determining the thermal conductivity
of building materials using the heat
flux plate principle

P2.2.1.3
Damping temperature fluctuations
using multiple-layered walls

Determining the thermal conductivity of building materials using the single-plate method (P2.2.1.1)

In the equilibrium state, the heat flow through a plate with the
cross-section area A and the thickness d depends on the temperature
difference J2 - J1 between the front and rear sides and on the thermal
P2.2.1.2
P2.2.1.3
P2.2.1.1

Cat. No. Description conductivity l of the plate material:

∆Q ϑ − ϑ1
= λ⋅A⋅ 2
389 29 Calorimetric chamber 1 1 1 ∆t d
389 30 Building materials for calorimetric chamber 1 1 1 The object of the experiments P2.2.1.1 und P2.2.1.2 is to determine the
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 1 1 thermal conductivity of building materials. In these experiments, sheets
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 of building materials are placed in the heating chamber and their front
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1 surfaces are heated. The temperatures J1 and J2 are measured using
measuring sensors. The heat flow is determined either from the elec-
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 2 2
trical power of the hot plate or by measuring the temperature using a
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 2 3 3 reference material with known thermal conductivity l0 which is pressed
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 1 against the sheet of the respective building material from behind.
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 4 2 2 The experiment P2.2.1.3 demonstrates the damping of temperature
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 variations by means of two-layer walls. The temperature changes
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1
between day and night are simulated by repeatedly switching a lamp
directed at the outside surface of the wall on and off. This produces a
300 11 Saddle base 1
temperature “wave” which penetrates the wall; the wall in turn damps
additionally required: the amplitude of this wave. This experiment measures the temperatures
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) JA on the outer surface, JZ between the two layers and JI on the inside
as a function of time.
CASSY ®

Temperature variations in multi-layer walls (P2.2.1.3)

68 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
HEAT TRANSFER

P2.2.2
SOLAR COLLECTOR

P2.2.2.1
Determining the efficiency of a
solar collector as a function of the
throughput volume of water

P2.2.2.2
Determining the efficiency of a
solar collector as a function of
the heat insulation

Determining the efficiency of a solar collector as a function of the throughput volume of water (P2.2.2.1_b)

A solar collector absorbs radiant energy to heat the water flowing

P2.2.2.1-2 (b)

through it. When the collector is warmer than its surroundings, it

loses heat to its surroundings through radiation, convection and heat
conductivity. These losses reduce the efficiency
Cat. No. Description ∆Q
η=
∆E
389 50 Solar collector 1
i. e. the ratio of the emitted heat quantity DQ to the absorbed radiant
579 220 Water pump, STE 2/50 1
energy DE.
450 72 Floodlight lamp, 1000 W, with light shades 1
In the experiments P2.2.2.1 and P2.2.2.2, the heat quantity DQ emitted
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 per unit of time is determined from the increase in the temperature
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 of the water flowing through the apparatus, and the radiant energy
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 absorbed per unit of time is estimated on the basis of the power of the
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 2 lamp and its distance from the absorber. The throughput volume of the
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
water and the heat insulation of the solar collector are varied in the
course of the experiment.
313 17 Hand-held stop-watch II, mechanical 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
590 06 Plastic beaker 1
604 431 Silicone tubing, 5 mm diam., 1 m 1
604 432 Silicone tubing, 6 mm diam., 1 m 1
604 434 Silicone tubing, 8 mm diam., 1 m 1
665 226 Connector, straight, 6 ... 8 mm diam. 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
CASSY ®

69
HEAT
HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY

P2.3.1
MIXING TEMPERATURES

P2.3.1.1
Mixing temperature of water

Mixing temperature of water (P2.3.1.1_a)

When cold water with the temperature J1 is mixed with warm or hot
water having the temperature J2, an exchange of heat takes place until
P2.3.1.1 (a)

all the water reaches the same temperature. If no heat is lost to the sur-
Cat. No. Description roundings, we can formulate the following for the mixing temperature:
m1 m2
ϑm = ϑ1 + ϑ2
384 161 Cover for Dewar vessel 1 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
386 48 Dewar vessel calorimeter, 250 ml 1 m1, m2 : mass of cold and warm water respectively
382 34 Thermometer, -10...+110 °C/0.2 K 1 Thus the mixing temperature Jm is equivalent to a weighted mean value
315 23 Single-pan suspension balance 610 Tara 1 of the two temperatures J1 and J2.
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 The use of the Dewar flask in the experiment P2.3.1.1 essentially
666 767 Hotplate, 1500 W, 180 mm diam. 1 prevents the loss of heat to the surroundings. This vessel has a double
wall; the intermediate space is evacuated and the interior surface is
664 104 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, squat 2
mirrored. The water is stirred thoroughly to ensure a complete exchange
of heat. This experiment measures the mixing temperature Jm for diffe-
rent values for J1, J2, m1 and m2.

70 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY

P2.3.2
HEAT CAPACITIES

P2.3.2.1
Determining the specific heat
of solids

Determining the specific heat of solids (P2.3.2.1_c)

When a body is heated or cooled, the absorbed heat capacity DQ is

proportional to the change in temperature DJ and to the mass m of
P2.3.2.1 (c)

the body:
Cat. No. Description ∆Q = c ⋅ m ⋅ ∆ϑ
The proportionality factor c, the specific heat capacity of the body, is a
384 161 Cover for Dewar vessel 1 quantity which depends on the respective material.
386 48 Dewar vessel calorimeter, 250 ml 1 To determine the specific heat capacity in experiment P2.3.2.1,
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 various materials in particle form are weighed, heated in steam to the
384 34 Heating apparatus 1 temperature J1 and poured into a weighed-out quantity of water with
384 35 Copper shot, 200 g 1 the temperature J2. After careful stirring, heat exchange ensures that
the particles and the water have the same temperature Jm. The heat
384 36 Glass shot, 100 g 1
quantity released by the particles:
315 76 Lead shot, 200 g 1
∆Q1 = c1 ⋅ m1 ⋅ ( ϑ1 ⋅ ϑm )
315 23 Single-pan suspension balance 610 Tara 1
m1: mass of particles
303 28 Steam generator 1
c1: specific heat cap
pacity of particles
664 104 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, squat 1
is equal to the quantity absorbed by the water
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1
∆Q2 = c2 ⋅ m2 ⋅ ( ϑm ⋅ ϑ2 )
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
m2 : mass of water
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 The specific heat capacity of water c 2 is assumed as a given. The tem-
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 perature J1 corresponds to the temperature of the steam. Therefore,
the specific heat quantity c1 can be calculated from the measurement
667 614 Heat protective gloves 1
quantities J2, Jm, m1 and m2.
CASSY ®

71
 HEAT
HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY

P2.3.3
CONVERTING MECHANICAL
ENERGY INTO HEAT

P2.3.3.1
Converting mechanical energy into
heat energy - Recording and
evaluating measured values manually

P2.3.3.2
Converting mechanical energy into
heat energy - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

Converting mechanical energy into heat energy - Recording and evaluating measured values manually (P2.3.3.1_a)

Energy is a fundamental quantity of physics. This is because the various

P2.3.3.1 (a)

forms of energy can be converted from one to another and are thus
P2.3.3.2

equivalent to each other, and because the total energy is conserved in

Cat. No. Description the case of conversion in a closed system.
These experiments P2.3.3.1 und P2.3.3.2 show the equivalence of
388 00 Equivalent of heat, basic apparatus 1 1 mechanical and heat energy. A hand crank is used to turn various
388 01 Water calorimeter 1 1 calorimeter vessels on their own axes, and friction on a nylon belt
388 02 Copper-block calorimeter 1 1 causes them to become warmer. The friction force is equivalent to the
weight G of a suspended weight. For n turns of the calorimeter, the
388 03 Aluminium-block calorimeter 1 1
mechanical work is thus
388 04 Aluminium-block calorimeter, large 1 1
Wn = G ⋅ n ⋅ π ⋅ d
388 05 Thermometer for calorimeters, +15...35 °C/0.2 K 1
d : diameter of calorimeter
388 24 Weight, 5 kg 1 1
This results in an increase in the temperature of the calorimeter which
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 corresponds to the specific heat capacity
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 Qn = m ⋅ c ⋅ ( ϑn − ϑ0 )
524 074 Timer S 1 c: specific heat capacity, m: mass,
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 ϑn : tempeerature after n turns
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1
To confirm the relationship
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1
Qn = Wn
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1
the two quantities are plotted together in a diagram. In the experiment
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
P2.3.3.1, the measurement is conducted and evaluated manually point
301 11 Clamp with jaw clamp 1 by point. The experiment P2.3.3.2 takes advantage of the computer-
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 assisted measuring system CASSY.
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
301 07 Simple bench clamp 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

72 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY

P2.3.4
CONVERTING ELECTRICAL
ENERGY INTO HEAT

P2.3.4.1
Converting electrical energy into heat
energy - Measuring with a voltmeter and
an ammeter

P2.3.4.2
Converting electrical energy into heat
energy - Measuring with the joule and
wattmeter

P2.3.4.3
Converting electrical energy into heat
energy - Measuring with CASSY

P2.3.4.4
Converting electrical energy into heat
energy - Measuring with Mobile-CASSY

Converting electrical energy into heat energy - Measuring with the joule and wattmeter (P2.3.4.2_a)

Just like mechanical energy, electrical energy can also be converted into
P2.3.4.2 (a)
P2.3.4.1 (c)

heat. We can use e.g. a calorimeter vessel with a wire winding to which
P2.3.4.3
P2.3.4.4

a voltage is connected to demonstrate this fact. When a current flows

Cat. No. Description through the wire, Joule heat is generated and heats the calorimeter.
The supplied electrical energy
384 20 Lid for 250 ml Dewar vessel with heater 1 W (t ) = U ⋅ I ⋅ t
386 48 Dewar vessel calorimeter, 250 ml 1
is determined in the experiment P2.3.4.1 by measuring the voltage U, the
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1
current I and the time t, in the experiment P2.3.4.4 by measuring with the
524 0431 30-A-Box 1 Mobile-CASSY and in the experiment P2.3.4.2 measured directly using
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 the Joule and Wattmeter. This results in a change in the temperature of
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 the calorimeter which corresponds to the specific heat capacity
665 755 Measuring cylinder, 250 ml, with plastic base 1 Q (t ) = m ⋅ c ⋅ ( ϑ (t ) − ϑ (0))
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 1 1 1 c: specific heat capacity
501 28 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, black 1 m: mass
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 1 1 1 ϑ(t ): temperature at time t
388 02 Copper-block calorimeter 1 1 1 To confirm the equivalence
388 03 Aluminium-block calorimeter 1 1 1 Q (t ) = W (t )
388 04 Aluminium-block calorimeter, large 1 1 1 the two quantities are plotted together in a diagram.
388 05 Thermometer for calorimeters, +15...35 °C/0.2 K 1 In the experiment P2.3.4.3, the equivalence of electrical energy
388 06 Connecting leads, pair 1 1 1 Eel and thermal energy E th is established experimentally. The sup-
531 831 Joule and wattmeter 1 plied electrical energy Eel is converted into heat E th in the heating coil
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 (or heating spiral). This leads to a temperature rise in the calori-
meter (or water, in which the heating spiral is immersed). As the current
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
I and the temperature J are measured simultaneously as functions of
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 the time t, the constant voltage U being known, the two energy forms
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 can be registered quantitatively in units of wattsecond (Ws) and Joule (J)
additionally required: so that their numerical equivalence can be demonstrated experimentally:
1 Eel = E th.
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

73
 HEAT
PHASE TRANSITIONS

P2.4.1
LATENT HEAT AND
VAPORIZATION HEAT

P2.4.1.1
Determining the specific vaporization
heat of water

P2.4.1.2
Determining the specific latent
heat of ice

Determining the specific vaporization heat of water (P2.4.1.1_c)

When a substance is heated at a constant pressure, its temperature

P2.4.1.2 (c)

generally increases. When that substance undergoes a phase transition,

P2.4.1.1 (c)

however, the temperature does not increase even when more heat is
Cat. No. Description added, as the heat is required for the phase transition. As soon as the
phase transition is complete, the temperature once more increases with
386 48 Dewar vessel calorimeter, 250 ml 1 1 the additional heat supplied. Thus, for example, the specific evaporation
384 17 Water separator 1 heat Q V per unit of mass is required for evaporating water, and the
specific melting heat Q S per unit of mass is required for melting ice.
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1
To determine the specific evaporation heat Q V of water, pure steam is
315 23 Single-pan suspension balance 610 Tara 1 1
fed into the calorimeter in the experiment P2.4.1.1, in which cold water
303 28 Steam generator 1 is heated to the mixing temperature Jm. The steam condenses to water
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 and gives off heat in the process; the condensed water is cooled to the
664 104 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, squat 1 1 mixing temperature. The experiment measures the starting temperature
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 J2 and the mass m2 of the cold water, the mixing temperature Jm and
the total mass
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
m = m1 + m2
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 2 By comparing the amount of heat given off and absorbed, we can derive
the equation
303 25 Immersion heater 1
m1 ⋅ c ⋅ ( ϑm − ϑ1 ) + m2 ⋅ c ⋅ ( ϑm − ϑ2 )
590 06 Plastic beaker 1 QV =
m1
ϑ1 ≈ 100 °C, c: specific heat capacity of water
In the experiment P2.4.1.2, pure ice is filled in a calorimeter, where it
cools water to the mixing temperature Jm, in order to determine the
specific melting heat. The ice absorbs the melting heat and melts into
water, which warms to the mixing temperature. Analogously to the
experiment P2.4.1.1, we can say for the specific melting heat:
m1 ⋅ c ⋅ ( ϑm − ϑ1 ) + m2 ⋅ c ⋅ ( ϑm − ϑ2 )
QS =
m1
ϑ1 = 0 °C
CASSY ®

74 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
PHASE TRANSITIONS

P2.4.2
MEASURING VAPOR
PRESSURE

P2.4.2.1
Recording the vapor-pressure curve
of water - Pressures up to 1 bar

P2.4.2.2
Recording the vapor-pressure curve
of water - Pressures up to 50 bar

Recording the vapor-pressure curve of water - Pressures up to 50 bar (P2.4.2.2)

The vapour pressure p of a liquid-vapor mixture in a closed system

P2.4.2.2
P2.4.2.1

depends on the temperature T. Above the critical temperature, the vapor

Cat. No. Description pressure is undefined. The substance is gaseous and cannot be liquefied
no matter how high the pressure. The increase in the vapor-pressure
664 315 Double-necked, round-bottom flask 1
curve p(T) is determined by several factors, including the molar eva-
665 305 Adapter 1 poration heat q v of the substance:
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1
dp qv
665 255 Three-way valve, T-shaped, ST nozzles 1 T⋅ = (Clausius-Clapeyron)
dT v1 − v 2
378 031 Hose nozzle, DN 16 KF 1 T : absolute temperature
378 045ET2 Centring rings, DN 16 KF, set of 2 1 v1: molar volume of vapor
378 050 Clamping ring, DN 10/16 KF 1 v 2 : molar volume of liquid
378 701 Leybold high-vacuum grease 1
As we can generally ignore v 2 and q v hardly varies with T, we can derive
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
a good approximation from the law of ideal gases:
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
qv
524 065 Absolute pressure sensor S, 0...1500 hPa 1 ln p = ln p0 −
R ⋅T
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1
In the experiment P2.4.2.1, the vapor pressure curve of water below the
688 808 Stand rod, 10 x 223 mm, with thread M6 1
normal boiling point is recorded with the computer-assisted measuring
524 045 Temperature box, NiCr-Ni/NTC 1 system CASSY. The water is placed in a glass vessel, which was sealed
666 216 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, fast 1 beforehand while the water was boiling at standard pressure. The vapor
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 pressure p is measured as a function of the temperature T when cooling
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 and subsequently heating the system, respectively.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 The high-pressure steam apparatus is used in the experiment P2.4.2.2
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3 for measuring pressures of up to 50 bar. The vapor pressure can be read
302 68 Stand ring with stem, 13 cm diam. 1 directly from the manometer of this device. A thermometer supplies
the corresponding temperature. The measured values are recorded and
666 685 Wire gauze, 160 mm x 160 mm 1
evaluated manually point by point.
666 711 Butane gas burner 1 1
666 712ET3 Butane cartridge, 190 g, set of 3 1 1
667 614 Heat protective gloves 1 1
385 16 High-pressure steam boiler 1
664 109 Beaker, DURAN, 25 ml, squat 1
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
CASSY ®

667 6131 Safety goggles for wearing over glasses 1

additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) 1

75
 HEAT
PHASE TRANSITIONS

P2.4.3
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE

P2.4.3.1
Observing the phase transition
between the liquid and the gas phase
at the critical point

Observing the phase transition between the liquid and the gas phase at the critical point (P2.4.3.1_c)

The critical point of a real gas is defined by the critical pressure p c,

the critical density rc and the critical temperature TC . Below the criti-
P2.4.3.1 (c)

cal temperature, the substance is gaseous for a sufficiently great molar

Cat. No. Description volume - it is termed a vapor - and is liquid at a sufficiently small molar
volume. Between these extremes, a liquid-vapor mix exists, in which the
371 401 Pressure chamber for demonstrating the critical temperature 1 vapor component increases with the molar volume. As liquid and vapor
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 have different densities, they are separated in a gravitational field. As
the temperature rises, the density of the liquid decreases and that of the
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
vapor increases, until finally at the critical temperature both densities
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 have the value of the critical density. Liquid and vapor mix completely,
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 and the phase boundary disappears. Above the critical temperature, the
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 substance is gaseous, regardless of the molar volume.
460 43 Small optical bench 1 The experiment P2.4.3.1 investigates the behavior of sulfur hexafluoride
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 (SF6) close to the critical temperature. The critical temperature of this
substance is TC = 318.7 K and the critical pressure is p c = 37.6 bar. The
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3
substance is enclosed in a pressure chamber designed so that hot water
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 or steam can flow through the mantle. The dissolution of the phase
666 7681 Circulation thermostat SC 100-S5P 1 boundary between liquid and gas while heating the substance, and its
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2 restoration during cooling, are observed in projection on the wall. As
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 2 the system approaches the critical point, the substance scatters short-
wave light particularly intensively; the entire contents of the pressure
chamber appears red-brown. This critical opalescence is due to the
variations in density, which increase significantly as the system
approaches the critical point.
Note: The dissolution of the phase boundary during heating can be
observed best when the pressure chamber is heated as slowly as
possible using a circulation thermostat.
CASSY ®

Contents of the pressure chamber: below, at the and above the critical temperatur

76 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

P2.5.1
BROWNIAN MOTION
OF MOLECULES

P2.5.1.1
Brownian movement of
smoke particles

Brownian movement of smoke particles (P2.5.1.1)

A particle which is suspended in a gas constantly executes a motion

which changes in its speed and in all directions. J. Perrin first explained
this molecular motion, discovered by R. Brown, which is caused by
P2.5.1.1

Cat. No. Description bombardment of the particles with the gas molecules. The smaller the
particle is, the more noticeably it moves. The motion consists of a trans-
MIK 738865 Microscope EduLED, mono 2 1 lational component and a rotation, which also constantly changes.
372 51 Smoke chamber 1 In the experiment P2.5.1.1, the motion of smoke particles in the air is
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 observed using a microscope.
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1

Schematic diagram of Brownian motion of molecules

77
 HEAT
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

P2.5.2
GAS LAWS

P2.5.2.1
Pressure-dependency of the volume
of a gas at a constant temperature
(Boyle-Mariotte’s law)

P2.5.2.2
Temperature-dependency of the
volume of a gas at a constant
pressure (Gay-Lussac’s law)

P2.5.2.3
Temperature-dependency of the
pressure of a gas at a constant volume
(Amontons’ law)

Temperature-dependency of the volume of a gas at a constant pressure (Gay-Lussac’s law) (P2.5.2.2_c)

The gas thermometer consists of a glass tube closed at the bottom end,
P2.5.2.2-3 (c)

in which a mercury stopper seals the captured air at the top. The volume
P2.5.2.1 (a)
P2.5.2.1 (c)

of the air column is determined from its height and the cross-section of
the glass tube. When the pressure at the open end is altered using a hand
Cat. No. Description pump, this changes the pressure on the sealed side correspondingly. The
temperature of the entire gas thermometer can be varied using a water
382 00 Gas thermometer 1 1 1 bath.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 1 In the experiment P2.5.2.1, the air column is maintained at a constant
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 1 room temperature T. At an external pressure p 0, it has a volume of V0
301 11 Clamp with jaw clamp 2 2 2 bounded by the mercury stopper. The pressure p in the air column is re-
duced by evacuating air at the open end, and the increased volume V of
375 58 Hand vacuum pump 1 1 1
the air column is determined for different pressure values p. The evaluation
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 confirms the relationship
524 064 Pressure sensor S, ±2000 hPa 1 1 p ⋅ V = p0 ⋅ V0 for T = const. (Boyle-Mariotte's law)
665 223ET10 Connector, T-shaped, 8 mm diam., 10 pieces 1 1
In the experiment P2.5.2.2, the gas thermometer is placed in a water bath
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1* 1* of a specific temperature which is allowed to gradually cool. The open
666 767 Hotplate, 1500 W, 180 mm diam. 1 end is subject to the ambient air pressure, so that the pressure in the air
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 column is constant. This experiment measures the volume V of the air
column as a function of the temperature T of the water bath. The evalua-
* additionally recommended
tion confirms the relationship
V ∝ T for p = const. (Gay-Lussac's law)
In the experiment P2.5.2.3, the pressure p in the air column is constant-
ly reduced by evacuating the air at the open end so that the volume V
of the air column also remains constant as the temperature drops. This
experiment measures the pressure p of the air column as a function of the
temperature T of the water bath. The evaluation confirms the relationship
p ∝ T for V = const. (Amontons' law)
CASSY ®

Pressure-dependency of the volume at a constant temperature (P2.5.2.1)

78 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

P2.5.3
SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES

P2.5.3.1
Determining the adiabatic
exponent cp/cV of air after Rüchardt

P2.5.3.2
Determining the adiabatic
exponent cp/cV of various gases
using the gas elastic resonance
apparatus

Determining the adiabatic exponent c p/c V of air after Rüchardt (P2.5.3.1)

In the case of adiabatic changes in state, the pressure p and the volume V
of a gas demonstrate the relationship
P2.5.3.2
P2.5.3.1

p ⋅ V κ = const.
Cat. No. Description
whereby the adiabatic exponent is definid as
cp
371 051 Oscillation tube with Mariotte‘s bottle 1 κ=
cV
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1
317 19 Aneroid barometer 1 i.e. the ratio of the specific heat capacities cp and cV of the respective gas.
590 06 Plastic beaker 1 The experiment P2.5.3.1 determines the adiabatic exponent of air from
the oscillation period of a ball which caps and seals a gas volume in a
675 3100 Vaseline, 50 g 1
glass tube, whereby the oscillation of the ball around the equilibrium
371 07 Gas elastic resonance apparatus 1 position causes adiabatic changes in the state of the gas. In the equi-
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 librium position, the force of gravity and the opposing force resulting
522 561 Function generator P 1 from the pressure of the enclosed gas are equal. A deflection from the
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
equilibrium position by Dx causes the pressure to change by
A ⋅ ∆x
660 980 Fine regulating valve for minican gas canisters 1 ∆p = − κ ⋅ p ⋅
V
660 985 Minican pressurised gas canister, neon 1 A: cross-section of riser tube
660 999 Minican pressurised gas canister, carbon dioxide 1 which returns the ball to the equilibrium position. The ball thus oscillates
665 255 Three-way valve, T-shaped, ST nozzles 1 with the frequency
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 1 κ ⋅ p ⋅ A2
f0 = ⋅
604 481 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 4 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 2π m ⋅V
604 510 Tubing connector, 4...15 mm 1 around its equilibrium position.
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1 In the experiment P2.5.3.2, the adiabatic exponent is determined using
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 the gas elastic resonance apparatus. Here, the air column is sealed by a
magnetic piston which is excited to forced oscillations by means of an
alternating electromagnetic field. The aim of the experiment is to find the
characteristic frequency f 0 of the system, i.e. the frequency at which the
piston oscillates with maximum amplitude. Other gases, such as carbon
dioxide and nitrogen, can alternatively be used in this experiment.

79
 HEAT
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

P2.5.4
REAL GASES

P2.5.4.1
Joule-Thomson effect

Joule-Thomson effect (P2.5.4.1)

The Joule-Thomson effect occurs when a real gas or gas mixture under-
goes a change in temperature by reduction of the pressure p. The strength
P2.5.4.1

and direction of the change in temperature is described by the Joule-

Cat. No. Description Thomson coefficient µ:
 ∂T 
371 56 Joule-Thomson apparatus 1 µ JT =  
 ∂p H
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 H : enthalpy = const.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
In the experiment P2.5.4.1 the flowing gas is throttled through a mem-
524 045 Temperature box, NiCr-Ni/NTC 1 brane and expanded behind it. The volume occupied by the gas can in-
666 216 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, fast 2 crease behind the obstacle, so the average particle distance is increased.
524 064 Pressure sensor S, ±2000 hPa 1 This causes a change in the temperature of the gas. The pressure and
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1
the temperature difference before and after the membrane is measured
in this experiment.
667 184 Tubing clamps, 10...16 mm, set of 10 1
661 017 Pressure reducing valve for carbon dioxide, helium, argon 1
661 018 Pressure reducing valve for nitrogen 1
664 569 Open jaw spanner for gas canisters 1
661 020 Trolley for two gas canisters 1
661 012 Compressed gas bottle, carbon dioxide 1
661 013 Compressed gas bottle, hydrogen 1
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Temperature change against pressure

80 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

P2.6.1
HOT-AIR ENGINE:
QUALITATIVE EXPERIMENTS

P2.6.1.1
Operating a hot-air engine as
a thermal engine

P2.6.1.5
Operating the hot-air engine P
as a thermal engine

Operating a hot-air engine as a thermal engine (P2.6.1.1)

The hot-air engine (invented by R. Stirling, 1816) is the oldest ther-

mal engine, along with the steam engine. In greatly simplified terms,
its thermodynamic cycle consists of an isothermic compression at low
P2.6.1.5
P2.6.1.1

Cat. No. Description temperature, an isochoric application of heat, an isothermic expansion

at high temperature and an isochoric emission of heat. The displace-
388 182 Hot-air engine 1 ment piston and the working piston are connected to a crankshaft via
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 tie rods, whereby the displacement piston leads the working piston by
90°. When the working piston is at top dead center (a), the displace-
562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1
ment piston is moving downwards, displacing the air into the electrically
562 21 Mains coil, 500 turns 1 heated zone of the cylinder. Here, the air is heated, expands and forces
562 18 Coil, 50 turns, extra-low voltage 1 the working piston downward (b). The mechanical work is transferred
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 to the flywheel. When the working piston is at bottom dead center (c),
388 181 Immersion pump 1* the displacement piston is moving upwards, displacing the air into the
water-cooled zone of the cylinder. The air cools and is compressed by
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1*
the working cylinder (d). The flywheel delivers the mechanical work
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2* required to execute this process.
604 313 Wide-mouthed can, 10 l 1* The experiment P2.6.1.1 qualitatively investigates the operation of the
388 176 Hot-air engine P 1 hot-air engine as a thermal engine. Mechanical power is derived from
303 22 Alcohol burner, metal 1 the engine by braking at the brake hub. The voltage of the heating
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 filament is varied in order to demonstrate the relationship between
the thermal power supplied and the mechanical power removed from
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
the system. The no-load speed of the motor for each case is used as a
* additionally recommended measure of the mechanical power produced in the system.
The experiment P2.6.1.5 qualitatively investigates the operation of the
hot-air engine P as a thermal engine. The hot-air engine P is a trans-
parent model to show the basics of energy transformation. The hot-
air engine P is driven by an alcohol burner and transforms via a small
generator the mechanical energy into a voltage which can be measured.
CASSY ®

Diagram illustrating the principle of operation of a hot-air engine as a heat engine

81
 HEAT
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

P2.6.1
HOT-AIR ENGINE:
QUALITATIVE EXPERIMENTS

P2.6.1.3
Operating the hot-air engine
as a heat pump and a refrigerator

P2.6.1.6
Operating the hot-air engine P
as a heat pump and a refrigerator

Operating the hot-air engine P as a heat pump and a refrigerator (P2.6.1.6)

Depending on the direction of rotation of the crankshaft, the hot-air

engine operates as either a heat pump or a refrigerating machine
when its flywheel is externally driven. When the displacement piston is
P2.6.1.3
P2.6.1.6

Cat. No. Description moving upwards while the working piston is at bottom dead center, it
displaces the air in the top part of the cylinder. The air is then com-
388 182 Hot-air engine 1 pressed by the working piston and transfers its heat to the cylinder
388 19 Thermometer for hot-air engine 1 head, i.e. the hot-air motor operates as a heat pump. When run in the
opposite direction, the working piston causes the air to expand when
347 35 Experiment motor 1
it is in the top part of the cylinder, so that the air draws heat from the
347 36 Control unit for experiment motor 1 cylinder head; in this case the hot-air engine operates as a refrigerating
388 181 Immersion pump 1* machine.
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1* 1 The experiment P2.6.1.3 qualitatively investigates the operation of the
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2* hot-air engine as a heat pump and a refrigerating machine. In order to
604 313 Wide-mouthed can, 10 l 1* demonstrate the relationship between the externally supplied mechani-
cal power and the heating or refrigerating power, respectively, the speed
388 176 Hot-air engine P 1
of the electric motor is varied and the change in temperature observed.
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
In the experiment P2.6.1.6 the operation of the hot-air engine P as a
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 heat pump and a refrigerating machine is shown. By variing the speed
666 1261 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, fast, type K 2 of the electric motor, i.e. the mechanical power supplied to the hot-air
300 11 Saddle base 1 engine P, the impact on heating or refrigerating power is observed.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1
340 89ET5 Coupling plugs, 4 mm, set of 5 1
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1

* additionally recommended
CASSY ®

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 HEAT
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

P2.6.2
HOT-AIR ENGINE:
QUANTITATIVE EXPERIMENTS

P2.6.2.1
Frictional losses in the hot-air
engine (calorific determination)

P2.6.2.2
Determining the efficiency of
the hot-air engine as a heat engine

P2.6.2.3
Determining the efficiency of
the hot-air engine as a refrigerator

Frictional losses in the hot-air engine (calorific determination) (P2.6.2.1)

P2.6.2.2

P2.6.2.2
P2.6.2.3

P2.6.2.3
P2.6.2.1

P2.6.2.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

388 182 Hot-air engine 1 1 1 501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 3 3
388 221 Accessories for hot air engine for power measurement 1 1 1 521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1
347 35 Experiment motor 1 1
* additionally recommended
347 36 Control unit for experiment motor 1 1
When the hot-air engine is operated as a heat engine, each engine cycle
575 471 Counter S 1 1 1
withdraws the amount of heat Q1 from reservoir 1, generates the mecha-
337 46 Fork-type light barrier 1 1 1 nical work W and transfers the difference Q2 = Q1 - W to reservoir 2. The
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 1 1 hot-air engine can also be made to function as a refrigerating machine
313 17 Hand-held stop-watch II, mechanical 1 1 1 while operated in the same rotational direction by externally applying the
382 35 Thermometer, -10...+50 °C/0.1 K 1 1 1 mechanical work W. In both cases, the work WF converted into heat in each
cycle through the friction of the piston in the cylinder must be taken into
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 2 1
consideration.
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1 1
In order to determine the work of friction WF in the experiment P2.6.2.1, the
590 06 Plastic beaker 1 1 1
temperature increase DTF in the cooling water is measured while the hot-air
388 181 Immersion pump 1* 1* 1* engine is driven using an electric motor and the cylinder head is open.
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1* 1* 1* The experiment P2.6.2.2 determines the efficiency
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2* 2* 2* W
η=
604 313 Wide-mouthed can, 10 l 1* 1* 1* W + Q2
562 11 U-core with yoke 1
of the hot-air engine as a heat engine. The mechanical work W exerted
562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1 on the axle in each cycle can be calculated using the external torque N
562 21 Mains coil, 500 turns 1 of a dynamometrical brake which brakes the hot-air engine to a speed f.
562 18 Coil, 50 turns, extra-low voltage 1 The amount of heat Q2 given off corresponds to a temperature increase DT
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 in the cooling water.
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 1 The experiment P2.6.2.3 determines the efficiency
314 141 Precision dynamometer, 1 N 1 Q2
η=
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 Q1 − Q2
300 51 Stand rod, right-angled 1 of the hot-air engine as a refrigerating machine. Here, the hot-air
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 engine with closed cylinder head is driven using an electric motor and Q1
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 1 is determined as the electrical heating energy required to maintain the
cylinder head at the ambient temperature.
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1

83
 HEAT
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

P2.6.2
HOT-AIR ENGINE:
QUANTITATIVE EXPERIMENTS

P2.6.2.4
pV diagram of the hot-air engine
as a heat engine - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

pV diagram of the hot-air engine as a heat engine - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P2.6.2.4)

Thermodynamic cycles are often described as a closed curve in a pV

diagram (p: pressure, V: volume). The work added to or withdrawn from
P2.6.2.4

the system (depending on the direction of rotation) corresponds to the

Cat. No. Description area enclosed by the curve.
In the experiment P2.6.2.4, the pV diagram of the hot air engine as a
388 182 Hot-air engine 1 heat engine is recorded using the computer-assisted measured value
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 recording system CASSY. The pressure sensor measures the pressure
562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1 p in the cylinder and a displacement sensor measures the position s,
from which the volume is calculated, as a function of the time t. The
562 21 Mains coil, 500 turns 1
measured values are displayed on the screen directly in a pV diagram.
562 18 Coil, 50 turns, extra-low voltage 1 In the further evaluation, the mechanical work performed as piston
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 friction per cycle
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 W = − ∫ p ⋅ dV
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1
and from this the mechanical power
524 064 Pressure sensor S, ±2000 hPa 1
P =W ⋅f
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1
f : no-load speed
352 08ET2 Helical spring, 25 N/m, set of 2 1
are calculated and plotted in a graph as a function of the no-load speed.
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2
388 181 Immersion pump 1*
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1*
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2*
604 313 Wide-mouthed can, 10 l 1*
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

* additionally recommended
CASSY ®

pV diagram of the hot air engine

84 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 HEAT
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

P2.6.3
HEAT PUMP

P2.6.3.1
Determining the efficiency of
the heat pump as a function of
the temperature differential

P2.6.3.2
Investigating the function of the
expansion valve of the heat pump

P2.6.3.3
Analyzing the cyclical process of
the heat pump with the
Mollier diagram

Determining the efficiency of the heat pump as a function of the temperature differential (P2.6.3.1_a)

The heat pump extracts heat from a reservoir with the temperature T1
P2.6.3.2 (a)
P2.6.3.3 (a)
P2.6.3.1 (a)

through vaporization of a coolant and transfers heat to a reservoir with

the temperature T2 through condensation of the coolant. In the process,
Cat. No. Description compression in the compressor (a-b) greatly heats the gaseous coolant.
It condenses in the liquefier (c-d) and gives up the released condensation
389 521 Heat pump 1 1 1 heat DQ2 to the reservoir T2 . The liquefied coolant is filtered and fed to
531 831 Joule and wattmeter 1 1 the expansion valve (e-f) free of bubbles. This regulates the supply of
coolant to the vaporizer (g-h). In the vaporizer, the coolant once again
666 209 Digital thermometer with 4 inputs 1 1 1
becomes a gas, withdrawing the necessary evaporation heat DQ1 from
666 193 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm 2 2 3 the reservoir T1.
313 12 Digital stop-watch 1 1 1 The aim of the experiment P2.6.3.1 is to determine the efficiency
729 769 RS-232 cable, 9-pole 1* 1* 1* ∆Q2
ε=
additionally required: PC with Windows ∆W
1 1 1
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
of the heat pump as a function of the temperature differential
* additionally recommended DT =T2 - T1. The heat quantity DQ2 released is determined from the
heating of water reservoir T2, while the applied electrical energy DW is
measured using the joule and wattmeter.
In the experiment P2.6.3.2, the temperatures Tf and Th are recorded at
the outputs of the expansion valve and the vaporizer. If the difference
between these two temperatures falls below a specific limit value, the
expansion valve chokes off the supply of coolant to the vaporizer. This
ensures that the coolant in the vaporizer is always vaporized completely
In the experiment P2.6.3.3, a Mollier diagram, in which the pressure p is
graphed as a function of the specific enthalpy h of the coolant, is used
to trace the energy transformations of the heat pump. The pressures p1
and p 2 in the vaporizer and liquefier, as well as the temperatures Ta, Tb,
Te and Tf of the coolant are used to determine the corresponding ent-
halpy values ha, h b, he and h f. This experiment also measures the heat
quantities DQ2 and DQ1 released and absorbed per unit of time. This in
turn is used to determine the amount of coolant Dm circulated per unit
of time.

Heat pump pT (389 521) with schematic diagram of all functional components

85
P2.2.2.1
Determining the efficiency of a solar collector
as a function of the throughput volume of water
P3 ELECTRICITY

P3.1 ELECTROSTATICS 89
P3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY 104
P3.3 MAGNETOSTATICS 111
P3.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 115
P3.5 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 122
P3.6 DC AND AC CIRCUITS 126
P3.7 ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 134
P3.8 FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM 140
P3.9 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN GASES 145

87
P3 ELECTRICITY

P3.1 ELECTROSTATICS P3.5 ELECTRICAL MACHINES

P3.1.1 Basic experiments on electrostatics 89-90 P3.5.1 Basic experiments on electrical machines 122
P3.1.2 Coulomb’s law 91-93 P3.5.2 Electric generators 123
P3.1.3 Field lines and equipotential lines 94-96 P3.5.3 Electric motors 124
P3.1.4 Effects of force in an electric field 97-98 P3.5.4 Three-phase machines 125
P3.1.5 Charge distributions on electrical conductors 99
P3.1.6 Definition of capacitance 100 P3.6 DC AND AC CIRCUITS
P3.1.7 Plate capacitor 101-103 P3.6.1 Circuit with capacitor 126
P3.6.2 Circuit with coil 127
P3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY P3.6.3 Impedances 128
P3.2.1 Charge transfer with drops of water 104 P3.6.4 Measuring-bridge circuits 129
P3.2.2 Ohm’s law 105 P3.6.5 Measuring AC voltages and AC currents 130
P3.2.3 Kirchhoff’s laws 106-107 P3.6.6 Electrical work and power 131-132
P3.2.4 Circuits with electrical measuring instruments 108 P3.6.7 Electromechanical devices 133
P3.2.5 Conducting electricity by means of electrolysis 109
P3.2.6 Experiments on electrochemistry 110 P3.7 ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS
AND WAVES
P3.3 MAGNETOSTATICS P3.7.1 Electromagnetic oscillator circuit 134
P3.3.1 Basic experiments on magnetostatics 111 P3.7.2 Decimeter-range waves 135
P3.3.2 Magnetic dipole moment 112 P3.7.3 Propagation of decimeter-range waves along lines 136
P3.3.3 Effects of force in a magnetic field 113 P3.7.4 Microwaves 137
P3.3.4 Biot-Savart’s law 114 P3.7.5 Propagation of microwaves along lines 138
P3.7.6 Directional characteristic of dipole radiation 139
P3.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
P3.4.1 Voltage impulse 115 P3.8 FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM
P3.4.2 Induction in a moving conductor loop 116 P3.8.1 Tube diode 140
P3.4.3 Induction by means of a variable magnetic field 117 P3.8.2 Tube triode 141
P3.4.4 Eddy currents 118 P3.8.3 Maltese-cross tube 142
P3.4.5 Transformer 119-120 P3.8.4 Perrin tube 143
P3.4.6 Measuring the earth’s magnetic field 121 P3.8.5 Thomson tube 144

P3.9 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN GASES

P3.9.1 Spontaneous and non-spontaneous discharge 145
P3.9.2 Gas discharge at reduced pressure 146
P3.9.3 Cathode rays and canal rays 147
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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.1
BASIC EXPERIMENTS
ON ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.1.1
Basic electrostatics experiments
with the field electrometer

Basic electrostatics experiments with the field electrometer (P3.1.1.1)

The field electrometer is a classic apparatus for demonstrating

electrical charges. Its metallized pointer, mounted on needle bearings,
is conductively connected to a fixed metal support. When an electrical
P3.1.1.1

Cat. No. Description charge is transferred to the metal support via a pluggable metal plate or
a Faraday’s cup, part of the charge flows onto the pointer. The pointer is
540 10 Field electrometer 1 thus repelled, indicating the charge.
540 11 Electrostatics set 1 1 In the experiment P3.1.1.1, the electrical charges are generated by
540 12 Electrostatics set 2 1 rubbing two materials together (more precisely, by intensive contact
followed by separation), and demonstrated using the field electro-
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
meter. This experiment proves that charges can be transferred between
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 different bodies. Additional topics include charging of an electrometer
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 via induction, screening induction via a metal screen and discharge in
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1 ionized air.
501 20 Connecting lead, 32 A, 25 cm, red 1

89
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.1
BASIC EXPERIMENTS
ON ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.1.2
Basic electrostatics experiments
with the electrometer amplifier

Basic electrostatics experiments with the electrometer amplifier (P3.1.1.2_a)

The electrometer amplifier is an impedance converter with an extre-

P3.1.1.2 (a)

mely high-ohm voltage input (≥ 1013 W) and a low-ohm voltage output

(≤ 1 W). By means of capacitive connection of the input and using
Cat. No. Description a Faraday’s cup to collect charges, this device is ideal for measuring
extremely small charges. Experiments on contact and friction electricity
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 can be conducted with a high degree of reliability.
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 The experiment P3.1.1.2 investigates how charges can be separa-
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1 ted through rubbing two materials together. It shows that one of the
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1 materials carries positive charges, and the other negative charges, and
532 16 Connecting rod 1 that the absolute values of the charges are equal. If we measure the
charges of both materials at the same time, they cancel each other out.
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
The sign of the charge of a material does not depend on the material
541 00 Friction rods, PVC and acrylic 1 alone, but also on the properties of the other material.
541 21 Leather 1
686 63 Polyethylene friction foils, set of 10 1
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 1
590 011 Clamping plug 1
542 51 Induction plate, 8 cm x 4 cm 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1
666 711 Butane gas burner 1*
666 712ET3 Butane cartridge, 190 g, set of 3 1*

* additionally recommended

Measuring charges with the electrometer amplifier

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.2
COULOMB’S LAW

P3.1.2.1
Confirming Coulomb’s law -
Measuring with the torsion
balance, Schürholz design

Confirming Coulomb’s law - Measuring with the torsion balance, Schürholz design (P3.1.2.1)

According to Coulomb‘s law, the force acting between two point-shaped

electrical charges Q1 and Q 2 at a distance r from each other can be de-
P3.1.2.1

termined using the formula

Cat. No. Description
1 Q1 ⋅ Q2
F= ⋅
516 01 Torsion balance, Schürholz design 1 4πε0 r2
516 20 Electrostatics, accessories 1 As
where ε0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −12 (permittivity)
516 04 Scale on stand 1 Vm

521 721 High-voltage power supply, 25 kV 1 The same force acts between two charged fields when the distance r
between the sphere midpoints is significantly greater than the sphere
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 1
diameter, so that the uniform charge distributions of the spheres is un-
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1 disturbed. In other words, the spheres in this geometry may be treated
300 11 Saddle base 1 as points.
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 In the experiment P3.1.2.1, the coulomb force between two charged
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 spheres is measured using the torsion balance. The heart of this extreme-
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1 ly sensitive measuring instrument is a rotating body elastically mounted
between two torsion wires, to which one of the two spheres is attached.
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1
When the second sphere is brought into close proximity with the first, the
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 force acting between the two charged spheres produces torsion of the
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 1 wires; this can be indicated and measured using a light pointer. The ba-
590 011 Clamping plug 1 lance must be calibrated if the force is to be measured in absolute terms.
532 16 Connecting rod 1 The coulomb force is measured as a function of the distance r. For this
purpose, the second sphere, mounted on a stand, is brought close to
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1
the first one. Then, at a fixed distance, the charge of one sphere is re-
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2 duced by half. The measurement can also be carried out using spheres
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 with opposing charges. The charges are measured using an electrometer
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 amplifier connected as a coulomb meter. The aim of the evaluation is to
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1
verify the proportionalities
1
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 F∝ and F ∝ Q1 ⋅ Q2
r2
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1
and to calculate the permittivity e0.
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 2
501 43 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, yellow/green 1

91
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.2
COULOMB’S LAW

P3.1.2.2
Confirming Coulomb’s law -
Measuring with the force sensor

Confirming Coulomb’s law - Measuring with the force sensor (P3.1.2.2_b)

As an alternative to measuring with the torsion balance, the coulomb

P3.1.2.2 (b)

force between two spheres can also be determined using the force
sensor. This device consists of two bending elements connected in
Cat. No. Description parallel with four strain gauges in a bridge configuration; their electrical
resistance changes when a load is applied. The change in resistance is
314 263 Bodies for electric charge, set 1 proportional to the force acting on the instrument.
337 00 Trolley 1 In the experiment P3.1.2.2, the force sensor is connected to a measu-
460 82 Precision metal rail, 50 cm 1 ring instrument, which displays the measured force directly. No calibra-
460 95ET5 Clamp riders, set of 5 1 tion is necessary. The coulomb force is measured as a function of the
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 distance r between the sphere midpoints, the charge Q1 of the first sphere
and the charge Q 2 of the second sphere. The charges of the spheres
524 060 Force sensor S, ±1N 1
are measured using an electrometer amplifier connected as a coulomb
521 721 High-voltage power supply, 25 kV 1 meter. The aim of the evaluation is to verify the proportionalities
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 1 1
F∝ , F ∝ Q1 and F ∝ Q2
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1 r2
300 11 Saddle base 1 and to calculate the permittivity e0.
590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 1
590 011 Clamping plug 1
532 16 Connecting rod 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1
CASSY ®

500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1

501 43 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, yellow/green 1

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.2
COULOMB’S LAW

P3.1.2.3
Confirming Coulomb’s law -
Recording and evaluating with CASSY

Confirming Coulomb’s law - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P3.1.2.3)

P3.1.2.3

P3.1.2.3
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

314 263 Bodies for electric charge, set 1 309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1
337 00 Trolley 1 501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1
460 82 Precision metal rail, 50 cm 1 500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1
460 95ET5 Clamp riders, set of 5 1 500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 501 43 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, yellow/green 2
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 additionally required:
1
524 060 Force sensor S, ±1N 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1
521 721 High-voltage power supply, 25 kV 1 For computer-assisted measuring of the coulomb force between two
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 1 charged spheres, we can also connect the force sensor to the CASSY
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1 interface. A displacement sensor (Rotary motion sensor S) is additionally
required to measure the distance between the charged spheres.
300 11 Saddle base 1
The experiment P3.1.2.3 utilizes the software CASSY Lab to record the
590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1
values and evaluate them. The coulomb force is measured for different
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 charges Q1 and Q 2 as a function of the distance r. The charges of the
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 spheres are measured using an electrometer amplifier connected as a
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1 coulomb meter. The aim of the evaluation is to verify the proportionality
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1 1
F∝
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 r2
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 1 and to calculate of the permittivity e0.
590 011 Clamping plug 1
532 16 Connecting rod 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
CASSY ®

337 04 Driving weights, set 1

301 07 Simple bench clamp 1

93
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.3
FIELD LINES AND
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES

P3.1.3.1
Displaying lines of electric flux

Displaying lines of electric flux (P3.1.3.1)

The space which surrounds an electric charge is in a state which we

describe as an electric field. The electric field is also present even when
it cannot be demonstrated through a force acting on a sample charge.
P3.1.3.1

Cat. No. Description A field is best described in terms of lines of electric flux, which follow
the direction of electric field strength. The orientation of these lines of
541 06 Electric field lines equipment set 1 electric flux is determined by the spatial arrangement of the charges
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 2 generating the field.
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 In the experiment P3.1.3.1, small particles in an oil-filled cuvette are
used to illustrate the lines of electric flux. The particles align themselves
MIK 74702 BMS EcoCam 5.5 mega pixel, WiFi 1*
in the electric field to form chains which run along the lines of electric
additionally required: flux. Four different pairs of electrodes are provided to enable electric
1
PC with Windows 7 or higher
fields with different spatial distributions to be generated; these elec-
* additionally recommended trode pairs are mounted beneath the cuvette, and connected to a high
voltage source of up to 10 kV. The resulting patterns can be interpreted
as the cross-sections of two spheres, one sphere in front of a plate, a
plate capacitor and a spherical capacitor.

Equipment set E-field lines (541 06)

94 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.3
FIELD LINES AND
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES

P3.1.3.2
Displaying the equipotential lines
of electric fields

Displaying the equipotential lines of electric fields (P3.1.3.2)

In a two-dimensional cross-section of an electric field, points of equal

potential form a line. The direction of these isoelectric lines, just like the
lines of electric flux, are determined by the spatial arrangement of the
P3.1.3.2

Cat. No. Description charges generating the field.

The experiment P3.1.3.2 measures the isoelectric lines for bodies with
545 09 Electrolytic tank 1 different charges. To do this, a voltage is applied to a pair of electrodes
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1 placed in an electrolytic tray filled with distilled water. An AC voltage
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1 is used to avoid potential shifts due to electrolysis at the electrodes.
A voltmeter measures the potential difference between the 0 V elec-
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
trode and a steel needle immersed in the water. To display the isoelec-
686 64ET5 Metal needles, set of 5 1 tric lines, the points of equal potential difference are localized and
590 011 Clamping plug 1 drawn on graph paper. In this way, it is possible to observe and study
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1 two-dimensional sections through the electric field in a plate capacitor,
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 a Faraday’s cup, a dipole, an image charge and a slight curve.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
300 11 Saddle base 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2

Measurement example: equipotential lines around a needle tip

95
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.3
FIELD LINES AND
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES

P3.1.3.3
Measuring the potential inside
a plate capacitor

P3.1.3.4
Measuring the potential around
a charged sphere

Measuring the potential around a charged sphere (P3.1.3.4_b)

Using a flame probe, the electric potential around a charged object can
P3.1.3.3 (b)
P3.1.3.4 (b)

be investigated in all three dimensions and the equipotential surfaces

can be determined.
Cat. No. Description In the experiment P3.1.3.3, the electric potential of a plate capacitor
is investigated. The equipotential surfaces parallel to the capacitor
524 080 Electric field meter S 1 1 plates are identified by measuring the electrical potential at different
540 540 Accessories for electric field meter S 1 1 positions but with constant distance to the capacitor plates. In addition,
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 the dependance of the variation of the electric potential on the distance
to the capacitor plates is determined and used to calculate the electric
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 1
field strength.
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1
The aim of the experiment P3.1.3.4 is to investigate the electric
460 317 Optical bench, S1 profile, 0.5 m 1 potential around a charged sphere. The equipotential surfaces are
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 2 concentric spherical shells around the charged sphere. They are iden-
300 11 Saddle base 2 3 tified by measuring the electrical potential at different positions but
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 2 with constant distance to the surface of the sphere. In addition, the
dependance of the variation of the electric potential on the distance
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
to the surface of the sphere is determined and used to calculate the
500 600 Safety connection lead, 10 cm, yellow/green 1 1 electric field strength.
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1 1
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 1
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 1
667 193 PVC tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 1
666 716 Valve for gas cartridge 1 1
666 715 Cartridge 1 1
543 021 Sphere on insulated stand rod 1
500 95 Safety adapter sockets, red, set of 6 1
CASSY ®

96 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.4
EFFECTS OF FORCE IN
AN ELECTRIC FIELD

P3.1.4.1
Measuring the force of an
electric charge in a homogeneous
electric field

Measuring the force of an electric charge in a homogeneous electric field (P3.1.4.1)

In a homogeneous electric field, the force F acting on an elongated

charged body is proportional to the total charge Q and the electric field
strength E. Thus, the formula
P3.1.4.1

Cat. No. Description F =Q ⋅E

applies.
516 32 Current balance 1
In the experiment P3.1.4.1, the greatest possible charge Q is transferred
314 081 Precision dynamometer, 0.01 N 1 to an electrostatic spoon from a plastic rod. The electrostatic spoon is
314 263 Bodies for electric charge, set 1 within the electric field of a plate capacitor and is aligned parallel to the
541 00 Friction rods, PVC and acrylic 1 plates. To verify the proportional relationship between the force and the
541 21 Leather 1 field strength, the force F acting on the electrostatic spoon is measured
at a known plate distance d as a function of the capacitor voltage U. The
544 22 Parallel plate capacitor 1
electric field E is determined using the equation
300 75 Laboratory stand I 1
U
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 E=
d
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 2 The measuring instrument in this experiment is a current balance, a
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 differential balance with light-pointer read-out, in which the force
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 to be measured is compensated by the spring force of a precision
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 dynamometer.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
300 11 Saddle base 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 2
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1

97
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.4
EFFECTS OF FORCE IN
AN ELECTRIC FIELD

P3.1.4.2
Kirchhoff’s voltage balance:
Measuring the force between two
charged plates of a plate capacitor

P3.1.4.3
Measuring the force between
a charged sphere and a metal plate

Measuring the force between a charged sphere and a metal plate (P3.1.4.3_b)

The force in an electric field is measured using a force sensor connected

P3.1.4.2 (b)
P3.1.4.3 (b)

to a measuring instrument. The force sensor consists of two bending

elements connected in parallel with four strain gauges in a bridge con-
Cat. No. Description figuration; their electrical resistance changes when a load is applied.
The change in resistance is proportional to the force acting on the
516 37 Electrostatics with current balance, accessories 1 1 sensor. The measuring instrument displays the measured force directly.
516 31 Vertically adjustable stand 1 1 In the experiment P3.1.4.2 a balance is set up in order to measure the
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 force
524 060 Force sensor S, ±1N 1 1 1 U2
F= ⋅ ε0 ⋅ 2 ⋅ A
314 265 Support for conductor loops 1 1 2 d
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 As
where ε0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10−12 (permittivity)
Vm
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
acting between the two charged plates of a plate capacitor. At a
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
given area A, the measurement is conducted as a function of the plate
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1 distance d and the voltage U. The aim of the evaluation is to confirm
500 410 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, yellow/green 1 the proportionalities
500 420 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, yellow/green 2 1
F∝ and F ∝ U 2
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1 d2
541 00 Friction rods, PVC and acrylic 1 and to determine the permittivity e0.
541 21 Leather 1 The experiment P3.1.4.3 consists of a practical investigation of the prin-
500 440 Connecting lead, 19 A, 100 cm, yellow/green 1 ciple of the image charge. Here, the attractive force acting on a charged
sphere in front of a metal plate is measured. This force is equivalent to
the force of an equal, opposite charge at twice the distance 2d. Thus, it
is described by the formula
1 Q2
F= ⋅
4πε0 ( 2d )2

First, the force for a given charge Q is measured as a function of the

distance d. The measurement is then repeated with half the charge. The
aim of the evaluation is to confirm the proportionalities
1
F∝ and F ∝ Q 2
d2
CASSY ®

98 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.5
CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS ON
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS

P3.1.5.1
Investigating the charge distribution
on the surface of electrical conductors

P3.1.5.2
Electrostatic induction with the
hemispheres after Cavendish

Electrostatic induction with the hemispheres after Cavendish (P3.1.5.2)

In static equilibrium, the interior of a metal conductor or a hollow body

contains neither electric fields nor free electron charges. On the outer
surface of the conductor, the free charges are distributed in such a way
P3.1.5.2
P3.1.5.1

Cat. No. Description that the electric field strength is perpendicular to the surface at all
points, and all points have equal potential.
543 071 Conical conductor on insulating stand 1 In the experiment P3.1.5.1, an electric charge is collected from a
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 2 charged hollow metal sphere using a charge spoon, and measured using
542 52 Test plate, 4 cm x 4 cm 1 a coulomb meter. It becomes apparent that the charge density is greater,
the smaller the bending radius of the surface is. This experiment also
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1
shows that no charge can be taken from the interior of the hollow body.
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 1 1
The experiment P3.1.5.2 reconstructs a historic experiment first per-
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 1 formed by Cavendish. A metal sphere is mounted on an insulated
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 1 base. Two hollow hemispheres surround the sphere completely, but
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1 1 without touching it. When one of the hemispheres is charged, the charge
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1 1 distributes itself uniformly over both hemispheres, while the inside
sphere remains uncharged. If the inside sphere is charged and then
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1
surrounded by the hemispheres, the two hemispheres again show equal
590 011 Clamping plug 1 charges, and the inside sphere is uncharged.
532 16 Connecting rod 1 1
540 52 Demonstration insulator 1
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1
300 11 Saddle base 1 3
500 610 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, yellow/green 1 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1 2
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1
543 021 Sphere on insulated stand rod 1
543 05 Cavendish hemispheres, pair 1
340 89ET5 Coupling plugs, 4 mm, set of 5 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 2
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1

99
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.6
DEFINITION OF CAPACITANCE

P3.1.6.1
Determining the capacitance
of a sphere in free space

P3.1.6.2
Determining the capacitance
of a sphere in front of a metal plate

Determining the capacitance of a sphere in free space (P3.1.6.1)

The potential difference U of a charged conductor in an insulated moun-

ting in free space with reference to an infinitely distant reference point
is proportional to the charge Q of the body. We can express this using
P3.1.6.2
P3.1.6.1

Cat. No. Description the relationship

Q = C ⋅U
543 00 Set of 3 conducting spheres 1 1 and call C the capacitance of the body. Thus, for example, the capa-
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1 citance of a sphere with the radius r in a free space is
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 1 1 C = 4πε0 ⋅ r
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 1 because the potential difference of the charged sphere with respect to
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 1 an infinitely distant reference point is
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1 1 1 Q
U= ⋅
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1 1 4πε0 r
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 As
where ε0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −12 (permittivity)
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 1 1 Vm
590 011 Clamping plug 1 1
532 16 Connecting rod 1 1 The experiment P3.1.6.1 determines the capacitance of a sphere in a
free space by charging the sphere with a known high voltage U and
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1 1
measuring its charge Q using an electrometer amplifier connected as a
300 11 Saddle base 2 3 coulomb meter. The measurement is conducted for different sphere radii
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 r. The aim of the evaluation is to verify the proportionalities
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1 1 Q ∝ U and C ∝ r
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1 1 The experiment P3.1.6.2 shows that the capacitance of a body also
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1 2 depends on its environment, e.g. the distance to other earthed
501 43 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, yellow/green 1 1 conductors. In this experiment, spheres with the radii r are arranged at
a distance s from an earthed metal plate and charged using a high
587 66 Reflection plate 1
voltage U. The capacitance of the arrangement is now
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1
 r 
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 C = 4πε0 ⋅ r ⋅  1 + 
 2s 
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
The aim of the evaluation is to confirm the proportionality between the
charge Q and the potential difference U at any given distance s between
the sphere and the metal plate.

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.7
PLATE CAPACITOR

P3.1.7.1
Determining the capacitance
of a plate capacitor - Measuring
the charge with the electrometer
amplifier

P3.1.7.2
Parallel and series connection of
capacitors - Measuring the charge
with the electrometer amplifier

Determining the capacitance of a plate capacitor - Measuring the charge with the electrometer amplifier (P3.1.7.1)

A plate capacitor is the simplest form of a capacitor. Its capacitance

depends on the plate area A and the plate spacing d. The capacitance
P3.1.7.2
P3.1.7.1

Cat. No. Description increases when an insulator with the dielectric constant er is placed bet-
ween the two plates. The total capacitance is
544 23 Capacitor assembly kit 1 1 A
C = ε r ε0 ⋅
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1 1 d
As
504 48 Two-way switch 1 1 where ε0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −12 (permittivity)
Vm
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 2
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 1
In the experiment P3.1.7.1, this relationship is investigated using a
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1 1
demountable capacitor assembly with variable geometry. Capacitor
578 31 Capacitor, 0.1 µF, STE 2/19 1 1 plates with the areas A = 40 cm2 and A = 80 cm2 can be used, as well
532 16 Connecting rod 1 1 as various plate-type dielectrics. The distance can be varied in steps of
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 4 5 one millimeter.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 The experiment P3.1.7.2 determines the total capacitance C of the
demountable capacitor with the two plate pairs arranged at a fixed
distance and connected first in parallel and then in series, compares
these with the individual capacitances C1 and C 2 of the two plate pairs.
The evaluation confirms the relationship
C = C1 + C2
for parallel connection and
1 1 1
= +
C C1 C2
for serial connection.

101
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.7
PLATE CAPACITOR

P3.1.7.3
Determining the capacitance
of a plate capacitor - Measuring
the charge with the I-measuring
amplifier D

Determining the capacitance of a plate capacitor - Measuring the charge with the I-measuring amplifier D (P3.1.7.3)

Calculation of the capacitance of a plate capacitor using the formula

A
C = ε0 ⋅
P3.1.7.3

d
Cat. No. Description A: plate area
d : plate spacing
544 22 Parallel plate capacitor 1 As
where ε0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −12 (permittivity)
521 65 Tube power supply, 0...500 V 1 Vm
504 48 Two-way switch 1 ignores the fact that part of the electric field of the capacitor extends
532 00 I-measuring amplifier D 1 beyond the edge of the plate capacitor, and that consequently a greater
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 charge is stored for a specific potential difference between the two
capacitors. For example, for a plate capacitor grounded on one side and
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1
having the area
536 221 Measuring resistor, 100 MW 1
A = π⋅r2
500 421 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, red 1
the capacitance is given by the formula
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 3
 π⋅r2  πr  
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 C = ε0  + 3.7724 ⋅ r + r ⋅ ln   + …
 d d  
In the experiment P3.1.7.3, the capacitance C of a plate capacitor is
measured as a function of the plate spacing d with the greatest possible
accuracy. This experiment uses a plate capacitor with a plate radius of
13 cm and a plate spacing which can be continuously varied between
0 and 70 mm. The aim of the evaluation is to plot the measured values
in the form
 1
C =f 
d 
and compare them with the values to be expected according to theory.

102 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATICS

P3.1.7
PLATE CAPACITOR

P3.1.7.4
Measuring the electric field
strength inside a plate capacitor

P3.1.7.5
Measuring the electric field
strength inside a plate capacitor
as a function of the dielectrics

P3.1.7.6
Measuring the electric field
strength of a charged sphere in
front of a conductive plate
(image charge)

Measuring the electric field strength inside a plate capacitor (P3.1.7.4_c)

Using the electric field meter S the electric field strength E in a plate
P3.1.7.5 (b)
P3.1.7.4 (c)

P3.1.7.6 (c)

capacitor can be measured. The electric field strength depends on the

applied voltage U and the distance d of the capacitor plates:
Cat. No. Description U
E=
d
524 080 Electric field meter S 1 1 1
540 540 Accessories for electric field meter S 1 1 1
Alternatively, the electrical field strength E can be calculated from the
charge Q on the capacitor plates:
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
Q
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 E=
ε0 ⋅ ε r ⋅ A
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1
Here, E depends on the area of the plates A and the permittivity er of the
460 317 Optical bench, S1 profile, 0.5 m 1 1
material between the capacitor plates as well.
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 2 2
In the experiment P3.1.7.4 the dependance of the electric field strength
500 600 Safety connection lead, 10 cm, yellow/green 1 1 E on the applied voltage U and the plate spacing d is determined. First,
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 1 keeping the distance of the plates constant, the value of the applied
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 1 voltage U is varied and the electric field strength is measured. Then,
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 the voltage U is kept constant and the dependance of the electric field
strength E on the plate spacing d is determined.
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
The aim of the experiment P3.1.7.5 is to investigate the influence of the
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1
permittivity er on the field strength E. First, keeping the applied voltage
504 45 On-off switch, single pole 1 U constant a dielectric (glass, plastics) is placed between the capacitor
500 421 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, red 3 plates and the electric field strength is measured. Second, the charged
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1 capacitor is disconnected from the power supply. Then, the dielectric is
500 442 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, blue 1 removed and the field strength measured again.
543 021 Sphere on insulated stand rod 1 In the experiment P3.1.7.6, the electric field strength on the surface
of a conductive plate with distance r to a charged sphere is measured.
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1
The field gradient in front of the plate is equivalent to the case where
300 11 Saddle base 2 instead of the plate a sphere with opposite charge is situated in twice
500 95 Safety adapter sockets, red, set of 6 1 the distance to the sphere (mirror or image charge). This leads to a
additionally required: doubling in field strength compared to a free-standing sphere.
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

103
 ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.1
CHARGE TRANSFER WITH
DROPS OF WATER

P3.2.1.1
Generating an electric current through
the motion of charged drops of water

Generating an electric current through the motion of charged drops of water (P3.2.1.1)

Each charge transport is an electric current. The electrical current

P3.2.1.1

strength (or more simply the “current”)

Cat. No. Description ∆Q
I=
∆t
665 843 Burette, clear glass, 10 ml 1
is the charge DQ transported per unit of time Dt. For example, in a metal
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1
conductor, DQ is given by the number DN of free electrons which flow
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 through a specific conductor cross-section per unit of time Dt. We can
532 16 Connecting rod 1 illustrate this relationship using charged water droplets.
546 12 Faraday‘s cup 1 In the experiment P3.2.1.1, charged water drops drip out of a burette at
578 25 Capacitor, 1 nF, STE 2/19 1 a constant rate
578 26 Capacitor, 2.2 nF, STE 2/19 1 ∆N
N =
∆t
578 10 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1
N: number of water drops
578 22 Capacitor, 100 pF, STE 2/19 1
into a Faraday’s cup, and gradually charge the latter. Each individual
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
drop of water transports approximately the same charge q. The total
501 641 Two-way adapters, red, set of 6 1 charge Q in the Faraday’s cup is measured using an electrometer ampli-
550 41 Constantan resistance wire, 0.25 mm diameter, 100 m 1 fier connected as a coulomb meter. This charge shows a step-like curve
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1 as a function of the time t, as can be recorded using CASSY. At a high
664 120 Beaker, PP, 50 ml, squat 1 drip rate N, a very good approximation is
301 21 Stand base MF 2 Q = N ⋅ q ⋅ t
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 The current is then
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 I = N ⋅ q
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
500 412 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, blue 1
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 2
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1*
CASSY ®

524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1*

additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) 1
Charge transfer by water drops
* additionally recommended
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 ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.2
OHM’S LAW

P3.2.2.1
Verifying Ohm’s law and
measuring specific resistances

P3.2.2.2
Verifying Ohm’s law -
Measuring with CASSY

Verifying Ohm’s law and measuring specific resistances (P3.2.2.1)

In circuits consisting of metal conductors, Ohm’s law

U = R ⋅I
P3.2.2.2
P3.2.2.1

represents a very close approximation of the actual circumstances. In

Cat. No. Description other words, the voltage drop U in a conductor is proportional to the
current I through the conductor. The proportionality constant R is called
550 57 Apparatus for resistance measurements 1 the resistance of the conductor. For the resistance, we can say
521 49 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V 1 s
R = ρ⋅
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 A
501 23 Connecting lead, 32 A, 25 cm, black 1 ρ: resistivity of the conductor material
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 3 s: length of wire
A: cross-section of wire
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
524 006 Pocket-CASSY 1 The experiment P3.2.2.1 verifies the proportionality between the
current and voltage for metal wires of different materials, thicknesses
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
and lengths, and calculates the resistivity of each material.
524 0621 UIP sensor S 1
The experiment P3.2.2.2 verifies the proportionality between the
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 current and voltage for a metal wire using the CASSY system.
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1
567 18 Wrapping plate for wires 1
550 46 Chrome-nickel resistance wire, 0.25 mm diameter, 100 m 1
579 331 Plug-in holder, STE 2
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 3
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

105
ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.3
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

P3.2.3.1
Measuring current and voltage
at resistors connected in parallel
and in series

P3.2.3.2
Voltage division with a potentiometer

P3.2.3.3
Principle of a Wheatstone bridge

Measuring current and voltage at resistors connected in parallel and in series (P3.2.3.1)

Kirchhoff’s laws are of fundamental importance in calculating the

component currents and voltages in branching circuits. The so-called
P3.2.3.2
P3.2.3.3
P3.2.3.1

“node rule” states that the sum of all currents flowing into a particular
Cat. No. Description junction point in a circuit is equal to the sum of all currents flowing
away from this junction point. The “mesh rule” states that in a closed
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 path the sum of all voltages through the loop in any arbitrary direction
577 36 Resistor, 220 W, STE 2/19 1 1 of flow is zero. Kirchhoff’s laws are used to derive a system of linear
equations which can be solved for the unknown current and voltage
577 38 Resistor, 330 W, STE 2/19 1 2
components.
577 40 Resistor, 470 W, STE 2/19 1 1 1
The experiment P3.2.3.1 examines the validity of Kirchhoff’s laws
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 in circuits with resistors connected in parallel and in series. The
577 53 Resistor, 5.6 kW, STE 2/19 1 result demonstrates that two resistors connected in series have a total
577 56 Resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 resistance R
577 68 Resistor, 100 kW, STE 2/19 1 R = R1 + R2
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 1 while for parallel connection of resistors, the total resistance R is
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 1 1 1 1 1
= +
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 2 1 R R1 R2
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 3 3 2 In the experiment P3.2.3.2, a potentiometer is used as a voltage divider
577 28 Resistor, 47 W, STE 2/19 1 in order to tap a lower voltage component U1 from a voltage U. U is
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 2 present at the total resistance of the potentiometer. In a no-load, zero-
577 34 Resistor, 150 W, STE 2/19 1
current state, the voltage component
R1
577 90 Potentiometer, 220 W, STE 4/50 1 U1 = ⋅U
R
577 92 Potentiometer, 1 kW, STE 4/50 1
can be tapped at the variable component resistor R1. The relationship
between U1 and R1 at the potentiometer under load is no longer linear.
The experiment P3.2.3.3 examines the principle of a Wheatstone bridge,
in which “unknown” resistances can be measured through comparison
with “known” resistances.

106 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.3
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

P3.2.3.4
Determining resistances
using a Wheatstone bridge

Determining resistances using a Wheatstone bridge (P3.2.3.4)

In modern measuring practice, the bridge configuration developed in

P3.2.3.4

1843 by Ch. Wheatstone is used almost exclusively.

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P3.2.3.4, a voltage U is applied to a 1 m long measu-
ring wire with a constant cross-section. The ends of the wire are con-
536 02 Demonstration bridge 1 nected to an unknown resistor Rx and a variable resistor R arranged
536 121 Measuring resistor, 10 W 1 behind it, whose value is known precisely. A sliding contact divides
536 131 Measuring resistor, 100 W 1 the measuring wire into two parts with the lengths s1 and s 2. The slide
contact is connected to the node between Rx and R via an ammeter
536 141 Measuring resistor, 1 kW 1
which is used as a zero indicator. Once the current has been regulated
536 776 Decade resistor, 0...1 kW 1 to zero, the relationship
536 777 Decade resistor, 0...100 W 1 s1
Rx = ⋅R
536 778 Decade resistor, 0...10 W 1 s2
536 779 Decade resistor, 0...1 W 1
applies. Maximum accuracy is achieved by using a symmetrical experi-
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 ment setup, i. e. when the slide contact over the measuring wire is set
531 13 Galvanometer C.A 403 1 in the middle position so that the two sections s1 and s 2</SUB> are the
501 28 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, black 3 same length.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1

Circuit diagram of Wheatstone bridge

107
ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.4
CIRCUITS WITH ELECTRICAL
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

P3.2.4.1
The ammeter as an ohmic
resistor in a circuit

P3.2.4.2
The voltmeter as an ohmic
resistor in a circuit

The ammeter as an ohmic resistor in a circuit (P3.2.4.1)

One important consequence of Kirchhoff’s laws is that the internal re-

sistance of an electrical measuring instrument affects the respective
P3.2.4.2
P3.2.4.1

current or voltage measurement. Thus, an ammeter increases the overall

Cat. No. Description resistance of a circuit by the amount of its own internal resistance and
thus measures a current value which is too low whenever the internal
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 1 resistance is above a negligible level. A voltmeter measures a voltage
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 value which is too low when its internal resistance is not great enough
with respect to the resistance at which the voltage drop is to be measured.
577 33 Resistor, 82 W, STE 2/19 3
In the experiment P3.2.4.1, the internal resistance of an ammeter is
577 52 Resistor, 4.7 kW, STE 2/19 1 1
determined by measuring the voltage which drops at the ammeter
531 110 Multimeter LDanalog 10 2 2 during current measurement. It is subsequently shown that the
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 deflection of the ammeter pointer is reduced by half, or that the current
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 3 3 measuring range is correspondingly doubled, by connecting a second
577 75 Resistor, 680 kW, STE 2/19 1 resistor equal to the internal resistance in parallel to the ammeter.
577 71 Resistor, 220 kW, STE 2/19 1 The experiment P3.2.4.2 determines the internal resistance of a volt-
meter by measuring the current flowing through it. In this experiment,
the measuring range is extended by connecting a second resistor with a
value equal to the internal resistance to the voltmeter in series.

108 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.5
CONDUCTING ELECTRICITY
BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS

P3.2.5.1
Determining the Faraday constant

Determining the Faraday constant (P3.2.5.1)

In electrolysis, the processes of electrical conduction entails liberation

of material. The quantity of liberated material is proportional to the
P3.2.5.1

transported charge Q flowing through the electrolyte. This charge can

Cat. No. Description be calculated using the Faraday constant F, a universal constant which
is related to the unit charge e by means of Avogadro’s number NA .
664 350 Water electrolysis apparatus 1 F = NA ⋅ e
382 35 Thermometer, -10...+50 °C/0.1 K 1 When we insert the molar mass n for the material quantity and take
531 832 Digital multimeter P 1 the valence z of the separated ions into consideration, we obtain the
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 relationship
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 Q = n ⋅F ⋅z
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 In the experiment P3.2.5.1, a specific quantity of hydrogen is produced
649 45 Tray, 552 mm x 459 mm x 48 mm 1 in an electrolysis apparatus after Hofmann to determine the Faraday
constant. The valance of the hydrogen ions is z = 1. The molar mass n of
674 7920 Sulfuric acid, diluted, approx. 2 N, 500 ml 1
the liberated hydrogen atoms is calculated using the laws of ideal gas
on the basis of the volume V of the hydrogen collected at an external
pressure p and room temperature T:
pV
n = 2⋅
RT
J
where R = 8.314 (universal gas constant )
mol ⋅ K
At the same time, the electric work W is measured which is expended for
electrolysis at a constant voltage U 0. The transported charge quantity
is then
W
Q=
U0

109
ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

P3.2.6
EXPERIMENTS ON
ELECTROCHEMISTRY

P3.2.6.1
Generating electric current
with a Daniell cell

P3.2.6.2
Measuring the voltage at simple
galvanic elements

P3.2.6.3
Determining the standard potentials
of corresponding redox pairs

Measuring the voltage at simple galvanic elements (P3.2.6.2)

In galvanic cells, electrical energy is generated using an electrochemical

process. The electrochemistry workplace enables you to investigate the
P3.2.6.1-3

physical principles which underlie such processes.

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P3.2.6.1, a total of four Daniell cells are assembled.
These consist of one half-cell containing a zinc electrode in a ZnSO4
667 4041 Measuring unit S 1 solution and one half-cell containing a copper electrode in a CuSO4
664 3951 Electrochemistry workstation 1 solution. The voltage produced by multiple cells connected in series is
661 125 Electrochemistry chemicals set 1 measured and compared with the voltage from a single cell. The current
of a single cell is used to drive an electric motor.
The experiment P3.2.6.2 combines half-cells of corresponding redox
pairs of the type metal/metal cation to create simple galvanic cells. For
each pair, the object is to determine which metal represents the positive
and which one the negative pole, and to measure the voltage between
the half-cells. From this, a voltage series for the corresponding redox
pairs can be developed.
The experiment P3.2.6.3 uses a platinum electrode in 1-mol hydro-
chloric acid as a simple standard hydrogen electrode in order to per-
mit direct measurement of the standard potentials of corresponding
redox pairs of the type metal/metal cation and nonmetallic anion/non-
metallic substance directly.

110 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
MAGNETOSTATICS

P3.3.1
BASIC EXPERIMENTS ON
MAGNETOSTATICS

P3.3.1.1
Displaying lines of magnetic flux

P3.3.1.2
Basics of electromagnetism

Basics of electromagnetism (P3.3.1.2)

Magnetostatics studies the spatial distribution of magnetic fields in

the vicinity of permanent magnets and stationary currents as well as
the force exerted by a magnetic field on magnets and currents. Basic
P3.3.1.2
P3.3.1.1

Cat. No. Description experiments on this topic can be carried out without complex experi-
ment setups.
560 701 Magnetic field demonstration set 1 In the experiment P3.3.1.1, magnetic fields are observed by spreading
521 55 High current power supply 1 1 iron filings over a smooth surface so that they align themselves with the
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1 1 lines of magnetic flux. By this means it becomes possible to display the
magnetic field of a straight conductor, the magnetic field of a conduc-
501 30 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, red 1
tor loop and the magnetic field of a coil.
501 31 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, blue 1
The experiment P3.3.1.2 combines a number of fundamental experi-
MIK 74702 BMS EcoCam 5.5 mega pixel, WiFi 1* ments on electromagnetic phenomena. First, the magnetic field sur-
560 15 Equipment for electromagnetism 1 rounding a current-carrying conductor is illustrated. Then the force
513 511 Magnetic needle on base, needle bearing 1 exerted by two current-carrying coils on each other and the deflection
510 21 Horseshoe magnet with yoke 1 of a current-carrying coil in the magnetic field of a second coil are
demonstrated.
510 12 Cylindrical bar magnets, pair 1
514 72ET5 Shaker for iron filings, set of 5 1
514 73 Iron powder 1
314 111 Precision dynamometer , 0.1 N 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
540 52 Demonstration insulator 2
300 11 Saddle base 2
501 35 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, red 1
501 36 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, blue 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows 7 or higher

* additionally recommended
Displaying lines of magnetic flux

111
ELECTRICITY
MAGNETOSTATICS

P3.3.2
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

P3.3.2.1
Measuring the magnetic dipole
moments of long magnetic needles

Measuring the magnetic dipole moments of long magnetic needles (P3.3.2.1)

Although only magnetic dipoles occur in nature, it is useful in some

cases to work with the concept of highly localized “magnetic charges”.
P3.3.2.1

Thus, we can assign pole strengths or “magnetic charges” qm to the pole

Cat. No. Description ends of elongated magnetic needles on the basis of their length d and
their magnetic moment m:
516 01 Torsion balance, Schürholz design 1 m
qm =
516 21 Magnetostatics, accessories 1 d
516 04 Scale on stand 1 The pole strength is proportional to the magnetic flux F:
510 50ET2 Bar magnets, 60 x 13 x 5 mm, set of 2 1 Φ = µ 0 ⋅ qm
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 Vs
where µ0 = 4π ⋅ 10 −7 (permeability )
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 Am

460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 Thus, for the spherical surface with a small radius r around the pole
(assumed as a point source), the magnetic field is
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
1 q
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 B= ⋅ m
4πµo r 2
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
At the end of a second magnetic needle with the pole strength q’m,
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
the magnetic field exerts a force
F = q 'm ⋅ B
and consequently
1 q ⋅q'
F= ⋅ m 2 m
4πµ0 r
In formal terms, this relationship is equivalent to Coulomb’s law gover-
ning the force between two electrical charges.
The experiment P3.3.2.1 measures the force F between the pole ends of
two magnetized steel needles using the torsion balance. The experiment
setup is similar to the one used to verify Coulomb’s law. The measure-
ment is initially carried out as a function of the distance r of the pole
ends. To vary the pole strength qm, the pole ends are exchanged, and
multiple steel needles are mounted next to each other in the holder.

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 ELECTRICITY
MAGNETOSTATICS

P3.3.3
EFFECTS OF FORCE IN
A MAGNETIC FIELD
P3.3.3.1
Measuring the force acting on
current-carrying conductors in the
field of a horseshoe magnet
P3.3.3.2
Measuring the force acting on current-
carrying conductors in a homogeneous
magnetic field - Recording with CASSY
P3.3.3.3
Measuring the force acting on
current-carrying conductors in
the magnetic field of an air coil -
Recording with CASSY
P3.3.3.4
Basic measurements for the electro-
dynamic definition of the ampere
P3.3.3.5
Demonstration of the force between
a current-carrying conductor and a
permanent magnet

Measuring the force acting on current-carrying conductors in the field of a horseshoe magnet (P3.3.3.1_b)

To measure the force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magne-

P3.3.3.4 (b)
P3.3.3.1 (b)

tic field, conductor loops are attached to a force sensor. The force sensor
P3.3.3.2

P3.3.3.3

P3.3.3.5

contains two bending elements arranged in parallel with four strain gauges
Cat. No. Description
connected in a bridge configuration; their resistance changes in proportion
510 22 Large horseshoe magnet with yoke 1
to the force when a strain is applied. The force sensor is connected to a
measuring instrument, or alternatively to the CASSY computer interface
314 265 Support for conductor loops 1 1 1 1
device. When using CASSY a 30 ampere box is recommended for current
516 34 Conductor loops for force measurement 1 1 1 measurement.
521 55 High current power supply 1 1 1 1 In the experiment P3.3.3.1, the conductor loops are placed in the magnetic
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 field of a horseshoe magnet. This experiment measures the force F as a
524 060 Force sensor S, ±1N 1 1 1 1 function of the current I, the conductor length s and the angle a between
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 1 1
the magnetic field and the conductor, and reveals the relationship
F = I ⋅ s ⋅ B ⋅ sin α
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 1 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1 1 1 In the experiment P3.3.3.2, a homogeneous magnetic field is generated using
an electromagnet with U-core and pole-piece attachment. This experiment
501 30 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, red 1 2 2 1
measures the force F as a function of the current I. The measurement results
501 31 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, blue 1 2 2 1 for various conductor lengths s are compiled and evaluated in a graph.
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 The experiment P3.3.3.3 uses an air coil to generate the magnetic field. The
562 14 Coil, 500 turns 2 magnetic field is calculated from the coil parameters and compared with
562 25 Pole-shoe yoke 1 the values obtained from the force measurement.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 The object of the experiment P3.3.3.4 is the electrodynamic definition of
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 the ampere. Here, the current is defined on the basis of the force exerted
between two parallel conductors of infinite length which carry an identical
524 0431 30-A-Box 1 1
current. When r represents the distance between the two conductors, the
521 501 AC/DC power supply, 0...15 V/0...5 A 1 1 force per unit of length of the conductor is:
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 2 1 1
F I
516 244 Field coil, d = 120 mm 1 = µ0 ⋅ 2
s 2π ⋅ r
516 249 Stand for tubes and coils 1
This experiment uses two conductors approx. 30 cm long, placed just a few
516 33 Conductors for Ampere definition 1 millimeters apart. The forces F are measured as a function of the different
516 31 Vertically adjustable stand 1 current levels I and distances r.
510 20 Horseshoe magnet, small 1 In the experiment P3.3.3.5 the interaction forces between a current-
315 233 Electronic balance MAULtec S 1 carrying conductor and a permanent magnet are recorded using a balance.
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1
Depnding on the current direction, the „weight“ of the magnet is increased
or decreased by the current related forces.
CASSY ®

500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1

additionally required:
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

113
 ELECTRICITY
MAGNETOSTATICS

P3.3.4
BIOT-SAVART’S LAW

P3.3.4.1
Measuring the magnetic field
for a straight conductor and on
circular conductor loops

P3.3.4.2
Measuring the magnetic field of
an air coil

P3.3.4.3
Measuring the magnetic field of
a pair of coils in the Helmholtz
configuration

Measuring the magnetic field for a straight conductor and on circular conductor loops (P3.3.4.1_b)

In principle, it is possible to calculate the magnetic field of any current-

P3.3.4.2 (b)

P3.3.4.3 (b)
P3.3.4.2 (c)

P3.3.4.3 (c)
P3.3.4.1 (b)

carrying conductor using Biot and Savart’s law. However, analytical solu-
P3.3.4.1 (c)

tions can only be derived for conductors with certain symmetries, e.g. for an
infinitely long straight wire, a circular conductor loop and a cylindrical coil.
Cat. No. Description
Biot and Savart’s law can be verified easily using these types of conductors.
516 235 Current conductors, set of 4 1 1 In the experiment P3.3.4.1, the magnetic field of a long, straight conductor
is measured for various currents I as a function of the distance r from the
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
conductor. The result is a quantitative confirmation of the relationship
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1
µ0 I
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1 1 1 1 1 1 B= ⋅
2π r
521 55 High current power supply 1 1 1 In addition, the magnetic fields of circular coils with different radii R are
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1 measured as a function of the distance x from the axis through the center
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1 1 1 of the coil. The measured values are compared with the values which are
calculated using the equation
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 3 3 3
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 1 1 1 µ0 I ⋅ R2
B= ⋅
(
2 R2 + x2
)
3
2
501 644 Two-way adapters, black, set of 6 1 1
501 30 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, red 1 1 1 1 1 1 The measurements can be carried out using the combi B sensor. This device
501 31 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, blue 1 1 1 1 1 2 contains two Hall sensors which one is extremely sensitive to fields parallel to
524 0383 Axial B sensor S, ±0.3 mT 1 1 1
the probe axis and the second one is sensitive perpendicular to the probe axis.
Using a sensitive magnetic field sensor, the experiment is performed at low
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1 1
current levels.
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
The experiment P3.3.4.2 investigates the magnetic field of an air coil in
Coil with variable number of turns which the length L can be varied for a constant number of turns N. For the
516 242 1 1
per unit length magnetic field the relationship
516 249 Stand for tubes and coils 1 1 N
B = µ0 ⋅ I ⋅
524 0382 Axial B sensor S, ±1000 mT 1 1 L
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 applies.
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1 1 The experiment P3.3.4.3 examines the homogeneity of the magnetic field in
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1 1 a pair of Helmholtz coils. The magnetic field along the axis through the coil
centers is recorded in several measurement series; the spacing a between
the coils is varied from measurement series to measurement series. When a
is equal to the coil radius, the magnetic field is essentially independent of
the location x on the coil axis.
CASSY ®

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.1
VOLTAGE IMPULSE

P3.4.1.1
Generating a voltage surge in
a conductor loop with a moving
permanent magnet

Generating a voltage surge in a conductor loop with a moving permanent magnet (P3.4.1.1)

Each change in the magnetic flux F through a conductor loop induces a

voltage U, which has a level proportional to the change in the flux. Such
a change in the flux is caused e. g. when a permanent magnet is moved
P3.4.1.1

Cat. No. Description inside a fixed conductor loop. In this case, it is common to consider not
only the time-dependent voltage
510 11 Cylindrical bar magnet 2 dΦ
U=−
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 1 dt
562 14 Coil, 500 turns 1 but also the voltage surge
562 15 Coil, 1 000 turns 1 t2

524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 ∫ U ( t ) dt = Φ ( t ) − Φ ( t )

t1
1 2

524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1

This corresponds to the difference in the magnetic flux densities before
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 and after the change.
additionally required: In the experiment P3.4.1.1, the voltage surge is generated by manually
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) inserting a bar magnet into an air coil, or pulling it out of a coil. The
curve of the voltage U over time is measured and the area inside the
curve is evaluated. This is always equal to the flux F of the permanent
magnet inside the air coil independent of the speed at which the magnet
is moved, i. e. proportional to the number of turns of the coil for equal
coil areas.
CASSY ®

Induced voltages of a moving magnet

115
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.2
INDUCTION IN A MOVING
CONDUCTOR LOOP

P3.4.2.1
Measuring the induction voltage
in a conductor loop moved through
a magnetic field

Measuring the induction voltage in a conductor loop moved through a magnetic field (P3.4.2.1_b)

When a conductor loop with the constant width b is withdrawn from a

P3.4.2.1 (b)

homogeneous magnetic field B with the speed

dx
v=
Cat. No. Description dt
the magnetic flux changes over the time dt by the value
516 40 Induction apparatus with wire loops 1
d Φ = −B ⋅ b ⋅ dx
510 48 Magnets, 35 mm Ø, pair 6
This change in flux induces the voltage
347 35 Experiment motor 1
U = B ⋅ b ⋅v
347 36 Control unit for experiment motor 1
in the conductor loop.
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
In the experiment P3.4.2.1, a slide on which induction loops of various
524 040 µV box 1
widths are mounted is moved between the two pole pieces of a magnet.
The object is to measure the induction voltage U as a function of the
magnetic flux density B, the width b and the speed v of the induction
loops. The aim of the evaluation is to verify the proportionalities
U ∝ B, U ∝ b, U ∝ v
CASSY ®

Induction voltage in a moved conductor loop

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.3
INDUCTION BY MEANS OF A
VARIABLE MAGNETIC FIELD

P3.4.3.1
Measuring the induction voltage
in a conductor loop for a variable
magnetic field - with triangular
wave-form power supply

P3.4.3.2
Measuring the induction voltage
in a conductor loop for a variable
magnetic field - with Power-CASSY
as variable source of current

Measuring the induction voltage in a conductor loop for a variable magnetic field - with triangular wave-form
power supply (P3.4.3.1_a)

A change in the homogeneous magnetic field B inside a coil with N1

P3.4.3.1 (b)
P3.4.3.1 (a)

windings and the area A1 over time induces the voltage

P3.4.3.2

dB
U = N1 ⋅ A1 ⋅
Cat. No. Description dt
in the coil.
516 249 Stand for tubes and coils 1 1 1
In the experiments P3.4.3.1 and P3.4.3.2, induction coils with
516 244 Field coil, d = 120 mm 1 1 1
different areas and numbers of turns are arranged in a cylindrical field
516 241 Induction coils, set of 3 1 1 1 coil through which alternating currents of various frequencies, ampli-
521 56 Delta current power supply 1 1 tudes and signal forms flow. In the field coil, the currents generate the
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 magnetic field
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 N2
B = µ0 ⋅ ⋅I
524 040 µV box 1 1 1 L2
Vs
524 0431 30-A-Box 1 1 where µ0 = 4π ⋅ 10 −7 (permeablility )
Am
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1 1
and I(t) is the time-dependent current level, N2 the number of turns and
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 2
L 2 the overall length of the coil. The curve over time U(t) of the voltages
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 induced in the induction coils is recorded using the computer-based
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 CASSY measuring system. This experiment explores how the voltage is
additionally required: dependent on the area and the number of turns of the induction coils,
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) as well as on the frequency, amplitude and signal form of the exciter
current.
CASSY ®

Induction in a conduction loop for a variable magnetic field

117
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.4
EDDY CURRENTS

P3.4.4.1
Waltenhofen’s pendulum:
demonstration of an
eddy-current brake

P3.4.4.2
Demonstrating the operating
principle of an AC power meter

Waltenhofen’s pendulum: demonstration of an eddy-current brake (P3.4.4.1)

When a metal disk is moved into a magnetic field, eddy currents are pro-
P3.4.4.2

duced in the disk. The eddy currents generate a magnetic field which inter-
P3.4.4.1

Cat. No. Description acts with the inducing field to resist the motion of the disk. The energy of
the eddy currents, which is liberated by the Joule effect, results from the
560 34 Waltenhofen‘s pendulum 1 mechanical work which must be performed to overcome the magnetic
342 07 Clamp with knife-edge bearings 1
force.
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1
In the experiment P3.4.4.1, the occurrence and suppression of eddy currents
is demonstrated using Waltenhofen’s pendulum. The aluminum plate swings
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2 1
between the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet. As soon as the magne-
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1 tic field is switched on, the pendulum is arrested when it enters the field.
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 The pendulum oscillations of a slitted plate, on the other hand, are only
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 slightly attenuated, as only weak eddy currents can form.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 2 The experiment P3.4.4.2 examines the workings of an alternating current
300 51 Stand rod, right-angled 1
meter. In principle, the AC meter functions much like an asynchronous
motor with squirrel-cage rotor. A rotating aluminium disk is mounted in
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
the air gap between the poles of two magnet systems. The current to be
501 28 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, black 3 measured flows through the bottom magnet system, and the voltage to be
560 32 Rotatable aluminium disc 1 measured is applied to the top magnet system. A moving magnetic field is
562 10 Yoke 1 formed which generates eddy currents in the aluminum disk. The moving
magnetic field and the eddy currents produce an asynchronous angular
562 15 Coil, 1 000 turns 1
momentum
562 18 Coil, 50 turns, extra-low voltage 2
N1 ∝ P
562 34 Coil holder 1
510 22 Large horseshoe magnet with yoke 1
proportional to the electrical power P to be measured. The angular
momentum accelerates the aluminum disk until it attains equilibrium with
521 39 Variable extra-low voltage transformer 1
its counter-torque
537 32 Rheostat, 10 ohms 1
N2 ∝ ω
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 ω: angular velocity of disk
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1
generated by an additional permanent magnet embedded in the turning
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
disk. Consequently, at equilibrium
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
N1 = N2
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 9
the angular velocity of the disk is proportional to the electrical power P.

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.5
TRANSFORMER

P3.4.5.1
Voltage and current transformation
with a transformer

P3.4.5.2
Voltage transformation with a
transformer under load

P3.4.5.3
Recording the voltage and current
of a transformer under load as
a function of time

Voltage and current transformation with a transformer (P3.4.5.1)

Regardless of the physical design of the transformer, the voltage trans-

P3.4.5.3 (b)

formation of a transformer without load is determined by the ratio of

P3.4.5.2
P3.4.5.1

the respective number of turns

Cat. No. Description U 2 N2
= ( when I2 = 0 )
U1 N1
562 801 Transformer for students‘ experiments 1 1 1
The current transformation in short-circuit operation is inversely
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 2
proportional to the ratio of the number of turns
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 1
I 2 N2
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 6 7 6 = ( when U2 = 0 )
I1 N1
537 34 Rheostat, 100 ohms 1 1
The behavior of the transformer under load, on the other hand, depends
459 23 Acrylic glass screen on rod 1 on its particular physical design. This fact can be demonstrated using
514 72ET5 Shaker for iron filings, set of 5 1 the transformer for students’ experiments.
514 73 Iron filings 1 The aim of the experiment P3.4.5.1 is to measure the voltage transfor-
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 mation of a transformer without load and the current transformation of
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 a transformer in short-circuit mode. At the same time, the difference
between an isolating transformer and an autotransformer is demon-
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
strated.
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1
The experiment P3.4.5.2 examines the ratio between primary and
additionally required: secondary voltage in a “hard” and a “soft” transformer under load. In
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) both cases, the lines of magnetic flux of the transformer are revealed
using iron filings on a glass plate placed on top of the transformer.
In the experiment P3.4.5.3, the primary and secondary voltages and
the primary and secondary currents of a transformer under load are
recorded as time-dependent quantities using the computer-based
CASSY measuring system. The CASSY software determines the
phase relationships between the four quantities directly and additionally
calculates the time-dependent power values of the primary and secon-
dary circuits.
CASSY ®

119
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.5
TRANSFORMER

P3.4.5.4
Power transmission of a transformer

P3.4.5.5
Experiments with high currents

P3.4.5.6
High-voltage experiments with
a two-pronged lightning rod

Power transmission of a transformer (P3.4.5.4_b)

As an alternative to the transformer for students’ experiments, the

P3.4.5.4 (b)
P3.4.5.4 (a)

demountable transformer with a full range of coils is available which sim-

P3.4.5.5
P3.4.5.6

ply slide over the arms of the U-core, making them easily interchangeable.
Cat. No. Description The experiments described for the transformer for students’ experiments
(P3.4.5.1-3) can of course be performed just as effectively using the
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1 1 1 demountable transformer, as well as a number of additional experiments.
562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1 1 1 1 The experiment P3.4.5.4 examines the power transmission of a transfor-
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2 2 mer. Here, the RMS values of the primary and secondary voltage and the
primary and secondary current are measured on a variable load resistor
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 2 1
R = 0 - 100 W using the computer-based CASSY measuring system. The
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 phase shift between the voltage and current on the primary and secon-
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 dary sides is determined at the same time. In the evaluation, the primary
537 34 Rheostat, 100 ohms 1 1 power P1, the secondary power P 2 and the efficiency
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 2 1 2 η=
P2
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 8 6 P1
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 are calculated and displayed in a graph as a function of the load
562 21 Mains coil, 500 turns 1 1 resistance R.
562 20 Ring-shaped melting ladle 1 In the experiment P3.4.5.5, a transformer is assembled in which the
primary side with 500 turns is connected directly to the mains voltage.
562 32 Melting ring 1
In a melting ring with one turn or a welding coil with five turns on the
562 19 Coil, 5 turns 1 secondary side, extremely high currents of up to 100 A can flow, suffi-
562 31 Sheet-metal strips, set of 5 1 cient to melt metals or spot-weld wires.
562 17 Coil, 23 000 turns 1 In the experiment P3.4.5.6, a transformer is assembled in which the
540 52 Demonstration insulator 2 primary side with 500 turns is connected directly to the mains voltage.
300 11 Saddle base 2 Using a secondary coil with 23,000 turns, high voltages of up to 10 kV
are generated, which can be used to produce electric arcs in horn-shaped
additionally required:
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
1 1 spark electrodes.
CASSY ®

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

P3.4.6
MEASURING THE EARTH’S
MAGNETIC FIELD

P3.4.6.1
Measuring the earth’s magnetic
field with a rotating induction coil
(earth inductor)

P3.4.6.2
Measuring the earth’s magnetic
field with a rotating induction coil
and wireless CASSY

Measuring the earth’s magnetic field with a rotating induction coil and wireless CASSY (P3.4.6.2)

When a circular induction loop with N turns and a radius R rotates in a ho-
mogeneous magnetic field B around its diameter as its axis, it is permeated
by a magnetic flux of
P3.4.6.2
P3.4.6.1

Cat. No. Description Φ (t ) = N ⋅ π ⋅ R 2 ⋅ n (t ) ⋅ B

n ( t ) : normal vector of a rotating loop
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1 1
If the angular velocity w is constant, we can say that
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
Φ ( t ) = N ⋅ π ⋅ R 2 ⋅ B⊥ ⋅ cos ωt
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
524 040 µV box 1 Where B⊥ is the effective component of the magnetic field perpendi-cular
to the axis of rotation. We can determine the magnetic field from the am-
501 35 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, red 1
plitude of the induced voltage
501 36 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, blue 1
U0 = N ⋅ π ⋅ R 2 ⋅ B⊥ ⋅ ω
347 35 Experiment motor 1*
To achieve the maximum measuring accuracy, we need to use the
347 36 Control unit for experiment motor 1*
largest possible coil.
348 22 Gyroscope axle 1
In the experiment P3.4.6.1 the voltage U(t) induced in the earth’s
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 magnetic field for various axes of rotation is measured using the
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 computer-based CASSY measuring system. The amplitude and frequency of
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1
the recorded signals and the respective active component B⊥ are used to
calculate the earth’s magnetic field. The aim of the evaluation is to deter-
524 0621 UIP sensor S 1 mine the total value, the horizontal component and the angle of inclination
666 615 Universal bosshead 1 of the earth’s magnetic field.
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 1 In the experiment P3.4.6.2 the voltage U(t) induced in the earth’s
additionally required: magnetic field is measured in the rotating system and transmitted wire-
1 1 lessly using the computer-based Pocket-CASSY measuring system. The
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
amplitude and frequency of the recorded signals are used to calculate the
* additionally recommended horizontal component of the earth‘s magnetic field.

Induced voltage in
CASSY ®

the rotating coil

121
ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

P3.5.1
BASIC EXPERIMENTS ON
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

P3.5.1.1
Investigating the interactions
of forces of rotors and stators

P3.5.1.2
Simple induction experiments with
electromagnetic rotors and stators

Simple induction experiments with electromagnetic rotors and stators (P3.5.1.2)

The term “electrical machines” is used to refer to both motors and

generators. Both devices consist of a stationary stator and a rotating
armature or rotor. The function of the motors is due to the interaction of
P3.5.1.2
P3.5.1.1

Cat. No. Description the forces arising through the presence of a current- carrying conductor
in a magnetic field, and that of the generators is based on induction in
563 480 ELM basic set 1 1 a conductor loop moving within a magnetic field.
727 81 Basic machine unit 1 1 The action of forces between the magnetic field and the conductor is
560 61 Magnet model, cubical 1 demonstrated in the experiment P3.5.1.1 using permanent and electro-
magnetic rotors and stators. A magnet model is used to represent the
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1
magnetic fields.
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1
The object of the experiment P3.5.1.2 is to carry out qualitative
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 measurements on electromagnetic induction in electromagnetic rotors
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 and stators.
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1

122 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

P3.5.2
ELECTRIC GENERATORS

P3.5.2.1
Generating AC voltage using a
revolving-field generator and a
stationary-field generator

P3.5.2.2
Generating DC voltage using a
stationary-field generator

P3.5.2.3
Generating AC voltage using a
generator with electromagnetic
rotating pole (power-plant generator)

P3.5.2.4
Generating voltage with an AC-DC
generator (generator with electro-
magnetic stationary pole)

P3.5.2.5
Generating voltage using self-
exciting generators

Generating AC voltage using a revolving-field generator and a stationary-field generator (P3.5.2.1_b)

Electric generators exploit the principle of electromagnetic induction

P3.5.2.3-4 (b)

discovered by Faraday to convert mechanical into electrical energy.

P3.5.2.2 (b)

P3.5.2.5 (b)
P3.5.2.1 (b)

We distinguish between revolving-armature generators (excitation of

the magnetic field in the stator, induction in the rotor) and revolving-
Cat. No. Description field generators (excitation of the magnetic field in the rotor, induction
in the stator).
563 480 ELM basic set 1 1 1 1
Both types of generators are assembled in the experiment P3.5.2.1 using
727 81 Basic machine unit 1 1 1 1 permanent magnets. The induced AC voltage U is measured as a func-
563 303 ELM hand-cranked gear 1 1 1 1 tion of the speed f of the rotor. Also, the electrical power P produced at
301 300 Demonstration panel frame 1 1 1 1 a fixed speed is determined as a function of the load resistance R.
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 2 1 The experiment P3.5.2.2 demonstrates the use of a commutator to
rectify the AC voltage generated in the rotor of a rotating-armature
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1
generator. The number of rectified half-waves per rotor revolution
537 36 Rheostat, 1000 ohms 1 increases when the two-pole rotor is replaced with a threepole rotor.
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 The experiments P3.5.2.3 and P3.5.2.4 investigate generators which
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 1 2 2 use electromagnets instead of permanent magnets. Here, the induced
563 23 ELM three-pole rotor 1* 1 voltage depends on the excitation current of the magnetic field. The
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1* excitation current can be used to vary the generated power without
changing the speed of the rotor or the frequency of the AC voltage. This
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1*
principle is used in power-plant generators. In the AC/DC generator, the
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 1 voltage can also be tapped via the commutator in rectified form.
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1 The experiment P3.5.2.5 examines generators in which the magnetic
* additionally recommended field of the stator is amplified by the generator current by means of self-
excitation. The stator and rotor windings are conductively connected
with each other. We distinguish between serieswound generators, in
which the rotor, stator and load are all connected in series, and shunt-
wound generators, in which the stator and the load are connected in
parallel to the rotor.

123
ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

P3.5.3
ELECTRIC MOTORS

P3.5.3.1
Experiments on DC motor with
two-pole rotor

P3.5.3.2
Experiments on DC motor with
three-pole rotor

P3.5.3.3
Experiments with a universal motor
in series and shunt connection

P3.5.3.4
Assembling an AC synchronous motor

Experiments on DC motor with two-pole rotor (P3.5.3.1_b)

Electric motors exploit the force acting on current-carrying conductors

P3.5.3.2 (b)
P3.5.3.3 (b)
P3.5.3.4 (b)
P3.5.3.1 (b)

in magnetic fields to convert electrical energy into mechanical ener-

gy. We distinguish between asynchronous motors, in which the rotor is
Cat. No. Description supplied with AC or DC voltage via a commutator, and synchronous
motors, which have no commutator, and whose frequencies are
563 480 ELM basic set 1 1 1 1 synchronized with the frequency of the applied voltage.
727 81 Basic machine unit 1 1 1 1 The experiment P3.5.3.1 investigates the basic function of an electric
301 300 Demonstration panel frame 1 1 1 1 motor with commutator. The motor is assembled using a permanent
magnet as stator and a two-pole rotor. The polarity of the rotor cur-
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 2 2
rent determines the direction in which the rotor turns. This experi-
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 1 1 1 ment measures the relationship between the applied voltage U and the
451 281 Stroboscope 1 1 1 1 no-load speed f 0 as well as, at a fixed voltage, the current I consumed
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 2 as a function of the load-dependent speed f.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 2 2 The use of the three-pole rotor is the object of the experiment P3.5.3.2.
563 23 ELM three-pole rotor 1 1* The rotor starts turning automatically, as an angular momentum
(torque) acts on the rotor for any position in the magnetic field. To
314 151 Precision dynamometer, 2 N 1 1
record the torque curve M(f ), the speed f of the rotor is recorded as
314 161 Precision dynamometer, 5 N 1 1 a function of a counter-torque M. In addition, the mechanical power
309 50 Demonstration cord 1 1 produced is compared with the electrical power consumed.
666 470 Holder with clamp, height-adjustable, CPS 1 1 The experiment P3.5.3.3 takes a look at the so-called universal
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1 motor, in which the stator and rotor fields are electrically excited. The
563 303 ELM hand-cranked gear 1 stator and rotor coils are connected in series (“serieswound”) or in
parallel (“shunt-wound”) to a common voltage source. This motor can be
726 50 Plug-in board, 297 mm x 300 mm, STE 1
driven both with DC and AC voltage, as the torque acting on the
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1 rotor remains unchanged when the polarity is reversed. The torque curve
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 1 M(f ) is recorded for both circuits. The experiment shows that the speed
505 181 Bulbs, 24 V/3 W, E10, set of 5 1 of the shuntwound motor is less dependent on the load than that
of the series-wound motor.
* additionally recommended
In the experiment P3.5.3.4, the rotor coil of the AC synchronous motor
is synchronized with the frequency of the applied voltage using a hand
crank, so that the rotor subsequently continues running by itself.

124 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

P3.5.4
THREE-PHASE MACHINES

P3.5.4.1
Experiments with a three-phase
revolving-armature generator

P3.5.4.2
Experiments with a three-phase
revolving-field generator

P3.5.4.3
Comparing star and delta
connections on a three-phase
generator

P3.5.4.4
Assembling synchronous and
asynchronous three-phase motors

Experiments with a three-phase revolving-armature generator (P3.5.4.1_b)

In the real world, power is supplied mainly through the generation of

P3.5.4.2 (b)
P3.5.4.3 (b)
P3.5.4.4 (b)
P3.5.4.1 (b)

three-phase AC, usually referred to simply as “three-phase current”.

Consequently, three-phase generators and motors are extremely
Cat. No. Description significant in actual practice. In principle, their function is analogous
to that of AC machines. As with AC machines, we differentiate between
563 480 ELM basic set 1 1 1 1 revolving-armature and revolving-field generators, and between asyn-
563 481 ELM supplementary set 1 1 1 1 chronous and synchronous motors.
727 81 Basic machine unit 1 1 1 1 The simplest configuration for generating three-phase current, a
revolving-armature generator which rotates in a permanent magnetic
563 303 ELM hand-cranked gear 1 1 1
field, is assembled in the experiment P3.5.4.1 using a threepole rotor.
301 300 Demonstration panel frame 1 1 1 1
The experiment P3.5.4.2 examines the more common revolving-field
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 3 3 2 1 generator, in which the magnetic field of the rotor in the stator coils
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 3 4 6 2 is induced by phase-shifted AC voltages. In both cases, instruments for
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1* 1* measuring current and voltage, and for observing the phase shift for a
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2* 2* slowly turning rotor, are connected between two taps. For faster rotor
speeds, the phase shift is measured using an oscilloscope.
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1* 1*
In the experiment P3.5.4.3, loads are connected to the three-phase
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 1
generator in star and delta configuration. In the star configuration, the
726 50 Plug-in board, 297 mm x 300 mm, STE 1 relationship
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 3 Uaa
= 3
505 14 Bulbs, 6 V/3 W, E10, set of 10 1 Ua0
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 is verified for the voltages Uaa between any two outer conductors as
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 3 3 well as Ua0 between the outer and neutral conductors. For the currents
563 12 ELM squirrel-cage rotor 1 I1 flowing to the loads and the currents I2 flowing through the generator
521 291 Three-phase extra-low voltage transformer 1 coils in delta configuration, the result is
I1
* additionally recommended = 3
I2
The experiment P3.5.4.4 examines the behavior of asynchronous and
synchronous machines when the direction of rotation is reversed.

125
 ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.1
CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITOR

P3.6.1.1
Charging and discharging a
capacitor when switching DC
on and off

P3.6.1.2
Determining the capacitive
reactance of a capacitor in
an AC circuit

P3.6.1.3
Charging and discharging
a capacitor when switching
DC on and off - Measuring
with a mutlimeter

Charging and discharging a capacitor when switching DC on and off (P3.6.1.1_a)

To investigate the behavior of capacitors in DC and AC circuits, the

P3.6.1.2 (b)
P3.6.1.2 (a)
P3.6.1.1 (b)
P3.6.1.1 (a)

voltage UC at a capacitor is measured using a two-channel oscilloscope,

P3.6.1.3

and the current IC through the capacitor is additionally calculated from

Cat. No. Description
the voltage drop across a resistor R connected in series. Alternatively a
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1 Mobile-CASSY 2 is used. The circuits for conducting these measurements
578 15 Capacitor, 1 µF, STE 2/19 3 3 3 3
are assembled on a plug-in board using the STE plug-in system. A func-
tion generator is used as a voltage source with variable amplitude and
577 40 Resistor, 470 W, STE 2/19 1 1
variable frequency.
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1 1
In the experiment P3.6.1.1, the function generator generates periodic
577 48 Resistor, 2.2 kW, STE 2/19 1 1
square-wave signals which simulate switching a DC voltage on and off.
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 1 1 The square-wave signals are displayed on channel I of the oscilloscope, and
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 the capacitor voltage or capacitor current is displayed on oscilloscope chan-
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 2 nel II. Alternatively current and voltage are recorded by Mobile-CASSY. The
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 3 1 3 aim of the experiment is to determine the time constant
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 τ = R ⋅C
577 19 Resistor, 1 W, STE 2/19 1 for various capacitances C from the exponential curve of the respective
577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 1 1 charging or discharge current IC.
578 16 Capacitor, 4.7 µF, STE 2/19 1 In the experiment P3.6.1.2, an AC voltage with the amplitude U0 and
578 12 Capacitor, 10 µF, STE 2/50 1 the frequency f is applied to a capacitor. The voltage UC(t) and the cur-
577 76 Resistor, 1 MW, STE 2/19 1 rent IC(t) are displayed simultaneously on the oscilloscope. Alternatively
current and voltage are recorded by Mobile-CASSY. The experiment
582 81 Change-over switch, STE 4/50 1
shows that in this circuit the current leads the voltage by 90°. In addition,
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1
the proportionality between the voltage amplitude U0 and the current
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 amplitude I0 is confirmed, and for the proportionality constant
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
U0
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 ZC =
I0
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2
the relationship
1
ZC = −
2πf ⋅ C
is revealed.
In experiment P3.6.1.3 a large capacitor is charged and discharged with
a long time constant and the process can be recorded with a multimeter
CASSY ®

Schematic circuit diagram and a stopclock.

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 ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.2
CIRCUIT WITH COIL

P3.6.2.1
Measuring the current in a coil
when switching DC on and off

P3.6.2.2
Determining the inductive reactance
of a coil in an AC circuit

Measuring the current in a coil when switching DC on and off (P3.6.2.1_a)

To investigate the behavior of coils in DC and AC circuits, the voltage UL

P3.6.2.2 (b)
P3.6.2.2 (a)
P3.6.2.1 (b)
P3.6.2.1 (a)

at a coil is measured using a two-channel oscilloscope, and the current

IL through the coil is additionally calculated from the voltage drop across
Cat. No. Description a resistor R connected in series. Alternatively a Mobile-CASSY 2 can be
used. The circuits for conducting these measurements are assembled on
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 a plug-in board using the STE plug-in system for electricity/electronics.
590 84 Coil, 1000 turns, STE 2/50 2 2 2 2 A function generator is used as a voltage source with variable amplitude
and variable frequency.
577 19 Resistor, 1 W, STE 2/19 1 1
In the experiment P3.6.2.1, the function generator generates periodic
577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1
square-wave signals which simulate switching a DC voltage on and off.
577 24 Resistor, 22 W, STE 2/19 1 1 The square-wave signals are displayed on channel I of the oscilloscope,
577 28 Resistor, 47 W, STE 2/19 1 1 and the coil voltage or coil current is displayed on oscilloscope channel II.
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 1 1 Alternatively current and voltage are recorded by Mobile-CASSY. The aim
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 1 1 of the experiment is to determine the time constant
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 L
τ=
R
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 2
for different inductances L from the exponential curve of the coil voltage UL.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 3 1 3
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1
In the experiment P3.6.2.2, an AC voltage with the amplitude U0 and the
frequency f is applied to a coil. The voltage UL(t) and the current IL(t) are
displayed simultaneously on the oscilloscope. Alternatively current and
voltage are recorded by Mobile-CASSY. The experiment shows that in this
circuit the current lags behind the voltage by 90°. In addition, the propor-
tionality between the voltage amplitude U0 and the current amplitude I0
is confirmed, and, for the proportionality constant
U0
ZL =
I0
the relationship
ZL = 2πf ⋅ L
is revealed.
CASSY ®

Schematic circuit diagram

127
 ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.3
IMPEDANCES

P3.6.3.1
Determining the impedance in
circuits with capacitors and
ohmic resistors

P3.6.3.2
Determining the impedance in
circuits with coils and ohmic
resistors

P3.6.3.3
Determining the impedance in
circuits with capacitors and coils

Determining the impedance in circuits with capacitors and coils (P3.6.3.3_a)

A resistor R is combined with a capacitor C in the experiment P3.6.3.1,

and an inductor L in the experiment P3.6.3.2. These experiments confirm
P3.6.3.2 (b)

P3.6.3.3 (b)
P3.6.3.2 (a)

P3.6.3.3 (a)
P3.6.3.1 (b)
P3.6.3.1 (a)

the relationship
Cat. No. Description ZI
Zs = R 2 + ZI2 and tan ϕs =
R
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
with ZI = − resp. ZI = 2πf ⋅ L
577 19 Resistor, 1 W, STE 2/19 1 1 2πf ⋅ C
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1 1 1 for series connection and
578 12 Capacitor, 10 µF, STE 2/50 1 1 1 1 1 R
= + and tan ϕP =
578 15 Capacitor, 1 µF, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1 ZP R 2 ZI2 ZI
578 31 Capacitor, 0.1 µF, STE 2/19 1 1
for parallel connection.
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 1 1 1 1
The experiment P3.6.3.3 examines the oscillator circuit as the series and
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 1 parallel connection of capacitance and inductance. The total impedance
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 2 2 of the series circuit
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 3 1 3 1 3 1
Zs = 2πf ⋅ L −
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 1 2πf ⋅ C
590 83 Coil, 500 turns, STE 2/50 1 1 1 1 disappears at the resonance frequency
590 84 Coil, 1000 turns, STE 2/50 1 1 1 1 1
fr =
577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 1 1 2π ⋅ LC
578 16 Capacitor, 4.7 µF, STE 2/19 1 1 i.e. at a given current I the total voltage U at the capacitor and the coil is
zero, because the individual voltages UC and UL are equal and opposite.
For parallel connection, we can say
The current I(t) and the voltage U(t) in an AC circuit are measured 1 1
= − 2πf ⋅ C
as time-dependent quantities using a dual-channel oscilloscope or a ZP 2πf ⋅ L
Mobile-CASSY 2. A function generator is used as a voltage source with
At the resonance frequency, the impedance of this circuit is infinitely
variable amplitude U0 and variable frequency f. The measured quantities
great; in other words, at a given voltage U the total current I in the
are then used to determine the absolute value of the total impedance
incumingine is zero, as the two individual currents IC and IL are equal
U0
Z= and opposed.
I0
and the phase shift j between the current and the voltage.
CASSY ®

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 ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.4
MEASURING-BRIDGE
CIRCUITS

P3.6.4.1
Determining capacitive reactance
with a Wien measuring bridge

P3.6.4.2
Determining inductive reactance
with a Maxwell measuring bridge

Determining capacitive reactance with a Wien measuring bridge (P3.6.4.1_b)

The Wheatstone measuring bridge is one of the most effective means

P3.6.4.2 (b)
P3.6.4.2 (c)
P3.6.4.1 (b)
P3.6.4.1 (c)

of measuring ohmic resistance in DC and AC circuits. Capacitive and

inductive reactance can also be determined by means of analogous
Cat. No. Description circuits. These measuring bridges consist of four passive bridge arms
which are connected to form a rectangle, an indicator arm with a null
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 indicator and a supply arm with the voltage source. Inserting variable
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1 elements in the bridge arm compensates the current in the indicator
arm to zero. Then, for the component resistance values, the fundamen-
577 93 Potentiometer, 1 kW, 10-turn, STE 4/50 1 1 2 2
tal compensation condition
578 15 Capacitor, 1 µF, STE 2/19 1 1
Z3
578 16 Capacitor, 4.7 µF, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1 Z1 = Z2 ⋅
Z4
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1
applies, from which the measurement quantity Z1 is calculated.
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 1
The experiment P3.6.4.1 investigates the principle of a Wien measuring
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 1 1 bridge for measuring a capacitive reactance Z1. In this configuration, Z2
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 2 2 is a fixed capacitive reactance, Z3 is a fixed ohmic resistance and Z4 is a
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 1 2 variable ohmic resistance. For zero compensation, the following applies
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 regardless of the frequency of the AC voltage:
590 83 Coil, 500 turns, STE 2/50 1 1 1 1 R3
= ⋅
C1 C2 R4
590 84 Coil, 1000 turns, STE 2/50 1 1
An oscilloscope or Mobile-CASSy can be used as a zero indicator.
In the experiment P3.6.4.2, a Maxwell measuring bridge is assembled to
determine the inductive reactance Z1. As the resistive component of Z1
is also to be compensated, this circuit is somewhat more complicated.
Here, Z2 is a variable ohmic resistance, Z 3 is a fixed ohmic resistance and
Z4 is a parallel connection consisting of a capacitive reactance and a
variable ohmic resistor. For the purely inductive component, the follow-
ing applies with respect to zero compensation:
2πf ⋅ L1 = R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ 2πf ⋅ C4
f : AC voltage frequency
CASSY ®

129
ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.5
MEASURING AC VOLTAGES
AND AC CURRENTS

P3.6.5.1
Frequency response and form factor
of a multimeter

Frequency response and form factor of a multimeter (P3.6.5.1)

When measuring voltages and currents in AC circuits at higher frequen-

cies, the indicator of the meter no longer responds in proportion to
P3.6.5.1

the voltage or current amplitude. The ratio of the reading value to the
Cat. No. Description true value as a function of frequency is referred to as the “frequency
response”. When measuring AC voltages or currents in which the shape
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 of the signal deviates from the sinusoidal oscillation, a further problem
536 131 Measuring resistor, 100 W 1 occurs. Depending on the signal form, the meter will display different
current and voltage values at the same frequency and amplitude. This
536 211 Measuring resistor, 10 MW 1
phenomenon is described by the wave form factor.
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
The experiment P3.6.5.1 determines the frequency response and wave
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 5 form factor of a multimeter. Signals of a fixed amplitude and varying
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1* frequencies are generated using a function generator and measured
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1* using the multimeter.

* additionally recommended

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 ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.6
ELECTRICAL WORK
AND POWER

P3.6.6.1
Determining the heating power
of an ohmic load in an AC circuit
as a function of the applied voltage

P3.6.6.2
Determining the electric work
of an immersion heater using
an AC power meter

Determining the electric work of an immersion heater using an AC power meter (P3.6.6.2)

The relationship between the power P at an ohmic resistance R and the

applied voltage U can be expressed with the relationship
P3.6.6.2
P3.6.6.1

U2
P=
Cat. No. Description R
The same applies for AC voltage when P is the power averaged over time
590 50 Lid with heater 1
and U is replaced by the RMS value
384 52 Aluminium calorimeter 1
U0
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 1 Urms =
2
382 34 Thermometer, -10...+110 °C/0.2 K 1 1 U0 : amplitude of AC voltage
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1
The relationship
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 1 P = U ⋅I
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 can also be applied to ohmic resistors in AC circuits when the direct
590 06 Plastic beaker 1 1 current I is replaced by the RMS value of the AC
501 23 Connecting lead, 32 A, 25 cm, black 4 I0
Irms =
501 28 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, black 2 2
560 331 Alternating current meter 1 I0 : amplitude of AC
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1 In the experiment P3.6.6.1, the electrical power of an immersion heater
303 25 Immersion heater 1 for extra-low voltage is determined from the Joule heat emitted per unit
500 624 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, black 4 of time and compared with the applied voltage Urms . This experiment
confirms the relationship
2
P ∝ Urms
In the experiment P3.6.6.2, an AC power meter is used to determine
the electrical work W which must be performed to produce one liter
of hot water using an immersion heater. For comparison purposes, the
voltage Urms, the current Irms and the heating time t are measured and
the relationship
W = Urms ⋅ Irms ⋅ t
is verified.

131
ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.6
ELECTRICAL WORK
AND POWER

P3.6.6.3
Quantitative comparison of
DC power and AC power in an
incandescent lamp

P3.6.6.4
Determining the crest factors
of various AC signal forms

P3.6.6.5
Determining the active and
reactive power in AC circuits

Determining the active and reactive power in AC circuits (P3.6.6.5)

The electrical power of a time-dependent voltage U(t) at any load resisance

P3.6.6.4 (a)

is also a function of time:

P3.6.6.3

P3.6.6.5

P (t ) = U (t ) ⋅ I (t )
Cat. No. Description I ( t ) : time-dependent current through the load
d resistor

531 831 Joule and wattmeter 1 1 1 Thus, for periodic currents and voltages, we generally consider the power
505 14 Bulbs, 6 V/3 W, E10, set of 10 1 averaged over one period T. This quantity is often referred to as the active
power P W. It can be measured electronically for any DC or AC voltages using
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 2
the joule and wattmeter.
576 71 Plug-in board section, STE 2
In the experiment P3.6.6.3, two identical incandescent light bulbs are ope-
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 rated with the same electrical power. One bulb is operated with DC voltage,
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 2 the other with AC voltage. The equality of the power values is determined
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 directly using the joule and wattmeter, and additionally by comparing the
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 lamp brightness levels. This equality is reached when the DC voltage equals
the RMS value of the AC voltage.
536 131 Measuring resistor, 100 W 1
The object of the experiment P3.6.6.4 is to determine the crest factors, i. e.
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1
the quotients of the amplitude U0 and the RMS value Urms for different AC
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 1 voltage signal forms generated using a function generator by experimen-
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 tal means. The amplitude is measured using the joule and wattmeter con-
537 35 Rheostat, 330 ohms 1 nected to a PC. The RMS value is calculated from the power P measured at
517 021 Capacitor, 40 µF 1
an ohmic resistor R using the joule and wattmeter according to the formula
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 Ueff = P ⋅ R

562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1 The experiment P3.6.6.5 measures the current Irms through a given load and
562 15 Coil, 1 000 turns 1 the active power P W for a fixed AC voltage Urms. To verify the relationship
575 35 Adapter, BNC/4 mm, 2-pole 1 Pw = Urms ⋅ Irms ⋅ cos ϕ
504 45 On-off switch, single pole 1 the phase shift j between the voltage and the current is additionally de-
500 421 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, red 1 termined using an oscilloscope. This experiment also shows that the active
power for a purely inductive or capacitive load is zero, because the phase
shift is j = 90°. The apparent power
Ps = Urms ⋅ Irms
is also referred to as reactive power in this case.

132 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
DC AND AC CIRCUITS

P3.6.7
ELECTROMECHANICAL
DEVICES

P3.6.7.1
Demonstrating the function
of a bell

P3.6.7.2
Demonstrating the function
of a relay

Demonstrating the function of a relay (P3.6.7.2_b)

In the experiment P3.6.7.1, an electric bell is assembled using a hammer

P3.6.7.2 (b)

interrupter (Wagner interrupter). The hammer interrupter consists of

an electromagnet and an oscillating armature. In the resting state, the
P3.6.7.1

Cat. No. Description oscillating armature touches a contact, thus switching the electro-
magnet on. The electromagnet attracts the oscillating armature, which
561 071 Bell/relay set 1 1 strikes a bell. At the same time, this action interrupts the circuit, and the
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1 1 oscillating armature returns to the resting position.
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 The experiment P3.6.7.2 demonstrates how a relay functions. A control
circuit operates an electromagnet which attracts the armature of the
579 10 Push button (NO), STE 2/19 1
relay. When the electromagnet is switched off, the armature returns to
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 2 7 the resting position. When the armature touches a contact, a second
579 30 Adjustable contact, STE 2/19 1 circuit is closed, which e.g. supplies power to a lamp. When the contact
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1 is configured so that the armature touches it in the resting state, we
576 71 Plug-in board section, STE 2 call this a break contact; the opposite case is termed a make contact.
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 2
505 131 Bulbs, 6 V/5 W, E10, set of 10 1

Function principle of a relay (P3.6.7.2)

133
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

P3.7.1
ELECTROMAGNETIC
OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

P3.7.1.1
Free electromagnetic oscillations

P3.7.1.2
De-damping of electromagnetic
oscillations through inductive
three-point coupling after Hartley

Free electromagnetic oscillations (P3.7.1.1_a)

Electromagnetic oscillation usually occurs in a frequency range in which

the individual oscillations cannot be seen by the naked eye. However,
P3.7.1.2 (a)
P3.7.1.1 (a)

this is not the case in an oscillator circuit consisting of a high-capacity

Cat. No. Description capacitor (C = 40 µF) and a high-inductance coil (L = 500 H). Here,
the oscillation period is about 1 s, so that the voltage and current
517 011 Coil with high inductance 1 1 oscillations can be observed directly on a pointer instrument or CASSY.
517 021 Capacitor, 40 µF 1 1 The experiment P3.7.1.1 investigates the phenomenon of free electro-
301 339 Stand bases, pair 2 2 magnetic oscillations. The damping is so low that multiple oscillation
periods can be observed and their duration measured with e. g. a stop-
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1
clock. In the process, the deviations between the observed oscillation
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 periods and those calculated using Thomson’s equation
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1
T = 2π ⋅ L ⋅ C
313 07 Hand-held stop watch I, mechanical 1 1
are observed. These deviations can be explained by the currentde-
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 1 pendency of the inductance, as the permeability of the iron core of the
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 coil depends on the magnetic field strength.
578 76 Transistor, BC 140, NPN, emitter bottom, STE 4/50 1 In the experiment P3.7.1.2, an oscillator circuit after Hartley is used to
577 68 Resistor, 100 kW, STE 2/19 1 “de-damp” the electromagnetic oscillations in the circuit, or in other
576 86 Monocell holder STE 2/50 1
words to compensate the ohmic energy losses in a feedback loop by
supplying energy externally. Oscillator circuits of this type are essential
685 48ET5 Batteries 1.5 V (D, mono), set of 5 1
components in transmitter and receiver circuits used in radio and tele-
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1 vision technology. A coil with center tap is used, in which the connection
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 3 points are connected with the emitter, base and collector of a transistor
via AC. The base current controls the collector current synchronously
with the oscillation to compensate for energy losses.

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

P3.7.2
DECIMETER-RANGE
WAVES

P3.7.2.1
Radiation characteristic and
polarization of decimeter waves

P3.7.2.2
Amplitude modulation of
decimeter waves

P3.7.2.4
Estimating the dielectric constant
of water in the decimeter-wave range

Estimating the dielectric constant of water in the decimeter-wave range (P3.7.2.4)

It is possible to excite electromagnetic oscillations in a straight

conductor in a manner analogous to an oscillator circuit. An oscillator
P3.7.2.2

of this type emits electromagnetic waves, and their radiated intensity

P3.7.2.4
P3.7.2.1

Cat. No. Description is greatest when the conductor length is equivalent to exactly one half
the wavelength (we call this a l/2 dipole). Experiments on this topic are
587 551 UHF wave generator 1 1 1 particularly successful with wavelengths in the decimeter range. We
531 110 Multimeter LDanalog 10 1 can best demonstrate the existence of such decimeter waves using a
second dipole which also has the length l/2, and from which the voltage
300 11 Saddle base 2 3 1
is applied to an incandescent lamp or (via a high-frequency rectifier)
501 38 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, black 2 to a measuring instrument.
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 The experiment P3.7.2.1 investigates the radiation characteristic of a
532 20 AC/DC amplifier 30 W 1 l/2 dipole for decimeter waves. Here, the receiver is aligned parallel
587 08 Broad-band speaker 1 to the transmitter and moved around the transmitter. In a second
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 step, the receiver is rotated with respect to the transmitter in order to
demonstrate the polarization of the emitted decimeter waves.
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 4
The experiment P3.7.2.2 deal with the transmission of audio-frequen-
587 54 Dipoles in water tank 1
cy signals using amplitude-modulated decimeter waves. In amplitude
modulation a decimeter-wave signal
E ( t ) = E0 ⋅ cos ( 2π ⋅ f ⋅ t )
is modulated through superposing of an audio-frequency signal u(t) in
the form
E AM ( t ) = E0 ⋅ (1 + k AM ⋅ u ( t ) ) ⋅ cos ( 2π ⋅ f ⋅ t )
k AM: coupling coefficient
The experiment P3.7.2.4 demonstrates the dielectric nature of water. In
water, decimeter waves of the same frequency propagate with a shorter
wavelength than in air. Therefore, a receiver dipole tuned for reception
of the wavelength in air is no longer adequately tuned when placed in
water.

135
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

P3.7.3
PROPAGATION OF
DECIMETER-RANGE
WAVES ALONG LINES

P3.7.3.1
Determining the current and voltage
maxima on a Lecher line

P3.7.3.2
Investigating the current and voltage
on a Lecher line with a loop dipole

Determining the current and voltage maxima on a Lecher line (P3.7.3.1)

E. Lecher (1890) was the first to suggest using two parallel wires for
directional transmission of electromagnetic waves. Using such Lecher
P3.7.3.1-2

lines, as they are known today, electromagnetic waves can be trans-

Cat. No. Description mitted to any point in space. They are measured along the line as a
voltage U(x,t) propagating as a wave, or as a current I(x,t).
587 551 UHF wave generator 1 In the experiment P3.7.3.1, a Lecher line open at the wire ends and a
587 56 Lecher system with accessories 1 shorted Lecher line are investigated. The waves are reflected at the ends
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 of the wires, so that standing waves are formed. The current is zero at
the open end, while the voltage is zero at the shorted end. The current
300 11 Saddle base 3
and voltage are shifted by l/4 with respect to each other, i. e. the wave
antinodes of the voltage coincide with the wave nodes of the current.
The voltage maxima are located using a probe with an attached in-
candescent lamp. An induction loop with connected incandescent lamp
is used to detect the current maxima. The wavelength l is determined
from the intervals d between the current maxima or voltage maxima.
We can say
λ
d=
2
In the experiment P3.7.3.2, a transmitting dipole (l/2 folded dipole) is
attached to the end of the Lecher line. Subsequently, it is no longer
possible to detect any voltage or current maxima on the Lecher line
itself. A current maximum is detectable in the middle of the dipole, and
voltage maxima at the dipole ends.

Current and voltage maxima on a Lecher line

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

P3.7.4
MICROWAVES

P3.7.4.1
Directional characteristic and
polarization of microwaves in
front of a horn antenna

P3.7.4.2
Absorption of microwaves

P3.7.4.3
Interference of microwaves

P3.7.4.4
Diffraction of microwaves

P3.7.4.5
Refraction of microwaves

P3.7.4.6
Total reflection of microwaves

Diffraction of microwaves (P3.7.4.4)

The experiment P3.7.4.1 investigates the orientation and polarization of the

P3.7.4.1-2

microwave field in front of a radiating horn antenna. Here, the field in front
P3.7.4.3
P3.7.4.4
P3.7.4.5
P3.7.4.6

of the horn antenna is measured point by point in both the longitudinal and
Cat. No. Description transverse directions using the E-field probe. To determine the polarization,
a rotating polarization grating made of thin metal strips is used; in this
737 01 Gunn oscillator 1 1 1 1 1 apparatus, the electric field can only form perpendicular to the metal strips.
737 020 Gunn power supply with amplifier 1 1 1 1 1 The polarization grating is set up between the horn antenna and the E-field
737 21 Large horn antenna 1 1 1 1 1 probe. This experiment shows that the electric field vector of the radiated
737 35 Electric field probe 1 1 1 1 1 microwaves is perpendicular to the long side of the horn radiator.
688 809 Stand rod 245 mm long, with thread M6 1 1 1 1 1 The experiment P3.7.4.2 deals with the absorption of microwaves.
Working on the assumption that reflections may be ignored, the absorption
737 27 Physics microwave accessories I 1 1 1
in different materials is calculated using both the incident and the trans-
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 1 1 1 mitted intensity. This experiment reveals a fact which has had a profound
300 11 Saddle base 2 2 4 2 1 impact on modern cooking: microwaves are absorbed particularly inten-
501 022 BNC cable, 2 m 2 2 2 2 2 sively by water.
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1 1 1 1 1 In the experiment P3.7.4.3, standing microwaves are generated by
737 390 Set of Microwave Absorbers 1* 1* 1* 1* 1* reflection at a metal plate. The intensity, measured at a fixed point between
the horn antenna and the metal plate, changes when the metal plate is shif-
737 275 Physics microwave accessories II 1 1 1 1
ted longitudinally. The distance between two intensity maxima corresponds
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 to one half the wavelength. Inserting a dielectric in the beam path shortens
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 the wavelength.
* additionally recommended The experiments P3.7.4.4 and P3.7.4.5 show that many of the properties
of microwaves are comparable to those of visible light. The diffraction of
microwaves at an edge, a single slit, a double slit and an obstacle are inve-
stigated. Additionally, the refraction of microwaves is demonstrated and the
validity of Snell’s law of refraction is confirmed.
The experiment P3.7.4.6 investigates total reflection of microwaves at me-
dia with lower refractive indices. We know from wave mechanics that the
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves in the wavelength range between reflected wave penetrates about three to four wavelengths deep into the
0.1 mm and 100 mm. They are generated e.g. in a cavity resonttor, where- medium with the lower refractive index, before traveling along the bounda-
by the frequency is determined by the volume of the cavity resonator. An ry surface in the form of surface waves. This is verified in an experiment by
E-field probe is used to detect the microwaves; this device measures the placing an absorber (e.g. a hand) on the side of the medium with the lower
parallel component of the electric field. The output signal of the probe is refractive index close to the boundary surface and observing the decrease
proportional to the square of the field strength, and thus to the intensity. in the reflected intensity.

137
ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

P3.7.5
PROPAGATION OF
MICROWAVES ALONG LINES

P3.7.5.1
Guiding of microwaves along
a Lecher line

P3.7.5.2
Qualitative demonstration
of guiding of microwaves along
a metal waveguide

P3.7.5.3
Determining the standing-wave
ratio of a rectangular wave-guide
for a variable reflection factor

Guiding of microwaves along a Lecher line (P3.7.5.1)

To minimize transmission losses over long distances, microwaves can

P3.7.5.3 (a)

also be transmitted along lines. For this application, metal waveguides

are most commonly used; Lecher lines, consisting of two parallel wires,
P3.7.5.2
P3.7.5.1

Cat. No. Description are less common.

Despite this, the experiment P3.7.5.1 investigates the guiding of micro-
737 01 Gunn oscillator 1 1 1 waves along a Lecher line. The voltage along the line is measured using
737 020 Gunn power supply with amplifier 1 1 the E-field probe. The wavelengths are determined from the spacing of
737 21 Large horn antenna 1 1 the maxima.
737 35 Electric field probe 1 1 The experiment P3.7.5.2 demonstrates the guiding of microwaves along
a hollow metal waveguide. First, the E-field probe is used to verify that
688 809 Stand rod 245 mm long, with thread M6 1 1
the radiated intensity at a position beside the horn antenna is very low.
737 275 Physics microwave accessories II 1 Next, a flexible metal waveguide is set up and bent so that the micro-
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 waves are guided to the E-field probe, where they are measured at a
300 11 Saddle base 2 1 greater intensity.
501 022 BNC cable, 2 m 2 2 Quantitative investigations on guiding microwaves in a rectan-
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1 1 gular waveguide are conducted in the experiment P3.7.5.3. Here,
standing microwaves are generated by reflection at a shorting plate
737 390 Set of Microwave Absorbers 1*
in a waveguide, and the intensity of these standing waves is measured
737 27 Physics microwave accessories I 1 as a function of the location in a measuring line with movable measu-
737 021 Gunn Power Supply with SWR Meter 1 ring probe. The wavelength in the waveguide is calculated from the
737 095 Fixed Attenuator 1 distance between two intensity maxima or minima. A variable atte-
737 111 Slotted Measuring Line 1 nuator is set up between the measuring line and the short which can
be used to attenuate the intensity of the returning wave by a specific
737 03 Coax Detector 1
factor, and thus vary the standing-wave ratio.
737 09 Variable Attenuator 1
737 14 Waveguide Termination 1
737 10 Moveable Short 1
737 399 Thumb screw M4, set of 10 1
737 15 Support for waveguide components 1
301 21 Stand base MF 2
501 01 BNC cable, 0.25 m 1
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2

* additionally recommended

138 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

P3.7.6
DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERI-
STIC OF DIPOLE RADIATION
P3.7.6.1
Directional characteristic of a helix
antenna - Recording measured values
manually
P3.7.6.2
Directional characteristic of a Yagi
antenna - Recording measured values
manually
P3.7.6.3
Directional characteristic of a helix
antenna - Recording measured values
with computer
P3.7.6.4
Directional characteristic of a Yagi
antenna - Recording measured values
with computer
P3.7.6.5
Directional characteristic of a Patch
antenna - Recording measured values
with computer

Directional characteristic of a helix antenna - Recording measured values manually (P3.7.6.1)

Directional antennas radiate the greater part of their electromagnetic

energy in a particular direction and/or are most sensitive to reception
P3.7.6.2
P3.7.6.3
P3.7.6.4
P3.7.6.5
P3.7.6.1

from this direction. All directional antennas require dimensions which are
Cat. No. Description
equivalent to multiple wavelengths. In the microwave range, this requi-
737 440 Helical Antenna Kit 1 1 rement can be fulfilled with an extremely modest amount of cost and
effort. Thus, microwaves are particularly suitable for experiments on the
737 03 Coax Detector 1 1 1
directional characteristics of antennas.
737 407 Antenna Stand with Amplifier 1 1
In the experiment P3.7.6.1, the directional characteristic of a helical
737 020 Gunn power supply with amplifier 1 1 antenna is recorded. As the microwave signal is excited with a linearly
737 01 Gunn oscillator 1 1 1 1 1 polarizing horn antenna, the rotational orientation of the helical antenna
737 21 Large horn antenna 1 1 1 1 1 (clockwise or counterclockwise) is irrelevant. The measurement results are
688 809 Stand rod 245 mm long, with thread M6 2 2
represented in the form of a polar diagram, from which the unmistakable
directional characteristic of the helical antenna can be clearly seen.
737 390 Set of Microwave Absorbers 1 1 1 1 1
In the experiment P3.7.6.2, a dipole antenna is expanded using parasitic
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1
elements to create a Yagi antenna, to improve the directional proper-
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 ties of the dipole arrangement. Here, a total of four shorter elements are
501 022 BNC cable, 2 m 1 1 placed in front of the dipole as directors, and a slightly longer element
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 1 placed behind the dipole serves as a reflector. The directional factor of
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 2 2
this arrangement is determined from the polar diagram.
737 415 Set of wire antennas 1 1
In the experiments P3.7.6.3 and P3.7.6.4, the antennas are placed on
a turntable which is driven by an electric motor; the angular turntable
737 405 Rotating Antenna Platform 1 1 1
position is transmitted to a computer. The antennas receive the ampli-
737 05 PIN Modulator 1 1 1 tude-modulated microwave signals, and frequency-selective and phase-
737 06 Unidirectional Line 1 1 1 selective detection are applied to suppress noise. The received signals are
737 15 Support for waveguide components 1 1 preamplified in the turntable. After filtering and amplification, they are
passed on to the computer. For each measurement, the included software
301 21 Stand base MF 2 2 2
displays the receiving power logarithmically in a polar diagram.
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 2 2 2
In the experiment P3.7.6.5 the directional characteristic of patch anten-
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 1 nas is investigated. Depending on the number of patches, the directional
737 428 Set Mikrostrip Antennas 1 characteristics change. The measurement is done on a computer control-
additionally required: PC with Windows led turntable.
1 1 1
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

139
ELECTRICITY
FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM

P3.8.1
TUBE DIODE

P3.8.1.1
Recording the characteristic
of a tube diode

P3.8.1.2
Half-wave rectification
using a tube diode

Recording the characteristic of a tube diode (P3.8.1.1)

A tube diode contains two electrodes: a heated cathode, which emits

electrons due to thermionic emission, and an anode. A positive potential
P3.8.1.2
P3.8.1.1

between the anode and the cathode generates an emission current to

Cat. No. Description
the anode, carried by the free electrons. If this potential is too low,
555 610 Demonstration diode 1 1 the emission current is prevented by the space charge of the emitted
electrons, which screen out the electrical field in front of the cathode.
555 600 Tube stand 1 1
When the potential between the anode and the cathode is increased,
521 65 Tube power supply, 0...500 V 1 1 the isoelectric lines penetrate deeper into the space in front of the
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 cathode, and the emission current increases. This increase of the current
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 with the potential is described by the Schottky-Langmuir law:
3
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 5 2 I ∝U2
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 4 3 This current increases until the space charge in front of the cathode has
536 191 Measuring resistor, 10 kW 1 been overcome and the saturation value of the emission current has
521 40 Variable transformer, 0...250 V 1 been reached. On the other hand, if the negative potential applied to
the anode is sufficient, the electrons cannot flow to the anode and the
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1
emission current is zero.
575 231 Probe 100 MHz, 1:1 / 10:1 1
In the experiment P3.8.1.1, the characteristic of a tube diode is recor-
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 ded, i.e. the emission current is measured as the function of the anode
potential. By varying the heating voltage, it can be demonstrated that
the saturation current depends on the temperature of the cathode.
The experiment P3.8.1.2 demonstrates half-wave rectification of the AC
voltage signal using a tube diode. For this experiment, an AC voltage is
applied between the cathode and the anode via an isolating transformer,
and the voltage drop is measured at a resistor connected in series. This
experiment reveals that the diode blocks when the voltage is reversed.

Anode current IA as a function of the anode voltage UA

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 ELECTRICITY
FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM

P3.8.2
TUBE TRIODE

P3.8.2.1
Recording the characteristic
field of a tube triode

P3.8.2.2
Amplifying voltages with
a tube triode

Recording the characteristic field of a tube triode (P3.8.2.1)

In a tube triode, the electrons pass through the mesh of a grid on their
way from the cathode to the anode. When a negative voltage U G is
P3.8.2.2
P3.8.2.1

applied to the grid, the emission current IA to the anode is reduced; a

Cat. No. Description
positive grid voltage increases the anode current. In other words, the
555 612 Demonstration triode 1 1
anode current can be controlled by the grid voltage.
555 600 Tube stand 1 1
The experiment P3.8.2.1 records the family of characteristics of the
triode, i.e. the anode current IA as a function of the grid voltage U G
521 65 Tube power supply, 0...500 V 1 1
and the anode voltage UA
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2
The experiment P3.8.2.2 demonstrates how a tube triode can be used
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 as an amplifier. A suitable negative voltage U G is used to set the wor-
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 2 king point of the triode on the characteristic curve IA(UA) so that the
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 6 3 characteristic is as linear as possible in the vicinity of the working
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 4 3
point. Once this has been set, small changes in the grid voltage dU G
cause a change in the anode voltage dUA by means of a proportional
536 251 Measuring resistor, 100 kW 1
change in the anode current dIA . The ratio:
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
δU A
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 V =
δUG
575 231 Probe 100 MHz, 1:1 / 10:1 1
is known as the gain.
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1

Characteristic field of a tube triode

141
ELECTRICITY
FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM

P3.8.3
MALTESE-CROSS TUBE

P3.8.3.1
Demonstrating the linear propagation
of electrons in a field-free space

P3.8.3.2
Deflection of electrons in an axial
magnetic field

Deflection of electrons in an axial magnetic field (P3.8.3.2)

In the Maltese cross tube, the electrons are accelerated by the anode
to a fluorescent screen, where they can be observed as luminescent
P3.8.3.2
P3.8.3.1

phenomena. A Maltese cross is arranged between the anode and the

Cat. No. Description
fluorescent screen, and its shadow can be seen on the screen. The
555 620 Maltese cross tube 1 1
Maltese cross has its own separate lead, so that it can be connected to
any desired potential.
555 600 Tube stand 1 1
The experiment P3.8.3.1 confirms the linear propagation of electrons in
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1
a field-free space. In this experiment, the Maltese cross is connected
510 48 Magnets, 35 mm Ø, pair 1 to the anode potential and the shadow of the Maltese cross in the
500 611 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, red 1 1 electron beam is compared with the light shadow. We can conclude
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1 2 from the observed coincidence of the shadows that electrons propa-
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 2
gate in a straight line. The Maltese cross is then disconnected from any
potential. The resulting space charges around the Maltese cross give
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 2
rise to a repulsive potential, so that the image on the fluorescent
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 2 screen becomes larger.
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1 In the experiment P3.8.3.2 an axial magnetic field is applied using an
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 electromagnet. The shadow cross turns and shrinks as a function of
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 the coil current. When a suitable relationship between the high voltage
and the coil current is set, the cross is focused almost to a point, and
becomes larger again when the current is increased further. The ex-
planation for this magnetic focusing may be found in the helical path of
the electrons in the magnetic field.

Shadow of the maltese cross on the fluorescent screen

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 ELECTRICITY
FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM

P3.8.4
PERRIN TUBE

P3.8.4.1
Hot-cathode emission in a
vacuum: determining the polarity
and estimating the specific charge
of the emitted charge carriers

P3.8.4.2
Generating Lissajou figures
through electron deflection in
crossed alternating magnetic fields

P3.8.4.3
Generating Lissajou figures
through electron deflection in
parallel alternating electrical
and magnetic field

Hot-cathode emission in a vacuum: determining the polarity and estimating the specific charge of the emitted
charge carriers (P3.8.4.1)

In the Perrin tube, the electrons are accelerated through an anode with
pin-hole diaphragm onto a fluorescent screen. Deflection plates are
P3.8.4.2
P3.8.4.3
P3.8.4.1

mounted at the opening of the pin-hole diaphragm for horizontal elec-

Cat. No. Description trostatic deflection of the electron beam. A Faraday’s cup, which is set
up at an angle of 45° to the electron beam, can be charged by the elec-
555 622 Perrin tube 1 1 1
trons deflected vertically upward. The charge current can be measured
555 600 Tube stand 1 1 1 using a separate connection.
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1 1 1 In the experiment P3.8.4.1, the current through a pair of Helmholtz
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1 1 coils is set so that the electron beam is incident on the Faraday’s cup
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 of the Perrin tube. The Faraday’s cup is connected to an electroscope
540 091 Electroscope 1 which has been pre-charged with a known polarity. The polarity of the
electron charge can be recognized by the direction of electroscope
300 11 Saddle base 1
deflection when the Faraday’s cup is struck by the electron beam. At the
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 1 same time, the specific electron charge can be estimated. The following
500 611 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, red 1 1 1 relationship applies:
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 2 2 2 e 2U A
= U A : anode voltage
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 1 1 m ( B ⋅ r )2
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 4 3 3
The bending radius r of the orbit is predetermined by the geometry of
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 2 3 3 the tube. The magnetic field B is calculated from the current I through
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 2 2 the Helmholtz coils.
562 14 Coil, 500 turns 1 In the experiment P3.8.4.2, the deflection of electrons in crossed
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 alternating magnetic fields is used to produce Lissajou figures on the
fluorescent screen. This experiment demonstrates that the electrons
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1
respond to a change in the electromagnetic fields with virtually no lag.
300 761 Support blocks, set of 6 1
In the experiment P3.8.4.3, the deflection of electrons in parallel elec-
521 40 Variable transformer, 0...250 V 1 tric and magnetic alternating fields is used to produce Lissajou figures
on the fluorescent screen.

143
ELECTRICITY
FREE CHARGE CARRIERS IN A VACUUM

P3.8.5
THOMSON TUBE

P3.8.5.1
Investigating the deflection of
electrons in electrical and
magnetic fields

P3.8.5.2
Assembling a velocity filter
(Wien filter) to determine the
specific electron charge

Investigating the deflection of electrons in electrical fields (P3.8.5.1)

In the Thomson tube, the electrons pass through a slit behind the anode
and fall glancingly on a fluorescent screen placed in the beam path
P3.8.5.1-2

at an angle. A plate capacitor is mounted at the opening of the slit

Cat. No. Description diaphragm which can electrostatically deflect the electron beam verti-
cally. In addition, Helmholtz coils can be used to generate an external
555 624 Electron deflection tube 1 magnetic field which can also deflect the electron beam.
555 600 Tube stand 1 The experiment P3.8.5.1 investigates the deflection of electrons in
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1 electric and magnetic fields. For different anode voltages UA , the beam
path of the electrons is observed when the deflection voltage U P at the
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 2
plate capacitor is varied. Additionally, the electrons are deflected in the
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 magnetic field of the Helmholtz coils by varying the coil current I. The
500 611 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, red 2 point at which the electron beam emerges from the fluorescent screen
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1 gives us the radius R of the orbit. When we insert the anode voltage in
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 the following equation, we can obtain an experimental value for the
specific electron charge
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 2
e 2U A
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 4 =
m ( B ⋅ r )2
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2
whereby the magnetic field B is calculated from the current I.
In the experiment P3.8.5.2, a velocity filter (Wien filter) is constructed
using crossed electrical and magnetic fields. Among other things, this
configuration permits a more precise determination of the specific
electron charge. At a fixed anode voltage UA , the current I of the Helm-
holtz coils and the deflection voltage U P are set so that the effects
of the electric field and the magnetic field just compensate each other.
The path of the beam is then virtually linear, and we can say:
2
e 1  U 
= ⋅ P 
m 2U A B ⋅d 
d : plate spacing of the plate capacitorr

Investigating the deflection of electrons in magneetic fields

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN GASES

P3.9.1
SPONTANEOUS AND
NON-SPONTANEOUS
DISCHARGE

P3.9.1.1
Non-spontaneous gas discharge:
comparison between the charge
transport in a gas triode and a
high-vacuum triode

P3.9.1.2
Ignition and extinction of
spontaneous gas discharge

Non-spontaneous gas discharge: comparison between the charge transport in a gas triode and a
high-vacuum triode (P3.9.1.1)

A gas becomes electrically conductive, i. e. gas discharge occurs, when a

sufficient number of ions or free electrons as charge carriers are present
in the gas. As the charge carriers recombine with each other, new ones
P3.9.1.2
P3.9.1.1

Cat. No. Description must be produced constantly. We speak of self-maintained gas dischar-
ge when the existing charge carriers produce a sufficient number of
555 614 Gas triode 1 1 new charge carriers through the process of collision ionization. In non-
555 612 Demonstration triode 1 self-maintained gas discharge, free charge carriers are produced by
external effects, e. g. by the emission of electrons from a hot cathode.
555 600 Tube stand 1 1
The experiment P3.9.1.1 looks at non-self-maintained gas discharge.
521 65 Tube power supply, 0...500 V 1 1
The comparison of the current-voltage characteristics of a high-vacuum
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 1 triode and a He gas triode shows that additional charge carriers are
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 1 created in a gas triode. Some of the charge carriers travel to the grid of
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 6 4 the gas triode, where they are measured using a sensitive ammeter to
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 4 2 determine their polarity.
The experiment P3.9.1.2 investigates self-maintained discharge in a He
gas triode. Without cathode heating, gas discharge occurs at an ignition
voltage U Z. This gas discharge also maintains itself at lower voltages,
and only goes out when the voltage falls below the extinction voltage
U L . Below the ignition voltage U Z, non-self-maintained discharge can be
triggered, e. g. by switching on the cathode heating.

145
ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN GASES

P3.9.2
GAS DISCHARGE AT
REDUCED PRESSURE

P3.9.2.1
Investigating spontaneous
gas discharge in air as a function
of pressure

Investigating spontaneous gas discharge in air as a function of pressure (P3.9.2.1)

Glow discharge is a special form of gas discharge. It maintains itself

at low pressures with a relatively low current density, and is connected
P3.9.2.1

with spectacular luminous phenomena. Research into these phenomena

Cat. No. Description provided fundamental insights into the structure of the atom.
In the experiment P3.9.2.1, a cylindrical glass tube is connected to a
554 161 Discharge tube, canal rays 1 vacuum pump and slowly evacuated. A high voltage is applied to the
378 752 Rotary-vane vacuum pump D 2.5 E 1 electrodes at the end of the glass tube. No discharge occurs at standard
378 023 Male ground joint, ST 19/26, DN 16 KF 1 pressure. However, when the pressure is reduced to a certain level, current
flows, and a luminosity is visible. When the gas pressure is further re-
378 015 Cross piece, DN 16 KF 1
duced, multiple phases can be observed: First, a luminous “thread” joins
378 050 Clamping ring, DN 10/16 KF 5 the anode and the cathode. Then, a column of light extends from the
378 045ET2 Centring rings, DN 16 KF, set of 2 3 anode until it occupies almost the entire space. A glowing layer forms
378 777 Fine vacuum ball valve, DN 16 KF 1 on the cathode. The column gradually becomes shorter and breaks down
378 776 Variable leak valve, DN 16 KF 1 into multiple layers, while the glowing layer becomes larger. The laye-
ring of the luminous zone occurs because after collision excitation, the
378 5131 Pirani vacuum gauge with display 1
exciting electrons must traverse an acceleration distance in order to
378 701 Leybold high-vacuum grease 1 acquire enough energy to re-excite the atoms. The spacing of the layers
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 thus illustrates the free path length.
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 2
378 764 Exhaust filter AF 8 1*

* additionally recommended

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 ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN GASES

P3.9.3
CATHODE RAYS AND
CANAL RAYS

P3.9.3.1
Magnetic deflection of cathode
and canal rays

Magnetic deflection of cathode and canal rays (P3.9.3.1)

Cathode and canal rays can be observed in a gas discharge tube which
contains only a residual pressure of less than 0.1 mbar. When a high
P3.9.3.1

voltage is applied, more and more electrons are liberated from the
Cat. No. Description residual gas on collision with the cathode. The electrons travel to the
anode virtually unhindered, and some of them manage to pass through
554 161 Discharge tube, canal rays 1 a hole to the glass wall behind it. Here they are observed as fluorescence
378 752 Rotary-vane vacuum pump D 2.5 E 1 phenomena. The luminousity also appears behind the cathode, which is
also provided with a hole. A tightly restricted canal ray consisting of
378 023 Male ground joint, ST 19/26, DN 16 KF 1
positive ions passes straight through the hole until it hits the glass wall.
378 015 Cross piece, DN 16 KF 1
In the experiment P3.9.3.1, the cathode rays, i. e. the electrons, and the
378 050 Clamping ring, DN 10/16 KF 5 canal rays are deflected using a magnet. From the observation that the
378 045ET2 Centring rings, DN 16 KF, set of 2 3 deflection of the canal rays is significantly less, we can conclude that
378 777 Fine vacuum ball valve, DN 16 KF 1 the ions have a lower specific charge
378 776 Variable leak valve, DN 16 KF 1
378 5131 Pirani vacuum gauge with display 1
378 701 Leybold high-vacuum grease 1
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 2
510 48 Magnets, 35 mm Ø, pair 1
378 764 Exhaust filter AF 8 1*

* additionally recommended

147
 P3.9.3.1 Magnetic deflection of cathode
and canal rays (close up)

148 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
P4 ELECTRONICS

P4.1 COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS 151

P4.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 159
P4.3 OPEN- AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 161
P4.5 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 162

149
P4 ELECTRONICS

P4.1 COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS P4.3 OPEN- AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL
P4.1.1 Current and voltage sources 151-152 P4.3.2 Closed-loop control 161
P4.1.2 Special resistors 153
P4.1.3 Diodes 154 P4.5 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
P4.1.4 Diode circuits 155 P4.5.1 Simple combinations 162
P4.1.5 Transistors 156 P4.5.2 Logic circuits 163
P4.1.6 Transistor circuits 157 P4.5.3 Analog inputs and outputs 164
P4.1.7 Optoelectronics 158

P4.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

P4.2.1 Internal design of an operational amplifier 159
P4.2.2 Operational amplifier circuits 160

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 ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.1
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
SOURCES

P4.1.1.1
Determining the internal resistance
of a battery

P4.1.1.2
Operating a DC power supply
as constant-current and
constant-voltage source

Determining the internal resistance of a battery (P4.1.1.1)

The voltage U 0 generated in a voltage source generally differs from the

terminal voltage U measured at the connections as soon as a current I
is drawn from the voltage source. A resistance R i must therefore exist
P4.1.1.2
P4.1.1.1

Cat. No. Description within the voltage source, across which a part of the generated voltage
drops. This resistance is called the internal resistance of the voltage
576 86 Monocell holder STE 2/50 1 source.
576 71 Plug-in board section, STE 1 In the experiment P4.1.1.1, a rheostat as an ohmic load is connected to
685 48ET5 Batteries 1.5 V (D, mono), set of 5 1 a battery to determine the internal resistance. The terminal voltage U of
the battery is measured for different loads, and the voltage values are
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2
plotted over the current I through the rheostat. The internal resistance
537 32 Rheostat, 10 ohms 1 1 R i is determined using the formula
501 23 Connecting lead, 32 A, 25 cm, black 5 U = U0 − Ri ⋅ I
521 501 AC/DC power supply, 0...15 V/0...5 A 1
by drawing a best-fit straight line through the measured values. A
501 30 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, red 1 second diagram illustrates the power
501 31 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, blue 1 P = U ⋅I
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1* as a function of the load resistance. The power is greatest when the load
501 25 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, red 1* resistance has the value of the internal resistance R i.
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1* The experiment P4.1.1.2 demonstrates the difference between a
constant-voltage source and a constant-current source using a DC
* additionally recommended
power supply in which both modes are implemented. The voltage and
current of the power supply are limited to the respective values U 0 and
I 0. The terminal voltage U and the current I consumed are measured for
various load resistances R. When the load resistance R is reduced, the
terminal voltage retains a constant value U 0 as long as the current I
remains below the set limit value I 0. The DC power supply operates as a
constant-voltage source with an internal resistance of zero. When the
load resistance R is increased, the current consumed remains constant
at I 0 as long as the terminal voltage does not exceed the limit value U 0.
The DC power supply operates as a constant-current source with infinite
internal resistance.

151
ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.1
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
SOURCES

P4.1.1.3
Recording the current-voltage
characteristics of a solar battery
as a function of the irradiance

Recording the current-voltage characteristics of a solar battery as a function of the irradiance (P4.1.1.3)

The solar cell is a semiconductor photoelement in which irradiance

is converted directly to electrical energy at the p-n junction. Often,
multiple solar cells are combined to create a solar battery.
P4.1.1.3

Cat. No. Description In the experiment P4.1.1.3 the current-voltage characteristics of a solar
battery are recorded for different irradiance levels. The irradiance is
578 63 Solar module, 2 V/0.3 A, STE 4/100 1 varied by changing the distance of the light source. The characteri-
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 stic curves reveal the characteristic behavior. At a low load resistance,
576 77 Board holders, STE, pair 1 the solar battery supplies an approximately constant current. When it
exceeds a critical voltage (which depends on the irradiance), the solar
577 90 Potentiometer, 220 W, STE 4/50 1
battery functions increasingly as a constant-voltage source.
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1
300 11 Saddle base 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1

Current-voltage characteristics for different illuminance levels

152 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.2
SPECIAL RESISTORS

P4.1.2.1
Recording the current-voltage
characteristic of an incandescent
lamp

P4.1.2.2
Recording the current-voltage
characteristic of a varistor

P4.1.2.3
Measuring the temperature-
dependancy of PTC and
NTC resistors

P4.1.2.4
Measuring the light-dependancy
of photoresistors

Recording the current-voltage characteristic of an incandescent lamp (P4.1.2.1)

Many materials do not conduct voltage and current in proportion to

one another. Their resistance depends on the current level. In technical
applications, elements in which the resistance depends significantly on
P4.1.2.2
P4.1.2.3
P4.1.2.4
P4.1.2.1

Cat. No. Description the temperature, the luminous intensity or another physical quantity are
increasingly important.
505 08 Bulbs, 12 V/3 W, E10, set of 10 1 In the experiment P4.1.2.1, the computer-assisted measured-value
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 1 recording system CASSY is used to record the current-voltage characte-
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 ristic of an incandescent lamp. As the incandescent filament heats up
when current is applied, and its resistance depends on the tempera-
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
ture, different characteristic curves are generated when the current is
578 00 VDR resistor, STE 2/19 1 switched on and off. The characteristic also depends on the rate of in-
576 71 Plug-in board section, STE 1 1 2 crease dU/dt of the voltage.
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1 1 The experiment P4.1.2.2 records the current-voltage characteristic of
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 2 2 a varistor (VDR voltage dependent resistor). Its characteristic is non-
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 2 linear in its operating range. At higher currents, it enters the so-cal-
led “rise range“, in which the ohmic component of the total resistance
500 441 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, red 1 1 1
increases.
578 06 PTC probe, 30 W, STE 2/19 1
The aim of the experiment P4.1.2.3 is to measure the temperature
578 04 NTC probe, 4.7 kW, STE 2/19 1 characteristics of an NTC thermistor resistor and a PTC thermistor
666 767 Hotplate, 1500 W, 180 mm diam. 1 resistor. The respective measured values can be described using empiri-
382 34 Thermometer, -10...+110 °C/0.2 K 1 cal equations in which only the rated value R 0, the reference tempera-
664 104 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, squat 1 ture T0 and a material constant appear as parameters.
578 02 Photoresistor LDR 05, STE 2/19 1 The subject of the experiment P4.1.2.4 is the characteristic of a
CdS light-dependent resistor (LDR). Its resistance varies from approx.
579 05 Lamp holder, E10, lateral, STE 2/19 1
100 W to approx. 10 MW, depending on the brightness. The resi-
505 131 Bulbs, 6 V/5 W, E10, set of 10 1 stance is measured as a function of the distance from an incandescent
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 lamp which illuminates the light-dependent resistor.
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Current-voltage characteri-
stic of the light bulb

153
 ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.3
DIODES
P4.1.3.1
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of diodes

P4.1.3.2
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of Zener diodes (Z-diodes)

P4.1.3.3
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of light-emitting diodes (LED)

P4.1.3.4
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of diodes with CASSY

P4.1.3.5
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of Zener diodes (Z-diodes) with CASSY

P4.1.3.6
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of light-emitting diodes (LED) with CASSY

Recording the current-voltage characteristics of diodes (P4.1.3.1_a)

Virtually all aspects of electronic circuit technology rely on semi-

conductor components. The semiconductor diodes are among the
P4.1.3.2 (a)
P4.1.3.3 (a)
P4.1.3.1 (a)

simplest of these. They consist of a semiconductor crystal in which an

P4.1.3.4
P4.1.3.5
P4.1.3.6

Cat. No. Description n-conducting zone is adjacent to a p-conducting zone. Capture of the
charge carriers, i.e. the electrons in the n-conducting and the “holes”
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1 1 in the p-conducting zones, forms a low-conductivity zone at the junc-
578 51 Diode, 1N 4007, STE 2/19 1 1 tion called the depletion layer. The size of this zone is increased when
electrons or holes are removed from the depletion layer by an external
578 50 Diode, AA 118, germanium, STE 2/19 1 1
electric field with a certain orientation. The direction of this electric
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1 1 1 field is called the reverse direction. Reversing the electric field drives
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 1 1 the respective charge carriers into the depletion layer, allowing current
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 2 2 to flow more easily through the diode.
Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/ In the experiments P4.1.3.1 and P4.1.3.4, the current-voltage characte-
501 45 2 2 2 2 2 2
blue, pair ristics of an Si-diode (silicon diode) and a Ge-diode (germanium diode)
500 441 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, red 1 1 1 1 1 1 are measured and graphed manually point by point or with CASSY. The
aim is to compare the current in the reverse direction and the threshold
578 55 Zener diode, 6.2 V, STE 2/19 1 1
voltage as the most important specifications of the two diodes.
578 54 Zener diode, 9.1 V, STE 2/19 1 1
The objective of the experiments P4.1.3.2 and P4.1.3.5 is to measure
578 57 Light emitting diode, green, STE 2/19 1 1 the current-voltage characteristic of a zener or Z-diode. Here, special
578 47 Light emitting diode, yellow, STE 2/19 1 1 attention is paid to the breakdown voltage in the reverse direction, as
578 48 Light emitting diode, red, STE 2/19 1 1 when this voltage level is reached the current rises abruptly. The current
578 49 Infrared diode, lateral, STE 2/19 1 1 is due to charge carriers in the depletion layer, which, when accelerated
by the applied voltage, ionize additional atoms of the semiconductor
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1
through collision.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1
The experiments P4.1.3.3 and P4.1.3.6 compares the characteristics of
additionally required: PC with infrared, red, yellow and green light-emitting diodes.
1 1 1
Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Recording the current-voltage characteristics of light-emitting diodes (LED)

154 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.4
DIODE CIRCUITS

P4.1.4.1
Rectifying AC voltage
using diodes

P4.1.4.2
Voltage-limiting with a Z-diode

P4.1.4.3
Testing polarity with
light-emitting diodes

P4.1.4.4
Rectifying AC voltage
using diodes with CASSY

Rectifying AC voltage using diodes (P4.1.4.1_a)

Diodes, zener diodes (or Z-diodes) and light-emitting diodes are used
P4.1.4.1 (b)
P4.1.4.1 (a)

today in virtually every electronic circuit.

P4.1.4.2

P4.1.4.3

P4.1.4.4

The experiment P4.1.4.1 explores the function of half-wave and full-

Cat. No. Description wave rectifiers in the rectification of AC voltages. The half-wave recti-
fier assembled using a single diode blocks the first half-wave of every
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1
AC cycle and conducts only the second half-wave (assuming the diode
578 51 Diode, 1N 4007, STE 2/19 4 4 4 is connected with the corresponding polarity). The full-wave rectifier,
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 1 1 1 1 assembled using four diodes in a bridge configuration, uses both half-
505 08 Bulbs, 12 V/3 W, E10, set of 10 1 1 1 1 waves of the AC voltage.
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 1 The experiment P4.1.4.2 demonstrates how a Z-diode can be used
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 1 1 1 1 to protect against voltage surges. As long as the applied voltage is
below the breakdown voltage U Z of the Z-diode, the Z-diode acts as
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1
an insulator and the voltage U is unchanged. At voltages above U Z, the
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 current flowing through the Z-diode is so high that U is limited to U Z.
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 2 The aim of the experiment P4.1.4.3 is to assemble a circuit for testing
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 3 3 1 3 the polarity of a voltage using a green and a red light emitting diode
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 (LED). The circuit is tested with both DC and AC voltage.
578 55 Zener diode, 6.2 V, STE 2/19 1 The experiment P4.1.4.4 explores the function of half-wave and full-
577 42 Resistor, 680 W, STE 2/19 1 1 wave rectifiers in the rectification of AC voltages. The half-wave recti-
fier assembled using a single diode blocks the first half-wave of every
578 57 Light emitting diode, green, STE 2/19 1
AC cycle and conducts only the second half-wave (assuming the diode
578 48 Light emitting diode, red, STE 2/19 1 is connected with the corresponding polarity). The full-wave rectifier,
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 assembled using four diodes in a bridge configuration, uses both half-
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 waves of the AC voltage. The computer-based system CASSY is used to
additionally required: PC with Windows record the voltages.
1
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

155
 ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.5
TRANSISTORS

P4.1.5.1
Investigating the diode properties
of transistor junctions

P4.1.5.2
Recording the characteristics
of a transistor

P4.1.5.3
Recording the characteristics
of a field-effect transistor

P4.1.5.4
Recording the characteristics
of a transistor with CASSY

P4.1.5.5
Recording the characteristics
of a field-effect transistor with CASSY

Recording the characteristics of a transistor (P4.1.5.2_a)

Transistors are among the most important semiconductor components

P4.1.5.2 (a)

P4.1.5.3 (a)

in electronic circuit technology. We distinguish between bipolar tran-

P4.1.5.4

P4.1.5.5
P4.1.5.1

sistors, in which the electrons and holes are both involved in conduc-
Cat. No. Description ting current, and field-effect transistors, in which the current is carried
solely by electrons. The electrodes of a bipolar transistor are called the
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1
emitter, the base and the collector. The transistor consists of a total of
Transistor, BD 137, NPN, emitter bottom,
578 67
STE 4/50
1 1 1 three n-conducting and p-conducting layers, in the order npn or pnp.
The base layer, located in the middle, is so thin that charge carriers
578 68 Transistor, BD 138, PNP, e.b., STE 4/50 1
originating at one junction can cross to the other junction. In field-
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1 1 effect transistors, the conductivity of the current-carrying channel is
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 1 changed using an electrical field, without applying power. The element
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 3 2 which generates this field is called the gate. The input electrode of a
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 3 4 3 2 2 field-effect transistor is known as the source, and the output electrode
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 is called the drain.
577 64 Resistor, 47 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 The experiment P4.1.5.1 examines the principle of the bipolar transistor
577 90 Potentiometer, 220 W, STE 4/50 1 1
and compares it with a diode. Here, the difference between an npn and
a pnp transistor is explicitly investigated.
577 92 Potentiometer, 1 kW, STE 4/50 1 1
The experiments P4.1.5.2 and P4.1.5.4 examine the properties of an npn
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1
transistor on the basis of its characteristics. This experiment measures
578 77 Transistor (field effect), BF244, STE 4/50 1 1
the input characteristic, i.e. the base current I B as a function of the
578 51 Diode, 1N 4007, STE 2/19 1 base-emitter voltage U BE, the output characteristic, i.e. the collec-
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 tor current I C as a function of the collector-emitter voltage U CE at a
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 constant base current I B and the collector current I C as a function of the
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 base current I B at a constant collector-emitter voltage U CE.
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 In the experiments P4.1.5.3 and P4.1.5.5, the characteristic of a field-
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1 effect transistor, i.e. the drain current I D, is recorded and diagrammed
as a function of the voltage U DS between the drain and source at a
577 56 Resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 1
constant gate voltage U G.
578 31 Capacitor, 0.1 µF, STE 2/19 1 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
CASSY ®

additionally required: PC with Windows

1 1
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

156 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.6
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

P4.1.6.1
The transistor as an amplifier

P4.1.6.2
The transistor as a switch

P4.1.6.3
The transistor as a sine-wave
generator (oscillator)

P4.1.6.4
The transistor as a function generator

P4.1.6.5
The field-effect transistor as
an amplifier

P4.1.6.6
The field-effect transistor as a switch

The transistor as an amplifier (P4.1.6.1_a)

P4.1.6.1 (a)

P4.1.6.1 (a)
P4.1.6.2

P4.1.6.2
P4.1.6.3

P4.1.6.3
P4.1.6.4

P4.1.6.5

P4.1.6.4

P4.1.6.5
P4.1.6.6

P4.1.6.6
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1 1 577 58 Resistor, 15 kW, STE 2/19 2 2 1
578 67 Transistor, BD 137, NPN, emitter bottom, STE 4/50 1 1 577 68 Resistor, 100 kW, STE 2/19 2 1
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 2 577 81 Variable resistor, 4.7 kW, STE 2/19 2
577 56 Resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 3 1 1 578 22 Capacitor, 100 pF, STE 2/19 2
577 64 Resistor, 47 kW, STE 2/19 1 2 1 578 23 Capacitor, 220 pF, STE 2/19 2
577 80 Variable resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 578 35 Capacitor, 1 µF, STE 2/19 2 2
577 82 Variable resistor, 47 kW, STE 2/19 1 578 16 Capacitor, 4.7 µF, STE 2/19 2
578 38 Capacitor (electrolytic), 47 µF, STE 2/19 1 1 501 28 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, black 1 3 1
578 39 Capacitor (electrolytic), 100 µF, STE 2/19 1 577 46 Resistor, 1.5 kW, STE 2/19 2
578 40 Capacitor (electrolytic), 470 µF, STE 2/19 1 1 578 41 Capacitor (electrolytic), 220 µF, bipolar, STE 2/19 1
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 578 13 Capacitor, 0.22 µF, STE 2/19 1
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 1 578 33 Capacitor, 0.47 µF, STE 2/19 1
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 578 51 Diode, 1N 4007, STE 2/19 2
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 1 1 1 505 191 Bulbs, 15 V/2 W, E10, set of 5 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 2 2 2 2 578 77 Transistor (field effect), BF244, STE 4/50 1 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 4 2 2 2 577 61 Resistor, 33 kW, STE 2/19 1
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 1 1 577 657 Resistor, 68 kW, STE 2/19 1
578 02 Photoresistor LDR 05, STE 2/19 1 577 76 Resistor, 1 MW, STE 2/19 1
578 06 PTC probe, 30 W, STE 2/19 1 578 36 Capacitor, 2.2 µF, STE 2/19 1
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 1 2 577 92 Potentiometer, 1 kW, STE 4/50 1
505 08 Bulbs, 12 V/3 W, E10, set of 10 1
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1 Transistor circuits are investigated on the basis of a number of examp-
579 38 Heating element 100 Ohm, 2 W, STE 2/50 1
les. These include the basic connections of a transistor as an amplifier,
the transistor as a light-dependent or temperature-dependent electronic
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 1 1 1 1
switch, the Wien bridge oscillator as an example of a sine-wave generator,
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2 1 1 1 the astable multivibrator, basic circuits with field-effect transistors as
578 76 Transistor, BC 140, NPN, emitter bottom, STE 4/50 2 2 amplifiers as well as the field-effect transistor as a low-frequency switch.

157
ELECTRONICS
COMPONENTS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

P4.1.7
OPTOELECTRONICS

P4.1.7.1
Recording the characteristics
of a phototransistor connected
as a photodiode

P4.1.7.2
Assembling a purely optical
transmission line

Recording the characteristics of a phototransistor connected as a photodiode (P4.1.7.1_a)

P4.1.7.1 (a)

P4.1.7.1 (a)
P4.1.7.2

P4.1.7.2
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 3
578 61 Phototransistor, lateral, STE 2/19 1 1 500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1
577 56 Resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 3
579 05 Lamp holder, E10, lateral, STE 2/19 1 Optoelectronics deals with the application of the interactions between
505 08 Bulbs, 12 V/3 W, E10, set of 10 1 light and electrical charge carriers in optical and electronic devices.
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 Optoelectronic arrangements consist of a light-emitting, a light-trans-
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1
mitting and a light-sensitive element. The light beam is controlled elec-
trically.
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1
The subject of the experiment P4.1.7.1 is a phototransistor without
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2
base terminal connection used as a photodiode. The current-voltage
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 characteristics are displayed on an oscilloscope for the unilluminated,
578 57 Light emitting diode, green, STE 2/19 1 weakly illuminated and fully illuminated states. It is revealed that the
578 58 Light emitting diode, red, lateral, STE 2/19 1 characteristic of the fully illuminated photodiode is comparable with
that of a Z-diode, while no conducting-state behavior can be observed
578 68 Transistor, BD 138, PNP, e.b., STE 4/50 1
in the unilluminated state.
578 85 Operational amplifier, LM 741, STE 4/50 1
The experiment P4.1.7.2 demonstrates optical transmission of the
577 28 Resistor, 47 W, STE 2/19 1 electrical signals of a function generator to a loudspeaker. The
577 40 Resistor, 470 W, STE 2/19 1 signals modulate the light intensity of an LED by varying the on-state
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1 current; the light is transmitted to the base of a phototransistor via a
577 48 Resistor, 2.2 kW, STE 2/19 1 flexible light waveguide. The phototransistor is connected in series to
the speaker, so that the signals are transmitted to the loudspeaker.
577 64 Resistor, 47 kW, STE 2/19 1
578 16 Capacitor, 4.7 µF, STE 2/19 2
578 39 Capacitor (electrolytic), 100 µF, STE 2/19 1
578 40 Capacitor (electrolytic), 470 µF, STE 2/19 1
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
579 29 Earphone 1

158 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ELECTRONICS
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

P4.2.1
INTERNAL DESIGN
OF AN OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER

P4.2.1.1
Discrete assembly of an
operational amplifier as
a transistor circuit

Discrete assembly of an operational amplifier as a transistor circuit (P4.2.1.1)

P4.2.1.1

P4.2.1.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

576 75 Plug-in board, DIN A3, STE 2 501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 2 531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1*
577 36 Resistor, 220 W, STE 2/19 1 * additionally recommended
577 38 Resistor, 330 W, STE 2/19 1
577 40 Resistor, 470 W, STE 2/19 1 Many electronics applications place great demands on the amplifier. The
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 8 ideal characteristics include an infinite input resistance, an infinitely
high voltage gain and an output voltage which is independent of load
577 52 Resistor, 4.7 kW, STE 2/19 2
and temperature. These requirements can be satisfactorily met using an
577 56 Resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 4 operational amplifier.
577 68 Resistor, 100 kW, STE 2/19 1 In the experiment P4.2.1.1, an operational amplifier is assembled from
577 93 Potentiometer, 1 kW, 10-turn, STE 4/50 1 discrete elements as a transistor circuit. The key components of the
578 31 Capacitor, 0.1 µF, STE 2/19 2 circuit are a difference amplifier on the input side and an emitter-
578 39 Capacitor (electrolytic), 100 µF, STE 2/19 1 follower stage on the output side. The gain and the phase relation of
the output signals are determined with respect to the input signals in
578 51 Diode, 1N 4007, STE 2/19 4
inverting and non-inverting operation. This experiment additionally
578 55 Zener diode, 6.2 V, STE 2/19 1 investigates the frequency characteristic of the circuit.
578 69 Transistor, BC 550, NPN, emitter bottom, STE 4/50 3
578 71 Transistor, BC 550, NPN, emitter top, STE 4/50 1
578 72 Transistor, BC 560, PNP, emitter top, STE 4/50 1
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 5
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 5
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 2
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1* Setup of the operational amplifier for the non-inverting case

159
ELECTRONICS
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

P4.2.2
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
CIRCUITS

P4.2.2.1
Unconnected operational
amplifier (comparator)

P4.2.2.2
Inverting operational amplifier

P4.2.2.3
Non-inverting operational amplifier

P4.2.2.4
Adder and subtracter

P4.2.2.5
Differentiator and integrator

Unconnected operational amplifier (comparator) (P4.2.2.1)

P4.2.2.2

P4.2.2.2
P4.2.2.3

P4.2.2.3
P4.2.2.4

P4.2.2.5

P4.2.2.4

P4.2.2.5
P4.2.2.1

P4.2.2.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 1 1 1 577 38 Resistor, 330 W, STE 2/19 1
578 85 Operational amplifier, LM 741, STE 4/50 1 1 1 1 1 577 60 Resistor, 22 kW, STE 2/19 1
577 56 Resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 2 2 2 1 500 421 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, red 1
577 61 Resistor, 33 kW, STE 2/19 2 1 1 577 76 Resistor, 1 MW, STE 2/19 1
577 62 Resistor, 39 kW, STE 2/19 1 578 15 Capacitor, 1 µF, STE 2/19 1
577 68 Resistor, 100 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 4 1 578 16 Capacitor, 4.7 µF, STE 2/19 1
577 74 Resistor, 470 kW, STE 2/19 1 578 76 Transistor, BC 140, NPN, emitter bottom, STE 4/50 1
577 96 Potentiometer, 100 kW, STE 4/50 2 1 1
578 26 Capacitor, 2.2 nF, STE 2/19 2 1 The operational amplifier is an important analogue component in modern electro-
nics. Originally designed as a calculating component for analogue computers, it
578 28 Capacitor, 10 nF, STE 2/19 1 1
has been introduced into an extremely wide range of applications as an amplifier.
578 51 Diode, 1N 4007, STE 2/19 1
The experiment P4.2.2.1 shows that the unconnected operational amplifier over-
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1 1 1 1 drives for even the slightest voltage differential at the inputs. It generates a
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 1 1 1 maximum output signal with a sign corresponding to that of the input-voltage
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 1 1 1 1
differential.
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 1 1
In the experiments P4.2.2.2 and 4.2.2.3, the output of the operational amplifier
is fed back to the inverting and non-inverting inputs via resistor R 2. The ini-
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 2 2 2 tial input signal applied via resistor R1 is amplified in the inverting operational
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 4 4 5 3 3 amplifier by the factor
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2 2 2 2 R2
V =−
577 44 Resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 1 R1
577 50 Resistor, 3.3 kW, STE 2/19 1 and in the non-inverting module by the factor
577 52 Resistor, 4.7 kW, STE 2/19 1 1 1 R2
V = +1
577 64 Resistor, 47 kW, STE 2/19 2 R1
577 80 Variable resistor, 10 kW, STE 2/19 1 1
The experiment P4.2.2.4 demonstrates the addition of multiple input signals and
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 1 the subtraction of input signals.
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1 The aim of the experiment P4.2.2.5 is to use the operational amplifier as a
577 40 Resistor, 470 W, STE 2/19 1 1 differentiator and an integrator. For this purpose, a capacitor is connected to the
input resp. the feedback loop of the operational amplifier. The output signals of
577 46 Resistor, 1.5 kW, STE 2/19 1 1
the differentiator are proportional to the change in the input signals, and those
577 48 Resistor, 2.2 kW, STE 2/19 1 of the integrator are proportional to the integral of the input signals.
577 58 Resistor, 15 kW, STE 2/19 1

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 ELECTRONICS
OPEN- AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL

P4.3.2
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL

P4.3.2.2
Brightness control with CASSY

P4.3.2.3
Voltage control with CASSY

Voltage control with CASSY (P4.3.2.3)

Modern technology without control engineering cannot be imagined.

Practical examples such as a heating control or voltage control are
P4.3.2.2
P4.3.2.3

familiar to everybody. In the following experiments, various controls

Cat. No. Description from the two-point regulator to the PID controller are presented and
investigated.
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1 The aim of the experiments P4.3.2.2 and P4.3.2.3 is the computer-aided
579 05 Lamp holder, E10, lateral, STE 2/19 1 realization of closed control loops. In the one case, a PID controller is
505 10 Bulbs, 3.8 V/0.27 W, E10, set of 10 1 1 assembled and used to control an incandescent lamp whose brightness
is measured using a photoresistor. The other configuration controls a
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1 1
generator which supplies a constant voltage independently of the load.
578 02 Photoresistor LDR 05, STE 2/19 1
577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 1
577 23 Resistor, 20 W, STE 2/19 1
577 28 Resistor, 47 W, STE 2/19 1
577 32 Resistor, 100 W, STE 2/19 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
524 031 Current source box 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2
579 43 Motor and tachogenerator, STE 4/19/50 2
307 641ET5 PVC tubing, 6 mm diam., 5 m 1
579 06 Lamp holder, E10, top, STE 2/19 3
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1
additionally required:
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Voltage regulation of the motor-generator setup

161
ELECTRONICS
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

P4.5.1
SIMPLE COMBINATIONS

P4.5.1.1
AND, OR, XOR, and NAND
operations with two variables

P4.5.1.2
De Morgan‘s laws

P4.5.1.3
Operations with three variables

De Morgan‘s laws (P4.5.1.2)

Digital devices are built on the simple concept of repeated

application of just a few basic circuits. Operations using these
P4.5.1.1-3

circuits are governed by the rules of Boolean algebra, sometimes

Cat. No. Description also called “logic algebra” when applied to digital circuit technology.
The experiment P4.5.1.1 introduces all operations with one or two
571 401 Logic board 1 1 variables used in digital technology. The aim is to verify the laws
which apply in Boolean algebra, i.e. those describing commutation,
idempotents, absorption and negation.
The experiment P4.5.1.2 demonstrates de Morgan‘s laws in practical
application. Not(And(A,B)) = Or(Not(A);Not(B))
The object of the experiment P4.5.1.3 is to verify the associative
and distributive laws through experiment when operating three
variables.

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 ELECTRONICS
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

P4.5.2
LOGIC CIRCUITS

P4.5.2.1
AND, NAND, OR and XOR
operations with four variables

P4.5.2.3
Multiplexers and demultiplexers

P4.5.2.4
Adders

P4.5.2.5
Flipflops

P4.5.2.6
Counters

P4.5.2.7
Shift registers

Flipflops (P4.5.2.5)

A combinatorial circuit performs operations such that the output

variables are only determined by the input variables, but not by past
P4.5.2.3-7
P4.5.2.1

states. A sequential circuit is additionally able to store the states of

Cat. No. Description individual variables. The output variables also depend on the result
of preceding events, which is represented by the switching state of
571 401 Logic board 1 1 flipflops.
571 402 Logic board 2 1 As an approach to the structure of complex combinatorial circuits,
the experiment P4.5.2.1 applies the understanding of basic operations
previously learned to the logical operation of four inputs.
The experiment P4.5.2.3 demonstrates how a multiplexer is used
to switch multiple inputs onto a single output and a demultiplexer
distributes the signals of a single input line to multiple output lines.
The experiment P4.5.2.4 investigates discrete and complex adders as
key components of a computer.
The aim of the experiment P4.5.2.5 is to study the function of flipflops.
It deals with the various demands on the behavior of these fundamental
components of sequential circuits, which are required for assembling
RS, D and JK flipflops.
The experiment P4.5.2.6 is showing the properties of counters in
different configurations.
The experiment P4.5.2.7 investigates the shift register as a working
block of a deserializer.

163
ELECTRONICS
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

P4.5.3
ANALOG INPUTS
AND OUTPUTS

P4.5.3.1
DA and AD Converter

DA and AD Converter (P4.5.3.1)

Interfacing digital circuitry to the often analog world requires the use
of A/D and D/A converters. Transfer characteristics are inverstigated.
P4.5.3.1

The experiment P4.5.3.1 shows the function of analog to digital con-

Cat. No. Description version and digital to analog conversion.

571 402 Logic board 2 1

531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1

164 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
P5 OPTICS

P5.1 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 167

P5.2 DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS 171
P5.3 WAVE OPTICS 176
P5.4 POLARIZATION 189
P5.5 LIGHT INTENSITY 195
P5.6 VELOCITY OF LIGHT 198
P5.7 SPECTROMETER 202
P5.8 PHOTONICS 206

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P5 OPTICS

P5.1 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS P5.5 LIGHT INTENSITY

P5.1.1 Reflection, refraction 167 P5.5.1 Quantities and measuring methods of
P5.1.2 Laws of imaging 168 lighting engineering 195
P5.1.3 Image distortion 169 P5.5.2 Laws of radiation 196-197
P5.1.4 Optical instruments 170
P5.6 VELOCITY OF LIGHT
P5.2 DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS P5.6.1 Measurement according to Foucault/Michelson 198
P5.2.1 Refractive index and dispersion 171 P5.6.2 Measuring with short light pulses 199
P5.2.3 Color mixing 172 P5.6.3 Measuring with an electronically
P5.2.4 Absorption spectra 173-174 modulated signal 200-201
P5.2.5 Reflection spectra 175
P5.7 SPECTROMETER
P5.3 WAVE OPTICS P5.7.1 Prism spectrometer 202
P5.3.1 Diffraction 176-179 P5.7.2 Grating spectrometer 203-205
P5.3.2 Two-beam interference 180
P5.3.3 Newton´s Rings 181-182 P5.8 PHOTONICS
P5.3.4 Michelson interferometer 183-184 P5.8.2 Basic Optics 206-208
P5.3.5 Other types of interferometers 185-186 P5.8.3 Optical applications 209-211
P5.3.6 White-light Reflection Holography 187 P5.8.4 Optical imaging and colour 212
P5.3.7 Transmission Holography 188 P5.8.5 Laser basics 213-216
P5.8.6 Solid state laser 217-219
P5.4 POLARIZATION P5.8.7 Optical fibres 220-222
P5.4.1 Basic experiments 189 P5.8.8 Technical applications 223-227
P5.4.2 Birefringence 190
P5.4.3 Optical activity, polarimetry 191
P5.4.4 Kerr effect 192
P5.4.5 Pockels effect 193
P5.4.6 Faraday effect 194

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 OPTICS
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

P5.1.1
REFLECTION, REFRACTION

P5.1.1.1
Reflection of light at straight
and curved mirrors

P5.1.1.2
Refraction of light at straight
surfaces and investigation of
ray paths in prisms and lenses

Reflection of light at straight and curved mirrors (P5.1.1.1)

Frequently, the propagation of light can be adequately described simply

by defining the ray path. Examples of this are the ray paths of light in
P5.1.1.1-2

mirrors, in lenses and in prisms using sectional models.

Cat. No. Description The experiment P5.1.1.1 examines how a mirror image is formed by
reflection at a plane mirror and demonstrates the reversibility of the
463 52 Optical disc 1 ray path. The law of reflection is experimentally validated:
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 α=β
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 α: angle of incidence, β: angle of reflection
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 Further experiment objectives deal with the reflection of a parallel light
460 43 Small optical bench 1 beam in the focal point of a concave mirror, the existence of a virtual
463 51 Diaphragm with 5 slits 1 focal point for reflection in a convex mirror, the relationship between
focal length and bending radius of the curved mirror and the creation of
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1
real and virtual images for reflection at a curved mirror
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
The experiment P5.1.1.2 deals with the change of direction when light
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 passes from one medium into another. The law of refraction discovered
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 by W. Snell is quantitatively verified:
sin α n2
=
sin β n1
α: angle of incidence, β: angle of refraction,,
n1: refractive index of medium 1 (here air),
n2 : refractive index of medium 2 (here glass)
This experiment topic also studies total reflection at the transition from
a medium with a greater refractive index to one with a lesser refractive
index, the concentration of a parallel light beam at the focal point of a
collecting lens, the existence of a virtual focal point when a parallel light
beam passes through a dispersing lens, the creation of real and virtual
images when imaging with lenses and the ray path through a prism.

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OPTICS
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

P5.1.2
LAWS OF IMAGING

P5.1.2.1
Determining the focal lengths
at collecting and dispersing lenses
using collimated light

P5.1.2.2
Determining the focal lengths
at collecting lenses through
autocollimation

P5.1.2.3
Determining the focal lengths
at collecting lenses using
Bessel’s method

P5.1.2.4
Verifying the imaging laws
with a collecting lens

Determining the focal lengths at collecting lenses using Bessel’s method (P5.1.2.3_b)

The focal lengths of lenses are determined by a variety of means.

P5.1.2.3-4 (b)

The basis for these are the laws of imaging.

P5.1.2.2 (b)
P5.1.2.1 (b)

In the experiment P5.1.2.1, an observation screen is set up parallel to the

optical axis so that the path of a parallel light beam can be observed
Cat. No. Description
on the screen after passing through a collecting or dispersing lens. The
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 1
focal length is determined directly as the distance between the lens and
the focal point
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 1
In autocollimation, experiment P5.1.2.2 a parallel light beam is reflected
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 1
by a mirror behind a lens so that the image of an object is viewed right
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 1 next to that object. The distance d between the object and the lens is
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1 varied until the object and its image are exactly the same size. At this
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1 point, the focal length is
460 04 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 1 f =d

460 06 Lens in frame, f=-100 mm 1 In the Bessel method, experiment P5.1.2.3 the object and the observa-
tion screen are set up at a fixed overall distance s apart. Between these
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1
points there are two lens positions x1 and x 2 at which a sharply focused
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1 1 image of the object is produced on the observation screen. From the
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 2 2 2 lens laws, we can derive the following relationship for the focal length
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 1 1 1
1  ( x − x2 ) 
2

311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 1 f = ⋅ s − 1

4  s 
 
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1
In the experiment P5.1.2.4, the object height G, the object width g,
460 09 Lens in frame, f=300 mm 1
the image height B and the image width b are measured directly for a
461 66 Objects for investigating images, pair 1 1 collecting lens in order to confirm the lens laws. The focal length can be
460 28 Plane mirror, 14 cm x 9 cm, with ball joint 1 calculated using the formula:
g ⋅b
f =
g +b

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 OPTICS
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

P5.1.3
IMAGE DISTORTION

P5.1.3.1
Spherical aberration in
lens imaging

P5.1.3.2
Astigmatism and curvature of
image field in lens imaging

P5.1.3.3
Lens imaging distortions
(barrel and cushion) and coma

P5.1.3.4
Chromatic aberration in
lens imaging

Spherical aberration in lens imaging (P5.1.3.1_b)

A spherical lens only images a point in an ideal point when the imaging
P5.1.3.2 (b)
P5.1.3.3 (b)
P5.1.3.4 (b)

ray traces intersect the optical axis at small angles, and the angle of
P5.1.3.1 (b)

incidence and angle of refraction are also small when the ray passes
Cat. No. Description through the lens. As this condition is only fulfilled to a limited extent in
practice, aberrations (image defects) are unavoidable.
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 1 1 The experiments P5.1.3.1 and P5.1.3.2 deal with aberrations of image
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 1 1 sharpness. In a ray path parallel to the optical axis, paraxial rays are
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 1 1 united at a different distance from abaxial rays. This effect, known
as “spherical aberration”, is particularly apparent in lenses with sharp
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 1 1
curvatures. Astigmatism and curvature of field may be observed when
461 61 Diaphragms for spherical aberration, pair 1 imaging long objects with narrow light beams. The focal plane is in
461 66 Objects for investigating images, pair 1 1 1 reality a curved surface, so that the image on the observation screen
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 1 1 1 becomes increasingly fuzzy toward the edges when the middle is sharply
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1 1 focused. Astigmatism is the phenomenon whereby a tightly restricted
light beam does not produce a point-type image, but rather two lines
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 1 1
which are perpendicular to each other with a finite spacing with respect
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1 1 1 to the axis.
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 2 2 2 2 The experiment P5.1.3.3 explores aberrations of scale. Blocking light
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 2 2 2 2 rays in front of the lens causes a barrel-shaped distortion, i. e. a
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 reduction in the imaging scale with increasing object size. Screening
467 95 Colour filter set, primary 1 behind the lens results in cushion-type aberrations. “Coma” is the term
for one-sided, plume-like or blob-like distortion of the image when
imaged by a beam of light passing through the lens at an oblique angle.
The experiment P5.1.3.4 examines chromatic aberrations. These are
caused by a change in the refractive index with the wavelength, and
are thus unavoidable when not working with non-monochromatic light.

Intersections of paraxial and abaxial rays

169
OPTICS
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

P5.1.4
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

P5.1.4.1
Magnifier and microscope

P5.1.4.2
Kepler’s telescope and
Galileo’s telescope

Magnifier and microscope (P5.1.4.1_b)

The magnifier, the microscope and the telescope are introduced as optical in-
P5.1.4.2 (b)

struments which primarily increase the angle of vision. The design principle of
P5.1.4.1 (b)

each of these instruments is reproduced on the optical bench. For quantitative

conclusions, the common definition of magnification is used:
Cat. No. Description
tan ψ
V =
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 tan ϕ
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 ψ: angle of vision with instrument
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 ϕ: angle of vision without instrument

521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 In the experiment P5.1.4.1, small objects are observed from a short distance.
First, a collecting lens is used as a magnifier. Then, a microscope in its simplest
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1
form is assembled using two collecting lenses. The first lens, the objective,
311 09 Glass scale, 5 cm 1 produces a real, magnified and inverted intermediate image. The second lens,
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1 the ocular (or eyepiece) is used as a magnifier to view this intermediate image.
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1 For the total magnification of the microscope, the following applies:
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 VM = Vob ⋅ Voc
Vob : imaging scale of objective
460 04 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 1 1
Voc : imaging scale of ocular
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1
Here, Voc corresponds to the magnification of the magnifier.
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 2
s0
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 4 2 Voc =
foc
441 53 Screen, translucent 1
s0 : clear field of vision
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
foc : focal length of ocular
460 05 Lens in frame, f=500 mm 1
The aim of the experiment P5.1.4.2 is to observe distant objects using a
460 06 Lens in frame, f=-100 mm 1 telescope. The objective and the ocular of a telescope are arranged so that
311 22 Vertical rule 1 the back focal point of the objective coincides with the front focal point of
300 11 Saddle base 1 the ocular. A distinction is made between the Galilean telescope, which uses
a dispersing lens as an ocular and produces an erect image, and the Kepler
telescope, which produces an inverted image because its ocular is a collecting
lens. In both cases, the total magnification can be determined as:
fob
VT =
foc
fob : focal length of objective
Ray path through the Kepler telescope foc : focal length of ocular

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 OPTICS
DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS

P5.2.1
REFRACTIVE INDEX
AND DISPERSION

P5.2.1.1
Determining the refractive index
and dispersion of flint glass and
crown glass

P5.2.1.2
Determining the refractive index
and dispersion of liquids

Determining the refractive index and dispersion of liquids (P5.2.1.2_b)

Dispersion is the term for the fact that the refractive index n is different
P5.2.1.2 (b)
P5.2.1.1 (b)

for different-colored light. Often, dispersion also refers to the quantity

dn/dl, i.e. the quotient of the change in the refractive index dn and the
Cat. No. Description change in the wavelength dl.
In the experiment P5.2.1.1, the angle of minimum deviation j is
465 22 Prism, crown glass 1 determined for a flint glass and a crown glass prism at the same refrac-
465 32 Prism, flint glass 1 ting angle e. This enables determination of the refractive index of the
460 25 Prism table 1 1 respective prism material according to the formula
1
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 sin ( ε + ϕ)
n= 2
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 1
sin ε
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 2
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 The measurement is conducted for several different wavelengths, so
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 that the dispersion can also be quantitatively measured.
468 03 Light filter, red 1 1 In the experiment P5.2.1.2, an analogous setup is used to investigate
468 07 Light filter, yellow-green 1 1 dispersion in liquids. Toluol, turpentine oil, cinnamic ether, alcohol and
water are each filled into a hollow prism in turn, and the differences in
468 11 Light filter, blue with violet 1 1
the refractive index and dispersion are observed.
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 1
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 1 1
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 3 3
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1
465 51 Hollow prism 1
665 002 Funnel 1
675 2100 Toluene, 250 ml 1
675 0410 Turpentine oil, rectified, 250 ml 1
675 4760 Cinnamic ethylester, 100 ml 1

Ray path through a prism

171
OPTICS
DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS

P5.2.3
COLOR MIXING

P5.2.3.2
Demonstration of additive
color mixing

P5.2.3.3
Demonstration of subtractive
color mixing

Demonstration of additive color mixing (P5.2.3.2)

The colour recognition of the human eye is determined by three

types of light receptor cones in the retina. Comparison of the different
P5.2.3.2
P5.2.3.3

colours (wavelength ranges) of the visible spectrum with the sensi-

Cat. No. Description tivity of the different types of cone reveals division into the primary
colours: red, green and blue. Combinations of two primary colours result
459 046 Triple lamp, 12 V/3 x 6 W 1 in the secondary colours: cyan, magenta and yellow. Therefore secon-
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 1 dary colour filters absorb the third primary colour. A combination of all
three primary colours results in white.
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1
In experiment P5.2.3.2 several colour filters (red, green, blue) are placed
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1
next to each other in front of a lamp with 3 light sources and in the
688 045 Sliding diaphragms, set of 6 1 image on a screen the overlap of these primary colours show additive
467 95 Colour filter set, primary 1 1 colour mixing.
467 96 Colour filter set, secondary 1 1 In experiment P5.2.3.3 subtractive colour mixing is shown by placing
467 97 Triple colour filter 1 colour filters (yellow, magenta, cyan) partially overlapping in the light
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 beam of a lamp.
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 1 1
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 2 3
460 313 Clamp rider with fixing column 1 1
459 032 Halogen lamp,12 V/20 W 1
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1

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DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS

P5.2.4
ABSORPTION SPECTRA

P5.2.4.1
Absorption spectra of
tinted glass samples

P5.2.4.2
Absorption spectra of
colored liquids

Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples (P5.2.4.1_b)

The colors we perceive when looking through colored glass or liquids are
P5.2.4.2 (b)
P5.2.4.1 (b)

created by the transmitted component of the spectral colors.

In the experiment P5.2.4.1, the light passing through colored pieces of
Cat. No. Description glass from an incandescent light bulb is viewed through a direct-vision
prism and compared with the continuous spectrum of the lamp light.
466 05 Direct vision prism 1 1 The original, continuous spectrum with the continuum of spectral colors
467 96 Colour filter set, secondary 1 disappears. All that remains is a band with the color components of the
468 01 Light filter, dark red 1 filter.
468 09 Light filter, blue-green 1 In the experiment P5.2.4.2, the light passing through colored liquids from
an incandescent light bulb is viewed through a direct-vision prism and
468 11 Light filter, blue with violet 1
compared with the continuous spectrum of the lamp light. The original,
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 continuous spectrum with the continuum of spectral colors disappears.
460 25 Prism table 1 2 All that remains is a band with the color components of the liquid.
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 2 2
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 3 3
477 14 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 50 x 20 mm 1
672 0810 Fuchsine, 25 g 1

Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples (without filter set,

magenta, yellow, cyan)

173
OPTICS
DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS

P5.2.4
ABSORPTION SPECTRA

P5.2.4.3
Absorption spectra of tinted glass
samples - Recording and evaluating
with a spectrophotometer

P5.2.4.4
Absorption and fluorescence spectra
of coloured liquids - Recording and
evaluating with a spectrophotometer

P5.2.4.5
Absorption spectra of PMMA optical
waveguide - Recording and evaluating
with a spectrophotometer

Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples - Recording and evaluating with a spectrophotometer (P5.2.4.3)

In the experiment P5.2.4.3, the light from an incandescent light bulb pas-
sing through coloured pieces of glass is recorded with a spectrometer and
P5.2.4.3
P5.2.4.4
P5.2.4.5

compared with the continuous spectrum of the lamp light. The original,
Cat. No. Description
continuous spectrum with the continuum of spectral colors disappears.
467 96 Colour filter set, secondary 1
All that remains is a band with the colour components of the filter. The
transmission coefficient and the optical density of the coloured pieces of
468 01 Light filter, dark red 1
glass are calculated.
468 09 Light filter, blue-green 1
In the experiment P5.2.4.4, the light from an incandescent light bulb
468 11 Light filter, blue with violet 1 1 passing through a coloured liquid is recorded using a spectrometer.
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 The fluorescence of the coloured liquid is recorded under a right angle.
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 A blue filter is used to clearly separate fluorescence and light scatte-
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1
ring. Both, absorption and fluorescence spectra are compared with the
continuous spectrum of the lamp light.
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1
In the experiment P5.2.4.5, light passing through an optical fibre is recor-
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1
ded by a compact spectrometer. The higher order overtones of molecular
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1 1 1 oscillations create spectral ranges of high absorption, leaving ranges of
460 251 Fibre holder 1 1 1 high transmission in between, the so called „optical windows“.
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 3 4
477 14 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 50 x 20 mm 1
460 25 Prism table 1
300 11 Saddle base 1 2
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
604 5672 Double microspatula, steel, 150 mm 1
672 0110 Fluoresceine, 25 g 1
451 17 Lamp socket, E27, Euro plug 1
505 302 Halogen Bulb 230 V/ 46 W, E27 1
579 44 Light waveguide, set of 2 1
additionally required:
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
Absorption and fluorescence spectra of coloured liquids (P5.2.4.4)

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DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS

P5.2.5
REFLECTION SPECTRA

P5.2.5.1
Reflection spectra of different
materials - Recording and evaluating
with a spectrophotometer

Reflection spectra of different materials - Recording and evaluating with a spectrophotometer (P5.2.5.1)

The colors we perceive of opaque objects are induced by the reflected

component of the spectral colors.
P5.2.5.1

In the experiment P5.2.5.1, the light from an incandescent light bulb

Cat. No. Description reflected by different materials is recorded using a spectrometer. The
reflection coefficients are calculated and compared.
567 06 Conductors/insulators, set of 6 1
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1
460 251 Fibre holder 1
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 3
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

Reflectivity of different materials against the wavelength

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P5.3.1
DIFFRACTION

P5.3.1.1
Diffraction at a slit, at a post
and at a circular iris diaphragm

P5.3.1.2
Diffraction at a double slit and
multiple slits

P5.3.1.3
Diffraction at one- and
two-dimensional gratings

Diffraction at a double slit and multiple slits (P5.3.1.2)

The experiment P5.3.1.1 looks at the intensity minima for diffraction at a

slit. Their angles jk with respect to the optical axis for a slit of the width b
is given by the relationship
P5.3.1.2
P5.3.1.3
P5.3.1.1

Cat. No. Description λ

sin ϕk = k ⋅( k = 1; 2; 3;…)
b
469 91 Diaphragm with 3 single slits 1 λ: wavelength of the light
469 96 Diaphragm with 3 diffraction holes 1 In accordance with Babinet’s theorem, diffraction at a post produces similar
469 97 Diaphragm with 3 diffraction objects 1 results. In the case of diffraction at a circular iris diaphragm with the radius
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 1 r, concentric diffraction rings may be observed; their intensity minima can
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 1
be found at the angles jk using the relationship
λ
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1 1 1 sin ϕk = k ⋅ ( k = 0.610; 1.116; 1.619;…)
r
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1 1
The experiment P5.3.1.2 explores diffraction at a double slit. The construc-
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 1
tive interference of secondary waves from the first slit with secondary
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 4 4 4 waves from the second slit produces intensity maxima; at a given distance
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 1 d between slit midpoints, the angles jn of these maxima are specified by
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 1 λ
sin ϕn = n ⋅ ( n = 0; 1; 2;…)
469 84 Diaphragm with 3 double slits of different slit widths 1 d
469 85 Diaphragm with 4 double slits of different slit spacing 1 The intensities of the various maxima are not constant, as the effect of
469 86 Diaphragm with 5 multiple slits with different slit numbers 1 diffraction at a single slit is superimposed on the diffraction at a double
slit. In the case of diffraction at more than two slits with equal spacings
469 87 Diaphragm with 3 gratings 1
d, the positions of the interference maxima remain the same. Between any
469 88 Diaphragm with 2 wire-mesh gratings 1 two maxima, we can also detect N-2 secondary maxima; their intensities
decrease for a fixed slit width b and increasing number of slits N.
The experiment P5.3.1.3 investigates diffraction at a line grating and a
crossed grating. We can consider the crossed grating as consisting of two
line gratings arranged at right angles to each other.The diffraction maxima
are points at the “nodes” of a straight, square matrix pattern.

Interference pattern of experiment P5.3.1.2 on the screen

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P5.3.1
DIFFRACTION

P5.3.1.4
Diffraction at a single slit -
Recording and evaluating
with CASSY

P5.3.1.5
Diffraction at a double slit and
multiple slits - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P5.3.1.4)

A photoelement with a narrow light opening is used to measure the

diffraction intensities; this sensor can be moved perpendicularly to
the optical axis on the optical bench, and its lateral position can be
P5.3.1.4
P5.3.1.5

Cat. No. Description measured using a displacement transducer. The measured values are
recorded and evaluated using the software CASSY Lab.
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 The experiment P5.3.1.4 investigates diffraction at slit of variable width.
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 The recorded measured values for the intensity I are compared with the
578 62 Solar cell, STE 2/19 1 1 results of a model calculation for small diffraction angles j which uses
the slit width b as a parameter:
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1
2
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1 1   πb  
 sin  ϕ 
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1 l ∝  λ   where ϕ = s
 πb  L
460 33 Optical bench with standardised profile, 2 m 1 1  ϕ 
 λ 
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 4 4 λ: wavelength of the light
460 383 Sliding rider, 90/50 1 1 s: lateral shift of photoelement
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 L: distance between object and photoelement
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
The experiment P5.3.1.5 explores diffraction at multiple slits. In the
524 040 µV box 1 1 model calculation performed for comparison purposes, the slit width b
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1 1 and the slit spacing d are both used as parameters.
301 07 Simple bench clamp 1 1 
2
 πb     N πd  
2

 sin  ϕ   sin  ϕ 
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1 1
  λ     λ 
l∝ ⋅
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 1 1  πb    πd  
 ϕ   sin  ϕ  
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1  λ    λ  
469 84 Diaphragm with 3 double slits of different slit widths 1 N: number of illuminated slits

469 85 Diaphragm with 4 double slits of different slit spacing 1

Diaphragm with 5 multiple slits with different slit
469 86 1
numbers
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1
additionally required:
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

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P5.3.1
DIFFRACTION

P5.3.1.6
Diffraction at a single slit -
Recording and evaluating
with VideoCom

P5.3.1.7
Diffraction at a double slit and
multiple slits - Recording and
evaluating with VideoCom

P5.3.1.8
Diffraction at a half-plane -
Recording and evaluating
with VideoCom

Diffraction at a half-plane - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom (P5.3.1.8)

Diffraction at a single slit P5.3.1.6 or double slit and multiple slits P5.3.1.7 can
also be measured as a one-dimensional spatial intensity distribution using the
single-line CCD camera VideoCom (here used without the camera lens). The
P5.3.1.8
P5.3.1.6
P5.3.1.7

VideoCom software enables fast, direct comparison of the measured intensi-

Cat. No. Description
ty distributions with model calculations in which the wavelength l, the focal
length f of the imaging lens, the slit width b and the slit spacing d are all used as
460 14 Adjustable slit 1
parameters. These parameters agree closely with the values arrived at through
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 1 experiment.
472 401 Polarisation filter 1 1 1 It is also possible to investigate diffraction at a half-plane P5.3.1.8. Thanks
337 47USB VideoCom 1 1 1 to the high-resolution CCD camera, it becomes easy to follow the intensity
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1 1 1 distribution over more than 20 maxima and minima and compare it with the
result of a model calculation. The model calculation is based on Kirchhoff’s
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1
formulation of Huygens’ principle. The intensity I at point x in the plane of
460 11 Lens in frame, f=500 mm 1 1 1 observation is calculated from the amplitude of the electric field strength E at
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 1 this point using the formula
l (x) = E (x)
2
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 7 7 6
469 84 Diaphragm with 3 double slits of different slit widths 1 The field strength is obtained through the phase-correct additionof all secon-
469 85 Diaphragm with 4 double slits of different slit spacing 1 dary waves originating from various points x’ in the diffraction plane, from the
469 86 Diaphragm with 5 multiple slits with different slit numbers 1 half-plane boundary x‘ = 0 to x‘ = ∞:
∞
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 E ( x ) ∼ ∫ exp ( i ⋅ ϕ ( x, x ' ) ) ⋅ dx '
additionally required: Here,
0
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
2π ( x − x ' )
2

ϕ ( x, x ' ) = ⋅
λ 2L
In the phase shift of the secondary wave which travels from point x’ in the
diffraction plane to point x in the observation plane as a function of the direct
wave. The parameters in the model calculation are the wavelength l and the
distance L between the diffraction plane and the observation plane. Here too,
the agreement with the values obtained in the experiment is close.

Measured (black) and calculated (red) intensity distributions (P5.3.1.6, P5.3.1.8)

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P5.3.1
DIFFRACTION

P5.3.1.9
Investigation of the spatial coherence
of an extended light source

Investigation of the spatial coherence of an extended light source (P5.3.1.9)

Coherence is the property of waves that enables them to exhibit

stationary interference patterns. The spatial coherence of a light source
can be examined in a Young’s double-slit interferometer. A light source
P5.3.1.9

Cat. No. Description illuminates a double slit with slit width b and distance g. If the partial
beams emitted by the light source are coherent at the position of the
451 062 Spectral lamp, Hg 100 1 two slits an interference pattern can be observed after the double slit.
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1 The condition for coherent illumination of the two slits is
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 1 a λ
∆s = a ⋅ sin α = ⋅ (g + b ) <
2 L 2
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1
The experiment P5.3.1.9 explores the condition for spatial coherence.
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 2
The light source is a single slit of variable width illuminated by a
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 1
Hg spectral lamp. Combined with a filter this results in a monochro-
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 3 matic light source with variable width a. At a distance L double slits of
468 07 Light filter, yellow-green 1 different distances of the slits g (and fixed slit width b) are illumina-
460 22 Holder with spring clips 2 ted. For each distance g the width a of the adjustable single slit is de-
termined where the interference pattern after the double slit vanishes.
688 045 Sliding diaphragms, set of 6 1
Then, the coherence condition is no longer fulfilled.
460 14 Adjustable slit 1
469 85 Diaphragm with 4 double slits of different slit spacing 1
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1
460 135 Ocular with scale 1

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P5.3.2
TWO-BEAM INTERFERENCE

P5.3.2.1
Interference at a Fresnel‘s mirror
with an He-Ne laser

P5.3.2.2
Lloyd’s mirror experiment with
an He-Ne laser

P5.3.2.3
Interference at Fresnel’s biprism
with an He-Ne laser

Interference at a Fresnel‘s mirror with an He-Ne laser (P5.3.2.1)

In these experiments, two coherent light sources are generated by

recreating three experiments of great historical significance. In each
P5.3.2.1-2
P5.3.2.3

of these experiments, the respective wavelength l of the light used

Cat. No. Description is determined by the distance d between two interference lines and
the distance a of the (virtual) light sources. At a sufficiently great
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 distance L between the (virtual) light sources and the projection screen,
471 05 Fresnel‘s mirror, adjustable 1 the relationship
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1 1 d
λ =a⋅
L
460 04 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 1 1
obtains. The determination of the quantity a depends on the respective
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1
experiment setup.
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 3 3
In 1821, A. Fresnel used two mirrors inclined with respect to one
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 1 1
another to create two virtual light sources positioned close
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 together, which, being coherent, interfered with each other - P5.3.2.1.
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 In 1839, H. Lloyd demonstrated that a second, virtual light source
311 53 Vernier callipers 1 1 coherent with the first can be created by reflection in a mirror. He
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1 observed interference phenomena between direct and reflected
light - P5.3.2.2.
471 09 Fresnel biprism 1
Coherent light sources can also be produced using a Fresnel biprism,
460 25 Prism table 1
first demonstrated in 1826 (P5.3.2.3). Refraction in both halves of
the prism results in two virtual images, which are closer together the
smaller the prism angle is.

P5.3.2.1 P5.3.2.2 P5.3.2.3

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P5.3.3
NEWTON´S RINGS

P5.3.3.1
Newton‘s Rings in transmitted
monochromatic light

P5.3.3.2
Newton‘s rings in transmitted
and reflected white light

Newton‘s rings in transmitted and reflected white light (P5.3.3.2)

Newton’s rings are produced using an arrangement in which a con-

vex lens with an extremely slight curvature is touching a glass plate,
P5.3.3.2
P5.3.3.1

so that an air wedge with a spherically curved boundary surface is

Cat. No. Description formed. When this configuration is illuminated with a vertically
incident, parallel light beam, concentric interference rings (the
471 111 Glass plates for Newton‘s rings 1 1 Newton’s rings) are formed around the point of contact between the
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 2 two glass surfaces both in reflection and in transmitted light. For
the path difference of the interfering partial beams, the thickness d
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1
of the air wedge is the defining factor; this distance is not in a linear
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 relation to the distance r from the point of contact:
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1
r2
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 6 5 d=
2R
451 111 Spectral lamp, Na 1 R: bending radius of convex lens
451 062 Spectral lamp, Hg 100 1 In the experiment P5.3.3.1, the Newton’s rings are investigated with
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1 monochromatic, transmitted light. At a known wavelength l, the
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 bending radius R is determined from the radii rn of the interference
rings. Here, the relationship for constructive interference is:
468 30 Light filter, yellow 1
λ
468 31 Light filter, green 1 d =n⋅ where n = 0, 1, 2, …
2
468 32 Light filter, blue 1
Thus, for the radii of the bright interference rings, we can say:
441 53 Screen, translucent 1
rn2 = n ⋅ R ⋅ λ where n = 0, 1, 2, …
300 11 Saddle base 1
460 04 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 2 In the experiment P5.3.3.2, the Newton’s rings are studied both in
reflection and in transmitted light. As the partial beams in the air wedge
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 1
are shifted in phase by l/2 for each reflection at the glass surfaces,
460 380 Cantilever arm 1
the interference conditions for reflection and transmitted light are
471 88 Beam splitter 2 complementary. The radii rn of the bright interference lines calculated
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 for transmitted light using the equations above correspond precisely
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 to the radii of the dark rings in reflection. In particular, the center of
the Newton’s rings is bright in transmitted light and dark in reflection.
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1
As white light is used, the interference rings are bordered by colored
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 fringes.

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P5.3.3
NEWTON´S RINGS

P5.3.3.3
Newton‘s rings in reflected
monochromatic light -
Recording and evaluating
with VideoCom

Newton‘s rings in reflected monochromatic light - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom (P5.3.3.3)

In the experiment P5.3.3.3 Newton’s rings in reflection are investi-

gated. The interference rings are displayed directly on the photo-
P5.3.3.3

transistor line of the VideoCom. This is used for identifying the dia-
Cat. No. Description meters or radii rn for the different wavelengths l of the interference
filters. The condition for destructive interference is in this case
471 111 Glass plates for Newton‘s rings 1 rn2 = n ⋅ l
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1
with n = 1, 2, 3, ....Therefore the radii of the dark interference rings are
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 4 given by
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 1 l
d = ( n − 1) ⋅
460 380 Cantilever arm 1 2
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 with n = 1, 2, 3, ....
450 521 Bulbs, 12 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1
471 88 Beam splitter 1
460 04 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 1
468 41 Holder for interference filters 1
468 401 Interference filter, 578 nm 1
337 47USB VideoCom 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
468 403 Interference filter, 436 nm 1*
468 405 Interference filter, 633 nm 1*
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

* additionally recommended

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P5.3.4
MICHELSON
INTERFEROMETER

P5.3.4.1
Setting up a Michelson inter-
ferometer on the laser optics
base plate

P5.3.4.2
Determining the wavelength of the
light of an He-Ne laser using a
Michelson interferometer

P5.3.4.7
Magnetostriction using a
Michelson interferometer

Setting up a Michelson interferometer on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.4.1)

In a Michelson interferometer, an optical element divides a coherent light

P5.3.4.2
P5.3.4.7
P5.3.4.1

beam into two parts. The component beams travel different paths, are
Cat. No. Description reflected into each other and finally recombined. As the two compo-
nent beams have a fixed phase relationship with respect to each other,
473 40 Laser optics base plate 1 1 1 interference patterns can occur when they are superposed on each
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 1 other. A change in the optical path length of one component beam alters
473 411 Laser mount 1 1 1
the phase relation, and thus the interference pattern as well. Thus, given
a constant refractive index, a change in the interference pattern can be
473 421 Optics base 4 5 3
used to determine a change in the geometric path, e.g. changes in length
473 432 Beam divider, 50 % 1 1 1 due to heat expansion or the effects of electric or magnetic fields. When
473 431 Holder for beam divider 1 1 1 the geometric path is unchanged, then this configuration can be used
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2 2 1 to investigate changes in the refractive index due to variations e.g. in
pressure, temperature and density
473 471 Spherical lens, f = 2.7 mm 1 1 1
In the experiment P5.3.4.1, the Michelson interferometer is assembled on
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 1
the vibration-proof laser optics base plate. This setup is ideal for demon-
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 1
strating the effects of mechanical shocks and air streaking.
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 1 1
In the experiment P5.3.4.2, the wavelength of an He-Ne laser is deter-
473 48 Fine adjustment mechanism 1 mined from the change in the interference pattern when moving an inter-
471 931 Set magnetostriction 1 ferometer mirror using the shifting distance Ds of the mirror. During this
562 15 Coil, 1 000 turns 1 shift, the interference lines on the observation screen move. In evaluation,
either the interference maxima or interference minima passing a fixed
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1
point on the screen while the plane mirror is shifted are counted. For the
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 wavelength l, the following equation applies:
∆s
λ = 2⋅
Z
Z: number of intensity maxima or minima counted
In the experiment P5.3.4.7 a metal sample attached to one of the mirrors
of a Michelson interferometer is placed in a magnetic field. Varying the
current through an external, thermally isolated coil will change the length
of the sample. Counting fringes, this behaviour can be quantified for
different metals.

Setup of the Michelson interferometer

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P5.3.4
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

P5.3.4.3
Determining the wavelength of the
light of an He-Ne laser using a
Michelson interferometer -
Set-up on the optical bench

P5.3.4.4
Determination of the coherence time
and the line width of spectral lines with
the Michelson interferometer

P5.3.4.5
Investigation of the pressure induced
line broadening using a Michelson
interferometer

P5.3.4.6
Determination of the line splitting of
two spectral lines using a Michelson
interferometer

Determination of the coherence time and the line width of spectral lines with the Michelson interferometer (P5.3.4.4_a)

Temporal coherence can be investigated by means of a Michelson inter-

P5.3.4.4 (a)
P5.3.4.5 (a)
P5.3.4.6 (a)

ferometer. The maximum time difference Dt during which interference

P5.3.4.3

can be observed is called the coherence time. The coherence length

Cat. No. Description is defined as the distance DsC the light travels in the coherence time.
Typical coherence lengths are a few microns in incandescent lamps, some
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 millimeters in spectral lamps and many meters in lasers. In addition, the
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 1 1 coherence time DtC is connected to the spectral width Dn or Dl of the
light source:
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 1 1 1 1
1 1 λ2
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 5 7 7 7 ∆ν = or ∆λ = ⋅ 0
∆tC c ∆tC
471 88 Beam splitter 1 1 1 1
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2 2 2 2 In the experiment P5.3.4.3, the Michelson interferometer is assembled on
the optical bench. The wavelength of an He-Ne laser is determined from
460 380 Cantilever arm 1 1 1 1
the change in the interference pattern when moving an interferometer
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1 mirror using the shifting distance Ds of the mirror.
473 48 Fine adjustment mechanism 1 1 1 1 In the experiment P5.3.4.4 the wavelength l of the green spectral line of
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 1 1 a Hg spectral lamp is determined. To measure the coherence length the
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 1 1 positions of the movable plane mirror are measured where interference
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1
can barely be seen. From the difference in path length the coherence
length DsC , the coherence time DtC and the line width Dn of the spectral
451 062 Spectral lamp, Hg 100 1 1 1
line are determined.
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1 1 1
In experiment P5.3.4.5 the coherence lengths and spectral widths of the
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 1 1 green spectral line of a Hg spectral lamp and a high pressure mercury
460 26 Iris diaphragm 2 2 2 lamp are determined and the results are compared. The higher pressure in
468 07 Light filter, yellow-green 1 1 the high pressure mercury lamp leads to a significant broadening of the
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 1
spectral line causing a shorter coherence length.
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1
In the experiment P5.3.4.6 the mean wavelength l and the line splitting
Dl of the yellow line doublet is determined. For two different proximate
451 19 Lamp socket, E 27, multi-pin connector 1
wavelengths l1 and l2 the coherent superposition of two beams leads
468 30 Light filter, yellow 1 to a beating: At distinct path length differences the contrast between
bright and dark rings of the interference pattern is big while for other path
length differences the contrast vanishes completely.

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P5.3.5
OTHER TYPES OF
INTERFEROMETERS

P5.3.5.1
Setting up a Mach-Zehnder
interferometer on the laser optics
base plate

P5.3.5.2
Measuring the refractive index
of air with a Mach-Zehnder
interferometer

Measuring the refractive index of air with a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (P5.3.5.2)

In a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, an optical element divides a coherent

light beam into two parts. The component beams are deflected by mir-
P5.3.5.2
P5.3.5.1

rors and finally recombined. As the two partial beams have a fixed phase
Cat. No. Description relationship with respect to each other, interference patterns can occur
when they are superposed on each other. A change in the optical path
473 40 Laser optics base plate 1 1 length of one component beam alters the phase relation, and consequently
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 the interference pattern as well. As the component beams are not reflected
into each other, but rather travel separate paths, these experiments are
473 411 Laser mount 1 1
easier to comprehend and didactically more effective than experiments
473 421 Optics base 5 6 with the Michelson interferometer. However, the Mach-Zehnder interfero-
473 431 Holder for beam divider 2 2 meter is more difficult to adjust.
473 432 Beam divider, 50 % 2 2 In the experiment P5.3.5.1, the Mach-Zehnder interferometer is assembled
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2 2 on the vibration-proof laser optics base plate.
473 471 Spherical lens, f = 2.7 mm 1 1 In the experiment P5.3.5.2, the refractive index of air is determined. To
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 achieve this, an evacuable chamber is placed in the path of one compo-
nent beam of the Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Slowly evacuating the
300 11 Saddle base 1 1
chamber alters the optical path length of the respective component beam.
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 1
Note: Setting up a Michelson interferometer is recommended before using
473 485 Evacuable chamber 1 a Mach-Zehnder interferometer for the first time.
375 58 Hand vacuum pump 1
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1
604 520 Connector with nipple 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1

Setting up a Mach-Zehnder interferometer on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.5.1)

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OPTICS
WAVE OPTICS

P5.3.5
OTHER TYPES OF
INTERFEROMETERS

P5.3.5.3
Determining the wavelength of
the light of an He-Ne laser using
a Fabry-Perot interferometer

Determining the wavelength of the light of an He-Ne laser using a Fabry-Perot interferometer (P5.3.5.3)

Besides the Michelson and Mach-Zender interferometers, more geo-

metries can be used to split a light beam in two parts and let them
P5.3.5.3

overlap afterwards. One with particular practical use is the Fabry-Perot

Cat. No. Description interferometer.
In the experiment P5.3.5.3 the mirrors on the laser base plate are
473 40 Laser optics base plate 1 arranged to set up a Fabry-Perot interferometer with two parallel
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 mirrors in line. The first semi-transparent mirror splits the light beam,
473 411 Laser mount 1 while the second fully reflective mirror reflects the light back to overlap
with the first reflected beam. Moving the second mirror will change
473 421 Optics base 5
the length of the resonator, thus changing the interference pattern and
473 432 Beam divider, 50 % 2 enables the measurement of the laser wavelength.
473 431 Holder for beam divider 2
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 1
473 48 Fine adjustment mechanism 1
473 471 Spherical lens, f = 2.7 mm 1
441 53 Screen, translucent 1
300 11 Saddle base 1
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1

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WAVE OPTICS

P5.3.6
WHITE-LIGHT REFLECTION
HOLOGRAPHY

P5.3.6.1
Creating white-light reflection
holograms on the laser optics
base plate

Creating white-light reflection holograms on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.6.1)

In creating white-light reflection holograms, a broadened laser beam

passes through a film and illuminates an object placed behind the film.
P5.3.6.1

Light is reflected from the surface of the object back onto the film,
Cat. No. Description where it is superposed with the light waves of the original laser beam.
The film consists of a light-sensitive emulsion of sufficient thickness.
473 40 Laser optics base plate 1 Interference creates standing waves within the film, i.e. a series of
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 numerous nodes and antinodes at a distance of l/4 apart. The film is
exposed in the planes of the anti-nodes but not in the nodes. Semi-
473 411 Laser mount 1
transparent layers of metallic silver are formed at the exposed areas.
473 421 Optics base 3 To reconstruct the image, the finished hologram is illuminated with
473 441 Film holder 1 white light – the laser is not required. The light waves reflected by the
473 451 Object holder 1 semitransparent layers are superposed on each other in such a way that
473 471 Spherical lens, f = 2.7 mm 1 they have the same properties as the waves originally reflected by the
object. The observer sees at three-dimensional image of the object.
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1
Light beams originating at different layers only reinforce each other
663 615 Socket strip for earthed plugs, 5-way 1 when they are in phase. The in-phase condition is only fulfilled for a
313 17 Hand-held stop-watch II, mechanical 1 certain wavelength, which allows the image to be reconstructed using
649 11 Storage trays, 86 x 86 x 26, set of 6 1 white light.
661 234 Polyethylene bottle 3 The object of the experiment P5.3.6.1 is to create white-light reflection
667 016 Scissors, 200 mm, pointed 1 holograms. This process uses a protection class 2 laser, so as to mini-
mize the risk of eye damage for the experimenter. Both amplitude and
473 448 Holography film, 3000 lines/mm 1
phase holograms can be created simply by varying the photochemical
473 446 Darkroom accessories 1 processing of the exposed film.
473 444 Photographic chemicals 1 Recommendation: The Michelson interferometer on the laser optics
671 8910 Iron(III) nitrate-9-hydrate, 250 g 1 base plate is ideal for demonstrating the effects of disturbances due to
672 4910 Potassium bromide, 100 g 1 mechanical shocks or air streaking in unsuitable rooms, which can
prevent creation of satisfactory holograms

Experiment setup for creating white-light reflection holograms

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WAVE OPTICS

P5.3.7
TRANSMISSION
HOLOGRAPHY

P5.3.7.1
Creating transmission holograms
on the laser optics base plate

Creating transmission holograms on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.7.1)

In creating transmission holograms, a laser beam is split into an ob-

ject beam and a reference beam, and then broadened. The object beam
illuminates an object and is reflected. The reflected light is focused onto
P5.3.7.1

Cat. No. Description a film together with the reference beam, which is coherent with the
object beam. The film records an irregular interference pattern which
473 40 Laser optics base plate 1 shows no apparent similarity with the object in question. To reconstruct
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 the hologram, a light beam which corresponds to the reference beam is
diffracted at the amplitude hologram in such a way that the diffracted
473 411 Laser mount 1
waves are practically identical to the object waves. In reconstructing a
473 421 Optics base 5 phase hologram the phase shift of the reference waves is exploited. In
473 435 Variable beam divider 1 both cases, the observer sees a three-dimensional image of the object.
473 431 Holder for beam divider 1 The object of the experiment P5.3.7.1 is to create transmission
473 441 Film holder 1 holograms and subsequently reconstruct them. This process uses a
473 451 Object holder 1 protection class 2 laser, so as to minimize the risk of eye dama-
ge for the experimenter. Both amplitude and phase holograms can
473 471 Spherical lens, f = 2.7 mm 2
be created simply by varying the photochemical processing of the
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 exposed film.
663 615 Socket strip for earthed plugs, 5-way 1 Recommendation: The Michelson interferometer on the laser optics
313 17 Hand-held stop-watch II, mechanical 1 base plate is ideal for demonstrating the effects of disturbances due to
649 11 Storage trays, 86 x 86 x 26, set of 6 1 mechanical shocks or air streaking in unsuitable rooms, which can
661 234 Polyethylene bottle 3 prevent creation of satisfactory holograms.
667 016 Scissors, 200 mm, pointed 1
473 448 Holography film, 3000 lines/mm 1
473 446 Darkroom accessories 1
473 444 Photographic chemicals 1
671 8910 Iron(III) nitrate-9-hydrate, 250 g 1
672 4910 Potassium bromide, 100 g 1

Experiment setup for creating transmission holograms

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 OPTICS
POLARIZATION

P5.4.1
BASIC EXPERIMENTS

P5.4.1.1
Polarization of light through
reflection at a glass plate

P5.4.1.2
Fresnel’s laws of reflection

P5.4.1.3
Polarization of light through
scattering in an emulsion

P5.4.1.4
Malus’ law

Fresnel’s laws of reflection (P5.4.1.2)

The fact that light can be polarized is important evidence of the trans-
P5.4.1.3 (a)
P5.4.1.4 (a)

versal nature of light waves. Natural light is unpolarized. It consists of

mutually independent, unordered waves, each of which has a specific
P5.4.1.2
P5.4.1.1

Cat. No. Description polarization state. Polarization of light is the selection of waves having
a specific polarization state.
477 20 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 100 x 100 x 10 mm 1 1 1 In the experiment P5.4.1.1, unpolarized light is reflected at a glass sur-
460 25 Prism table 1 1 1 face. When we view this through an analyzer, we see that the reflected
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 1 1 light as at least partially polarized. The greatest polarization is obser-
ved when reflection occurs at the polarizing angle (Brewster angle) ap.
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 1 1
The relationship
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 1
tanαp = n
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 1 1
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1 1 1 gives us the refractive index n of the glass.
472 401 Polarisation filter 2 2 2 2 Closer observation leads to Fresnel’s laws of reflection, which describe the
ratio of reflected to incident amplitude for different directions of polari-
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1 1
zation. These laws are quantitatively verified in the experiment P5.4.1.2.
441 53 Screen, translucent 1
The experiment P5.4.1.3 demonstrates that unpolarized light can also be
460 43 Small optical bench 2 2 1 1 polarized through scattering in an emulsion, e. g. diluted milk, and that
460 40 Swivel joint with protractor scale 1 1 polarized light is not scattered uniformly in all directions.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 6 7 6 6 The aim of the experiment P5.4.1.4 is to derive Malus’s law: when line-
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 2 2 1 1 arly polarized light falls on an analyzer, the intensity of the transmitted
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 2 2
light is
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 I = I0 ⋅ cos2 ϕ
I0 : intensity of incident light
578 62 Solar cell, STE 2/19 1 1
ϕ: angle between direction of polarization and analyzer
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
460 04 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 1

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OPTICS
POLARIZATION

P5.4.2
BIREFRINGENCE

P5.4.2.1
Birefringence and polarization with
calcareous spar

P5.4.2.2
Quarter-wavelength and
half-wavelength plate

P5.4.2.3
Photoelasticity: Investigating the
distribution of strains in mechanically
stressed bodies

Quarter-wavelength and half-wavelength plate (P5.4.2.2_b)

The validity of Snell’s law of refraction is based on the premise that

P5.4.2.2 (b)
P5.4.2.3 (b)
P5.4.2.1 (b)

light propagates in the refracting medium at the same velocity in all

directions. In birefringent media, this condition is only fulfilled for the
Cat. No. Description ordinary component of the light beam (the ordinary ray); the law of
refraction does not apply for the extraordinary ray.
472 02 Calcite crystal, birefringent 1 The experiment P5.4.2.1 looks at birefringence of calcite (Iceland spar).
460 25 Prism table 1 1 We can observe that the two component rays formed in the crystal are
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1 linearly polarized, and that the directions of polarization are perpendi-
cular to each other.
472 401 Polarisation filter 1 2 2
The experiment P5.4.2.2 investigates the properties of l/4 and l/2
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1
plates and explains these in terms of their birefringence; it further
460 06 Lens in frame, f=-100 mm 1 demonstrates that the names for these plates refer to the path
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 1 difference between the ordinary and the extraordinary rays through
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1 1 the plates.
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 2 2 2 In the experiment P5.4.2.3, the magnitude and direction of mechani-
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 5 5 7 cal stresses in transparent plastic models are determined. The plastic
models become optically birefringent when subjected to mechanical
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 1 1
stress. Thus, the stresses in the models can be revealed using polariza-
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 1 1 tion-optical methods. For example, the plastic models are illuminated in
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 1 a setup consisting of a polarizer and analyzer arranged at right angles.
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 1 1 The stressed points in the plastic models polarize the light elliptically.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 1 Thus, the stressed points appear as bright spots in the field of view. In
another configuration, the plastic models are illuminated with circularly
472 601 Quarter-wavelength plate, 140 nm 2 2
polarized light and observed using a quarter-wavelength plate and an
472 59 Half-wavelength plate 1 analyzer. Here too, the stressed points appear as bright spots in the field
468 30 Light filter, yellow 1 of view.
578 62 Solar cell, STE 2/19 1
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1
471 95 Photoelastic models, set of 4 1
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 2
300 11 Saddle base 1 Photoelasticity: Investigating the distribution of strains in mechanically stressed
bodies (P5.4.2.3)

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 OPTICS
POLARIZATION

P5.4.3
OPTICAL ACTIVITY,
POLARIMETRY

P5.4.3.1
Rotation of the plane of polarization
with quartz

P5.4.3.2
Rotation of the plane of polarization
with sugar solutions

P5.4.3.3
Building a half-shadow polarimeter
with discrete elements

P5.4.3.4
Determining the concentration of
sugar solutions with a standard
commercial polarimeter

Rotation of the plane of polarization with sugar solutions (P5.4.3.2_b)

Optical activity is the property of some substances of rotating the plane

P5.4.3.2 (b)

P5.4.3.3 (b)
P5.4.3.1 (b)

of linearly polarized light as it passes through the material. The angle of

P5.4.3.4

Cat. No. Description optical rotation is measured using a device called a polarimeter.
The experiment P5.4.3.1 studies the optical activity of crystals, in this
472 621 Quartz, parallel 1 case a quartz crystal. Depending on the direction of intersection with
472 641 Quartz, right-handed 1 respect to the optical axis, the quartz rotates the light clockwise (“right-
472 651 Quartz, left-handed 1 handed”) or counterclockwise (“left-handed”). The angle of optical
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 rotation is closely dependent on the wavelength of the light; therefore
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 1 1 a yellow filter is used.
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 1 1 The experiment P5.4.3.2 investigates the optical activity of a sugar so-
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 1 lution. For a given cuvette length d, the angles of optical rotation a of
optically active solutions are proportional to the concentration c of the
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 1 1
solution.
468 30 Light filter, yellow 1 1
α = [α ] ⋅ c ⋅ d
472 401 Polarisation filter 2 2 2
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1 1 [α ]: rotational effect of the optically active sollution
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 1 The object of the experiment P5.4.3.3 is to assemble a half-shadow
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1 1 polarimeter from discrete components. The two main elements are a
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 2 2 2 polarizer and an analyzer, between which the optically active substance
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 4 4 5
is placed. Half the field of view is covered by an additional, polarizing
foil, of which the direction of polarization is rotated slightly with respect
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 2 2
to the first. This facilitates measuring the angle of optical rotation.
477 20 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 100 x 100 x 10 mm 1
In the experiment P5.4.3.4, the concentrations of sugar solutions are
460 25 Prism table 1 1
measured using a standard commercial polarimeter and compared with
468 03 Light filter, red 1 the values determined by weighing.
468 07 Light filter, yellow-green 1
468 11 Light filter, blue with violet 1
666 963 Spoon-ended spatula, stainless steel, 120 mm 1 1 1
674 6050 D(+)-Saccharose, 100 g 1 1 1
688 107 Polarizing foils 38 mm Ø, set of 2 1
688 109 Set of 100 slides cover slip 5 x 5 cm 1
477 25 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 100 x 80 x 25 mm 1
657 591 Polarimeter 1
664 111 Beaker, DURAN, 100 ml, tall 1
Determining the concentration of sugar solutions with a standard commercial
OHC S-200E Electronic balance, CS200E 1
polarimeter (P5.4.3.4)

191
OPTICS
POLARIZATION

P5.4.4
KERR EFFECT

P5.4.4.1
Investigating the Kerr effect
in nitrobenzene

Investigating the Kerr effect in nitrobenzene (P5.4.4.1)

In 1875, J. Kerr discovered that electrical fields cause birefringence in

isotropic substances. The birefringence increases quadratically with the
P5.4.4.1

electric field strength. For reasons of symmetry, the optical axis of bire-
Cat. No. Description fringence lies in the direction of the electric field. The normal refractive
index of the substance is changed to ne for the direction of oscillation
473 31 Kerr cell 1 parallel to the applied field, and to no for the direction of oscillation
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 perpendicular to it. The experiment results in the relationship
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 ne − no = K ⋅ λ ⋅ E 2
450 66 Picture slider 1 K : Kerr constant
λ: wavelength of light used
468 03 Light filter, red 1
E: electic field strength
468 05 Light filter, yellow 1
468 07 Light filter, yellow-green 1 The experiment P5.4.4.1 demonstrates the Kerr effect for nitrobenzol,
as the Kerr constant is particularly great for this material. The liquid
468 11 Light filter, blue with violet 1
is filled into a small glass vessel in which a suitable plate capacitor is
472 401 Polarisation filter 2 mounted. The arrangement is placed between two polarization filters
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 arranged at right angles, and illuminated with a linearly polarized light
460 25 Prism table 1 beam. The field of view is dark when no electric field is applied. When an
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 electric field is applied, the field of view brightens, as the light beam is
elliptically polarized when passing through the birefringent liquid.
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 6
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1
501 051 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 2
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2
673 9410 Nitrobenzene, 250 ml 1

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POLARIZATION

P5.4.5
POCKELS EFFECT

P5.4.5.1
Demonstrating the Pockels effect
in a conoscopic beam path

P5.4.5.2
Pockels effect: transmitting
information using modulated light

Demonstrating the Pockels effect in a conoscopic beam path (P5.4.5.1)

The occurrence of birefringence and the alteration of existing biref-

P5.4.5.2
P5.4.5.1

ringence in an electrical field as a linear function of the electric field

Cat. No. Description strength is known as the Pockels effect. In terms of the visible phenome-
na, it is related to the Kerr effect. However, due to its linear dependency
472 90 Pockels cell 1 1 on the electric field strength, the Pockels effect can only occur in crystals
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1 without an inversion center, for reasons of symmetry.
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 The experiment P5.4.5.1 demonstrates the Pockels effect in a lithium nio-
bate crystal placed in a conoscopic beam path. The crystal is illuminated
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1
with a divergent, linearly polarized light beam, and the transmitted light
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 is viewed behind a perpendicular analyzer. The optical axis of the crystal,
472 401 Polarisation filter 1 1 which is birefringent even when no electric field is applied, is parallel to
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 the incident and exit surfaces; as a result, the interference pattern con-
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 5 4 sists of two sets of hyperbolas which are rotated 90° with respect to each
other. The bright lines of the interference pattern are due to light rays for
441 53 Screen, translucent 1
which the difference D between the optical paths of the extraordinary
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 and ordinary rays is an integral multiple of the wavelength l. The Pockels
500 604 Safety connecting lead, 10 cm, black 1 effect alters the difference of the main refractive indices, no - ne, and
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 1 consequently the position of the interference lines. When the so-called
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 1
half-wave voltage Ul is applied, D changes by one half wavelength. The
dark interference lines move to the position of the bright lines, and vice
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
versa. The process is repeated each time the voltage is increased by Ul .
500 98 Safety adapter sockets, black, set of 6 1
The experiment P5.4.5.2 shows how the Pockels cell can be used to transmit
578 62 Solar cell, STE 2/19 1 audio-frequency signals. The output signal of a function generator with an
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 amplitude of several volts is superposed on a DC voltage which is applied to
532 20 AC/DC amplifier 30 W 1 the crystal of the Pockels cell. The intensity of the light transmitted by the
587 08 Broad-band speaker 1
Pockels cell is modulated by the superposed frequency. The received signal
is output to a speaker via an amplifier and thus made audible.
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 2
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2

Interference pattern in the conoscopic beam path

193
 OPTICS
POLARIZATION

P5.4.6
FARADAY EFFECT

P5.4.6.1
Faraday effect: determining Verdet’s
constant for flint glass as a function
of the wavelength

Faraday effect: determining Verdet’s constant for flint glass as a function of the wavelength (P5.4.6.1_a)
P5.4.6.1 (b)
P5.4.6.1 (a)

P5.4.6.1 (b)
P5.4.6.1 (a)
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

560 482 Flint glass block with holder 1 1 501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1 1
460 381 Rider base with thread 1 1 524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1 524 0431 30-A-Box 1
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1 1
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2 2
Transparent isotropic materials become optically active in a magnetic
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 1 field; in other words, the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 1 rotates when passing through the material. M. Faraday discovered this
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 effect in 1845 while seeking a relationship between magnetic and opti-
468 05 Light filter, yellow 1 1 cal phenomena. The angle of optical rotation of the plane of polarization
468 09 Light filter, blue-green 1 1 is proportional to the illuminated length s and the magnetic field B.
468 11 Light filter, blue with violet 1 1 ∆ϕ = V ⋅ B ⋅ s
468 13 Light filter, violet 1 1 The proportionality constant V is known as Verdet’s constant, and de-
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1 pends on the wavelength l of the light and the dispersion.
472 401 Polarisation filter 2 2 e dn
V = ⋅λ⋅
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 2mc 2 dλ
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 For flint glass, the following equation approximately obtains:
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 5 5 dn 1, 8 ⋅ 10−14 m2
=
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 1 dλ λ3
521 39 Variable extra-low voltage transformer 1 1 In the experiment P5.4.6.1, the magnetic field is initially calibrated with
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1 reference to the current through the electromagnets using a magnetic
531 835 Universal measuring instrument, Physics 1 field probe, and then the Faraday effect in a flint glass square is investi-
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1 1 gated. To improve measuring accuracy, the magnetic field is reversed each
time and twice the angle of optical rotation is measured. The proportiona-
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1 1
lity between the angle of optical rotation and the magnetic field and the
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
decrease of Verdet’s constant with the wavelength l are verified.
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1
CASSY ®

501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1

501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1

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 OPTICS
LIGHT INTENSITY

P5.5.1
QUANTITIES AND
MEASURING METHODS OF
LIGHTING ENGINEERING

P5.5.1.1
Determining the radiant flux density
and the luminous intensity of a
halogen lamp

P5.5.1.2
Determining the luminous intensity
as a function of the distance from
the light source - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY

P5.5.1.3
Verifying Lambert’s law of radiation

Determining the radiant flux density and the luminous intensity of a halogen lamp (P5.5.1.1_a)
P5.5.1.3 (a)
P5.5.1.2 (c)
P5.5.1.1 (a)

P5.5.1.3 (a)
P5.5.1.2 (c)
P5.5.1.1 (a)
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 1 460 26 Iris diaphragm 1

450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 1 460 22 Holder with spring clips 1
450 66 Picture slider 1 460 40 Swivel joint with protractor scale 1
468 03 Light filter, red 1 additionally required:
1
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

557 36 Moll‘s thermopile 1 1

524 040 µV box 1 1 There are two types of physical quantities used to characterize the bright-
ness of light sources: quantities which refer to the physics of radiation, which
666 243 Lux sensor 1 1
describe the energy radiation in terms of measurements, and quantities rela-
524 0511 Lux adapter S 1 1 ted to lighting engineering, which describe the subjectively perceived bright-
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 ness under consideration of the spectral sensitivity of the human eye. The
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1 first group includes the irradiance Ee, which is the radiated power per unit
of area Fe. The corresponding unit of measure is watts per square meter. The
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1
comparable quantity in lighting engineering is illuminance E, i. e. the emitted
590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1 1 luminous flux per unit of area F, and it is measured in lumens per square
460 43 Small optical bench 1 2 meter, or lux for short.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3 4 In the experiment P5.5.1.1, the irradiance is measured using the Moll’s ther-
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 2 mopile, and the luminous flux is measured using a luxmeter. The luxmeter is
matched to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye V (l) by means of a filter
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
placed in front of the photoelement. A halogen lamp serves as the light sour-
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 2 ce. From its spectrum, most of the visible light is screened out using a color
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 filter; subsequently, a heat filter is used to absorb the infrared component of
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 the radiation.
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 The experiment P5.5.1.2 demonstrates that the luminous intensity is propor-
tional to the square of the distance between a point-type light source and the
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
illuminated surface.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
The aim of the experiment P5.5.1.3 is to investigate the angular distribution
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 of the reflected radiation from a diffusely reflecting surface, e.g. matte white
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 1 paper. To the observer, the surface appears uniformly bright; however, the
460 312 Clamp rider with clamp, 45/35 1 apparent surface area varies with the cos of the viewing angle. The dependen-
CASSY ®

450 68 Halogen bulb, 12 V/50 W, G6.35 1

cy of the luminous intensity is described by Lambert’s law of radiation:
Ee ( φ ) = Ee ( 0 ) ⋅ cos φ

195
 OPTICS
LIGHT INTENSITY

P5.5.2
LAWS OF RADIATION

P5.5.2.1
Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring
the radiant intensity of a „black body“
as a function of temperature

P5.5.2.2
Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring
the radiant intensity of a „black body“
as a function of temperature -
Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P5.5.2.3
Confirming the laws of radiation
with Leslie‘s cube

Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring the radiant intensity of a „black body“ as a function of temperature (P5.5.2.1_b)

The total radiated power MB of a black body increases in proportion to the

P5.5.2.2 (b)

P5.5.2.3 (b)
P5.5.2.1 (b)

fourth power of its absolute temperature T (Stefan-Boltzmann’s law).

Cat. No. Description

MB = σ ⋅ T 4
σ = 5.67 ⋅ 10-8 W m-2 K -4 : (Stefan-Boltzmann's constant)
555 81 Electric oven for tubes, 230 V 1 1
For all other bodies, the radiated power M is less than that of the black body,
389 43 Black body accessory 1 1 and depends on the properties of the surface of the body. The emittance of
502 061 Safety connecting box, with earth 1 1 the body is described by the relationship
555 84 Support for electric oven 1 1 1 M
ε=
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 MB
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 1 1 M: radiated power of body
524 040 µV box 1 1 1 In the two experiments P5.5.2.1 and P5.5.2.2, a cylindrical electric oven with a
557 36 Moll‘s thermopile 1 1 1 burnished brass cylinder is used as a “black body”. The brass cylinder is heated
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 1 in the oven to the desired temperature between 300 and 750 K. A thermocou-
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 2 2
ple is used to measure the temperature. A water-coolable screen is positioned
in front of the oven to ensure that the setup essentially measures only the
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 2 2 2
temperature of the burnished brass cylinder. The measurement is conducted
460 380 Cantilever arm 1 1 using a Moll’s thermopile; its output voltage provides a relative measure of
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 1 the radiated power M. The thermopile can be connected either to an amplifier
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 1 or, via the µV box, to the CASSY computer interface device. In the former
388 181 Immersion pump 1* 1*
case, the measurement must by carried out manually, point by point; the latter
configuration enables computer-assisted measuring and evaluation. The aim
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1* 1*
of the evaluation is to confirm Stefan-Boltzmann’s law.
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1* 1*
The experiment P5.5.2.3 uses a radiation cube after Leslie (“Leslie’s cube”).
604 313 Wide-mouthed can, 10 l 1* 1* This cube has four different face surfaces (metallic matte, metallic shiny,
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 black finish and white finish), which can be heated from the inside to almost
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 100 °C by filling the cube with boiling water. The heat radiated by each of the
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 surfaces is measured as a function of the falling temperature. The aim of the
evaluation is to compare the emittances of the cube faces.
389 261 Leslie‘s cube with stirrer 1
U
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 µV 5
303 25 Immersion heater 1
4
590 06 Plastic beaker 1
3
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm diam. 1
2
CASSY ®

additionally required:
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
0
0 10 20
* additionally recommended T 4 - T04
K4
196 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
LIGHT INTENSITY

P5.5.2
LAWS OF RADIATION

P5.5.2.4
The Wien‘s displacement law -
spectral recording of the black
body radiation

The Wien‘s displacement law - spectral recording of the black body radiation (P5.5.2.4)

In the experiment P5.5.2.4 an incandescent lamp, an electric con-

ductor is heated by an electric current causing it to glow. The emit-
P5.5.2.4

ted spectrum is continuous and can be described with Planck‘s

Cat. No. Description radiation formula. The radiation maximum of the radiation shifts with
increasing temperature T according to Wien‘s displacement law
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1
460 251 Fibre holder 1 lmax = 2.9 · 10 -3 m·K / T
459 032 Halogen lamp,12 V/20 W 1
521 485 AC/DC power supply, 0...12 V/3 A 1 toward smaller wavelengths; at the same time the maximum value
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 of the radiation increases. At the temperatures attained by normal
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 1 incandescent lamps, about 2300 to 2900 K, the radiation maximum
lies in the infrared spectral range. Halogen lamps reach a somewhat
460 313 Clamp rider with fixing column 1
higher operating temperature of about 3000 K. This experiment will
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 1 record the spectra of a halogen lamp at different power levels. The
additionally required: specification for color temperature at 12 V nominal voltage allows the
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) wavelength dependency of spectrometer sensitivity to be determined
and thus permits a corrected display for the course of spectra intensity.
Subsequently voltage will be applied to a halogen lamp then reduced
in steps. The lamp‘s color temperature at each voltage step will be de-
termined by adapting a suitable fit function.

Spectral emission of a light bulb at different temperatures

197
OPTICS
VELOCITY OF LIGHT

P5.6.1
MEASUREMENT ACCORDING
TO FOUCAULT/MICHELSON

P5.6.1.1
Determining the velocity of light
by means of the rotating-mirror
method according to Foucault and
Michelson - Measuring the image
shift as a function of the rotational
speed of the mirror

P5.6.1.2
Determining the velocity of light by
means of the rotating-mirror method
according to Foucault and Michelson -
Measuring the image shift for
the maximum rotational speed
of the mirror

Determining the velocity of light by means of the rotating-mirror method according to Foucault and Michelson -
Measuring the image shift as a function of the rotational speed of the mirror (P5.6.1.1)

Measurement of the velocity of light by means of the rotary mirror method

P5.6.1.2
P5.6.1.1

utilizes a concept first proposed by L. Foucault in 1850 and perfected by A.

Cat. No. Description A. Michelson in 1878. In the variation utilized here, a laser beam is deviated
into a fixed end mirror located next to the light source via a rotating mirror
476 40 Rotary mirror 1 1 set up at a distance of a =12.1 m. The end mirror reflects the light so that
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 1 it returns along the same path when the rotary mirror is at rest. Part of the
463 20 Front-silvered mirror 1 1 returning light is imaged on a scale using a beam divider. A lens with f = 5
m images the light source on the end mirror and focuses the image of the
460 12 Lens in frame, f=5 m 1 1
light source from the mirror on the scale. The main beam between the lens
471 88 Beam splitter 1 1 and the end mirror is parallel to the axis of the lens, as the rotary mirror is
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 set up in the focal point of the lens.
311 09 Glass scale, 5 cm 1 1 Once the rotary mirror is turning at a high frequency n, the shift Dx of the
521 40 Variable transformer, 0...250 V 1 image on the scale is observed. In the period
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 2a
∆t =
559 921 Semiconductor detector 1 c

501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 which the light requires to travel to the rotary mirror and back to the end
mirror, the rotary mirror turns by the angle
501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1
∆α = 2πv ⋅ ∆t
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
Thus, the image shift is
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
∆x = 2∆α ⋅ a
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
The velocity of light can then be calculated as
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 1
v
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 4 4 c = 8π ⋅ a 2 ⋅
∆x
300 11 Saddle base 1
To determine the velocity of light, it is sufficient to measure the shift in
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 2
the image at the maximum speed of the mirror, which is known (P5.6.1.2).
301 09 Bosshead S 1 Measuring the image shift as a function of the speed supplies more precise
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 1 results (P5.6.1.1).
537 35 Rheostat, 330 ohms 1
537 36 Rheostat, 1000 ohms 1
502 05 Measuring junction box 1
504 48 Two-way switch 1
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 5

198 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
VELOCITY OF LIGHT

P5.6.2
MEASURING WITH SHORT
LIGHT PULSES

P5.6.2.1
Determining the velocity of light
in air from the path and transit time
of a short light pulse

P5.6.2.2
Determining the propagation velocity
of voltage pulses in coaxial cables

Determining the velocity of light in air from the path and transit time of a short light pulse (P5.6.2.1)

The light velocity measuring instrument emits pulses of light with

P5.6.2.2
P5.6.2.1

a pulse width of about 20 ns. After traversing a known measuring

Cat. No. Description distance in both directions, the light pulses are converted into voltage
pulses for observation on the oscilloscope.
476 50 Light velocity measuring instrument 1 1 In the experiment P5.6.2.1, the path of the light pulses is aried once, and
460 10 Lens in frame, f=200 mm 1 the change in the transit time is measured with the oscilloscope. The
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 velocity of light can then be calculated as quotient of the change in the
transit distance and the change in the transit time. Alternatively, the
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 2
total transit time of the light pulses can be measured in absolute terms
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 using a reference pulse. In this case, the velocity of light can be calcu-
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 3 2 lated as quotient of the transit distance and the transit time. A quartz-
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 controlled oscilloscope signal can be displayed on the instrument simul-
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 taneously with the measuring pulse in order to calibrate timing. Time
measurement is then independent of the time base of the oscilloscope.
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
In the experiment P5.6.2.2, the propagation velocity of voltage pulses in
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
coaxial cables is determined. In this configuration, the reference pulses
501 024 BNC Cable, l = 10 m 1 of the light velocity measuring instrument are output to an oscilloscope
501 091 BNC T adapter 1 and additionally fed into a 10 m long coaxial cable via a T-connector.
501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1 After reflection at the cable end, the pulses return to the oscilloscope,
575 35 Adapter, BNC/4 mm, 2-pole 1 delayed by the transit time. The propagation velocity n can be calcu-
lated from the double cable length and the time difference between
577 79 Variable resistor, 1 kW, STE 2/19 1
the direct and reflected voltage pulses. By inserting these values in the
577 28 Resistor, 47 W, STE 2/19 1 equation
300 11 Saddle base 1 c
v= c: velocity of light in a vacuum
εr
we obtain the relative dielectricity er of the insulator between the inner
and outer conductors of the coaxial cable. By using a variable termi-
nating resistor R at the cable end, it becomes possible to additionally
measure the reflection behaviour of voltage pulses. In particular, the
special cases „open cable end“ (no phase shift at reflection), „shorted
cable end“ (phase shift due to reflection) and „termination of cable end
with the 50 W characteristic wave impedance“ (no reflection) are of
special interest here.
Schematic diagram of light velocity measurement with short light pulses (P5.6.2.1)

199
OPTICS
VELOCITY OF LIGHT

P5.6.3
MEASURING WITH AN
ELECTRONICALLY
MODULATED SIGNAL

P5.6.3.1
Determining the velocity of light
using a periodical light signal at
a short measuring distance

P5.6.3.2
Determining the velocity of light
in various materials

Determining the velocity of light in various materials (P5.6.3.2)

In determining the velocity of light with an electronically modulated si-

gnal, a light emitting diode which pulses at a frequency of 60 MHz is used
P5.6.3.2
P5.6.3.1

as the light transmitter. The receiver is a photodiode which converts the

Cat. No. Description light signal into a 60 MHz AC voltage. A connecting lead transmits a re-
ference signal to the receiver which is synchronized with the transmitted
476 301 Light transmitter and receiver 1 1 signal and in phase with it at the start of the measurement. The receiver
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 is then moved by the measuring distance Ds, so that the received signal is
phase-shifted by the additional transit time Dt of the light signal.
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 1
∆ϕ = 2π ⋅ f1 ⋅ ∆t where f1 = 60 MHz
300 11 Saddle base 2 4
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1 1 Alternatively, a medium with a greater index of refraction can be placed
in the beam path. The apparent transit time to be measured is increased
476 35 Tube with 2 end windows 1
by means of an electronic “trick”. The received signal and the reference
476 34 Transparent plastic block 1* signal are each mixed (multiplied) with a 59.9 MHz signal before being
477 03 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 50 x 50 mm 1* fed through a frequency filter which only passes the low frequency com-
460 25 Prism table 1* ponents with the differential frequency f1 – f2 = 0.1 MHz. This mixing has
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1* no effect on the phase shift; however, this phase shift is now for a transit
time Dt’ increased by a factor of
672 1210 Glycerin, 99 %, 250 ml 1*
f1
= 600
* additionally recommended f1 − f2
In the experiment P5.6.3.1, the apparent transit time Dt’ is measured as a
function of the measuring distance Ds, and the velocity of light in the air
is calculated according to the formula
∆s f
c= ⋅ 1
∆t ' f1 − f2
The experiment P5.6.3.2 determines the velocity of light in various propa-
gation media. In the way of accessories, this experiment requires a tube 1
m long with two end windows, suitable for filling with water, a glass cell 5
cm wide for other liquids and an acrylic glass body 5 cm wide.

Block circuit diagram

200 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
VELOCITY OF LIGHT

P5.6.3
MEASURING WITH AN
ELECTRONICALLY
MODULATED SIGNAL

P5.6.3.3
Determining the velocity of light
using a periodical light signal at a
short measuring distance - measuring
with the laser motion sensor S and
CASSY

P5.6.3.4
Determining the velocity of light
for different propagation media -
measuring with the laser motion
sensor S and CASSY

Determining the velocity of light using a periodical light signal at a short measuring distance - measuring with the
laser motion sensor S and CASSY (P5.6.3.3)

Modern distance meters use a periodically modulated laser beam for the
measurement. They determine the phase shift between the emitted and
P5.6.3.3
P5.6.3.4

the reflected modulated laser beam and, with the modulation frequency
Cat. No. Description being known, obtain the time-of-flight t of the light on its path to and
back from the reflector. Only afterwards do the distance meters calcu-
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 late the distance with the aid of the known velocity of light.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 In the experment P5.6.3.3, the laser motion sensor S is used as a time-
524 073 Laser motion sensor S 1 1 of-flight meter because it is also capable of outputting the time-of-
flight t directly. The proportionality between the distance and the time-
337 116 End buffers, pair 1 1
of-flight of light is confirmed, and the velocity of light is calculated.
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1
In the experiment P5.6.3.4 water and acrylic glass of thickness d are
477 03 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 50 x 50 mm 1 held into the path of the beam, and then the resulting increase of the
476 34 Transparent plastic block 1 time-of-flight Dt is measured. With the velocity of light c in air measured
additionally required: in the experiment P5.6.3.3, the velocity of light c M in matter can now
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) be determined:
 2d  1
cM = 2d  + ∆t  =
 c  1 ∆t
+
c 2d
Finally, the refractive index n is determined according to
c  1 ∆t  c
n= = c ⋅ +  = 1+
cM  c 2d  2d ⋅ ∆t
CASSY ®

Transit times of light at different distances

201
OPTICS
SPECTROMETER

P5.7.1
PRISM SPECTROMETER

P5.7.1.1
Measuring the line spectra of
inert gases and metal vapors
using a prism spectrometer

Measuring the line spectra of inert gases and metal vapors using a prism spectrometer (P5.7.1.1)

To assemble the prism spectrometer, a flint glass prism is placed on the

prism table of a goniometer. The light of the light source to be studied
passes divergently through a collimator and is incident on the prism
P5.7.1.1

Cat. No. Description as a parallel light beam. The arrangement exploits the wavelength-
dependency of the refractive index of the prism glass: the light is
467 23 Spectrometer and goniometer 1 refracted and each wavelength is deviated by a different angle. The
451 031 Spectral lamp, He 1 deviated beams are observed using a telescope focused on infinity
which is mounted on a slewable arm; this allows the position of the
451 041 Spectral lamp, Cd 1
telescope to be determined to within a minute of arc. The refractive
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1 index is not linearly dependent on the wavelength; thus, the spectro-
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 meter must be calibrated. This is done using e.g. an He spectral lamp, as
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 its spectral lines are known and distributed over the entire visible range.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 In the experiment P5.7.1.1, the spectrometer is used to observe the spec-
451 011 Spectral lamp, Ne 1* tral lines of inert gases and metal vapors which have been excited to
luminance. To identify the initially “unknown” spectral lines, the angles
451 071 Spectral lamp, Hg-Cd 1*
of deviation are measured and then converted to the corresponding
451 081 Spectral lamp, Tl 1* wavelength using the calibration curve.
451 111 Spectral lamp, Na 1* Note: as an alternative to the prism spectrometer, the goniometer can
* additionally recommended also be used to set up a grating spectrometer (see P5.7.2.1)

Ray path in a grating prism spectrometer (P5.7.1.1)

202 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
SPECTROMETER

P5.7.2
GRATING SPECTROMETER

P5.7.2.1
Measuring the line spectra of
inert gases and metal vapors
using a grating spectrometer

Measuring the line spectra of inert gases and metal vapors using a grating spectrometer (P5.7.2.1)

To create a grating spectrometer, a copy of a Rowland grating is moun-

ted on the prism table of the goniometer in place of the prism. The ray
path in the grating spectrometer is essentially analogous to that of the
P5.7.2.1

Cat. No. Description prism spectrometer (see P 5.7.1.1). However, in this configuration the
deviation of the rays by the grating is proportional to the wavelength:
467 23 Spectrometer and goniometer 1 sin ∆α = n ⋅ g ⋅ λ
471 23 Ruled grating, 6000/cm (Rowland) 1 n: diffraction order
451 031 Spectral lamp, He 1 g: grating constant
451 111 Spectral lamp, Na 1 λ: wavele ength
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1 ∆α: angel of deviation of nth-order spectral line

451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 Consequently, the wavelengths of the observed spectral lines can be
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
calculated directly from the measured angles of deviation.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
In the experiment P5.7.2.1, the grating spectrometer is used to ob-
serve the spectral lines of inert gases and metal vapors which have
451 011 Spectral lamp, Ne 1*
been excited to luminance. To identify the initially “unknown” spectral
451 041 Spectral lamp, Cd 1* lines, the angles of deviation are measured and then converted to the
451 071 Spectral lamp, Hg-Cd 1* corresponding wavelength. The resolution of the grating spectrometer
451 081 Spectral lamp, Tl 1* is sufficient to determine the distance between the two yellow sodium
D-lines l(D1) – l(D2) = 0,60 nm with an accuracy of 0.10 nm. However,
* additionally recommended this high resolution is achieved at the cost of a loss of intensity, as a
significant part of the radiation is lost in the undiffracted zero order
and the rest is distributed over multiple diffraction orders on both sides
of the zero order.

Ray path in a grating spectrometer

203
OPTICS
SPECTROMETER

P5.7.2
GRATING SPECTROMETER

P5.7.2.2
Assembling a grating spectrometer
for measuring transmission curves

P5.7.2.3
Assembling a grating spectrometer
for measuring spectral lines

Assembling a grating spectrometer for measuring spectral lines (P5.7.2.3)

When used in conjunction with a grating spectrometer, the single-line

P5.7.2.2 (b)

CCD camera VideoCom is ideal for relative measurements of spectral

P5.7.2.3

Cat. No. Description intensity distributions. In such measurements, each pixel of the CCD
camera is assigned a wavelength
337 47USB VideoCom 1 1
λ = d ⋅ sin α
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1
in the first diffraction order of the grating. The spectrometer is assem-
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 1
bled on the optical bench using individual components. The grating
460 341 Swivel joint with circular scale 1 1 in this experiment is a copy of a Rowland grating with approx.
471 23 Ruled grating, 6000/cm (Rowland) 1 1 6000 lines/cm. The diffraction pattern behind the grating is observed
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 1 with VideoCom. The VideoCom software makes possible comparison of
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 2 1 two intensity distributions, and thus recording of transmission curves
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 of color filters or other light-permeable bodies. The spectral intensity
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 5 5
distribution of a light source is measured both with and without filter,
and the ratio of the two measurements is graphed as a function of the
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1
wavelength.
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
The experiment P5.7.2.2 records the transmission curves of color filters.
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
It is revealed that simple filters are permeable for a very broad wave-
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 length range within the visible spectrum of light, while so-called line
467 95 Colour filter set, primary 1 filters have a very narrow permeability range.
467 96 Colour filter set, secondary 1 In the experiment P5.7.2.3, a grating spectrometer is assembled to
468 03 Light filter, red 1* observe the spectral lines of inert gases and metal vapors which have
468 05 Light filter, yellow 1* been excited to luminance. The wavelength and intensity of the spectral
468 07 Light filter, yellow-green 1* lines are measured and compared with literature.
468 09 Light filter, blue-green 1*
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1
451 031 Spectral lamp, He 1
451 111 Spectral lamp, Na 1
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1
451 011 Spectral lamp, Ne 1*
451 041 Spectral lamp, Cd 1*
451 071 Spectral lamp, Hg-Cd 1*
451 081 Spectral lamp, Tl 1* Transmissions curves of various color filters (P5.7.2.2)
additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) 1 1

* additionally recommended
204 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
SPECTROMETER

P5.7.2
GRATING SPECTROMETER

P5.7.2.4
Determining the grating constant
of a holographic grating with an
He-Ne-Laser

P5.7.2.5
Investigating the spectrum of a
xenon lamp with a holographic grating

Investigating the spectrum of a xenon lamp with a holographic grating (P5.7.2.5_b)

To assemble a grating spectrometer with very high resolution and high

P5.7.2.5 (b)
P5.7.2.5 (a)

efficiency a holographic reflection grating with 24000 lines/cm is used.

P5.7.2.4

The loss of intensity is small compared to a transmission grating.

Cat. No. Description
In the experiment P5.7.2.4 the grating constant of the holographic
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 reflection grating is determined for different values of the angle of
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1 incidence. The light source used is a He-Ne-Laser with the wavelength
l = 632.8 nm. The best value is achieved for the special case where
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 1 1
angle of incidence and angle of diffraction are the same, the so called
460 09 Lens in frame, f=300 mm 1 1 1 Littrow condition.
471 27 Holographic grating in frame 1 1 1 In the experiment P5.7.2.5 the spectrum of a xenon lamp is investiga-
441 531 Screen 1 1 1 ted. The diffraction pattern behind the holographic grating is recorded
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 1 1 by varying the position of a screen or a photocell. The corresponding
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 1
diffraction angle is read of the circular scale of the rail connector or
measured by a rotary motion sensor. It is revealed that the spectrum of
460 341 Swivel joint with circular scale 1 1 1
the lamp which appears white to the eye consists of a variety of diffe-
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 5 5 6 rent spectral lines.
450 80 Xenon lamp 1 1
450 83 Power supply unit for xenon lamp 1 1
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 1
460 382 Tilting rider, 90/50 1 1
501 25 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, red 1 1
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1 1
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1
461 62 Set of 2 slit diaphragms 1
578 62 Solar cell, STE 2/19 1
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
CASSY ®

additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

205
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.2
BASIC OPTICS

P5.8.2.1
Absorption and emission

P5.8.2.2
Refraction of light

Refraction of light (P5.8.2.2)

P5.8.2.2

P5.8.2.2
P5.8.2.1

P5.8.2.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 474 6411 Mounting plate 40, C25 1
474 5217 Plano-Convex Lens f = 60 mm, C25 Mount 2 474 7202 Manual Brechung des Lichtes 1
474 161 Absorption Unit 1
474 5224 Phosphorescing Disc, C25 mount 1 The laws which are related to absorption and emission are discussed
and investigated in the experiment P5.8.2.1. With an absorbing
474 5261 Fluorescent Filters, Set of 3 1
sample the Lambert-Beer law is verified by measuring the transmit-
474 5302 Tranmission Grating, 600 lines/mm 1 ted light with a photodiode. Light sources of different colours are used
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 2 to excite fluorescent samples. The absorption and emission of light is
474 5457 Screen with rider 1 visualized spectrally using an optical grating.
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1 Within the frame of the experiment P5.8.2.2 the Snellius Law is
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1 verified quantitatively. Deflection, offset and guidance of light tra-
velling in and through transparent materials are demonstrated. The
531 173 Digital multimeter DMM 121 1
propagation of light through an optical fibre is simulated by a
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 wave guide model. A model for diffraction of light rays on a rain drop is
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1 also given to understand the origin of rainbows.
474 5411 LED Lamp, White 1
474 5412 LED Lamp, Red 1
474 5415 LED Lamp, Blue 1
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 3
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1
474 7201 Manual Emission and Absorption 1
474 133 Optical Fibre Model 1
474 204 Collection of Mounted Models 1
474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1
474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1

206 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.2
BASIC OPTICS

P5.8.2.6
Polarisation of light

P5.8.2.7
Reflection and transmission

Reflection and transmission (P5.8.2.7)

P5.8.2.6

P5.8.2.6
P5.8.2.7

P5.8.2.7
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 1 501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1
474 5260 Optical Quartz Plate in C25 Mount 1 474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1
474 5320 Quarter wave plate, C25 1 474 238 Carrier for rotatable insert 1
474 5275 Half Wave Plate, C25 Mount 1 474 7207 Manual Reflection and Transmission 1
474 1124 Polariser / Analyser with Rotator 2 2
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
474 321 Si PIN Photodetector 1
Experiment P5.8.2.6 deals with the observation of polarisation of light.
The law of Malus is verified and the optical activity of optical crystals
531 173 Digital multimeter DMM 121 1 1
are demonstrated. As application of double refractive optics the quarter
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 1 and halve wave plates are subject of measurements and demonstration.
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1 1 As light sources a green laser and a LED are used.
474 5411 LED Lamp, White 1 1 Although the Fresnel Laws are still valid, nowadays mirrors can be
474 5412 LED Lamp, Red 1 produced which seem to bypass these laws. By dielectric coating such
mirrors are made either to optimize or to suppress reflection. The func-
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1 1
tionality of those coatings is based on interference which allows for
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 instance nearly 100 % reflectivity of mirrors (e.g. for laser cavities)
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 2 1 or anti-reflecting windows. First the experiment P5.8.2.7 demon-
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1 1 strates the reflection law which is verified on a metal coated mirror. The
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1 second part deals with the quantitative verification of the Fresnel Laws
on a specially shaped plate and with polarized light. At last the spectral
474 7206 Manual Polarisation of light 1
performance of dielectrically coated mirrors is investigated by means of
474 6413 Collimation optics in mounting plate 40 1 a white light source.
474 6431 Polarisation analyser 40 mm, VIS 1
474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1
474 5270 Glass Plate on Rotary Disc 1
474 5271 Dichroic Mirror on Rotary Disc 1
474 5272 Front Face Mirror on Rotary Disc 1
474 5302 Tranmission Grating, 600 lines/mm 1
474 6414 Photodetector for Pivot Arm 1

207
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.2
BASIC OPTICS

P5.8.2.8
Diffraction of light

P5.8.2.9
Interference of light

Diffraction of light (P5.8.2.8)

P5.8.2.8
P5.8.2.9
P5.8.2.8
P5.8.2.9

Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 1 474 176 Fresnel Mirror Assembly 1
474 5263 Beam expander 6x 1 1 474 5457 Screen with rider 1
474 5298 Circular apertures 1 474 213 Adjustment Holder 1 inch, left 1
474 5299 Gauze 300 mesh 1 474 7209 Manual Interference of light 1
474 5300 Single Slit 0.06 mm 1
474 5301 Double slit 1 In the experiment P5.8.2.8 Fresnel and Fraunhofer types of diffraction are
474 6417 Optical Screen with XY Scale 1 discussed. Investigations are performed using monochromatic laser light
474 6414 Photodetector for Pivot Arm 1 which will be diffracted on slits and holes of various widths and gratings.
Thin wires show impressively the Babinet theorem stating that comple-
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1
mentary masks result in the same diffraction pattern. The obtained dif-
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 fraction patterns will be observed on a target screen and can be measured
501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1 by a photodiode quantitatively.
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1 1 Different examples of interference phenomenon are discussed and de-
474 5411 LED Lamp, White 1 1 monstrated in the experiment P5.8.2.9. Fresnel mirror, wedges and half-
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1 1 lenses are tools which “divide” one light source into two and superimpose
their coherent portions. On a set-up proposed by Newton, interference
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1
caused by thin layers can be determined quantitatively. Since diffraction
474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1 usually generates interference patterns, a Fresnel plate is used for illus-
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 1 4 trating this effect. Finally, a model of a Fabry Perot resonator demons-
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1 1 trates the working principle of wavelength selection in a cavity.
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1
474 7208 Manual Diffraction of light 1
474 5221 Biconcave lens f = -20 mm, C25 mount 1
474 5251 Fresnel Zone Plate, C25 mount 1
474 5252 Fabry Perot Insert, C25 mount 1
474 5277 Newton‘s Rings Optics 1

208 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.3
OPTICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.3.1
Optical interferometer

P5.8.3.2
Refractometer

Optical interferometer (P5.8.3.1)

While the Michelson interferometer is mainly used to determine the

movement of a reflecting object in a nm scale, the Mach-Zehnder in-
P5.8.3.2
P5.8.3.1

terferometer investigates transparent objects and is particularly use-

Cat. No. Description
ful for studying liquid or gas dynamics. Since the Mach-Zehnder is a
474 5220 Biconcave Lens f = -10 mm, C25 mount 1
unidirectional interferometer it is especially useful for measurements
where the samples have to be traversed only once or in one direction.
474 5264 Beam expander 2.7x 1
Within the frame of the experiment P5.8.3.1 both, a Michelson- and a
474 169 Gas Cuvette Assembly 1 Mach-Zehnder interferometer will be realized. The former demonstrates
474 171 Mach Zehnder Beam Combining Assembly 1 the principle generation of interference patterns and the use of fringe
474 174 Mach-Zehnder Beam Splitting Assembly 1 counting in metrology. The latter uses the interference pattern to visua-
lize changes of the index of refraction as a result of changes in physical
474 5457 Screen with rider 1 1
properties of gasses, like pressure or composition.
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1
The refractometer is an essential instrument for empirical identification
474 5441 Profile Rail, 300 mm 2
of pure substances, purity measurements, and quantitative analysis of
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 solutions. It is used in the food and beverage industry as well as in the
474 5449 Angle Joint, Cross Piece 1 chemical and pharmaceutical industry for quality control and check-
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 3 1 ups on compound identities. The experiments in P5.8.3.2 are performed
on a model of an Abbé refractometer to show the implementation on
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1 1
modern, computer driven standard refractometers. This refractometer
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2 1 measures refraction of liquids, solutions and solid materials by obser-
474 7210 Manual Optical Interferometer 1 ving the shadow line of the light beam on a screen.
474 5225 Polariser, C25 mount 1
474 404 Prism assembly 1
474 405 Beam Bending Assembly 22.5 °deg;- 45°, left 1
474 406 Beam Bending Assembly 22.5 °deg;- 45°, right 1
474 5307 Set of Test Liquids 1
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1
474 5413 LED amber in C25 housing 1
474 7211 Manual Refractometer 1

209
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.3
OPTICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.3.3
Holography

Holography (P5.8.3.3)

In the experiment P5.8.3.3 both types, transmission and reflection

holograms can be recorded. In a first set-up the stability of the working
P5.8.3.3

place and environment is tested by an interferometer. It is extremely

Cat. No. Description
important for making holograms that the set-up has to be stable within
474 5219 Biconcave Lens f = -5 mm, C25 mount 2
the range of the optical wavelengths. The recording techniques of trans-
mission and reflection holography will be discussed and experimentally
474 5220 Biconcave Lens f = -10 mm, C25 mount 2
investigated. Finally the development of the holographic plates will be
474 6418 Model for Holography 1 performed.
474 6419 Set of Tools for Holography 1
474 5303 Photographic plate, 532 nm, 63 x 63 mm 30
474 164 Set of Development Equipment 1
474 167 Holography Combining Assembly 1
474 168 Holography Beam Splitting Assembly 1
474 3024 Digital Laser Controller and Timer 1
474 5419 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm with Window 1
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 2
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 1
474 211 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, carrier 20 mm 1
474 165 Set of Holography Chemicals 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1
671 0010 Pyrocatechol, 100 g 1
675 3270 Vitamin C, 50 g 1
673 7800 Sodium sulfite, 100 g 1
672 1700 Urea, 100 g 1
673 5600 Natrium carbonate, anhydrous, 100 g 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1
474 7212 Manual Holography 1
474 5253 Photodetector, mini Si PIN, connection lead 1*
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1*
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1*
501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1*

* additionally recommended

210 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.3
OPTICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.3.4
Diffraction gratings

P5.8.3.5
Spectral analysis

P5.8.3.7
LED and laser diode

Spectral analysis (P5.8.3.5)

P5.8.3.4

P5.8.3.5

P5.8.3.4

P5.8.3.5
P5.8.3.7

P5.8.3.7
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 1 1 474 5223 Cylindrical Lens f=80 mm, C25 Mount 1
474 5256 Biconvex lens f = 60 mm, C25 Mount 1 474 6431 Polarisation analyser 40 mm, VIS 1
474 5263 Beam expander 6x 1 474 5302 Tranmission Grating, 600 lines/mm 1
474 5264 Beam expander 2.7x 1 474 6414 Photodetector for Pivot Arm 1
474 5268 Transmission gratings, Set of 5 1 501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1
474 6417 Optical Screen with XY Scale 1 1 474 5412 LED Lamp, Red 1
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1 1 474 5415 LED Lamp, Blue 1
474 321 Si PIN Photodetector 1 474 5420 Dimo diode laser module, 630 nm (red) 1
531 173 Digital multimeter DMM 121 1 1 1 474 2114 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, rotary insert 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 1 1 474 213 Adjustment Holder 1 inch, left 1
474 5417 Spectral Lamp with Slit and Power Supply 1 1 474 7220 Manual LED and Laser Diode 1
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 2 1 In the experiment P5.8.3.4, transmission gratings of different grating con-
474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1 1 stants are investigated. A light source with known wavelength is used to
474 6411 Mounting plate 40, C25 2
characterize a specific grating. Finally, a two-dimensional grating is not only
used to produce impressive patterns of light spots, but gives an idea about
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 1 2 2
the principles of x-ray diffraction on crystal lattices or atomic layers.
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1 1
The experiment P5.8.3.5 builds a model for a standard grating monochroma-
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 2 1 tor as well as a spectrograph. With a white light lamp a source for a conti-
474 7213 Manual Diffraction gratings 1 nuous spectrum is provided. Here the spectrometer is used as a spectrograph
474 5218 Biconvex Lens f = 20 mm, C25-T Mount 1 and grating diffraction of first and higher orders as well as absorption spec-
474 5211 Acrylic Absorption Filter 1 troscopy can be demonstrated. Using the set-up in the monochromator mode
in combination with a spectral lamp, line spectra are detected and features
474 177 Spectrometer Mirror Assembly 1
like spectral resolution or line profile are measured.
474 178 Spectrometer Grating Assembly 1
For a comprehensive study of the properties of LED and laser diodes the setup
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 1
of the experiment P5.8.3.7 comes with four different light sources. One diode
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1 laser having a wavelength of 630 nm and three high brightness LED emitting
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1 1 white, red and blue radiation. The respective light source is plugged into the
474 5411 LED Lamp, White 1 1 four axes adjustment holder and connected to the adaptive power supply.
474 7214 Manual Spectral analysis 1
One lens is used for the beam collimation and cylindrical lenses for transfor-
ming the elliptical beam of the laser diode into an almost circular one.
474 5222 Cylindrical Lens f = 25 mm, C25 Mount 1

211
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.4
OPTICAL IMAGING
AND COLOUR

P5.8.4.1
Optical filter

P5.8.4.3
Camera and imaging

Optical filter (P5.8.4.1)

P5.8.4.3
P5.8.4.1

P5.8.4.3
P5.8.4.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 524 004 Adapter, USB port/serial port 1
474 5217 Plano-Convex Lens f = 60 mm, C25 Mount 1 474 5467 Flat panel TV 19 inch 1
474 5289 Interference Filter 550 nm, in C25 Mount 1 474 7218 Manual Camera 1
474 5262 Optical filters, Set of 8 1 additionally required: PC with Windows XP or higher 1
474 5302 Tranmission Grating, 600 lines/mm 1
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 1 In the experiment P5.8.4.1 different kinds of filters are presented. With
474 6417 Optical Screen with XY Scale 1 a set of colour filters transmission and absorption of certain spectral
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
ranges are demonstrated. Neutral density filters are provided to dim the
whole spectral range. An infrared LED and an IR filter demonstrate light
474 321 Si PIN Photodetector 1
filtering in the IR range.
531 173 Digital multimeter DMM 121 1
In the experiment P5.8.4.3 a high performance industrial CCD zoom
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 camera with computer interface is subject of a variety of investiga-
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1 1 tions. The rapid development in the area of CCD sensors created a great
474 5411 LED Lamp, White 1 variety of new possibilities. Most of them are introduced here and one
get experienced in the manifold of parameters which needs to be set
474 5416 LED Lamp NIR in C25 housing 1 1
according to the requirements. The CCD camera used can be operated
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 as day as well as night vision camera. In the latter case an IR blocking
474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1 filter is switched out of the way between the objective and the CCD chip
474 6411 Mounting plate 40, C25 1 enabling the sensitivity in the near infra red region (NIR). The camera is
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 2 1 fully controlled by a PC, the video output is connected to a TFT monitor.
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1
474 213 Adjustment Holder 1 inch, left 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1
474 7216 Manual Optische Filter 1
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1
468 75 Filter, infrared barrier 1
474 281 CCD day and night camera module 1
474 9112 CCD Camera Control Software 1

212 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.5
LASER BASICS

P5.8.5.1
Laser Doppler Anemometry
with CASSY

Laser Doppler Anemometry with CASSY (P5.8.5.1)

P5.8.5.1

P5.8.5.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

471 821 Head unit for 5 mW He-Ne laser 1 590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1
471 825 Power supply for 5 mW He-Ne-laser 1 683 70 Reflecting particles, 10 g 1
470 010 Laser holder for 5 mW He-Ne laser 1 664 146 Reaction tube 1
473 431 Holder for beam divider 1 602 404 Separation Funnel, 500 ml 1
473 432 Beam divider, 50 % 1 604 433 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 1 667 175 Hofmann tubing clamp, 20 mm 1
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 604 5672 Double microspatula, steel, 150 mm 1
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 602 010 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 150 ml, tall 1
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 604 215 Measuring beaker, clear SAN 500 ml 1
460 22 Holder with spring clips 2 300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
461 63 Set of 4 different diaphragms 1 666 546 Stand ring with clamp, 100 mm diam. 1
469 96 Diaphragm with 3 diffraction holes 1 500 401 Connecting lead, 19 A, 10 cm, red 1
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 471 828 Adjustment goggles for He-Ne-laser 1*
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 additionally required:
1
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 10 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

460 380 Cantilever arm 1 * additionally recommended

460 385 Extension rod 1
Laser Doppler anemometry is a non-contact optical measurement
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
method to obtain the velocity of a flow (fluid, gas). In the experiment
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
P5.8.5.1 a laser Doppler anemometer is assembled. Measurements of the
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 flow velocity of a fluid in a tube are conducted by measuring the ve-
558 835 Silicon photodetector 1 locity of small particles carried along in the flow. Moving through the
532 20 AC/DC amplifier 30 W 1 measuring volume the particles scatter light of a laser. The scattered
577 68 Resistor, 100 kW, STE 2/19 1
light is frequency shifted due to the Doppler effect. The frequency shift is
determined and converted into the particle velocity, i.e. the flow velocity.
CASSY ®

575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1

501 641 Two-way adapters, red, set of 6 1

213
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.5
LASER BASICS

P5.8.5.2
Laser safety

P5.8.5.3
Emission & absorption /
Optical pumping

Emission & absorption / Optical pumping (P5.8.5.3)

P5.8.5.2

P5.8.5.2
P5.8.5.3

P5.8.5.3
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 474 5310 Crystal in holder Nd:YAG 1064 nm 1
474 5220 Biconcave Lens f = -10 mm, C25 mount 1 474 113 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, left 1
474 217 Scatter Probe with Holder 1 474 137 Spatial filter with adjustable iris 1
468 77 Light filter, green 1 474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 1 1 468 74 Filter, infrared 1
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1 1 474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1
474 321 Si PIN Photodetector 1 474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1
531 173 Digital multimeter DMM 121 1 531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 1 474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1* 474 1021 Single Mode Diode Laser Head with Adjust 1
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1 1* 474 7102 LIT: Emission & Absorption/Opt. Pumping 1
474 5460 Laser Power Meter 1 501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1*
474 5462 Laser Power Sensor, 1 nW ... 50 mW 1
* additionally recommended
474 5463 Laser Energy Sensor, 300 nJ ... 600 µJ 1
Laser can emit dangerous radiation. To protect against any injury interna-
474 309 Controller for Pulsed Laser Diode 1
tional safety rules like IEC 60825 or ANSI Z136 were defined. The lasers
474 5428 Pulsed Diode Laser Module 908 nm 1
are classified into different classes with the individual maximum permis-
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1 sible exposure limit (MPE) which is defined as intensity, power per square
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 centimetre (W/cm²). To classify a laser one needs to know its intensity in
474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1 order to compare it with the MPE values. For pulsed laser its energy is used
instead of the power of continuous wave (cw) laser. Within the experiment
474 6411 Mounting plate 40, C25 2
P5.8.5.2 one pulsed and one cw laser is classified. For this purpose the
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 1
intensity needs to be determined. To calculate this value the power and
474 211 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, carrier 20 mm 1 the beam diameter are measured. For the pulsed laser its repetition rate
474 2112 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, with stop ang 1 and the emitted energy is measured.
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1 1 The experiment P5.8.5.3 introduces to optical pumping as well as emission
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1 1 and absorption. Due to the pumping process spontaneous and stimulated
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2 1
emission is generated. The emission is temporarily as well spectroscopical
measured and analyzed. The tuning of the emission wavelength of the pump
474 7101 LIT: Laser Safety 1
diode laser due to the temperature allows the recording of the absorption
474 1031 Module B - Collimating optics on carrier MG-65 with Melles Griot 1 spectrum. From the timely decay of the fluorescence light the lifetime of
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 the excited state is measured and the Einstein coefficient for stimulated
emission calculated.
214 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.5
LASER BASICS

P5.8.5.4
Fabry Perot spectrum analyser

Fabry Perot spectrum analyser, basic (P5.8.5.4_b)

P5.8.5.4 (b)

P5.8.5.4 (b)
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 474 5235 Laser Mirror, R = 75 mm, M16 Mount 1*
474 5236 Laser Mirror, R = 100 mm, M16 Mount 1 474 5237 Laser Mirror, flat, M12 Mount 1*
474 5239 Laser Mirror, R = 100 mm, M12 Mount 1 474 5238 Laser Mirror, R = 75 mm, M12 Mount 1*
474 113 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, left 1
* additionally recommended
474 317 Piezo Actuator Controller 1
474 139 Piezo Element with Adjustment Holder 1
522 561 Function generator P 1 A Fabry Perot resonator is formed by two mirrors aligned parallel to
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2 each other. The resulting cavity changes transparency when the di-
501 091 BNC T adapter 1 stance of the mirrors is changed by a multiple of half the wavelength.
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 Scanning the length of the cavity creates a high resolution spectrome-
ter. Experiment P5.8.5.4 shows an open frame scanning Fabry Perot. As
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
scanner a Piezo element and as probe a two mode Helium Neon laser is
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1 used. The mode spectrum of the Helium Neon laser is displayed on an
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 oscilloscope and the characteristic parameter like finesse, free spectral
474 303 HeNe Laser High Voltage supply, adjustable 1 range, resolution and contrast are measured and discussed. Additional
474 5421 HeNe Pilot Laser Ø 30 mm 1 components for beam expansion are used to investigate the effect of
technical Finesse. Additional mirrors are used to show the difference of
474 5445 Profile Rail, 1000 m 1
a plane and confocal Fabry Perot arrangement.
474 210 Mounting plate Ø 30 mm, carrier 20 mm 2
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2
474 7103 Manual Fabry Perot Resonator 1
474 1404 Lens f = 150 mm, C25 Mount and Plate 1*
474 140 Beam expander lens, adjustment holder 1*
474 5213 Achromat f = 20 mm, C25 Mount 1*
474 5234 Laser Mirror, flat, M16 mount 1*

215
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.5
LASER BASICS

P5.8.5.5
Helium Neon laser

P5.8.5.6
Laser frequency stabilisation

Helium Neon laser, basics (P5.8.5.5_b)

P5.8.5.5 (b)

P5.8.5.5 (b)
P5.8.5.6

P5.8.5.6
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5243 Laser Mirror VIS 700, M16 Mount 1 474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
474 5246 Laser Mirror, flat, M16 Mount 1 474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1
474 113 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, left 1 474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1
474 114 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, right 1 501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1
474 137 Spatial filter with adjustable iris 1 474 312 Laser frequency stabilizer LSF-01 1
474 1082 Module G (SiPIN) photodetector on swivel arm 1 474 410 Two mode HeNe-laser 1
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1 474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 474 7111 Manual Laser frequency stabilisation 1
501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1 additionally required:
1
474 303 HeNe Laser High Voltage supply, adjustable 1 1 PC with Windows XP or higher

474 127 Main Laser Tube with XY-Adjustment 1 * additionally recommended

474 5422 Pilot laser 532 nm (green) 1
The experiment P5.8.5.5 realises a Helium Neon laser from basic parts.
474 5445 Profile Rail, 1000 m 1
The open frame cavity allows the variation of parameters to measu-
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1
re the beam profile for different cavity mirror configurations and
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1 distances. The laser tube is equipped with a Brewster‘s window on both
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2 1 sides allowing the study of polarisation and losses. Optionally, a Littrow
474 7104 Manual HeNe Laser 1 prism selects other wavelengths than the main laser line at 632 nm,
especially the orange line at 611 nm. Further line tuning is demonstra-
474 5242 Laser Mirror OC 632, flat, M16 Mount 1*
ted by means of the optional birefringent tuner. 4 different lines can be
474 5244 Laser Mirror VIS 1000, M16 Mount 1* demonstrated by this element. An etalon is used to obtain the single
474 5245 Laser Mirror IR 713, M16 Mount 2* mode operation of the Helium Neon laser.
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1* Stabilizing a gas laser emission against thermal change of the reso-
474 126 Littrow prism with adjustment holder 1* nator is demonstrated in Experiment P5.8.5.6. Two longitudinal modes
474 141 Single Mode Etalon, Adjustmend Holder 1* of a short Helium Neon laser are analysed and centered to the laser
transition gain profile, thereby stabilizing the wavelength of emission.
474 142 Birefringent tuner 1*
A PI controller with variable coefficients is used for the stabilisation.
474 409 Mode separator and photodiode 1
474 112 Polarisation Analyzer 1

216 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.6
SOLID STATE LASER

P5.8.6.1
Diode laser

Diode laser (P5.8.6.1)

The goal of the experiment P5.8.6.1 is the study of the properties of a

laser diode, i.e. the characteristic parameters like the output power and
P5.8.6.1

wavelength as function of the temperature. In a next step the spatial

Cat. No. Description intensity distribution is measured. The more or less elliptical beam is
formed by means of two cylindrical lenses into an almost circular beam.
474 5266 Collimating cylindrical lens f = 20 mm 1
474 5267 Collimating cylindrical lens f = 80 mm 1
474 1031 Module B - Collimating optics on carrier MG-65 with Melles Griot 1
474 5310 Crystal in holder Nd:YAG 1064 nm 1
474 113 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, left 1
474 112 Polarisation Analyzer 1
474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1
474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1
474 1012 Diode Laser Head, Dual Axes Rotary Mount 1
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 2
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1
474 7105 Manual Diode Laser 1
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1*
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1*
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1*

* additionally recommended

217
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.6
SOLID STATE LASER

P5.8.6.2
Diode laser pumped Nd:YAG laser

P5.8.6.3
Frequency doubling,
1064 nm -> 532 nm

P5.8.6.4
Frequency doubling,
1320 nm -> 660 nm

P5.8.6.5
Q-switch operation

Frequency doubling, 1064 nm -> 532 nm (P5.8.6.3)

P5.8.6.2

P5.8.6.2
P5.8.6.3

P5.8.6.3
P5.8.6.4

P5.8.6.5

P5.8.6.4

P5.8.6.5
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 1031 Module B - Collimating optics on carrier MG-65 with Melles Griot 1 1 1 1 474 1081 Modul G InGAAS photodetector 1
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 1 1 1 474 110 Module P - Crystal for passive q-switch operation 1
474 5310 Crystal in holder Nd:YAG 1064 nm 1 1 1 474 1804 Light Chopper on Carrier with Controller 1*
474 5311 Laser mirror in holder SHG 100 1 1 1 474 264 Upgrade Kit for Active q-Switch 1*
474 113 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, left 1 1 1 1
* additionally recommended
474 114 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, right 1 1 1 1
474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1 1 1 1 Experiment P5.8.6.2 builds a diode pumped Nd:YAG laser ground up.
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 1 1 1 1 First the pump diode laser is characterized. Then the process of optical
468 74 Filter, infrared 1 1 1 1 pumping and the emitted spontaneous fluorescence are analysed spec-
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1 1 1 1
trally and temporally by modulation and changing the wavelength of
the pump laser leading to the Einstein coefficients. In a third step the
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1 1 1 1
laser operation is initiated by adding the second cavity mirror. The laser
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1 1 1
threshold and efficiency are determined and by modulating the pump
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1 1 1 laser diode the so called spiking effect demonstrated. By changing the
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1 1 1 1 length of the laser cavity the stability criterion is verified.
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1 1 1 1 Experiment P5.8.6.3 enhances the basic set-up of the diode pumped
474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1 1 1 1 Nd:YAG laser (P5.8.6.2) by a KTP crystal module placed into the laser
474 102 Diode Laser Head with Adjustment Holder 1 1 1 1 cavity leading to a frequency doubled green (532 nm) visible output. By
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 1 1 adding the optional adjustable iris the transverse mode structure can be
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1 1 1 1
controlled for various TEM structures down to TEM00.
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1 1 1 1 Experiment P5.8.6.4 is a variation of P5.8.6.3, but using differently
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1 1 1
coated mirrors and differently cut KTP, the Nd:YAG laser operates at
1320 nm and the frequency doubled visible light is red at a wavelength
474 7106 Manual DPSSL 1 1 1 1
of 660 nm.
474 109 KTP Crystal with Adjustment Holder 1
In the experiment P5.8.6.5 the basic set-up of the diode pumped Nd:YAG
468 77 Light filter, green 1
laser (P5.8.6.2) is enhanced by a passive saturable absorber module
474 137 Spatial filter with adjustable iris 1* 1* placed into the laser cavity. The initial absorption of the Cr:YAG crystal
474 1094 Red SHG Crystal in holder 1 prevents continous laser oscillation. Build-up of inversion will saturate
474 5240 Nd:YAG rod 1.3 µm in mirror holder 1 the absorber and repeatedly create a giant and short laser puls. Optio-
474 5241 Mirror SHG 1.3 µm 1 nally an active Q-switch can be used to trigger such a pulse externally.
474 5290 Coloured glass filter KG5, 50 x 50 x 3 mm 1

218 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.6
SOLID STATE LASER

P5.8.6.6
Pulsed diode laser

P5.8.6.7
Diode pumped
Nd:YVO4 micro laser

Pulsed diode laser (P5.8.6.6)

P5.8.6.6

P5.8.6.6
P5.8.6.7

P5.8.6.7
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 1031 Module B - Collimating optics on carrier MG-65 with Melles Griot 1 1 474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1
474 6412 Polarisation analyzer 40 mm 1 474 102 Diode Laser Head with Adjustment Holder 1
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1 1 474 122 Optics cleaning set 1
474 6414 Photodetector for Pivot Arm 1 671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1
531 183 Digital multimeter 3340 1 474 7127 LIT: Micro Laser 1
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1 * additionally recommended
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1
501 091 BNC T adapter 1
474 341 BNC load resistor 50 Ohm 1 Pulsed diode lasers emit short pulses with a pulse width of 10 ... 100
474 309 Controller for Pulsed Laser Diode 1
nanoseconds. Similar to a flash lamp the laser can emit a very high peak
power for a short time. Experiment P5.8.6.6 analyses the temporal and
474 5428 Pulsed Diode Laser Module 908 nm 1
spatial properties of a diode laser emitting a peak power of 70 W within
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 a pulse width of 100 ns. The electrical as well as optical pulse is moni-
474 121 Swivel Unit with Carrier 1 tored on an digital oscilloscope.
474 2114 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, rotary insert 1 Green laser light is still widely produced by optical pumping and
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1 frequency doubling. Within this experiment P5.8.6.7 a so called GCL
474 7109 LIT: Pulsed Diode Laser 1
(green core laser), consisting of a Neodymium Yttrium Vanadate
(Nd:YVO4) crystal which is cemented to a KTP crystal is used. Its small
474 5460 Laser Power Meter 1*
size of only 1.3 mm x 1.3 mm x 3 mm justifies the term „Micro Laser“.
474 5463 Laser Energy Sensor, 300 nJ ... 600 µJ 1* The GCL is pumped by a diode laser as known from the optical pumping
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 of the Nd:YAG Laser (P5.8.6.2).
474 241 Monolithic Nd:YVO4 + KTP Core Laser 1
474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 1
468 74 Filter, infrared 1
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1

219
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.7
OPTICAL FIBRES

P5.8.7.1
Fibre laser

P5.8.7.4
Erbium doped fibre amplifier

Fibre laser (P5.8.7.1)

P5.8.7.4

P5.8.7.4
P5.8.7.1

P5.8.7.1
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 474 1896 Erbium Doped Fibre Module, 16 m 1*
474 5308 Bandpass filter 1.5 µm in C25 1 474 5278 Passive mode locker module 1.5 µm 1*
474 190 Fused WDM Coupler 980/1550 nm 1 474 5279 Optical isolator, 1.5 µm, SM Fiber, ST 1*
474 191 Fibre collimator with ST connector, left 1 474 5254 Collimating Optics, high NA 1
474 192 Fibre collimator with ST connector, right 1 474 1036 Collimating Optics on Carrier 1
474 194 ST coupler in C25 mounted 1 474 151 Coupling Optics, XY- Adjustment Holder 1
474 1898 Erbium Doped Fibre Module, 8 m 1 474 156 Dichroic Beam Combiner 980/1550 nm 1
474 246 Output coupling module 1 474 157 Erbium doped fibre 17 m with holder 1
474 5293 SM Fibre 100 m on drum, ST connector 1 474 321 Si PIN Photodetector 1
474 5296 Fibre Patch Cable ST/ST, Length 0.25 m 3 474 5304 Diode Laser Head 980 nm 1
474 5297 Fibre Patch Cable ST/ST, Length 1 m 1 474 5305 Diode Laser Head 1550 nm 1
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1 1 474 211 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, carrier 20 mm 2
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1 1 474 7120 LIT: Erbium doped Fibre Amplifier (EDFA) 1
474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1 * additionally recommended
474 1084 InGAAS Photodetector 1 1
In the experiment P5.8.7.1, an Erbium doped fibre is used as active
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1
material. Connected to a pump laser, the fluorescence from the erbium
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1 1 fiber is analysed. Before the laser operation at 1.5 µm is studied, the
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1 2 lifetime of the exited state is measured. To form a ring laser a WDM is
474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1 2 used to couple the pump light into the fibre and to close the laser ring
474 5426 Diode laser module, ST fibre connector 1 structure. The ring is opened where a thin glass plate couples a small
fraction of the clockwise (cw) and counter clockwise (ccw) laser modes
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 2
towards a detector.
474 5444 Profile Rail, 1000 mm 1
Experiment P5.8.7.4 realises an optical amplifier. An Erbium doped fiber
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 1 2 is pumped below laser level, incoming light from a laser diode triggers
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2 1 stimulated emission and the light intensity is increased.
474 7110 LIT: Fibre Laser 1
474 189 Erbium doped fibre 2 m module, ST connect 1*
474 1894 Erbium Doped Fibre Module, 4 m 1*

220 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.7
OPTICAL FIBRES

P5.8.7.2
Plastic optical fibre (POF)

P5.8.7.3
Glass fibre optics

Glass fibre optics (P5.8.7.3)

P5.8.7.2

P5.8.7.2
P5.8.7.3

P5.8.7.3
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5229 Plastic Optical Fibre, 10 m 1 501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1

474 5230 Plastic Optical Fibre, 20 m 1 474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1
474 5231 Plastic Optical Fibre, 30 m 1 474 1022 Diode Laser Head with Adjustment Holder 1
474 5232 F-SMA Connector Mounting Set 1 474 7119 Manual Glass Fibre Optics 1
474 6425 Coupler F-SMA for POF 2 474 5226 Optical Glass Fibre, 1000 m monomode 1*
474 124 Plastic Fibre Holder with XY-Adjustment 1 474 5295 Multimode optical fibre 5000 m, 50/125 µm, on drum 1*
474 304 Dual Channel Receiver 1 * additionally recommended
474 125 Dichroic Beam Splitter Unit 1
Experiment P5.8.7.2 shows the properties of a plastic optical fiber and
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1
shows the basics of wavelength multiplexing and demultiplexing. A red
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 2 1 and a blue LED are simultaneously coupled into the fiber and separated
474 305 Dual Channel LED Transmitter 1 at the end.
474 5424 Dual LED - FSMA 1 Experiment P5.8.7.3 introduces to glass fibre optics. Within this experi-
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 1 ment the diode laser itself will be characterised with respect to its output
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 2 power as function of its temperature and injection current. The spati-
al intensity distribution is measured by means of the provided rotation
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1
stage. Cutting and preparing the fibre is part of the practical training.
474 7118 Manual Plastic Fibre Optics 1 The light of the diode laser is coupled into the fibre by means of adju-
474 1036 Collimating Optics on Carrier 1 stable microscope objectives. The coupling efficiency is monitored with
474 151 Coupling Optics, XY- Adjustment Holder 1 the photodetector detecting the light coming out at the end of the fibre.
474 152 Bare Fibre Holder with Translation Stage 1 The intensity distribution of the light emerging at the end of the fibre
is measured and the numerical aperture determined. By modulating the
474 154 Bare Fibre Holder on Rotation Stage 1
diode laser by means of the provided microprocessor controlled device the
474 5227 Optical Glass Fibre, 1000 m multimode 1 time of flight inside the fibre will be measured. From the results either the
474 6420 Optical Fibre Cleaver and Breaker 1 length of the fibre or the speed of light is calculated.
474 6421 Adjustable Plastic Cover Stripper 1
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1
474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1
474 216 SiPIN Photodetector, Mounting Plate C25 1

221
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.7
OPTICAL FIBRES

P5.8.7.5
Optical time domain
reflectometry (OTDR)

P5.8.7.6
Signal transmission via glass fibre

P5.8.7.7
Fibre Optics Workshop

Optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) (P5.8.7.5)

P5.8.7.5

P5.8.7.5
P5.8.7.6

P5.8.7.6
P5.8.7.7

P5.8.7.7
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 1036 Collimating Optics on Carrier 1 474 5465 CCD Camera, coloured 1
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 474 5466 CD player incl. music CD 1
474 5274 Quarter wave plate, C25 1 474 5467 Flat panel TV 19 inch 1
474 230 Beam splitter module 1 474 7122 Manual Optical Data Transmission 1
474 151 Coupling Optics, XY- Adjustment Holder 1 474 184 Fibre coupling module 1*
474 150 Bare Fibre Holder with Carrier 1 474 5479 Hot Melt Assembly Kit 1
474 152 Bare Fibre Holder with Translation Stage 1 474 5476 HotMelt polishing unit 1
474 5227 Optical Glass Fibre, 1000 m multimode 1 1 474 5477 Hotmelt ST connector, set of 60 1
474 6420 Optical Fibre Cleaver and Breaker 1 474 7123 Manual Fibre Optics Workshop 1
474 6421 Adjustable Plastic Cover Stripper 1 1 474 6423 Splicing tubes 60 mm, set of 250 1*
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1 474 5473 Fusion Splicer, SM & MM 1*
474 331 Photodetector, Ultrafast with Amplifier 1 474 5474 High performance fibre cleaver & breaker 1*
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1*
* additionally recommended
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1 Experiment P5.8.7.5 shows the properties of optical time domain reflecto-
metry (OTDR) in a fiber optic setup. Optical and mechanical imperfections
474 309 Controller for Pulsed Laser Diode 1
within the fibre and fibre links or mechanical stress all lead to power los-
474 5428 Pulsed Diode Laser Module 908 nm 1 ses. OTDR is the tool to analyse and locate such imperfections in optical
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1 fibres. The basic idea is to feed a light signal into the fibre and monitor the
474 5444 Profile Rail, 1000 mm 1 occurrence of light echoes.
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 2 Within the experiment P5.8.7.6, a data transmission line will be set-up with
474 2114 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, rotary insert 1 an optical fibre with a length of 5 km and the transmission of video as well as
audio signals are demonstrated and studied. The set-up comes with a colour
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1*
CCD video camera and a CD-player as an audio source and a TV screen as a
474 7121 Manual OTDR 1 monitor. By means of an optional fibre coupling module the optical signals can
474 6426 Optical Fibre Transmitter, ST Connectors 1 be monitored and analyzed and the sensitivity against misalignment studied.
474 6427 Optical Fibre Receiver, ST Connectors 1 The main goal of the experiment P5.8.7.7 is the connectoring of optical glass
474 5228 Optical Multimode Glass Fibre, 5000 m 1 fibres with ST connectors. Although a variety of other fibre connectors exist
773 629 Fibre Patch Cable MM, 1.0 m 2 the process of connectoring however remains the same. Another major tech-
nology is the welded connection of bare fibres by means of the fusion splicing
501 091 BNC T adapter 1
technology.
474 341 BNC load resistor 50 Ohm 1

222 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.8
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.8.1
Michelson laser interferometer

Michelson laser interferometer - Basic setup (P5.8.8.1_b)

P5.8.8.1 (b)

P5.8.8.1 (b)
P5.8.8.1 (d)

P5.8.8.1 (d)
P5.8.8.1 (c)

P5.8.8.1 (c)
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

474 5216 Plano-Convex lens f = 40 mm, C25 mount 1 1 1 474 148 Dial Gauge 5 mm / 1 µm, Carrier 20 1
474 5219 Biconcave Lens f = -5 mm, C25 mount 1 1 1 474 149 Triple Reflector with Translation Stage 1
474 5220 Biconcave Lens f = -10 mm, C25 mount 1 1 1 474 308 Photodetector Preamplifier 1 1
474 5246 Laser Mirror, flat, M16 Mount 2 2 2 474 3111 Fringe Counter 1 1
474 113 Laser Mirror Adjustment Holder, left 2 2 2 501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 2 2
474 5247 Beam splitter plate 1:1 @ 632 nm, mounted 1 1 1 474 330 Stepper Motor Controller, 1 Axis, USB 1
474 115 Carrier cross-piece, adjustable stage 1 1 1 474 145 Motorised Translation Stage 50 mm 1
474 5453 Crossed Hair Target in C25 mount 1 1 1 additionally required:
1
474 147 EXP10-Modul H, Schirm auf Reiter 1 1 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

474 306 Photodetector signal conditioning box 1 1 1 * additionally recommended

474 108 SiPIN photodetector 1 1 1
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1 1 The setup of the famous Michelson interferometer in experiment
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1 1 1
P5.8.8.1 is accomplished by the modern modules and components. As
light source a two mode Helium Neon laser is used. The contrast func-
474 3034 HeNe Laser High Voltage Supply 1 1 1
tion is measured for different path lengths. From these results the co-
474 5421 HeNe Pilot Laser Ø 30 mm 1 1 1 herence length of the probe laser is determined. The interference fringes
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 4 4 4 are either displayed by the translucent white screen or their intensity is
474 5454 Laser adjustment holder, soft ring 30 mm, carrier 20 mm 2 2 2 measured by means of an oscilloscope. By adding a variety of technical
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 4 4 4 components the interferometer can be upgraded to a technical interfe-
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1 1 1
rometer to train the calibration of CNC machines.
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1 1 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2 2 2
474 7112 LIT: Michelson Interferometer 1 1 1
474 267 Set of spare parts 1* 1* 1*
474 5248 Polarising beam splitter cube 1 1
474 403 Triple Reflector in 1 inch mount 2 2
474 144 Beam Displacer 5 mm 1 1
474 146 Fringe detection unit 1 1

223
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.8
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.8.2
Laser range finder

P5.8.8.3
Laser vibrometer

Laser vibrometer (P5.8.8.3)

P5.8.8.2

P5.8.8.2
P5.8.8.3

P5.8.8.3
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

Module B - Collimating optics on carrier MG-65 with 474 302 Controller for Diode Laser 1
474 1031 1
Melles Griot 474 5431 Laser 532 nm, singlemode 1
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 1 1 474 7114 LIT: Laser Vibrometer 1
474 4025 IR converter screen 0.8 - 1.6 µm 1
474 331 Photodetector, Ultrafast with Amplifier 1
In experiment P5.8.8.2 a high energy pulsed laser diode is collimated
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1 1
and aimed at the target. The short laser pulse (30 ns) travels with the
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1 speed of light. The scattered light is detected by a Si-PIN photodiode af-
474 309 Controller for Pulsed Laser Diode 1 ter passing the receiver lens. Based on the time of flight and the known
474 5428 Pulsed Diode Laser Module 908 nm 1 speed of light the distance to the target is calculated.
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 2 1 The laser vibrometer in experiment P5.8.8.3 demonstrates the working
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 1 1
principle of a contactless measurement of vibrations of a target. Using a
heterodyne setup one optical detector is sufficient to realise a quadra-
474 211 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, carrier 20 mm 1 1
ture forward / backward counter.The back scattered and Doppler shifted
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1 1 light is coupled back to the interferometer and superimposed with the
474 7113 LIT: Laser Range Finder 1 reference beam. The frequency of the reference beam is shifted by a
474 5220 Biconcave Lens f = -10 mm, C25 mount 1 Bragg cell. The subsequent signal amplifiers can be AC coupled allowing
a much higher gain in a simple way than a Michelson interferometer.
474 5320 Quarter wave plate, C25 1
474 206 Speaker mounted on carrier 20 mm 1
474 207 Beam Recombiner Assembly 1
474 208 Beam Splitting Assembly 1
474 2071 Rider with tilted mirror 1
474 313 Heterodyne Mixer and AOM driver 1
474 411 Acoustic optic modulator AOM 1
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
474 3312 Fast photodetector for laser use 2
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 3
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1

224 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.8
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.8.4
Laser Doppler anemometer

Laser Doppler anemometer (P5.8.8.4)

Laser Doppler anemometry is a non-contact optical measurement

method to obtain the velocity of a flow (liquid, gas). In the experiment
P5.8.8.4

P5.8.8.4 a laser Doppler anemometer is assembled. A laser beam is split

Cat. No. Description into two parts. Focused back to one spot, the laser beams create an
interference pattern. Particles in the fluid flow move through the bright
474 104 Focussing Optics, f = 60 mm 2 and dark zones of the pattern and the scattered light is modulated
474 107 Filter Plate Holder 1 according to the speed of the particle. Alternatively, the same setup can
be explained in terms of Doppler shifted light.
474 187 LDA Beam Splitting Assembly 1
In this experiment, water droplets inside an air stream are used as the
474 1876 LDA Beam Deflection and Focussing 1
scattering particles. The water droplets are too small to stick to surfaces
474 188 Ultrasonic particle seeder 1 nearby and to wet them. They will just evaporate or bounce off due to
474 315 Ultrasonic Particle Nebuliser 1 surface tension.
474 331 Photodetector, Ultrafast with Amplifier 1
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1
501 06 HF-Cable, BNC-BNC, 1.5 m 1
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 1
474 351 Signal Amplifier 1
474 301 Adaptive Power Supply 1
474 128 Diode laser module 1
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 2
474 7115 LIT: Laser Doppler Anemometer 1

Laser Doppler Anemometer Setup Oscilloscope signal of a water droplet passing throught the interference zone

225
OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.8
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.8.5
HeNe laser gyroscope

HeNe laser gyroscope (P5.8.8.5)

Experiment P5.8.8.5 shows the basics of a laser gyroscope. A three-mirror

mono mode HeNe ring laser is set up; using a green pilot laser adjusting
P5.8.8.5

the mirrors is made easy. Both CW and CCW light beams are coupled
Cat. No. Description out of the resonator and fed into an interferometer, creating interference
patterns. Rotating this laser, the CW and CCW cavity length is no longer
474 159 Gyroscope base plate 1 equal due to special relativity, and mixing both light rays will generate a
474 160 Rotation Unit 1 beat frequency in the kHz range. This way the absolute rotation of the
laser can be measured. This is not a Sagnac style interferometer, having
474 330 Stepper Motor Controller, 1 Axis, USB 1
the laser medium inside the moving system creates a much more sensitive
474 407 Fringe Detection Unit 1 setup with beat frequency instead of the phase shift of a rotating Sagnac
474 308 Photodetector Preamplifier 1 interferometer.
474 311 Fringe Up and Down Counter 1
474 346 Plug-in power supply 12 V - 2.5 A 1
474 5464 Oscilloscope, Dual Channel, Digital 1
501 061 HF-Cable, BNC-Mini BNC, 1.5 m 4
728 950 USB port isolator 1
474 303 HeNe Laser High Voltage supply, adjustable 1
474 5423 Alignment laser 532 nm 1
474 122 Optics cleaning set 1
671 9700 Ethanol, absolute, 250 ml 1
474 7116 LIT: HeNe Laser Gyroscope 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP or higher

Optical Setup of the ring laser gyro with interferometer

226 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 OPTICS
PHOTONICS

P5.8.8
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

P5.8.8.6
Laser beam analysis

Laser beam analysis (P5.8.8.6)

In experiment P5.8.8.6 two different visible lasers plus collimating and

expanding optics are used to demonstrate a variety of beam profile
P5.8.8.6

measurements with various beam shaping arrangements to show the

Cat. No. Description possibilities of laser beam forming. The most important property of a
laser beam is the intensity distribution in the beam. The beam profiler
474 1036 Collimating Optics on Carrier 1 is no CDD type, but a knife edge type: A precise knife edge is moved
474 5266 Collimating cylindrical lens f = 20 mm 1 through the cross-section of the laser beam. As the blade moves across
the beam, it is cut from reaching the photodetector.
474 5267 Collimating cylindrical lens f = 80 mm 1
Using several knives with different angles on one rotating drum, the
474 5263 Beam expander 6x 1
beam profile can be calculated from the time responses when the knives
474 5470 Beammaster BM-7S 1 pass through the beam.
474 5418 Diode Laser Module, 532 nm 1
474 5420 Dimo diode laser module, 630 nm (red) 1
474 5442 Profile rail, 500 mm 1
474 209 Mounting Plate C25 with Carrier 20 mm 3
474 211 Adjustment holder, 4 axes, carrier 20 mm 1
474 251 Transport and Storage Box #01 1
474 7117 Manual Laser beam analysis 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP or higher

Optical setup of a semiconductor laser diode

227
 P5.3.4.2
Determining the wavelength of the
light of an He-Ne laser using a Mi-
chelson interferometer

228 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
P6 ATOMIC AND
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS 231

P6.2 ATOMIC SHELL 239
P6.3 X-RAY PHYSICS 250
P6.4 RADIOACTIVITY 261
P6.5 NUCLEAR PHYSICS 265
P6.6 QUANTUM PHYSICS 272

229
P6 ATOMIC AND
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS P6.4 RADIOACTIVITY

P6.1.1 Oil-spot experiment 231 P6.4.1 Detecting radioactivity 261
P6.1.2 Millikan experiment 232 P6.4.2 Poisson distribution 262
P6.1.3 Specific electron charge 233 P6.4.3 Radioactive decay and half-life 263
P6.1.4 Planck’s constant 234-236 P6.4.4 Attenuation of a-, b- and g radiation 264
P6.1.5 Dual nature of wave and particle 237
P6.1.6 Paul trap 238 P6.5 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
P6.5.1 Demonstrating paths of particles 265
P6.2 ATOMIC SHELL P6.5.2 Rutherford scattering 266
P6.2.1 Balmer series of hydrogen 239-240 P6.5.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance 267
P6.2.2 Emission and absorption spectra 241-243 P6.5.4 a spectroscopy 268
P6.2.3 Inelastic collisions of electrons 244 P6.5.5 g spectroscopy 269
P6.2.4 Franck-Hertz experiment 245-246 P6.5.6 Compton effect 270
P6.2.6 Electron spin resonance 247 P6.5.7 Properties of radiation particles 271
P6.2.7 Normal Zeeman effect 248
P6.2.8 Optical pumping (anomalous Zeeman effect) 249 P6.6 QUANTUM PHYSICS
P6.6.1 Quantum optics 272
P6.3 X-RAY PHYSICS P6.6.2 Particles 273
P6.3.1 Detection of X-rays 250-252
P6.3.2 Attenuation of X-rays 253
P6.3.3 Physics of the atomic shell 254
P6.3.5 X-ray energy spectroscopy 255
P6.3.6 Structure of X-ray spectrums 256-257
P6.3.7 Compton effect at X-rays 258
P6.3.8 X-ray tomography 259-260

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 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.1
OIL-SPOT EXPERIMENT

P6.1.1.1
Estimating the size of oil molecules

Estimating the size of oil molecules (P6.1.1.1)

One important issue in atomic physics is the size of the atom. An

investigation of the size of molecules makes it easier to come to a usable
order of magnitude by experimental means. This is estimated from the
P6.1.1.1

Cat. No. Description size of an oil spot on the surface of water using simple means.
In the experiment P6.1.1.1, a drop of glycerin nitrioleate as added to a
664 179 Crystallisation dish, 230 mm diam., 3500 ml 1 grease-free water surface dusted with Lycopodium spores. Assuming
665 844 Burette, amber glass, 10 ml 1 that the resulting oil spot has a thickness of one molecule, we can
664 110 Beaker, DURAN, 50 ml, tall 1 calculate the size d of the molecule according to
665 751 Measuring cylinder, 10 ml, with plastic base 1 V
d=
A
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1
from the volume V of the oil droplet and the area A of the oil spot. The
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
volume of the oil spot is determined from the number of drops needed
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
to fill a volume of 1 cm3. The area of the oil spot is determined using
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 graph paper.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 1
672 1240 Glycerinetrioleate, 100 ml 1
674 2220 Petroleum ether, 40...70 °C, 1 l 1
670 6920 Lycopodium spores, 25 g 1

Determining the area A of the oil spot

231
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.2
MILLIKAN EXPERIMENT
P6.1.2.1
Determining the electric unit charge
after Millikan and verifying the charge
quantification - Measuring the
suspension voltage and the falling speed

P6.1.2.2
Determining the electric unit charge
after Millikan and verifying the charge
quantification - Measuring the rising
and falling speed

P6.1.2.3
Determining the electric unit charge
after Millikan and verifying the charge
quantification - Measuring the suspension
voltage and the falling speed with CASSY

P6.1.2.4
Determining the electric unit charge
after Millikan and verifying the charge
quantification - Measuring the rising
and falling speed with CASSY

Determining the electric unit charge after Millikan and verifying the charge quantification - Measuring the sus-
pension voltage and the falling speed (P6.1.2.1_b)

With his famous oil-drop method, R. A. Millikan succeeded in demon-

P6.1.2.1 (b)

strating the quantum nature of minute amounts of electricity in 1910. He

caused charged oil droplets to be suspended in the vertical electric field
P6.1.2.2
P6.1.2.3
P6.1.2.4

Cat. No. Description of a plate capacitor and, on the basis of the radius r and the electric field
E, determined the charge q of a suspended droplet:
559 412 Millikan apparatus 1 1 1 1 4π 3 ρ ⋅ g
q= ⋅r ⋅
559 421 Millikan supply unit 1 1 1 1 3 E
575 471 Counter S 1 ρ: density of oil
g: gravitanional acceleration
n
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 3 4 3 3
313 033 Electronic time clock P 2 He discovered that q only occurs as a whole multiple of an electron charge
e. His experiments are produced here in two variations.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1
In the variation P6.1.2.1 and P6.1.2.3, the electric field
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
U
524 034 Timer box 1 1 E=
d
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1 1 d : plate spacing
500 421 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, red 1
is calculated from the voltage U at the plate capacitor at which the obser-
additionally required: ved oil droplet just begins to hover. The constant falling velocity v1 of the
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) droplet when the electric field is switched off is subsequently measured to
determine the radius. From the equilibrium between the force of gravity
and Stokes friction, we derive the equation
4π 3
⋅ r ⋅ ρ ⋅ g = 6π ⋅ r ⋅ η ⋅ v1
3
η: viscosity
In the variant P6.1.2.2 and P6.1.2.4, the oil droplets are observed which
are not precisely suspended, but which rise with a low velocity v 2. The
following applies for these droplets:
U 4π 3
q⋅ = ⋅ r ⋅ ρ ⋅ g + 6π ⋅ r ⋅ η ⋅ v 2
d 3
Additionally, the falling speed v1 is measured, as in the variant P6.1.2.1
and P6.1.2.3. The measuring accuracy for the charge q can be increased
by causing the oil droplet under study to rise and fall over a given distance
several times in succession and measuring the total rise and fall times.
CASSY ®

The histogram reveals the qantum nature of the change

232 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.3
SPECIFIC ELECTRON
CHARGE

P6.1.3.1
Determining the specific charge
of the electron

Determining the specific charge of the electron (P6.1.3.1)

The mass me of the electron is extremely difficult to determine in an

experiment. It is much easier to determine the specific charge of the
electron
P6.1.3.1

Cat. No. Description e

ε=
me
555 571 Fine beam tube 1
from which we can calculate the mass me for a given electron charge e.
555 581 Helmholtz coils with holder and measuring device for fine beam tube 1
In the experiment P6.1.3.1, a tightly bundled electron beam is diverted
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2
into a closed circular path using a homogeneous magnetic field in order
521 65 Tube power supply, 0...500 V 1 to determine the specific electron charge. The magnetic field B which
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 diverts the electrons into the path with the given radius r is determined
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 as a function of the acceleration voltage U. The Lorentz force caused
by the magnetic field acts as a centripetal force. It depends on the
500 614 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, black 3
velocity of the electrons, which in turn is determined by the acceleration
500 624 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, black 3 voltage. The specific electron charge can thus be determined from the
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 7 measurement quantities U, B and r according to the formula
531 835 Universal measuring instrument, Physics 1* e U
= 2⋅ 2 2
524 0382 Axial B sensor S, ±1000 mT 1* me B ⋅r
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1*

* additionally recommended

Circular electron path in fine beam tube

233
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.4
PLANCK’S CONSTANT

P6.1.4.1
Determining Planck’s constant -
Measuring in a compact assembly

P6.1.4.5
Determining Planck’s constant -
Recording the current-voltage
characteristics, measuring in
a compact assembly

Determining Planck’s constant - Measuring in a compact assembly (P6.1.4.1)

When light with the frequency n falls on the cathode of a photocell,

P6.1.4.5 (a)

electrons are released. Some of the electrons reach the anode where
they generate a current in the external circuit, which is compensated to
P6.1.4.1

Cat. No. Description zero by applying a voltage with opposite sign U = –U 0 . The applicable
relationship
558 77 Photocell for determining Planck‘s constant 1 1 e ⋅ U0 = h ⋅ ν − W W : electronic work function
558 79 Compact arrangement for determining Planck‘s constant 1 1 was first used by R. A. Millikan to determine Planck’s constant h.
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1 1 In the experiment P6.1.4.1, a compact arrangement is used to de-
451 195 Power supply unit for high-pressure mercury lamp 1 1 termine h, in which the light from a high-pressure mercury vapour lamp
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 is spectrally dispersed in a direct-vision prism. The light of precisely
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 one spectral line at a time falls on the cathode. A capacitor is con-
nected between the cathode and the anode of the photocell which is
578 22 Capacitor, 100 pF, STE 2/19 1
charged by the anode current, thus generating the opposing voltage U.
579 10 Push button (NO), STE 2/19 1 As soon as the opposing voltage reaches the value –U 0, the anode
590 011 Clamping plug 2 current is zero and the charging of the capacitor is finished. U 0 is
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 2 measured without applying a current by means of an electrometer
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 amplifier.
502 04 Distribution box with earthing socket 1 In the experiment P6.1.4.5 light from a mercury gas discharge lamp
is deflected by a direct view prism, one wavelength selected and
500 414 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, black 1
focused onto the photocathode. The countervoltage of the anode
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 is varied and the resulting current is measured with high sensitivity.
501 461 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, black, pair 1 1 The variation of the characteristic curves under irradiation with
500 440 Connecting lead, 19 A, 100 cm, yellow/green 1 different wavelengths leads to the determination of Plancks constant h.
532 00 I-measuring amplifier D 1
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1
576 86 Monocell holder STE 2/50 3
685 48ET5 Batteries 1.5 V (D, mono), set of 5 1
577 93 Potentiometer, 1 kW, 10-turn, STE 4/50 1
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1

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 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.4
PLANCK’S CONSTANT

P6.1.4.3
Determining Planck’s constant -
Selection of wavelengths using
interference filters on the
optical bench

Determining Planck’s constant - Selection of wavelengths using interference filters on the optical bench (P6.1.4.3_a)

In determining Planck‘s constant using the photoelectric effect, it must

P6.1.4.3 (a)

be ensured that only the light of a single spectral line of the high-
pressure mercury vapour lamp falls on the cathode of the photocell at
Cat. No. Description any one time. As an alternative to a prism, it is also possible to use
narrow-band interference filters to select the wavelength. This simpli-
558 77 Photocell for determining Planck‘s constant 1 fies the subsequent optical arrangement, and it is no longer necessary
558 791 Holder for photocell 1 to darken the experiment room. Also, the intensity of the light incident
on the cathode can be easily varied using an iris diaphragm.
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1
In the experiment P6.1.4.3, the capacitor method described previ-
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 2
ously (see P6.1.4.1) is used to generate the opposing voltage U bet-
460 375 Optics rider, 120/50 3 ween the cathode and the anode of the photocell. The voltage at the
558 792 Filter wheel with diaphragm 1 capacitor is measured without current using the electrometer amplifier.
468 401 Interference filter, 578 nm 1
468 402 Interference filter, 546 nm 1 Note: The opposing voltage U can alternatively be tapped from a DC
468 403 Interference filter, 436 nm 1 voltage source. The I-measuring amplifier D is recommended for sensi-
tive measurements of the anode current (see P 6.1.4.4).
468 404 Interference filter, 405 nm 1
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1
451 195 Power supply unit for high-pressure mercury lamp 1
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1
578 22 Capacitor, 100 pF, STE 2/19 1
579 10 Push button (NO), STE 2/19 1
590 011 Clamping plug 2
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
501 10 BNC adapter, straight 1
501 09 BNC/4-mm plug adapter, single-pole 1
340 89ET5 Coupling plugs, 4 mm, set of 5 1
502 04 Distribution box with earthing socket 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1
500 440 Connecting lead, 19 A, 100 cm, yellow/green 2

235
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.4
PLANCK’S CONSTANT

P6.1.4.4
Determining Planck’s constant -
Recording the current-voltage
characteristics, selection of
wavelengths using interference
filters on the optical bench

Determining Planck’s constant - Recording the current-voltage characteristics, selection of wavelengths using
interference filters on the optical bench (P6.1.4.4_b)
P6.1.4.4 (b)

P6.1.4.4 (b)
P6.1.4.4 (a)

P6.1.4.4 (a)
Cat. No. Description Cat. No. Description

558 77 Photocell for determining Planck‘s constant 1 1 524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1

558 791 Holder for photocell 1 1 524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 1 additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 2 2
460 375 Optics rider, 120/50 3 3
558 792 Filter wheel with diaphragm 1 1 In the experiment P6.1.4.4 one of the emission lines from a mercury
468 401 Interference filter, 578 nm 1 1 gas discharge lamp is selected by interference filters and focused onto
468 402 Interference filter, 546 nm 1 1 the photocathode. The countervoltage of the anode is varied and the
resulting current is measured with high sensitivity. The variation of the
468 403 Interference filter, 436 nm 1 1
characteristic curves under irradiation with different wavelengths leads
468 404 Interference filter, 405 nm 1 1 to the determination of Planck‘s constant h.
468 406 Interference filter, 365 nm 1 1
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1 1
451 195 Power supply unit for high-pressure mercury lamp 1 1
532 00 I-measuring amplifier D 1 1
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2
576 74 Plug-in board, DIN A4, STE 1 1
576 86 Monocell holder STE 2/50 3 3
685 48ET5 Batteries 1.5 V (D, mono), set of 5 1 1
577 93 Potentiometer, 1 kW, 10-turn, STE 4/50 1 1
579 13 Toggle switch, STE 2/19 1 1
501 48 Bridging plugs, STE 2/19, set of 10 1 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2
CASSY ®

500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 1 1 Current-voltage characteristics of the photocell

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 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.5
DUAL NATURE OF
WAVE AND PARTICLE

P6.1.5.1
Diffraction of electrons at a
polycrystalline lattice
(Debye-Scherrer diffraction)

P6.1.5.2
Optical analogy to electron
diffraction at a polycrystalline
lattice

Diffraction of electrons at a polycrystalline lattice (Debye-Scherrer diffraction) (P6.1.5.1)

In 1924, L. de Broglie first hypothesized that particles could have wave

P6.1.5.2
P6.1.5.1

properties in addition to their familiar particle properties, and that their

Cat. No. Description wavelength depends on the linear momentum p
555 626 Electron diffraction tube 1 h
λ= h: Planck's constant
p
555 600 Tube stand 1
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 His conjecture was confirmed in 1927 by the experiments of C. Davisson
and L. Germer on the diffraction of electrons at crystalline structures.
311 54 Precision vernier callipers 1
The experiment P6.1.5.1 demonstrates diffraction of electrons at
500 611 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, red 1
polycrystalline graphite. As in the Debye-Scherrer method with
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1
x-rays, we observe diffraction rings in the direction of radiation
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 which surround a central spot on a screen. These are caused by
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 the diffraction of electrons at the lattice planes of microcrystals
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 which fulfill the Bragg condition
555 629 Cross grating, 5000/cm, rotatable 1 2 ⋅ d ⋅ sin ϑ = n ⋅ λ
450 63 Halogen bulb, 12 V/100 W, G6.35 1 ϑ: angular aperture of diffraction ring
450 64 Halogen lamp, 12 V, 50/100 W 1 d: spaciing of lattice planes
450 66 Picture slider 1 As the graphite structure contains two lattice-plane spacings, two
521 25 Transformer, 2...12 V, 120 W 1 diffraction rings in the first order are observed. The electron wavelength
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 h
λ=
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 2 ⋅ me ⋅ e ⋅ U

441 53 Screen, translucent 1 me : mass of electron, e: elementary charge

311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 is determined by the acceleration voltage U, so that for the angular
460 43 Small optical bench 1 aperture of the diffraction rings we can say
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 5 1
sinϑ ∝
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 U
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 The experiment P6.1.5.2 illustrates the Debye-Scherrer method used
in the electron diffraction tube by means of visible light. Here, paral-
lel, monochromatic light passes through a rotating cross grating. The
diffraction pattern of the cross grating at rest, consisting of spots of
light arranged around the central beam in a network-like pattern, is
deformed by rotation into rings arranged concentrically around the
central spot.
Optical analogon of Debye-Scherrer diffraction (P6.1.5.2)

237
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTS

P6.1.6
PAUL TRAP

P6.1.6.1
Observing individual lycopod
spores in a Paul trap

Observing individual lycopod spores in a Paul trap (P6.1.6.1_a)

Spectroscopic measurements of atomic energy levels are normally

impaired by the motion of the atoms under study with respect to the
P6.1.6.1 (a)

radiation source. This motion shifts and broadens the spectral lines due
Cat. No. Description to the Doppler effect, which becomes strongly apparent in high-resolu-
tion spectroscopy. The influence of the Doppler effect is reduced when
558 80 Paul trap 1 individual atoms are enclosed in a small volume for spectroscopic
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 measurements. For charged particles (ions), this can be achieved using
the ion trap developed by W. Paul in the 1950‘s. This consists of two
460 01 Lens in frame, f=5 mm 1
rotationally symmetrical cover electrodes and one ring electrode. The
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 application of an AC voltage generates a time-dependent, parabolic
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 3 potential with the form
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1 r 2 − 2z 2
U ( r , z, t ) = U0 ⋅ cos ωt ⋅
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1 2 ⋅ r02
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 z: coordinate on the axis of symmetry
562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1 r : coordinate perpendicular to axis of symmetry
562 18 Coil, 50 turns, extra-low voltage 1 r0 : inside radius of ring electrode

562 16 Coil, 10 000 turns 1 An ion with the charge q and the mass m remains trapped in this
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 potential when the conditions
536 211 Measuring resistor, 10 MW 1 q r02 ⋅ ω2
0 .4 ⋅ α < < 1.2 α where α =
502 04 Distribution box with earthing socket 1 m U0

500 624 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, black 2 are fulfilled.

500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 The experiment P6.1.6.1 demonstrates how a Paul trap works using a
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 model which can be operated with no special requirements at stan-
dard air pressure and with 50 Hz AC. When a suitable voltage ampli-
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 1
tude U0 is set, it is possible to trap lycopod spores for several hours and
500 98 Safety adapter sockets, black, set of 6 1 observe them under laser light. Tilting of the entire ion trap causes
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 the trapped particles to move radially within the ring electrode.
500 440 Connecting lead, 19 A, 100 cm, yellow/green 1 When a voltage is applied between the cover electrodes, it is possible
to shift the potential along the z-axis.

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 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.1
BALMER SERIES
OF HYDROGEN

P6.2.1.1
Determining the wavelengths H α , H b
and H g from the Balmer series of
hydrogen

P6.2.1.2
Observing the Balmer series
of hydrogen using a prism
spectrometer

P6.2.1.4
Observing the Balmer series
of hydrogen using a compact
spectrometer

Determining the wavelengths Ha, H b and Hg from the Balmer series of hydrogen (P6.2.1.1)

In the visible range, the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen has four
P6.2.1.2
P6.2.1.4
P6.2.1.1

lines, H a , Hb , H g and H d; this sequence continues into the ultraviolet

Cat. No. Description range to form a complete series. In 1885, Balmer empirically worked out
a formula for the frequencies of this series
451 13 Balmer lamp 1 1 1
 1 1 
ν = R∞ ⋅  2 − 2  , m: 3, 4, 5, …
451 141 Power supply unit for Balmer lamp 1 1 1 2 m 
471 23 Ruled grating, 6000/cm (Rowland) 1 R∞ : 3.2899 ⋅ 1015 s-1 : Rydberg constant
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 which could later be explained using Bohr’s model of the atom.
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 In the experiment P6.2.1.1, the emission spectrum is excited using a
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 Balmer lamp filled with water vapor, in which an electric discharge splits
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 the water molecules into an excited hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 group. The wavelengths of the lines H a , Hb and H g are determined using
a high-resolution grating. In the first diffraction order of the grating,
441 53 Screen, translucent 1
we can find the following relationship between the wavelength l and
460 43 Small optical bench 1 the angle of observation J:
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1 λ = d ⋅ sin ϑ
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 6 d : grating constant
467 112 School spectroscope 1 The measured values are compared with the values calculated according
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1 to the Balmer formula.
460 251 Fibre holder 1 In the experiment P6.2.1.2 the Balmer series is studied by means of a
300 11 Saddle base 1 prism spectroscope (complete device).
additionally required: In the experiment P6.2.1.4 the Balmer series is studied by means of a
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) computer attached compact spectrometer. The optical adjustment is
extremely simple, just placing the optical fiber close to the discharge
lamp. As a result you get the complete infrared and visible range of the
emission spectrum.

Emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen

239
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.1
BALMER SERIES
OF HYDROGEN

P6.2.1.3
Observing the splitting of
the Balmer series on deuterated
hydrogen (isotope splitting)

Observing the splitting of the Balmer series on deuterated hydrogen (isotope splitting) (P6.2.1.3_b)

The Balmer series of the hydrogen atom is given by the electron transi-
P6.2.1.3 (b)

tions to the second energy level (principal quantum number n = 2) from

higher states (m: 3, 4, 5,...). The wavelength of the emitted photons is
Cat. No. Description given by
c  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  R = Rydberg constant
451 41 Balmer lamp, deuterated 1 λ n m 
451 141 Power supply unit for Balmer lamp 1 Here, one assumes that the mass of the nucleus is much bigger than the
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 mass of the electron. For a more exact calculation, the Rydberg constant
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 has to be corrected employing the reduced mass. Therefore, the Ryd-
460 09 Lens in frame, f=300 mm 1 berg constants RH for hydrogen and RD for the isotope deuterium whose
nucleus consists of a proton and a neutron differ. The spectral lines of the
460 14 Adjustable slit 1
Balmer series of deuterium are shifted to somewhat smaller wavelengths
471 27 Holographic grating in frame 1 compared to the spectral lines of hydrogen. This effect is called isotopic
337 47USB VideoCom 1 shift.
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 In the experiment P6.2.1.3 the Balmer series is studied by means of a high
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 resolution spectrometer setup. A holographic grating with the grating
460 341 Swivel joint with circular scale 1 constant g is used. The wavelength splitting is calculated from the angle
b of the 1. order maximum and the angle splitting Db:
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 6
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

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 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.2
EMISSION AND
ABSORPTION SPECTRA

P6.2.2.1
Displaying the spectral lines
of inert gases and metal vapors

P6.2.2.2
Qualitative investigation of the
absorption spectrum of sodium

Displaying the spectral lines of inert gases and metal vapors (P6.2.2.1)

When an electron in the shell of an atom or atomic ion drops from an

P6.2.2.2
P6.2.2.1

excited state with the energy E2 to a state of lower energy E1, it can emit
Cat. No. Description a photon with the frequency
E2 − E1
451 011 Spectral lamp, Ne 1 ν=
h
451 041 Spectral lamp, Cd 1 h: Planck's constant
451 062 Spectral lamp, Hg 100 1 In the opposite case, a photon with the same frequency is absorbed. As
451 111 Spectral lamp, Na 1 1 the energies E1 and E2 can only assume discrete values, the photons are
451 16 Housing for spectral lamps 1 1 only emitted and absorbed at discrete frequencies. The totality of the
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 1 frequencies which occur is referred to as the spectrum of the atom. The
positions of the spectral lines are characteristic of the corresponding
471 23 Ruled grating, 6000/cm (Rowland) 1
element.
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
The experiment P6.2.2.1 disperses the emission spectra of metal vapors
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1
and inert gases (mercury, sodium, cadmium and neon) using a high-
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 resolution grating and projects these on the screen for comparison
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 purposes.
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 In the experiment P6.2.2.2, the flame of a Bunsen burner is alternately
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 1 illuminated with white light and sodium light and observed on a screen.
460 43 Small optical bench 1 When sodium is burned in the flame, a dark shadow appears on the screen
when illuminating with sodium light. From this it is possible to conclu-
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
de that the light emitted by a sodium lamp is absorbed by the sodium
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 6 2
vapor, and that the same atomic components are involved in both absorption
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 and emission.
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2
300 11 Saddle base 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 2
666 711 Butane gas burner 1
666 712ET3 Butane cartridge, 190 g, set of 3 1
666 962 Double-ended spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1
673 0840 Magnesia rods, 25 pieces 1
673 5700 Sodium chloride, 250 g 1
Emission spectra

241
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.2
EMISSION AND
ABSORPTION SPECTRA

P6.2.2.3
Investigating the spectrum
of a high pressure mercury lamp

Investigating the spectrum of a high pressure mercury lamp (P6.2.2.3_c)

Spectral lines arise by the transistion of electrons from higher to lower

P6.2.2.3 (c)

energy states in the shell excited atoms. The wavelength of the emitted light
depends on this energy difference:
Cat. No. Description h ⋅c
∆E = h ⋅ ν =
λ
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1
The multiple energy states in the term scheme of mercury results in a
451 195 Power supply unit for high-pressure mercury lamp 1 large number of lines with different intensities (transition probabilities).
460 02 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 These lines can be observed in the visible range resp. measured in the near
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1 UV range.
460 09 Lens in frame, f=300 mm 1 In the experiment P6.2.2.3 the spectral lines of a high pressure mercury
lamp are investigated with a high-resolution spectrometer assembly using
460 14 Adjustable slit 1
a holographic grating. The grating works in reflection, leading to a high
471 27 Holographic grating in frame 1
intensity of the lines. Different lines are observed and their wavelengths
441 531 Screen 1 determined, especially the yellow, green, blue, violet and also the ultraviolet
337 47USB VideoCom 1 line. Some lines are investigated closely, e.g. the yellow double line, and the
460 335 Optical bench with standardised profile, 0.5 m 1 splitting of the wavelengths is determined.
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1
460 341 Swivel joint with circular scale 1
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 1
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 4
460 382 Tilting rider, 90/50 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

242 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.2
EMISSION AND
ABSORPTION SPECTRA

P6.2.2.4
Recording the emission spectra
of flame colouration

P6.2.2.5
Recording Fraunhofer lines
with a compact spectrometer

P6.2.2.6
Recording the spectra of
gas discharge lamps with
a compact spectrometer

Recording the emission spectra of flame colouration (P6.2.2.4)

In the experiment P6.2.2.4 flame tests with metal salts are performed. A
P6.2.2.4

P6.2.2.5

P6.2.2.6

compact spectrometer at the USB port of a PC enables the easy recording

Cat. No. Description of such transient processes and analyses the different emission lines. In
contrast to classical observation with the eye, the spectrometer records
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1 1 1 also lines in the IR region, identifying potassium for example.
460 251 Fibre holder 1 1* 1 In the experiment P6.2.2.5 Fraunhofer absorption lines in the solar
300 11 Saddle base 1 1* 1 spectrum are recorded with a compact spectrometer. The presence of
666 711 Butane gas burner 1 several elements in the solar photosphere is shown.
666 712ET3 Butane cartridge, 190 g, set of 3 1 Experiment P6.2.2.6 records the spectra of gas discharge lamps using a
666 731 Gas igniter, mechanical 1 compact and easy to use spectrometer.
673 0840 Magnesia rods, 25 pieces 1
604 5681 Powder spatula, steel, 150 mm 1
667 089 Spotting tile 1
661 088 Salts for flame tests, set of 9 1
674 6950 Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
467 63 Spectral tube, Hg (with Ar) 1
467 67 Spectral tube, He 1
467 68 Spectral tube, Ar 1
467 69 Spectral tube, Ne 1
467 81 Holder for spectral tubes 1
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1
536 251 Measuring resistor, 100 kW 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
300 40 Stand rod, 10 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1
500 611 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, red 1
500 610 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, yellow/green 1
additionally required:
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
Spectra of gas discharge lamps (P6.2.2.6)
* additionally recommended

243
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.3
INELASTIC COLLISIONS
OF ELECTRONS

P6.2.3.1
Discontinuous energy emission
of electrons in a gas-filled triode

Discontinuous energy emission of electrons in a gas-filled triode (P6.2.3.1)

In inelastic collision of an electron with an atom, the kinetic energy of

the electron is transformed into excitation or ionization energy of the
P6.2.3.1

atom. Such collisions are most probable when the kinetic energy is exactly
Cat. No. Description equivalent to the excitation or ionization energy. As the excitation levels
of the atoms can only assume discrete values, the energy emission in the
555 614 Gas triode 1 event of inelastic electron collision is discontinuous.
555 600 Tube stand 1 The experiment P6.2.3.1 uses a tube triode filled with helium to demon-
521 65 Tube power supply, 0...500 V 1 strate this discontinuous emission of energy. After acceleration in the
electric field between the cathode and the grid, the electrons enter an
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 3
opposing field which exists between the grid and the anode. Only those
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 electrons with sufficient kinetic energy reach the anode and contribute to
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 6 the current I flowing between the anode and ground. Once the electrons
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 4 in front of the grid have reached a certain minimum energy, they can
excite the gas atoms through inelastic collision. When the acceleration
voltage U is continuously increased, the inelastic collisions initially occur
directly in front of the grid, as the kinetic energy of the electrons reaches
its maximum value here. After collision, the electrons can no longer travel
against the opposing field. The anode current I is thus greatly decreased.
When the acceleration voltage U is increased further, the excitation zone
moves toward the cathode, the electrons can again accumulate energy
on their way to the grid and the current I again increases. Finally, the
electrons can excite gas atoms a second time, and the anode current
drops once more.

Anode current I as a function of the acceleration voltage U for He

244 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.4
FRANCK-HERTZ EXPERIMENT

P6.2.4.1
Franck-Hertz experiment with
mercury - Recording with the
oscilloscope and point by point

P6.2.4.2
Franck-Hertz experiment with
mercury - Recording and evaluation
with CASSY

Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury - Recording with the oscilloscope (P6.2.4.1_b)

In 1914, J. Franck and G. Hertz reported observing discontinuous energy

P6.2.4.1 (b)
P6.2.4.1 (a)

emission when electrons passed through mercury vapor, and the resul-
P6.2.4.2

ting emission of the ultraviolet spectral line (l = 254 nm) of mercury.

Cat. No. Description A few months later, Niels Bohr recognized that their experiment sup-
ported his model of the atom.
555 854 Hg Franck-Hertz tube 1 1 1 This experiment is offered in two variations, experiments P6.2.4.1 and
555 864 Socket for Hg Franck-Hertz tube, with DIN connector 1 1 1 P6.2.4.2, which differ only in the means of recording and evaluating
555 81 Electric oven for tubes, 230 V 1 1 1 the measurement data. The mercury atoms are enclosed in a tetrode
with cathode, grid-type control electrode, acceleration grid and target
555 880 Franck-Hertz supply unit 1 1 1
electrode. The control grid ensures a virtually constant emission current
666 193 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm 1 1 1 of the cathode. An opposing voltage is applied between the acceleration
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 grid and the target electrode. When the acceleration voltage U between
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 the cathode and the acceleration grid is increased, the target current I
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 corresponds closely to the tube characteristic once it rises above the
opposing voltage. As soon as the electrons acquire sufficient kinetic
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
energy to excite the mercury atoms through inelastic collisions, the
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 electrons can no longer reach the target, and the target current drops.
additionally required: At this acceleration voltage, the excitation zone is directly in front of
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) the excitation grid. When the acceleration voltage is increased further,
the excitation zone moves toward the cathode, the electrons can again
accumulate energy on their way to the grid and the target current again
increases. Finally, the electrons can excite the mercury atoms once
more, the target current drops again, and so forth. The I(U) characte-
ristic thus demonstrates periodic variations, whereby the distance bet-
ween the minima DU = 4.9 V corresponds to the excitation energy of the
mercury atoms from the ground state 1S0 to the first 3P1 state.
CASSY ®

Franck-Hertz curve for mercury

245
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.4
FRANCK-HERTZ EXPERIMENT

P6.2.4.3
Franck-Hertz experiment with neon -
Recording with the oscilloscope and
point by point

P6.2.4.4
Franck-Hertz experiment with neon -
Recording and evaluation with CASSY

Franck-Hertz experiment with neon - Recording and evaluation with CASSY (P6.2.4.4)

When neon atoms are excited by means of inelastic electron collision

P6.2.4.3 (b)
P6.2.4.3 (a)

at a gas pressure of approx. 10 hPa, excitation is most likely to occur

P6.2.4.4

to states which are 18.7 eV above the ground state. The de-excitation
Cat. No. Description of these states can occur indirectly via intermediate states, with the
emission of photons. In this process, the photons have a wavelength in
555 870 Ne Franck-Hertz tube 1 1 1 the visible range between red and green. The emitted light can thus be
555 871 Holder with socket and screen 1 1 1 observed with the naked eye and e.g. measured using the school spec-
troscope Kirchhoff/Bunsen (467 112).
555 872 Connecting cable for Ne Franck-Hertz tube 1 1 1
The Franck-Hertz experiment with neon is offered in two variations,
555 880 Franck-Hertz supply unit 1 1 1
experiments P6.2.4.3 and P6.2.4.4, which differ only in the means of
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 recording and evaluating the measurement data. In both variations,
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 the neon atoms are enclosed in a glass tube with four electrodes: the
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 cathode K, the grid-type control electrode G1, the acceleration grid
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 G 2 and the target electrode A. Like the Franck-Hertz experiment with
mercury, the acceleration voltage U is continuously increased and the
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2
current I of the electrons which are able to overcome the opposing
additionally required: voltage between G 2 and A and reach the target is measured. The tar-
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
get current is always lowest when the kinetic energy directly in front
of grid G 2 is just sufficient for collision excitation of the neon atoms,
and increases again with the acceleration voltage. We can observe
clearly separated luminous red layers between grids G1 and G 2; their
number increases with the voltage. These are zones of high excitation
density, in which the excited atoms emit light in the visible spectrum.
CASSY ®

Luminous layers between control electrode and acceleration grid

246 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.6
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE

P6.2.6.2
Electron spin resonance
at DPPH - determinig the
magnetic field as a function
of the resonance frequency

P6.2.6.3
Resonance absorption of a
passive RF oscillator circuit

Electron spin resonance at DPPH - determinig the magnetic field as a function of the resonance frequency (P6.2.6.2)

The magnetic moment of the unpaired electron with the total angular
momentum j in a magnetic field assumes the discrete energy states
P6.2.6.2
P6.2.6.3

Em = −g j ⋅ µB ⋅ m ⋅ B where m = − j , − j + 1,…, j
Cat. No. Description J
µB = 9.274 ⋅ 10−24 : Bohr's magneton
T
514 55 ESR basic unit 1 1 g j : g factor
514 571 ESR supply unit 1 1
When a high-frequency magnetic field with the frequency n is applied
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1
perpendicularly to the first magnetic field, it excites transitions between
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 1 the adjacent energy states when these fulfill the resonance condition
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2 h ⋅ ν = Em+1 − Em
300 11 Saddle base 3 2 h: Planck's constant
501 20 Connecting lead, 32 A, 25 cm, red 1 This fact is the basis for electron spin resonance, in which the resonance
501 25 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, red 1 signal is detected using radio-frequency technology. The electrons can
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1 often be regarded as free electrons. The g-factor then deviates only
slightly from that of the free electron (g = 2.0023), and the resonance
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
frequency n in a magnetic field of 1 mT is about 27.8 MHz. The actual
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1 aim of electron spin resonance is to investigate the internal magnetic
501 644 Two-way adapters, black, set of 6 1 fields of the sample substance, which are generated by the magnetic
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1 moments of the adjacent electrons and nuclei.
The experiment P6.2.6.2 verifies electron spin resonance in diphenyl-
picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH). DPPH is a radical, in which a free electron is pre-
sent in a nitrogen atom. In the experiment, the magnetic field B which
fulfills the resonance condition the resonance frequencies n can be set
in a continuous range from 13 to 130 MHz. The aim of the eva-luation
is to determine the g factor.
The object of the experiment P6.2.6.3 is to verify resonance absorption
using a passive oscillator circuit.

Diagram of resonance condition of free electrons

247
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.7
NORMAL ZEEMAN EFFECT

P6.2.7.3
Observing the normal Zeeman
effect in transverse and longitudinal
configuration - spectroscopy using
a Fabry-Perot etalon

P6.2.7.4
Measuring the Zeeman splitting of
the red cadmium line as a function
of the magnetic field - spectroscopy
using a Fabry-Perot etalon

Measuring the Zeeman splitting of the red cadmium line as a function of the magnetic field - spectroscopy using a
Fabry-Perot etalon (P6.2.7.4_b)

The Zeeman effect is the name for the splitting of atomic energy levels in an
P6.2.7.3 (b)
P6.2.7.4 (b)

external magnetic field and, as a consequence, the splitting of the transitions

between the levels. The effect was predicted by H. A. Lorentz in 1895 and
experimentally confirmed by P. Zeeman one year later. In the red spectral line
Cat. No. Description
of cadmium (l = 643.8 nm), Zeeman observed a line triplet perpendicular
to the magnetic field and a line doublet parallel to the magnetic field, in-
451 12 Spectral lamp, Cd, with holding plate 1 1
stead of just a single line. Later, even more complicated splits were discovered
451 30 Universal choke, 230 V, 50 Hz 1 1 for other elements, and were collectively designated the anomalous Zeeman
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1 effect. It eventually became apparent that the normal Zeeman effect is the
562 131 Coil, 480 turns, 10 A 2 2 exception, as it only occurs at transitions between atomic levels with the total
spin S = 0.
560 315 Pole pieces with large bore, pair 1 1
In the experiment P6.2.7.3, the Zeeman effect is observed at the red cad-
521 55 High current power supply 1 1
mium line perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field, and the polari-
471 221 Fabry-Perot etalon mirror, in holder 1 1 zation state of the individual Zeeman components is determined. The ob-
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 2 2 servations are explained on the basis of the radiating characteristic of di-
pole radiation. The so-called p component corresponds to a Hertzian dipole
472 601 Quarter-wavelength plate, 140 nm 1
oscillating parallel to the magnetic field, i.e. it cannot be observed parallel
472 401 Polarisation filter 1 to the magnetic field and radiates linearly polarized light perpendicular to
468 41 Holder for interference filters 1 1 the magnetic field. Each of the two s components corresponds to two
468 400 Interference filter, 644 nm 1 1 dipoles oscillating perpendicular to each other with a phase differential
of 90°. They radiate circularly polarized light in the direction of the mag-
460 135 Ocular with scale 1
netic field and linearly polarized light parallel to it.
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1
In the experiment P6.2.7.4, the Zeeman splitting of the red cadmium line is
460 381 Rider base with thread 1 1 measured as a function of the magnetic field B. The energy interval of the
460 373 Optics rider, 60/50 7 5 triplet components
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 3 3 h e
∆E = ⋅ ⋅B
4π me
337 47USB VideoCom 1
me : mass of electron, e: electron charge
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
h: Pllanck's constant
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1
B: magnetic induction
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
CASSY ®

additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
Zeeman splitting as a function of magnetic field

248 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.2.8
OPTICAL PUMPING
(ANOMALOUS ZEEMAN EFFECT)
P6.2.8.1
Optical pumping: observing the relaxation signal
P6.2.8.2
Optical pumping: measuring and observing
the Zeeman transitions in the ground states
of Rb-87 with s+- and s--pumped light
P6.2.8.3
Optical pumping: measuring and observing
the Zeeman transitions in the ground states
of Rb-85 with s+- and s--pumped light
P6.2.8.4
Optical pumping: measuring and observing
the Zeeman transitions in the ground states
of Rb-87 as a function of the magnetic flux
density B
P6.2.8.5
Optical pumping: measuring and observing
the Zeeman transitions in the ground states
of Rb-85 as a function of the magnetic flux
density B
P6.2.8.6
Optical pumping: measuring and observing
two-quantum transitions

Optical pumping: measuring and observing the Zeeman transitions in the ground states of Rb-87 with s+- and
s--pumped light (P6.2.8.2)

The two hyperfine structures of the ground state of an alkali atom with
P6.2.8.2-6

the total angular momentums

P6.2.8.1

1 1
Cat. No. Description F+ = I + , F− = I −
2 2
558 823 Rubidium high-frequency lamp 1 1 split in a magnetic field B into 2F± + 1 Zeeman levels having an energy
558 826 Helmholtz coils on rider 1 1 which can be described using the Breit-Rabi formula
558 833 Absorption chamber with Rb cell 1 1 −∆E ∆E 4mF
E= + µK gImF ± 1+ ξ + ξ2
558 835 Silicon photodetector 1 1 2 ( 2I + 1) 2 2I + 1
558 836 I/U converter for silicon photodetector 1 1 g JµB − gIµK
where ξ = ⋅B
530 88 Plug-in power unit, 230 V/9.2 V DC 1 1 ∆E
558 814 Supply unit for optical pumping 1 1
∆E: hyperfine structure interval
521 45 DC power supply 0...±15 V 1 1
I: nuclear spin, mF : magnetic quantum number

501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2 3

µB : Bohr's magneton, µK : nuclear magneton

575 230 Digital storage oscilloscope 722 1 1

g J : shell g factor, gI: nuclear g factor
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1 1 Transitions between the Zeeman levels can be observed using a method
504 48 Two-way switch 1 1 developed by A. Kastler. When right-handed or left-handed circularly
polarized light is directed parallel to the magnetic field, the population
468 000 Line filter, 795 nm 1 1
of the Zeeman level differs from the thermal equilibrium population, i.e.
472 410 Polarisation filter for red radiation 1 1
optical pumping occurs, and RF radiation forces transitions between the
472 611 Quarter-wavelength plate, 200 nm 1 1 Zeeman levels.
460 021 Lens in frame, f=50 mm 1 1
The change in the equilibrium population when switching from right-
460 031 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1 handed to left-handed circular pumped light is verified in the experiment
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1 1 P6.2.8.1.
460 370 Optics rider, 60/34 6 6 The experiments P6.2.8.2 and P6.2.8.3 measure the Zeeman transitions
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 1 1 in the ground state of the isotopes Rb-87 and Rb-85 and determine the
666 7681 Circulation thermostat SC 100-S5P 1 1 nuclear spin I from the number of transitions observed. The observed
688 115 Silicone tubing 6 x 2 mm, 5.0 m 1 1 transitions are classified through comparison with the Breit-Rabi formula.
501 28 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, black 4 4 In the experiments P6.2.8.4 and P6.2.8.5, the measured transition
501 38 Connecting lead, 32 A, 200 cm, black 2 2 frequencies are used for precise determination of the magnetic field B as
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 2 2
a function of the magnet current I. The nuclear g factors gI are derived
using the measurement data.
522 551 Function generator, 1 mHz to 12 MHZ, internal sweep 1
In the experiment P6.2.8.6, two-quantum transitions are induced and
501 022 BNC cable, 2 m 1
observed for a high field strength of the irradiating RF field.

249
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.1
DETECTION OF X-RAYS

P6.3.1.1
Fluorescence of a luminescent
screen due to X-rays

P6.3.1.2
X-ray photography: Exposure
of film stock due to X-rays

P6.3.1.5
Investigation of an implant model

P6.3.1.6
Influence of a contrast medium
on the absorption of X-rays

X-ray photography: Exposure of film stock due to X-rays (P6.3.1.2)

Soon after the discovery of X-rays by W. C. Röntgen, physicians began to

exploit the ability of this radiation to pass through matter which is opaque
P6.3.1.2
P6.3.1.5
P6.3.1.6
P6.3.1.1

Cat. No. Description to ordinary light for medical purposes. The technique of causing a lumines-
cent screen to fluoresce with X-ray radiation is still used today for screen
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1 examinations, although image amplifiers are used additionally. The expo-
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1 1 1
sure of a film due to X-ray radiation is used both for medical diagnosis and
materials testing, and is the basis for dosimetry with films.
554 838 Film holder, X-ray 1 1
The experiment P6.3.1.1 demonstrates the transillumination with X-rays
554 896 X-ray film, Agfa Dentus M2 1
using simple objects made of materials with different absorption characte-
554 8971 Developer and fixer for X-ray film 1 ristics. A luminescent screen of zinc-cadmium sulfate is used to detect
554 8931 Changing bag with developer tank 1* X-rays; the atoms in this compound are excited by the absorption of
554 8391 Implant model 1 X-rays and emit light quanta in the visible light range. This experiment
554 839 Blood vessel model for contrast medium 1
investigates the effect of the emission current I of the X-ray tube on the
brightness and the effect of the high voltage U on the contrast of the
602 023 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 150 ml, squat 1
luminescent screen.
602 295 Bottle brown glass wide treath with cap 1
The experiment P6.3.1.2 records the transillumination of objects using X-ray
602 783 Glass rod, 200 mm, diam. 6 mm 1 film. Measuring the exposure time required to produce a certain degree of
672 6610 Potassium iodide, 100 g 1 exposure permits quantitative conclusions regarding the intensity of the
X-rays.
* additionally recommended
The experiment P6.3.1.5 demonstrates the use of radioscopy to detect
hidden objects. A metal rod inside a block of wood is visually invisible, but
can be seen by X-ray fluorescence and its dimensions measured.
The experiment P6.3.1.6 demonstrates the use of contrast medium. The
radiopaque iodine solution is flowing through channels inside a plate
and is clearly visible in the X-ray fluorescence image, but pure water is not.

Screen of the implant model Screen of the blood vessel

250 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.1
DETECTION OF X-RAYS

P6.3.1.3
Detecting X-rays using an
ionization chamber

P6.3.1.4
Determining the ion dose
rate of the X-ray tube with
molydenum anode

Detecting X-rays using an ionization chamber (P6.3.1.3)

As X-rays ionize gases, they can also be measured via the ionization
current of an ionization chamber.
P6.3.1.3-4

The aim of the experiments P6.3.1.3 and P6.3.1.4 is to detect X-rays using
Cat. No. Description an ionization chamber. First, the ionization current is recorded as a func-
tion of the voltage at the capacitor plates of the chamber and the satu-
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 ration range of the characteristic curves is identified. Next, the mean ion
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 dose rate
554 840 Plate capacitor, X-ray 1 Iion
J =
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1 m
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1 is calculated from the ionization current Iion which the X-radiation gene-
rates in the irradiated volume of air V, and the mass m of the irradiated
577 02 Resistor, 1 GW, STE2/19 1
air. The measurements are conducted for various emission currents I and
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 2
high voltages U of the X-ray tube.
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2

Mean ion dose rate j as a function of the tube high voltage U, I = 1.0 mA

251
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.1
DETECTION OF X-RAYS

P6.3.1.7
Digital X-ray photography,
measurement of the attenuation

P6.3.1.8
Influence of the high voltage
and the anode current on the
contrast (hardening)

P6.3.1.9
Resolution of the digital X-ray
photography

P6.3.1.10
Determining the size of the
focal spot

Resolution of the digital X-ray photography (P6.3.1.9_b)

In X-ray radiography and image processing it is necessary to know the

properties of the radiation source as well as the properties of the irra-
P6.3.1.8 (b)

P6.3.1.9 (b)
P6.3.1.7 (b)

P6.3.1.8 (a)

P6.3.1.9 (a)
P6.3.1.7 (a)

diated object. The minimum resolution in an image is determined by the

P6.3.1.10

Cat. No. Description size of the focal spot and the visbility of details in an image depends on
the different attenuation properties of various materials and the radiation
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 spectrum of the X-ray-source.
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 The experiment P6.3.1.7 measures the attenuation of X-rays through the
554 821 Computed tomography module 1 1 1 quantitative analysis of a digital X-ray image on the computer.
554 838 Film holder, X-ray 1 1 1 The contrast of a digital X-ray image as a function of the energy and
554 8382 Object holder X-ray 1 1 1 1 intensity of x-radiation is measured in experiment P6.3.1.8.
554 834 Absorption accessory, X-ray 1 1 1 1 In the experiment P6.1.3.9 the resolution digital radiographs is deter-
554 828 X-ray image sensor 1 1 1 1 mined using various test images.
554 829 Precision rails for X-ray image sensor 1 1 1 1 The focal spot of the anode of the x-ray tube is measured by a simple geo-
554 8292 Object holder X-ray 2 1 1 1 1 metric projection on the X-ray image sensor in the experiment P6.3.1.10.
554 822 Test patterns, 2D 1 1 1
additionally required: PC with
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

Test patterns for determination of the resolution of the X-ray image sensor

252 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.2
ATTENUATION OF X-RAYS

P6.3.2.1
Investigating the attenuation
of X-rays as a function of the
absorber material and absorber
thickness

P6.3.2.2
Investigating the wavelength
dependency of the attenuation
coefficient

P6.3.2.3
Investigating the relationship
between the attenuation coefficient
and the atomic number Z

P6.3.2.4
Investigating the attenuation of
X-rays as a function of distance

Investigating the attenuation of X-rays as a function of the absorber material and absorber thickness (P6.3.2.1)

The attenuation of X-rays on passing through an absorber with the thick-

ness d is described by Lambert‘s law for attenuation:
P6.3.2.2
P6.3.2.3
P6.3.2.4
P6.3.2.1

I = I0 ⋅ e − µd
Cat. No. Description I0 : intensity of primary beam
I: transmitted intens
sity
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1 1 Here, the attenuation is due to both absorption and scattering of the
X-rays in the absorber. The linear attenuation coefficient µ depends on
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 1
the material of the absorber and the wavelength l of the X-rays. An
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1 1 1 absorption edge, i.e. an abrupt transition from an area of low absorption
554 834 Absorption accessory, X-ray 1 to one of high absorption, may be observed when the energy h · n of
554 78 NaCl crystal for Bragg reflection 1 1 the X-ray quantum just exceeds the energy required to move an electron
554 832 Set of absorber foils 1 1 out of one of the inner electron shells of the absorber atoms.
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1 The object of the experiment P6.3.2.1 is to confirm Lambert‘s law
using aluminium and to determine the attenuation coefficients m for six
554 828 X-ray image sensor 1
different absorber materials averaged over the entire spectrum of the
554 829 Precision rails for X-ray image sensor 1 X-ray apparatus.
additionally required: The experiment P6.3.2.2 records the transmission curves
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
I (λ)
T (λ) =
I0 ( λ )

for various absorber materials. The aim of the evaluation is to confirm the
l3 relationship of the attenuation coefficients for wavelengths outside of
the absorption edges.
In the experiment P6.3.2.3, the attenuation coefficient m(l) of different
absorber materials is determined for a wavelength l which lies outside
of the absorption edge. This experiment reveals that the attenuation
coefficient is closely proportional to the fourth power of the atomic
number Z of the absorbers.
In the experiment P6.3.2.4 the intensity of th X-radiation is measured
at different distances from the X-ray tube. The inverse square distance
law is confirmed.

253
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.3
PHYSICS OF THE
ATOMIC SHELL

P6.3.3.1
Bragg reflection: diffraction
of X-rays at a monocrystal

P6.3.3.2
Investigating the energy spectrum
of an X-ray tube as a function of
the high voltage and the emission
current

P6.3.3.3
Duane-Hunt relation and
determination of Planck‘s constant

P6.3.3.5
Edge absorption: filtering X-rays

P6.3.3.6
Moseley‘s law and determination
of the Rydberg constant

Investigating the energy spectrum of an X-ray tube as a function of the high voltage and the emission current (P6.3.3.2)

The radiation of an X-ray tube consists of two components: continuous

bremsstrahlung radiation is generated when fast electrons are decelera-
P6.3.3.1-3
P6.3.3.5
P6.3.3.6

ted in the anode. Characteristic radiation consisting of discrete lines is

Cat. No. Description formed by electrons dropping to the inner shells of the atoms of the anode
material from which electrons were liberated by collision.
554 801 X-ray apparatus, Mo, complete 1 1 1 To confirm the wave nature of X-rays, the experiment P6.3.3.1 investi-
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1 1 1 gates the diffraction of the characteristic Kα and Kß lines of the molyb-
554 832 Set of absorber foils 1 denum anode at an NaCl monocrystal and explains these using Bragg‘s
law of reflection.
additionally required:
1 1 1 The experiment P6.3.3.2 records the energy spectrum of the X-ray
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
apparatus as a function of the high voltage and the emission current using
a goniometer in the Bragg configuration. The aim is to investigate the
spectral distribution of the continuum of bremsstrahlung radiation and
the intensity of the characteristic lines.
The experiment P6.3.3.3 measures how the limit wavelength lmin of the
continuum of bremsstrahlung radiation depends on the high voltage U of
the X-ray tube. When we apply the Duane-Hunt relationship
c
e ⋅U = h ⋅
λmin
e: electron charge
c: velocity of light
to the measurement data, we can derive Planck‘s constant h.
The object of the experiment P6.3.3.5 is to filter X-rays using the absorp-
tion edge of an absorber, i. e. the abrupt transition from an area of low
absorption to one of high absorption.
The experiment P6.3.3.6 determines the wavelengths lK of the absorption
edges as as function of the atomic number Z. When we apply Moseley‘s
law
1
= R ⋅ (Z − σ)
2

λK
to the measurement data we obtain the Rydberg constant R and the mean
Bragg spectrum of a molybdenum anode screening s.

254 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.5
X-RAY ENERGY SPECTROSCOPY
P6.3.5.1
Recording and calibrating an
X-ray energy spectrum

P6.3.5.2
Recording the energy spectrum
of a molybdenum anode

P6.3.5.3
Recording the energy spectrum
of a copper anode

P6.3.5.4
Investigation of the characteristic
spectra as a function of the element‘s
atomic number: K-lines

P6.3.5.5
Investigation of the characteristic
spectra as a function of the element‘s
atomic number: L-lines

P6.3.5.6
Energy-resolved Bragg reflection
in different orders of diffraction

Recording and calibrating an X-ray energy spectrum (P6.3.5.1)

The X-ray energy detector enables recording of the energy spectrum of

P6.3.5.1-2

X-rays. The detector is a Peltier-cooled photodiode where in the incoming

P6.3.5.3
P6.3.5.4
P6.3.5.5
P6.3.5.6

X-rays produce electron-hole pairs. The number of electron-hole pairs and

Cat. No. Description thus the voltage pulse height after amplification is proportional to the
X-ray energy. The pulse height analysis is carried out with CASSY used as a
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1 1 multichannel analyzer (MCA-Box), which is connected to a computer (PC).
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1 1 The object of the experiment P6.3.5.1 is to record the X-ray fluorescence
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 1 1 1 spectrum of a target and to use the known energies for calibration of the
559 938 X-ray energy detector 1 1 1 1 1 energy axis. The target is made of a zincplated steel and emits several
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 1 1 fluorescent lines.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1 1 1 The experiments P6.3.5.2 and P6.3.5.3 use the calibrated detector to
record emission spectra of either a molybdenum anode or a copper an-
524 058 MCA box 1 1 1 1 1
ode. The resulting spectrum shows the characteristic lines of the anode
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 1 1 1 1 material and the bremsstrahlung continuum.
554 862 X-ray tube, Cu 1 1 The experiment P6.3.5.4 demonstrates differences in the characteristic
554 844 Set of targets for K-line fluorescence 1 fluorescent K-lines (transitions to K-shell) within the X-ray spectra of
554 846 Set of targets for L-line fluorescence 1 different elements. These are used to confirm Moseley’s law and show
554 78 NaCl crystal for Bragg reflection 1 aspects of material analysis.
additionally required: PC with Windows The experiment P6.3.5.5 shows similar characteristic fluorescent L-lines
1 1 1 1 1 for heavier elements, demonstrating the X-ray emission from transitions
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
to the L-shell.
In the experiment P6.3.5.6 using the X-ray energy detector in Bragg
geometry it is possible to observe different X-ray energies simultaneous-
ly, because Bragg condition is fulfilled for different orders.
CASSY ®

Recording and calibrating an X-ray energy spectrum X-ray flourescence of different elements (P6.3.5.4/5)

255
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.6
STRUCTURE OF X-RAY SPECTRUMS
P6.3.6.1
Fine structure of the characteristic
X-ray radiation of a molybdenum anode
P6.3.6.2
Fine structure of the characteristic
X-ray radiation of a copper anode
P6.3.6.3
Fine structure of the characteristic
X-ray radiation of an iron anode
P6.3.6.4
Fine structure of the characteristic
X-ray radiation of a silver anode
P6.3.6.5
Fine structure of the characteristic
X-ray radiation of a tungsten anode
P6.3.6.6
Determining the binding energy of
individual subshells by selective excitation
P6.3.6.7
Fine structure of the characteristic
X-ray radiation of a gold anode

Fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a tungsten anode (P6.3.6.5)

The structure and fine-structure of X-ray spectra gives valuable Informa-

P6.3.6.5-6

tion on the position of the atomic energy levels. The systematics of X-ray
P6.3.6.2

P6.3.6.3

P6.3.6.4

P6.3.6.7
P6.3.6.1

Cat. No. Description

transitions are presented. Starting with molybdenum and completed with
other anode materials like copper and iron the K-shell transitions of light
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1 1 1 and medium elements are investigated.
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 In contrast to these materials the heavy elements like tungsten show
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 1 1 1 1
characteristic emission from the L-shell with a lot of details, because
the lower level of the transition consits of several sublevels which can
554 78 NaCl crystal for Bragg reflection 1 1
also be selectively excited.
End-window counter with cable for
559 01 1 1 1 1 1 1 The experiment P6.3.6.1 investigates the X-ray spectrum of a molyb-
a, b, g and X-rays
denum anode and the fine structure of the Ka line.
554 862 X-ray tube, Cu 1
The experiments P6.3.6.2 and P6.3.6.3 observe the low-energy
554 791 KBr crystal for Bragg reflection 1 characteristic radiation from a copper or iron anode and the fine struc-
554 863 X-ray tube, Fe 1 ture of the Ka line.
554 77 LiF crystal for Bragg reflection 1 1 1 The experiment P6.3.6.4 observes the high-energy characteristic radia-
554 865 X-ray tube, Ag 1 tion of silver and the fine structure splitting due to spin-orbit coupling.
554 864 X-ray tube, W 1 The experiment P6.3.6.5 demonstrates the fine structure of the tungsten
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1 L-lines. Due to the splitting of the energy levels there are approximately
11 transitions visible (L a1-2, Lb1-4, Lg1-3, Ll, Ln), which can be used to
additionally required: PC with Win-
dows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
1 1 1 1 1 1 evaluate the position of the energy levels and to demonstrate allowed and
forbidden transitions.
In addition to experiment P6.3.6.5, the experiment P6.3.6.6 measures
directly the splitting of the L-shell. At a low acceleration voltage only the
L3 level can be exited, with raising voltages transitions to L2 and later L1
become observable. The absolute binding energies of the L-sublevels can
be measured directly.
The experiment P6.3.6.7 demonstrates the fine structure of the gold
L-lines. Due to the splitting of the energy levels there are approxima-
tely 10 transitions visible (L a1-2, Lb1-4, Lg1-3, Ll, Ln), which can be used
to evaluate the position of the energy levels and to demonstrate allowed
and forbidden transitions.

Bragg spectrum of the tungsten anode

256 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.6
STRUCTURE OF X-RAY SPECTRUMS
P6.3.6.11
High-resolution fine structure
of the characteristic X-ray radiation
of a molybdenum anode
P6.3.6.12
High-resolution fine structure
of the characteristic X-ray radiation
of a copper anode
P6.3.6.13
High-resolution fine structure
of the characteristic X-ray radiation
of an iron anode
P6.3.6.14
High-resolution fine structure
of the characteristic X-ray radiation
of a silver anode
P6.3.6.15
High-resolution fine structure
of the characteristic X-ray radiation
of a tungsten anode
P6.3.6.17
High-resolution fine structure
of the characteristic X-ray radiation
of a gold anode

High-resolution fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a molybdenum anode (P6.3.6.11)

The experiment P6.3.6.11 investigates the high-resolution X-ray spec-

trum of a molybdenum anode and the fine structure of the Ka-line.
P6.3.6.14
P6.3.6.12
P6.3.6.13

P6.3.6.15
P6.3.6.17
P6.3.6.11

The experiments P6.3.6.12 and P6.3.6.13 observe the low-energy

Cat. No. Description characteristic radiation from a copper or iron anode and the high-
resolution fine structure of the Ka-line.
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1 1 1 The experiment P6.3.6.14 observes the high-energy characteristic
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 radiation of silver and the high-resolution fine structure splitting due
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 1 1 1 1 to spin-orbit coupling.
554 835 HD Accessory, X-ray 1 1 1 1 1 1 The experiment P6.3.6.15 demonstrates the high-resolution fine struc-
554 78 NaCl crystal for Bragg reflection 1 1 ture of the tungsten L-lines. Due to the splitting of the energy levels
there are approximately 10 transitions visible (L a1-2, L b1-5, Lg1-3),
End-window counter with cable for
559 01
a, b, g and X-rays
1 1 1 1 1 1 which can be used to evaluate the position of the energy levels and to
demonstrate allowed and forbidden transitions.
554 862 X-ray tube, Cu 1
The experiment P6.3.6.17 demonstrates the fine structure of the gold
554 77 LiF crystal for Bragg reflection 1 1 1 1
L-lines. Due to the splitting of the energy levels there are approximately
554 863 X-ray tube, Fe 1 10 transitions visible (L a1-2, L b1-4, Lg1-3, Ll, Ln), which can be used to
554 865 X-ray tube, Ag 1 evaluate the position of the energy levels and to demonstrate allowed
554 864 X-ray tube, W 1 and forbidden transitions.
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1
additionally required: PC with Win-
1 1 1 1 1 1
dows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

Separation of the Ka1 and Ka2 lines in the Bragg spectrum

257
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.7
COMPTON EFFECT AT X-RAYS

P6.3.7.1
Compton effect: verifying the
energy loss of the scattered
X-ray quantum

P6.3.7.2
Compton effect: Measurement
the energy of the scattered photons
as a function of the scattering angle

Compton effect: Measurement the energy of the scattered photons as a function of the scattering angle (P6.3.7.2)

At a time (early 1920‘s) when the particle nature of light (photons)

suggested by the photoelectric effect was still being debated, the Comp-
P6.3.7.2
P6.3.7.1

Cat. No. Description ton experiment, the scattering of X‑rays on weakly bound electrons, in
1923 gave another evidence of particle-like behaviour of X-rays in this
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 process. Compton investigated the scattering of X-rays passing through
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1 matter. According to classical physics the frequency of the radiation
should not be changed by the scattering process. However, A. H. Compton
554 831 Goniometer 1 1
observed a frequency change for scattered X-rays. He interpreted this
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1 in the particle model as a collision of the X-ray photon and an electron
554 836 Compton accessory, X-ray 1 of the scattering material. Assuming total energy and momentum to be
554 8371 Compton accessory, X-ray II 1 conserved, energy is transferred from the photon to the electron, so the
559 938 X-ray energy detector 1 energy of the scattered photon depends on the scattering angle J.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 The experiment P6.3.7.1 verifies the Compton shift using the endwindow
counter. The change of frequency or wavelength due to the scattering
524 058 MCA box 1
process is apparent as a change of the attenuation of an absorber, which
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 is placed either in front of or behind the scattering body.
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 The object of the experiment P6.3.7.2 is to record directly the energy
additionally required: spectra of the scattered X-rays with the X-ray energy detector as a func-
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) tion of the scattering angle J. The energy E(J) of the scattered photons
at different angles is determined and compared with the calculated
energy obtained from conservation of energy and momentum by using
the relativistic expression for the energy:
E0
E ( ϑ) =
E0
1+ ⋅ (1 − cos ϑ)
m ⋅ c2
E0 : energy of the photon before the
e collision
m: mass of electron at rest
c: velocity of light
CASSY ®

Energy shift of the scattered X-rays at different angeles (P6.3.7.2)

258 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.8
X-RAY TOMOGRAPHY

P6.3.8.1
Measurement and presentation
of a computed tomogram with the
computed tomography module
P6.3.8.2
Computed tomography of simple
geometrical objects with the computed
tomography module
P6.3.8.3
Medical basics of computed tomography
with the computed tomography module
P6.3.8.4
Determining absorption coefficients and
Hounsfield units with computed tomography
with the computed tomography module
P6.3.8.5
Computed tomography of biological
samples with the computed
tomography module

Measurement and presentation of a computed tomogram with the computed tomography module (P6.3.8.1)

In 1972 the first computed tomographic scanner was built by Godfrey

Hounsfield who, together with Allan Cormack, was awarded the Nobel
P6.3.8.2-4
P6.3.8.5
P6.3.8.1

Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979. The basic idea of computed

Cat. No. Description tomography (CT) is the illumination of an object by X-rays from numerous
different angles. Our educational X-ray apparatus allows the illumination
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 of objects by X-rays. The resulting 2D-projections are visualised at the
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 1 fluorescence screen or with the X-ray image sensor. By turning an ob-
ject using the built-in goniometer of the X-ray apparatus, and recording
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1 1 1
the 2D-projections from each angular step, the computer can reconstruct
554 821 Computed tomography module 1 1 1 the object illuminated by X-rays. Our e-learning software visualises the
554 823 Phantom, 3D 1 back projection (necessary for reconstructing the computed tomography)
554 825 LEGO ® adapter 1 concurrently with the scanning process. The 3D-model is then displayed
additionally required: on the PC screen.
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) Experiment P6.3.8.1 discusses the basics of computed tomography. The
computed tomographies of simple geometrical objects are recorded and
displayed.
Experiment P6.3.8.2 shows the CT of simple geometrical objects to de-
monstrate the basic properties and the resolution power of tomography.
Experiment P6.3.8.3 shows the CT of medical related objects to demon-
strate the basic properties of tomography and to investigate possible
problems with artefacts and image errors.
Experiment P6.3.8.4 analyses the absorption coefficient of water inside
a plastic body to demonstrate the capabilities of CT in distinguishing
different kinds of tissues and to calibrate Hounsfield units and it discusses
hardening effects of the X-rays.
Experiment P6.3.8.5 analyses the CT of real biological specimens and
applies to the results of the previous experiments.

Computed tomography of a Lego figure (P6.3.8.2)

259
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
X-RAY PHYSICS

P6.3.8
X-RAY TOMOGRAPHY

P6.3.8.11
Measurement and presentation
of a computed tomogram with
the X-ray image sensor
P6.3.8.12
Computed tomography of simple
geometrical objects with
the X-ray image sensor
P6.3.8.13
Medical basics of computed tomography
with the X-ray image sensor
P6.3.8.14
Determining absorption coefficients
and Hounsfield units with computed
tomography with the X-ray image sensor
P6.3.8.15
Computed tomography of biological
samples with the X-ray image sensor

Measurement and presentation of a computed tomogram with the X-ray image sensor (P6.3.8.11)

Experiment P6.3.8.11 discusses the basics of computed tomography.

P6.3.8.12-4

The computed tomographies of simple geometrical objects are recorded

P6.3.8.15
P6.3.8.11

and displayed.
Cat. No. Description Experiment P6.3.8.12 shows the CT of simple geometrical objects
to demonstrate the basic properties and the resolution power of
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 tomography.
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 1 Experiment P6.3.8.13 shows the CT of medical related objects to
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1 1 1 demonstrate the basic properties of tomography and to investigate
554 820P Computed Tomography Pro package 1 1 1 possible problems with artefacts and image errors.
554 823 Phantom, 3D 1 Experiment P6.3.8.14 analyses the absorption coefficient of water
inside a plastic body to demonstrate the capabilities of CT in distin-
additionally required:
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
1 1 1 guishing different kinds of tissues and to calibrate Hounsfield units and
it discusses hardening effects of the X-rays.
Experiment P6.3.8.15 analyses the CT of real biological specimens
and applies to the results of the previous experiments.

High-resolution computed tomograms of a snail shell

260 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY

P6.4.1
DETECTING RADIOACTIVITY

P6.4.1.1
Ionization of air through
radioactivity

P6.4.1.3
Demonstrating radioactive radiation
with a Geiger counter

P6.4.1.4
Recording the characteristic
of a Geiger-Müller (end-window)
counter tube

Ionization of air through radioactivity (P6.4.1.1)

In 1895, H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity while investigating urani-

um salts. He found that these emitted a radiation which was capable of
P6.4.1.3
P6.4.1.4
P6.4.1.1

fogging light-sensitive photographic plates even through black paper. He

Cat. No. Description
also discovered that this radiation ionizes air and that it can be identified
559 821 Am-241 preparation, 74 kBq 1 by this ionizing effect.
546 311 Zinc and grid electrodes 1 In the experiment P6.4.1.1, a voltage is applied between two electrodes,
and the air between the two electrodes is ionized by radioactivity. The
532 14 Electrometer amplifier 1
ions created in this way cause a charge transport which can be detected
532 16 Connecting rod 1 1 using an electrometer as a highly sensitive ammeter.
577 03 Resistor, 10 GW, STE 2/19 1 The experiment P6.4.1.3 uses a Geiger counter to detect radioactivity.
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 A potential is applied between a cover with hole which serves as the
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1 cathode and a fine needle as the anode; this potential is just below
500 412 Connecting lead, 19 A, 25 cm, blue 1 the threshold of the disruptive field strength of the air. As a result, each
ionizing particle which travels within this field initiates a discharge
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 1
collision.
501 451 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, black, pair 1
The experiment P6.4.1.4 records the current-voltage characteristic of
546 282 Geiger counter with adapter 1 a Geiger-Müller counter tube. Here too, the current increases propor-
559 435 Ra 226 preparation, 5 kBq 1 1 tionally to the voltage for low voltage values, before reaching a
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 saturation value which depends on the intensity or distance of the
575 302 Oszilloscope 30 MHz, digital, PT1265 1 preparation.
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
300 11 Saddle base 1 2
500 610 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, yellow/green 1
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1
575 48 Digital counter 1
590 13 Stand rod with bore holes 1
591 21 Clip plug, large 1

261
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY

P6.4.2
POISSON DISTRIBUTION

P6.4.2.1
Statistical variations in
determining counting rates

Statistical variations in determining counting rates (P6.4.2.1)

For each individual particle in a radioactive preparation, it is a matter

of coincidence whether it will decay over a given time period Dt. The
P6.4.2.1

Cat. No. Description probability that any particular particle will decay in this time period is
extremely low. The number of particles n which will decay over time Dt
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 thus shows a Poisson distribution around the mean value µ. In other
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 words, the probability that n decays will occur over a given time period
Dt is
524 0331 Geiger-Müller counter tube S 1
µn −µ
559 835 Radioactive preparations, set of 3 1 Wµ ( n ) = e
n!
591 21 Clip plug, large 1
µ is proportional to the size of the preparation and the time Dt, and in-
590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1
versely proportional to the half-life T1/2 of the radioactive decay.
532 16 Connecting rod 2
Using a computer-assisted measuring system, the experiment P6.4.2.1
300 11 Saddle base 1* determines multiple pulse counts n triggered in a Geiger-Müller counter
587 07 Tweeter 1* tube by radioactive radiation over a selectable gate time Dt. After a total
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1* of N counting runs, the frequencies h(n) are determined at which precise-
additionally required: ly n pulses were counted, and displayed as histograms. For comparision,
1 the evaluation program calculates the mean value µ and the standard
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
deviation
* additionally recommended
σ= µ
of the measured intensity distribution h(n) as well as the Poisson distri-
bution wµ(N).
CASSY ®

Measured and calculated Poisson distribution Histogram: h(n), curve: N · wB (n)

262 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY

P6.4.3
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
AND HALF-LIFE

P6.4.3.3
Determining the half-life of
Cs-137 - Point-by-point recording
of a decay curve

P6.4.3.4
Determining the half-life of
Cs-137 - Recording and evaluating
the decay curve with CASSY

Determining the half-life of Cs-137 - Recording and evaluating the decay curve with CASSY (P6.4.3.4)

For the activity of a radioactive sample, we can say:

P6.4.3.3 (b)

dN
A (t ) =
P6.4.3.4

dt
Cat. No. Description Here, N is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t. It is not possible to
predict when an individual atomic nucleus will decay. However, from the
559 815OZ Cs/Ba 137 m isotope generator 1 1
fact that all nuclei decay with the same probability, it follows that over
524 0331 Geiger-Müller counter tube S 1 1 the time interval dt, the number of radioactive nuclei will decrease by
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 dN = −λ ⋅ N ⋅ dt
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 λ: decay constant
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 Thus, for the number N, the law of radioactive decay applies:
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 2
N ( t ) = N0 ⋅ e − λ ⋅ t
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 2 2
N0 : number of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0
664 043 Test tubes, Fiolax, 16 x 160 mm, set of 10 1 1
Among other things, this law states that after the half-life
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 1
ln 2
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 t1 / 2 =
λ
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
the number of radioactive nuclei will be reduced by half.
additionally required:
1 To determine the half-life of Ba-137m in the experiments P6.4.3.3 and
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
P6.4.3.4, a plastic bottle with Cs-137 stored at salt is used. The metasta-
ble isotop Ba-137m arising from the b-decay is released by an eluation
solution. The half-time amounts to 2.6 minutes approx.
CASSY ®

Decaying radioactivity after elution of Ba-137m

263
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY

P6.4.4
ATTENUATION OF a-, b-
AND g RADIATION

P6.4.4.2
Attenuation of b radiation
when passing through matter

P6.4.4.3
Confirming the inverse-square
law of distance for b radiation

P6.4.4.4
Absorption of g radiation
through matter

Attenuation of b radiation when passing through matter (P6.4.4.2)

High-energy a and b particles release only a part of their energy when

they collide with an absorber atom. For this reason, many collisions are
P6.4.4.2
P6.4.4.3
P6.4.4.4

required to brake a particle completely. Its range R

Cat. No. Description E02
R∝
n⋅Z
559 835 Radioactive preparations, set of 3 1 1 1
depends on the initial energy E 0, the number density n and the ato-
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1 1 mic number Z of the absorber atoms. Low-energy a and b particles or
575 471 Counter S 1 1 g radiation are braked to a certain fraction when passing through a
559 18 Holder with absorber foils 1 specific absorber density dx, or are absorbed or scattered and thus
590 02ET2 Clip plugs, small, set of 2 1 1 1 disappear from the beam. As a result, the radiation intensity I decreases
exponentially with the absorption distance x
591 21 Clip plug, large 1 1
I = I 0 ⋅ e − µ⋅ x µ: attenuation coefficient
532 16 Connecting rod 2 2 1
300 11 Saddle base 2 2 The experiment P6.4.4.2 examines the attenuation of b radiation from
460 97 Metal rule, 0.5 m 1
Sr-90 in aluminum as a function of the absorber thickness d. This
experiment shows an exponential decrease in the intensity.
667 9183 Geiger counter with ticker 1
As a comparison, the absorber is removed in the experiment P6.4.4.3
559 94 Absorbers and targets, set 1
and the distance between the b preparation and the counter tube is
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 varied. As one might expect for a point-shaped radiation source, the
666 572 Stand ring with stem, 70 mm diam. 1 following is a good approximation for the intensity:
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
I (d ) ∝
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 d2
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3 The experiment P6.4.4.4 examines the attenuation of g radiation in
559 855 Co-60 preparation, 74 kBq 1* matter. Here too, the decrease in intensity is a close approximation of
an exponential function. The attenuation coefficient µ depends on the
* additionally recommended absorber material and the g energy.

264 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.1
DEMONSTRATING PATHS
OF PARTICLES

P6.5.1.1
Demonstrating the tracks of
a particles in a Wilson cloud chamber

Demonstrating the tracks of a particles in a Wilson cloud chamber (P6.5.1.1)

In a Wilson cloud chamber, a saturated mixture of air, water and alcohol

vapor is briefly caused to assume a supersaturated state due to adiabatic
expansion. The supersaturated vapor condenses rapidly around condensa-
P6.5.1.1

Cat. No. Description tion seeds to form tiny mist droplets. Ions, which are formed e.g. through
collisions of a particles and gas molecules in the cloud chamber, make
559 57 Wilson cloud chamber 1 particularly efficient condensations seeds.
559 595 Ra-226 radium source for Wilson chamber, 5 kBq 1 In the experiment P6.5.1.1, the tracks of a particles are observed in a
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 Wilson cloud chamber. Each time the pump is vigorously pressed, these
tracks are visible as traces of droplets in oblique light for one to two
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
seconds. An electric field in the chamber clears the space of residual ions.
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
522 27 Power supply, 450 V 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
301 06 Bench clamp 1
300 11 Saddle base 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1

Droplet traces in the Wilson cloud chamber

265
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.2
RUTHERFORD SCATTERING

P6.5.2.1
Rutherford scattering: measuring
the scattering rate as a function
of the scattering angle and the
atomic number

Rutherford scattering: measuring the scattering rate as a function of the scattering angle and the atomic number
(P6.5.2.1)

The fact that an atom is “mostly empty space” was confirmed by Ruther-
ford, Geiger and Marsden in one of the most significant experiments in
the history of physics. They caused a parallel beam of a particles to fall
P6.5.2.1

Cat. No. Description on an extremely thin sheet of gold leaf. They discovered that most of
the a particles passed through the gold leaf virtually without deflection,
559 82OZ Am-241 preparation, 330 kBq 1 and that only a few were deflected to a greater degree. From this, they
559 56 Rutherford scattering chamber 1 concluded that atoms consist of a virtually massless extended shell, and a
practically point-shaped massive nucleus.
559 52 Aluminium foil in frame 1
The experiment P6.5.2.1 reproduces these observations using an Am-241
559 931 Discriminator preamplifier 1
preparation in a vacuum chamber. The scattering rate N(J) is measured as
562 791 Plug-in power supply, 12 V AC 1 a function of the scattering angle J using a Geiger-Müller counter tube.
575 471 Counter S 1 As scattering materials, a sheet of gold leaf (Z = 80) and aluminum foil
378 73 Rotary-vane vacuum pump S 1.5 1 (Z = 13) are provided. The scattering rate confirms the relationship
378 005 T-piece, DN 16 KF 1 1
N ( ϑ) ∝ and N ( ϑ) ∝ Z 2
ϑ
378 040ET2 Centring rings (adapters), DN 10/16 KF, set of 2 1 sin4
2
378 045ET2 Centring rings, DN 16 KF, set of 2 1
378 050 Clamping ring, DN 10/16 KF 2
378 771 Air inlet valve, DN 10 KF 1
378 031 Hose nozzle, DN 16 KF 1
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1
501 01 BNC cable, 0.25 m 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1

Scattering rate N as a function of the scattering angle J

266 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.3
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC
RESONANCE

P6.5.3.1
Nuclear magnetic resonance in
polystyrene, glycerin and Teflon

Nuclear magnetic resonance in polystyrene, glycerin and Teflon (P6.5.3.1_a)

The magnetic moment of the nucleus entailed by the nuclear spin I

P6.5.3.1 (a)

assumes the energy states

Em = −gI ⋅ µK ⋅ m ⋅ B with m = −I, − I + 1, …, I
Cat. No. Description J
µK = 5.051 ⋅ 10−27 : nuclear magneton
T
514 602 NMR supply unit 1 gI: g factor of nucleus
514 606 NMR probe 1
in a magnetic field B. When a high-frequency magnetic field with the
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 frequency n is applied perpendicularly to the first magnetic field, it
562 131 Coil, 480 turns, 10 A 2 excites transitions between the adjacent energy states when these fulfill
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 the resonance condition
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1 h ⋅ ν = Em +1 − Em
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2 h: Planck's constant
500 622 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 This fact is the basis for nuclear magnetic resonance, in which the reso-
nance signal is detected using radio-frequency technology. For example,
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1
in a hydrogen nucleus the resonance frequency in a magnetic field of 1 T
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 is about 42.5 MHz. The precise value depends on the chemical environment
531 835 Universal measuring instrument, Physics 1* of the hydrogen atom, as in addition to the external magnetic field B the
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1* local internal field generated by atoms and nuclei in the near vicinity also
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1* acts on the hydrogen nucleus. The width of the resonance signal also
depends on the structure of the substance under study.
* additionally recommended
The experiment P6.5.3.1 verifies nuclear magnetic resonance in poly-
styrene, glycerine and Teflon. The evaluation focuses on the position,
width and intensity of the resonance lines.
Additionally, the relaxation time of the spin system can be observed by a
beat frequency mesurement.

Diagram of resonance condition of hydrogen

267
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.4
a SPECTROSCOPY

P6.5.4.1
a spectroscopy of radioactive samples

P6.5.4.2
Determining the energy loss of
a radiation in air

P6.5.4.3
Determining the energy loss of
a radiation in aluminum and in gold

P6.5.4.4
Determining age using a
Ra-226 sample

P6.5.4.5
Fine structure of Am-241 a radiation

a spectroscopy of radioactive samples (P6.5.4.1)

Up until about 1930, the energy of a rays was characterized in terms of

their range in air. For example, a particle of 5.3 MeV (Po-210) has a range
P6.5.4.2

P6.5.4.3

P6.5.4.4

P6.5.4.5
P6.5.4.1

of 3.84 cm. Today, a energy spectra can be studied more precisely using
Cat. No. Description
semiconductor detectors. These detect discrete lines which correspond to
559 565 Alpha spectroscopy chamber 1 1 1 1 1 the discrete excitation levels of the emitting nuclei.
559 921 Semiconductor detector 1 1 1 1 1 The aim of the experiment P6.5.4.1 is to record and compare the a energy
559 825 Am-241 preparation, open, 3.7 kBq 1 1 1 1
spectra of the two standard preparations Am-241 and Ra-226. To impro-
ve the measuring accuracy, the measurement is conducted in a vacuum
559 435 Ra 226 preparation, 5 kBq 1 1 1
chamber.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 1 1
In the experiment P6.5.4.2, the energy E of a particles is measured as a
524 058 MCA box 1 1 1 1 1
function of the air pressure p in the vacuum chamber. The measurement
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1 1 1 data is used to determine the energy per unit of distance dE /dx which the
559 931 Discriminator preamplifier 1 1 1 1 1 a particles lose in the air. Here,
501 16 Multi-core cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 1 1 1 1 1 p
x= ⋅ x0
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 1 1 1 1 p0
501 01 BNC cable, 0.25 m 1 1 1 1 1 x0 : actual distance
378 73 Rotary-vane vacuum pump S 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 p0 : standard pressure
378 005 T-piece, DN 16 KF 1 1 1 1 is the apparent distance between the preparation and the detector.
378 040ET2 Centring rings (adapters), DN 10/16 KF, set of 2 1 1 1 1 The experiment P6.5.4.3 determines the amount of energy of a particles
378 771 Air inlet valve, DN 10 KF 1 1 1 1 lost per unit of distance in gold and aluminum as the quotient of the change
378 045ET2 Centring rings, DN 16 KF, set of 2 1 2 1 1 1 in the energy DE and the thickness Dx of the metal foils.
378 050 Clamping ring, DN 10/16 KF 2 3 2 2 2 In the experiment P6.5.4.4, the individual values of the decay chain of
378 031 Hose nozzle, DN 16 KF 1 1 1 1 1 Ra-226 leading to the a energy spectrum are analyzed to determine the age
of the Ra-226 preparation used here. The activities A1 and A2 of the decay
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1 1 1 1 1
chain “preceding” and “following” the longer-life isotope Pb-210 are used
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1* 1* to determine the age of the sample from the relationship
378 015 Cross piece, DN 16 KF 1
 − 
T

378 776 Variable leak valve, DN 16 KF 1 A2 = A1 ⋅  1 − e τ 

 
378 510 Pointer manometer, DN 16 KF 1
τ = 32.2 a: liftime of Pb-210
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1
The aim of the experiment P6.5.4.5 is to record the fine structure in the
559 521 Gold and aluminium foil in holder 1
a spectrum of Am-241. An alpha decay can end in several excited states
additionally required: PC with Windows of the daughter nucleus, revealing nuclear excitation levels of the nucleus.
CASSY ®

1 1 1 1 1
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
Experimentally, this can be recorded using an unsealed radioactive source.
* additionally recommended

268 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.5
g SPECTROSCOPY
P6.5.5.1
Detecting g radiation with
a scintillation counter
P6.5.5.2
Recording and calibrating a g spectrum
P6.5.5.3
Absorption of g radiation
P6.5.5.4
Identifying and determining
the activity of radioactive samples
P6.5.5.5
Recording a b spectrum with
a scintillation counter
P6.5.5.6
Coincidence and g-g angular
correlation in positron decay
P6.5.5.7
Coincidence at g decay of cobalt

Absorption of g radiation (P6.5.5.3)

g-spectra recorded with the scintillation counter allow to identify diffe-

rent nuclei and give insight into fundamental aspects of nuclear physics
P6.5.5.2
P6.5.5.3
P6.5.5.4
P6.5.5.5
P6.5.5.6
P6.5.5.7
P6.5.5.1

Cat. No. Description and the interaction of radiation with matter, like compton scattering or
photoeffect.
559 845 Mixed nuclide preparation, a, b, g 1 1 1 In the experiment P6.5.5.1, the output pulses of the scintillation counter
559 901 Scintillation counter 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 are investigated using the oscilloscope and the MCA-Box with CASSY. The
559 891 Socket for scintillator shielding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 total absorption peak and the Compton distribution are identified in the
559 912 Detector output stage 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
pulse-amplitude distribution generated with monoenergetic g radiation.
521 68 High-voltage power supply, 1.5 kV 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 The aim of the experiment P6.5.5.2 is to record and compare the g ener-
gy spectra of standard preparations. The total absorption peaks are used
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
to calibrate the energy of the scintillation counter and to identify the
524 058 MCA box 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
preparations.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The experiment P6.5.5.3 examines the attenuation of g radiation in vari-
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 1 1 1 1 ous absorbers. The aim here is to show how the attenuation coefficient µ
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1 1 1 1 1 depends on the absorber material and the g energy.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 1 1 1 1 1 A Marinelli beaker is used in the experiment P6.5.5.4 for quantitative
575 214 Oscilloscope 30 MHz, two-channel, analogous 1* measurements of weakly radioactive samples. This apparatus encloses the
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1* scintillator crystal virtually completely, ensuring a defined measurement
559 835 Radioactive preparations, set of 3 1 1 1
geometry. Lead shielding considerably reduces the interfering background
from the laboratory environment.
559 855 Co-60 preparation, 74 kBq 1* 1* 1
The experiment P6.5.5.5 records the continuous spectrum of a pure b
559 94 Absorbers and targets, set 1 1
radiator (Sr-90/Y-90) using the scintillation counter. To determine the
559 89 Scintillator shielding 1 1 energy loss dE/dx of the b particles in aluminum, aluminium absorbers
559 88 Marinelli beaker 2 of various thicknesses x are placed in the beam path between the prepa-
559 885 Calibrating preparation CS-137, 5 KBq 1 ration and the detector.
672 5210 Potassium chloride, 250 g 4 In the experiment P6.5.5.6, the spatial correlation of the two g quanta
559 865 Na-22 preparation, 74 kBq 1 in electron-positron pair annihilation is demonstrated. The conservation
additionally required: PC with Windows of momentum requires emission of the two quanta at an angle of 180°.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Selective measurement of a coincidence spectrum leads to the sup-
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
pression of non-correlated lines.
* additionally recommended
The experiment P6.5.5.7 shows the decay of Cobalt-60 in detail and
proves the existence of a decay chain by coincidence measurements.
CASSY ®

269
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.6
COMPTON EFFECT

P6.5.6.1
Quantitative observation
of the Compton effect

Quantitative observation of the Compton effect (P6.5.6.1)

In the Compton effect, a photon transfers a part of its energy E 0 and its
linear momentum
P6.5.6.1

E0
p0 =
Cat. No. Description c
c: speed of light in a vacuum
559 800 Equipment set for Compton scattering 1
to a free electron by means of elastic collision. Here, the laws of
559 809 Cs-137 preparation, 3.7 MBq 1 conservation of energy and momentum apply just as for the collision of
559 845 Mixed nuclide preparation, a, b, g 1 two bodies in mechanics. The energy
559 901 Scintillation counter 1 E0
E ( ϑ) =
E0
559 912 Detector output stage 1 1+ ⋅ (1 − cos ϑ)
m ⋅ c2
521 68 High-voltage power supply, 1.5 kV 1
m: mass of electron at rest
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
and the linear momentum
524 058 MCA box 1
E
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 p=
c
additionally required:
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
1 of the scattered photon depend on the scattering angle J. The effective
cross-section depends on the scattering angle and is described by the
Klein-Nishina formula:
d σ 1 2 p 2  p0 p 
= ⋅ r0 ⋅ 2 ⋅  + − sin2 ϑ 
dΩ 2 p0  p p0 
r0 : 2.5 ⋅ 10-15 m: classic electron radius
In the experiment P6.5.6.1, the Compton scattering of g quanta with
the energy E 0 = 667 keV at the quasi-free electrons of an aluminium
scattering body is investigated. For each scattering angle J, a calibra-
ted scintillation counter records one g spectrum with and one without
aluminum scatterer as a function of the respective scattering angle. The
further evaluation utilizes the total absorption peak of the differential
spectrum. The position of this peak gives us the energy E(J). Its integral
counting rate N(J) is compared with the calculated effective cross-
section.
CASSY ®

Measuring arrangement

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 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

P6.5.7
PROPERTIES OF
RADIATION PARTICLES

P6.5.7.1
Deflection of beta radiation
in a magnetic field

Deflection of beta radiation in a magnetic field (P6.5.7.1)

Historically, it was easy to see that there are different kinds of radio-
active radiation. But to identify which particles were involved took some
time. The behaviour of those particles in an magnetic field was and still
P6.5.7.1

Cat. No. Description is the most valuable tool to characterize charged particles.
In the experiment P6.5.7.1 b radiation passes through a magnetic field
559 835 Radioactive preparations, set of 3 1 and the resulting angular distribution is recorded. From these data, the
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1 energy of the decay can be estimated.
575 471 Counter S 1
LDS 00001 Stopwatch, digital 1
562 11 U-core with yoke 1
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1
559 23 Swivelling clamp 1
559 18 Holder with absorber foils 1
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
521 35 Variable extra-low voltage transformer S 1
300 11 Saddle base 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1
501 25 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, red 2
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 2
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1*
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1*
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1*

* additionally recommended
CASSY ®

271
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
QUANTUM PHYSICS

P6.6.1
QUANTUM OPTICS

P6.6.1.1
Quantum eraser

Quantum eraser (P6.6.1.1)

Quantum optics is a field of research in physics, dealing with the

application of quantum mechanics to phenomena involving light and its
interactions with matter.
P6.6.1.1

Cat. No. Description A basic principle of quantum mechanics is complementarity: each

quantum-mechanical object has both wave-like and particle-like
473 40 Laser optics base plate 1 properties. In the experiment P6.6.1.1 an analogue experiment to a
471 830 He-Ne Laser, linearly polarised 1 quantum eraser is built up. It shows the complementarity of which-way
473 411 Laser mount 1 information and interference.
473 421 Optics base 9
473 431 Holder for beam divider 2
473 432 Beam divider, 50 % 2
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2
473 471 Spherical lens, f = 2.7 mm 2
473 49 Polarising filter for laser optics base plate 3
441 53 Screen, translucent 2
300 11 Saddle base 2
311 02 Metal rule, 1 m 1

272 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
QUANTUM PHYSICS

P6.6.2
PARTICLES

P6.6.2.1
Detection of Muons

Detection of Muons (P6.6.2.1)

The origin of high-energy particles is not only from radioactive decay of

unstable nuclei on earth, they can also be found in the cosmic radiation.
P6.6.2.1

Such particles are an interesting topic on their own.

Cat. No. Description Experiment P6.6.2.1 uses the coincidence detection of two GM
detectors to identifiy natural muons passing through this muon
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 telescope. The specific properties of the muons can be shown this
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 way and recording the muon flux over the day shows their origin is
524 033 GM box 2 related to the sun.
559 012 Pancake GM counter tube 2
300 11 Saddle base 1*
587 07 Tweeter 1*
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1*
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

* additionally recommended
CASSY ®

Count rate distribution for the muon detector oriented in different directions

273
 P6.1.1.1
Estimating the size
of oil molecules

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P7 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS

P7.1 PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS 277

P7.2 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA 281
P7.3 MAGNETISM 288
P7.4 SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY 290
P7.5 APPLIED SOLID-STATE PHYSICS 292

275
P7 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS

P7.1 PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS P7.3 MAGNETISM

P7.1.1 Crystal structure 277 P7.3.1 Dia-, para- and ferromagnetism 288
P7.1.2 X-ray scattering 278-279 P7.3.2 Ferromagnetic hysteresis 289
P7.1.4 Elastic and plastic deformation 280
P7.4 SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY
P7.2 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA P7.4.1 Scanning tunneling microscope 290-291
P7.2.1 Hall effect 281-282
P7.2.2 Electrical conductivity in solids 283 P7.5 APPLIED SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
P7.2.3 Photoconductivity 284 P7.5.1 X-ray fluorescence analysis 292
P7.2.4 Luminescence 285
P7.2.5 Thermoelectricity 286
P7.2.6 Superconductivity 287

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 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS

P7.1.1
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

P7.1.1.1
Structure of a body-centered cubic
and face-centered cubic lattice

Structure of a body-centered cubic and face-centered cubic lattice (P7.1.1.1)

In the field emission microscope, the extremely fine tip of a tungsten

monocrystal is arranged in the center of a spherical luminescent screen.
P7.1.1.1

In the vicinity of the tip, the electric field between the crystal and the
Cat. No. Description luminescent screen reaches such a high field strength that the conduc-
ting electrons can “tunnel” out of the crystal and travel radially to the
554 60 Field emission microscope 1
luminescent screen. Here, an image of the emission distribution of the
554 605 Connection panel for FEM 1 crystal tip is created, magnified by a factor of
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1 R
V =
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 r
521 39 Variable extra-low voltage transformer 1 R = 5 cm: radius of luminescent screen
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 r = 0.1 − 0.2 µm: radius of tip

500 614 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, black 2

In the first part of the experiment P7.1.1.1, the tungsten tip is puri-
500 624 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, black 2 fied by heating it to a white glow. The structure which appears on the
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 luminescent screen after the electric field is applied corresponds to
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1 the body-centered cubic lattice of tungsten, which is observed in the
(110) direction, i.e. the direction of one of the diagonals of a cube face.
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2
Finally, a minute quantity of barium is vaporized in the tube, so that
individual barium atoms can precipitate on the tungsten tip to produce
bright spots on the luminescent screen. When the tungsten tip is heated
carefully, it is even possible to observe the thermal motion of the barium
atoms.

Image of tungsten tip: hot electrode

277
SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS

P7.1.2
X-RAY SCATTERING

P7.1.2.1
Bragg reflection: determining the
lattice constants of monocrystals

P7.1.2.2
Laue diagrams: investigating the
lattice structure of monocrystals

P7.1.2.3
Debye-Scherrer photography:
determining the lattice plane spacings
of polycrystalline powder samples

P7.1.2.4
Debye-Scherrer Scan: determining
the lattice plane spacings of
poly-crystalline powder samples

Laue diagrams: investigating the lattice structure of monocrystals (P7.1.2.2)

X-rays are an essential tool to determine the structure of crystals. The

P7.1.2.2
P7.1.2.3
P7.1.2.4
P7.1.2.1

lattice planes inside a crystal are identified by their Miller idices h, k, l and
Cat. No. Description reflect the X-rays only if the Laue or Bragg conditions are fulfilled. The
distribution of reflexes allows to calculate the lattice constant and crystal
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 1 1 structure of the investigated crystal.
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1 1 In the experiment P7.1.2.1, the Bragg reflection of Mo-Ka radiation
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 (l = 71.080 pm) at NaCl and LiF monocrystals is used to determine
559 01 End-window counter with cable for a, b, g and X-rays 1 1 the lattice constant. The Kb component of the X-ray radiation can be
suppressed using a zirconium filter.
554 77 LiF crystal for Bragg reflection 1
Laue diagrams from NaCl and LiF monocrystals are created in the
554 78 NaCl crystal for Bragg reflection 1
experiment P7.1.2.2 using the „bremsstrahlung“ of the X-ray apparatus
554 838 Film holder, X-ray 1 1 as „white“ X-radiation. The positions of the „multicolored“ reflections on
554 896 X-ray film, Agfa Dentus M2 1 1 an X-ray film behind the crystal and their intensities can be used to de-
554 87 LiF crystal for Laue diagrams 1 termine the crystal structure and the lengths of the crystal axes through
554 88 NaCl crystal for Laue diagrams 1 application of the Laue condition.
554 8971 Developer and fixer for X-ray film 1 1 In the experiment P7.1.2.3, Debye-Scherrer photographs are produced by
irradiating samples of a fine crystal powder with Mo-Ka radiation. Some
554 8931 Changing bag with developer tank 1* 1*
of the randomly oriented crystallites conform to the Bragg condition and
673 5700 Sodium chloride, 250 g 1 1 diffract X-rays into cones for which the aperture angles J can be de-
673 0520 Lithium fluoride, analytically pure, 10 g 1 1 rived from a photograph. This experiment determines the lattice spacing
667 091 Pestle, 96 mm long 1 1 corresponding to J as well as its Laue indices h, k, l, and thus the lattice
667 092 Mortar, porcelain, 70 mm Ø 1 1
structure of the crystallite.
666 960 Powder spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1 1
The experiment P7.1.2.4 records the Debye-Scherrer pattern with an end
window counter instead of X-ray film. The diffracted reflections of a fine
311 54 Precision vernier callipers 1
powder sample are recorded as a function of diffraction angle. The inten-
554 862 X-ray tube, Cu 1 sity peaks in the diffraction spectrum allow the calculation of the separa-
554 842 Crystal powder holder 1 tions of adjacent lattice planes.
additionally required: PC with Windows
1 1
XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

* additionally recommended

Laue diagram of NaCl and

Debye-scherrer photograph
of NaCl

278 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS

P7.1.2
X-RAY SCATTERING

P7.1.2.5
Digital Laue diagrams: investigating the
lattice structure of monocrystals

Digital Laue diagrams: investigating the lattice structure of monocrystals (P7.1.2.5)

To create Laue diagrams of NaCl and LiF monocrystals, the brems-

strahlung of the X-ray apparatus is used in the experiment P7.1.2.5 as
P7.1.2.5

a „white“ spectrum of X-rays. The positions of the „multicolored“

Cat. No. Description diffraction spots on an X-ray image sensor behind the crystal and
their intensities can be used to determine the crystal structure and the
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1
dimensions of the unit cell through application of the Laue condition.
554 866 X-ray tube, Au 1 The X-ray image sensor allows capturing the Laue pattern in one minute
554 8381 Pinhole collimator with Laue crystals 1 (much faster than conventional film) and the digital evaluation eases
554 828 X-ray image sensor 1 the determination of the diffraction angles on the computer.
554 829 Precision rails for X-ray image sensor 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)

Laue diagram of NaCl and Debye-scherrer photograph of NaCl The X-ray image sensor is sensitive enough to expose the discrete reflexes behind
a crystal. The zero order is shielded by a metal plate.

279
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS

P7.1.4
ELASTIC AND PLASTIC
DEFORMATION

P7.1.4.1
Investigating the elastic and
plastic extension of metal wires

P7.1.4.2
Investigating the elastic and
plastic extension of metal wires -
Recording and evaluating
with CASSY

Investigating the elastic and plastic extension of metal wires (P7.1.4.1)

The shape of a crystalline solid is altered when a force is applied. We

P7.1.4.2 (b)
P7.1.4.2 (a)

speak of elastic behavior when the solid resumes its original form once
the force ceases to act on it. When the force exceeds the elastic limit,
P7.1.4.1

Cat. No. Description the body is permanently deformed. This plastic behavior is caused by the
migration of discontinuities in the crystal structure.
550 35 Copper resistance wire, 0.2 mm diam., 100 m 1 1 1 In the experiments P7.1.4.1 and P7.1.4.2, the extension of iron and
550 51 Iron resistance wire, 0.2 mm diameter, 100 m 1 1 1 copper wires is investigated by hanging weights from them. A precision
342 61 Weights, 50 g, set of 12 2 pointer indicator or the rotary motion sensor S attached to a CASSY
measures the change in length Ds, i. e. the extension
340 911ET2 Pulley 50 mm Ø, plug-in, pair, set of 2 1
∆s
381 331 Pointer for linear expansion 1 ε=
s
340 82 Double scale 1 s: length of wire
314 04ET5 Support clip, for plugging in, set of 5 1
After each new tensile load
301 07 Simple bench clamp 2 2 2
F
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 3 3 σ=
A
301 25 Support block 3 F : weight of load pieces
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 3 2 2 A: wire cross-section
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 the students observe whether the pointer or the rotary motion sensor
300 44 Stand rod, 100 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1 1 returns to the zero position when the strain is relieved, i.e. whether the
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
strain is below the elasticity limit se . Graphing the measured values in a
tension-extension diagram confirms the validity of Hooke‘s law
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
σ = E ⋅ε
524 042 Force sensor S, ±50 N 1 1
E: modulus of elasticity
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1 1
up to a proportionality limit sp.
311 77 Steel tape measure, 2 m 1 1
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1
additionally required:
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Load-extension diagram for a typical metal wire

280 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.1
HALL EFFECT

P7.2.1.1
Investigating the Hall effect
in silver

P7.2.1.2
Investigating the anomalous
Hall effect in tungsten

Investigating the Hall effect in silver (P7.2.1.1_b)

In the case of electrical conductors or semiconductors within a

magnetic field B, through which a current I is flowing perpendicular
P7.2.1.2 (b)
P7.2.1.1 (b)

to the magnetic field, the Hall effect results in an electric potential

difference
Cat. No. Description
1
UH = RH ⋅ B ⋅ I ⋅ d : thickness of sample
586 81 Hall effect apparatus (silver) 1 d
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 1 The Hall coefficient
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1 1 2
1 p ⋅ µp − n ⋅ µn
2

RH = ⋅ e: elementary charge
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1 1 e ( p ⋅ µ + n ⋅ µ )2
p n
532 13 Microvoltmeter 1 1
depends on the concentrations n and p of the electrons and holes as well
531 130 Multimeter LDanalog 30 1 1
as their mobilities µn and µp, and is thus a quantity which depends on
521 55 High current power supply 1 1 the material and the temperature
521 39 Variable extra-low voltage transformer 1 1 The experiments P7.2.1.1 and P7.2.1.2 determine the Hall coefficient R H
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1 of two electrical conductors by measuring the Hall voltage U H for vari-
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1 1 ous currents I as a function of the magnetic field B. A negative value is
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2 2 obtained for the Hall coefficient of silver, which indicates that the char-
ge is being transported by electrons. A positive value is found as the Hall
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1
coefficient of tungsten. Consequently, the holes are mainly responsible
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1 for conduction in this metal.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 4 4
501 33 Connecting lead, 32 A, 100 cm, black 2 2
586 84 Hall effect apparatus (tungsten) 1
CASSY ®

281
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.1
HALL EFFECT

P7.2.1.3
Determining the density and
mobility of charge carriers in
n-Germanium

P7.2.1.4
Determining the density and
mobility of charge carriers in
p-Germanium

P7.2.1.5
Determining the band gap
of germanium

Determining the density and mobility of charge carriers in p-Germanium (P7.2.1.4)

The experiments P7.2.1.3 and P7.2.1.4 explore the temperature-

dependency of the Hall voltage and the electrical conductivity
P7.2.1.3
P7.2.1.4
P7.2.1.5

σ = e ⋅ ( p ⋅ µp + n ⋅ µn )
Cat. No. Description
using doped germanium samples. The concentrations of the charge
586 850 Base unit for Hall effect 1 1 1 carriers and their mobilities are determined under the assuption that,
586 853 N-doped germanium on plug-in board 1 depending on the doping, one of the concentrations n or p can be
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1 ignored.
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2 2 In the experiment P7.2.1.5, the electrical conductivity of undoped
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1 1 germanium is measured as a function of the temperature to provide
a comparison. The measurement data permits determination of the
521 536 DC Power Supply 2 x 0...16 V/2 x 0...5 A 1 1
band gap between the valence band and the conduction band in
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 1 germanium.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 1
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1 1
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1 1
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 1 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 7 7 4
586 852 P-doped germanium on plug-in board 1
586 851 Undoped germanium on plug-in board 1
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1
additionally required:
1 1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

Hall voltage when heating up the p-Ge sample

282 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.2
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
IN SOLIDS

P7.2.2.1
Measuring the temperature-
dependency of a noble-metal
resistor

P7.2.2.2
Measuring the temperature-
dependency of a semiconductor
resistor

Measuring the temperature-dependency of a noble-metal resistor (P7.2.2.1)

The temperature-dependency of the specific resistance r is a simple test

for models of electric conductivity of conductors and semiconductors. In
P7.2.2.2
P7.2.2.1

electrical conductors, r increases with the temperature, as the collisions

Cat. No. Description of the quasi-free electrons from the conduction band with the atoms of
the conductor play an increasingly important role. In semiconductors, on
586 80 Noble metal resistor 1
the other hand, the specific resistance decreases as the temperature in-
555 81 Electric oven for tubes, 230 V 1 1 creases, as more and more electrons move from the valence band to the
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 conduction band, thus contributing to the conductivity.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 The experiments P7.2.2.1 and P7.2.2.2 measure the resistance values as
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 1 a function of temperature using a Wheatstone bridge. The computer-
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 1 assisted CASSY measured-value recording system is ideal for recording
and evaluating the measurements. For the noble metal resistor, the
524 031 Current source box 1 1
relationship
502 061 Safety connecting box, with earth 1 1
T
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 R = RΘ ⋅
Θ
586 821 Semiconductor resistor, 5 kW 1 Θ = 240 K: Debye temperature of platinum
additionally required: is verified with sufficient accuracy in the temperature range under study.
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) For the semiconductor resistor, the evaluation reveals a dependency with
the form
∆E
R ∝ e 2kT
J
k = 1.38 ⋅ 10−23 : Boltzmann constant
K
with the band spacing E = 0.5 eV.
CASSY ®

Resistance against temperature

283
SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.3
PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY

P7.2.3.1
Recording the current-voltage
characteristics of a CdS
photoresistor

Recording the current-voltage characteristics of a CdS photoresistor (P7.2.3.1)

Photoconductivity is the phenomenon in which the electrical conduc-

tivity s of a solid is increased through the absorption of light. In CdS,
P7.2.3.1

for example, the absorbed energy enables the transition of activator

Cat. No. Description electrons to the conduction band and the reversal of the charges of
traps, with the formation of electron holes in the valence band. When a
578 02 Photoresistor LDR 05, STE 2/19 1
voltage U is applied, a photocurrent Iph flows.
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
The object of the experiment P7.2.3.1 is to determine the relationship
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 between the photocurrent Iph and the voltage U at a constant radiant
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 flux Fe as well as between the photocurrent Iph and the radiant flux Fe
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 at a constant voltage U in the CdS photoresistor.
472 401 Polarisation filter 2
460 08 Lens in frame, f=150 mm 1
460 32 Optical bench with standardised profile, 1 m 1
460 374 Optics rider, 90/50 6
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1
531 303 Multimeter Metrahit X-tra 1
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2

284 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.4
LUMINESCENCE

P7.2.4.1
Exciting luminescence through
irraditaion with ultraviolet light
and electrons

Exciting luminescence through irraditaion with ultraviolet light and electrons (P7.2.4.1)

Luminescence is the emission of light following the absorption of

energy. This energy can be transmitted in the form of e.g. high-energy
P7.2.4.1

electrons or photons which have an energy greater than that of the

Cat. No. Description emitted photons. Depending on the type of decay, we distinguish bet-
ween fluorescence and phosphorescence. In fluorescence, the emission
555 618 Luminescence tube 1
of photons fades exponentially very rapidly when excitation is switched
555 600 Tube stand 1 off (i.e. about 10 -8 s). Phosphorescence, on the other hand, can persist
521 70 High-voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 for several hours.
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1 In the experiment P7.2.4.1, the luminescence of various solids fol-
451 195 Power supply unit for high-pressure mercury lamp 1 lowing irradiation with ultraviolet light or electrons is demonstrated.
469 79 Filter, ultra-violet 1
These samples include yttrium vanadate doped with europium (red
fluorescent), zinc silicate doped with manganese (green fluorescent) and
500 611 Safety connecting lead, 25 cm, red 1
barium magnesium aluminate doped with europium (blue fluorescent).
500 621 Safety connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1
Note: It is possible to recognize individual emission lines within the band
500 641 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, red 1 spectrum using a pocket spectroscope.
500 642 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, blue 1
500 644 Safety connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2

285
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.5
THERMOELECTRICITY

P7.2.5.1
Seebeck effect: Determining
the thermoelectric voltage as
a function of the temperature
differential

Seebeck effect: Determining the thermoelectric voltage as a function of the temperature differential (P7.2.5.1_a)

When two metal wires with different Fermi energies EF touch, electrons
P7.2.5.1 (b)
P7.2.5.1 (a)

move from one to the other. The metal with the lower electronic work
function WA emits electrons and becomes positive. The transfer does not
Cat. No. Description stop until the contact voltage
WA, 1 − WA, 2
557 01 Thermocouples, set 1 1 U=
e
590 011 Clamping plug 2 2 e: elementary charge
532 13 Microvoltmeter 1 is reached. If the wires are brought together in such a way that they touch
382 34 Thermometer, -10...+110 °C/0.2 K 1 1 at both ends, and if the two contact points have a temperature differen-
666 767 Hotplate, 1500 W, 180 mm diam. 1 1 tial T = T1 – T2, an electrical potential, the thermoelectric voltage
664 104 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, squat 1 1 UT = U (T1 ) − U (T2 )
524 005 Mobile-CASSY 2 1 is generated. Here, the differential thermoelectric voltage
524 040 µV box 1 dUT
α=
dT
depends on the combination of the two metals.
In the experiment P7.2.5.1, the thermoelectric voltage U T is measured as
a function of the temperature differential T between the two contact
points for thermocouples with the combinations iron/constantan, copper/
constantan and chrome-nickel/constantan. One contact point is conti-
nuously maintained at room temperature, while the other is heated in a
water bath. The differential thermoelectric voltage is determined by
applying a best-fit straight line
UT = α ⋅ T
to the measured values.
CASSY ®

Thermoelectric voltage as a function of the temperature Top: chrome-nickel/

constantan, Middle: iron/constantan, Bottom: cupper/constantan

286 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

P7.2.6
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

P7.2.6.1
Determining the transition
temperature of a high-temperature
superconductor

P7.2.6.2
Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect for a
high-temperature superconductor

Determining the transition temperature of a high-temperature superconductor (P7.2.6.1)

In 1986, K. A. Müller and J. G. Bednorz succeeded in demonstrating that

the compound YBa2Cu3O7 becomes superconducting at temperatures far
P7.2.6.2
P7.2.6.1

greater than any known up to that time. Since then, many high-tempe-
Cat. No. Description rature superconductors have been found which can be cooled to their
transition temperature using liquid nitrogen. Like all superconductors,
Transition temperature and electrical resistance,
667 552 1 high-temperature superconductors have no electrical resistance and de-
experiment kit
monstrate the phenomenon known as the Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect,
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 in which magnetic fields are displaced out of the superconducting body.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 The experiment P7.2.6.1 determines the transition temperature of the
501 45 Connecting lead, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 high-temperature superconductor YBa2Cu3O7‑x. For this purpose, the
667 551 Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect, experiment kit 1 substance is cooled to below its critical temperature of Tc = 92 K using
additionally required: liquid nitrogen. In a four-point measurement setup, the voltage drop
1 across the sample is measured as a function of the sample temperature
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
using the computer-assisted measured value recording system CASSY.
In the experiment P7.2.6.2, the superconductivity of the YBa2Cu3O7‑x
body is verified with the aid of the Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect. A low-
weight, high field-strength magnet placed on top of the sample begins
to hover when the sample is cooled to below its critical temperature so
that it becomes superconducting and displaces the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet.
CASSY ®

Resistance against temperature

287
SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
MAGNETISM

P7.3.1
DIA-, PARA- AND
FERROMAGNETISM

P7.3.1.1
Dia-, para- and ferromagnetic
materials in an inhomogeneous
magnetic field

Dia-, para- and ferromagnetic materials in an inhomogeneous magnetic field (P7.3.1.1)

Diamagnetism is the phenomenon in which an external magnetic field

causes magnetization in a substance which is opposed to the applied
P7.3.1.1

magnetic field in accordance with Lenz‘s law. Thus, in an inhomoge-

Cat. No. Description neous magnetic field, a force acts on diamagnetic substances in the
direction of decreasing magnetic field strength. Paramagnetic materials
560 41 Set of rods for para- and diamagnetism 1
have permanent magnetic moments which are aligned by an external
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 magnetic field. Magnetization occurs in the direction of the external
562 13 Coil, 250 turns 2 field, so that these substances are attracted in the direction of incre-
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1 asing magnetic field strength. Ferromagnetic substances in magnetic
521 39 Variable extra-low voltage transformer 1
fields assume a very high magnetization which is orders of magnitude
greater than that of paramagnetic substances.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
In the experiment P7.3.1.1, three 9 mm long rods with different magne-
300 41 Stand rod, 25 cm, 12 mm Ø 2
tic behaviors are suspended in a strongly inhomogeneous magnetic field
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 1 so that they can easily rotate, allowing them to be attracted or repelled
500 422 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, blue 1 by the magnetic field depending on their respective magnetic property.
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1

Placement of a sample in the magnetic field

288 WWW.LEYBOLD-SHOP.COM
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
MAGNETISM

P7.3.2
FERROMAGNETIC HYSTERESIS

P7.3.2.1
Recording the initial magnetization
curve and the hysteresis curve of a
ferromagnet

Recording the initial magnetization curve and the hysteresis curve of a ferromagnet (P7.3.2.1_a)

In a ferromagnet, the magnetic induction

P7.3.2.1 (b)
P7.3.2.1 (a)

B = µr ⋅ µ0 ⋅ H
Vs
µ0 = 4π ⋅ 10 −7 : magnetic field constant
Cat. No. Description Am
reaches a saturation value B s as the magnetic field H increases. The
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1
relative permiability µr of the ferromagnet depends on the magnetic
562 121 Clamping device with spring clip 1 1 field strength H, and also on the previous magnetic treatment of the
562 14 Coil, 500 turns 2 2 ferromagnet. Thus, it is common to represent the magnetic induction B
522 621 Function generator S 12 1 in the form of a hysteresis curve as a function of the rising and falling
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 field strength H. The hysteresis curve differs from the magnetization
curve, which begins at the origin of the coordinate system and can only
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
be measured for completely demagnetized material.
577 20 Resistor, 10 W, STE 2/19 1
In the experiment P7.3.2.1, a current I1 in the primary coil of a trans-
576 71 Plug-in board section, STE 1 former which increases (or decreases) linearly over time generates the
500 424 Connecting lead 19 A, 50 cm, black 1 magnetic field strength
500 444 Connecting lead 19 A, 100 cm, black 7 4 N1
H= ⋅ I1
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 L
L: effective length of iron core
additionally required:
1 1 N1: number of windiings of primary coil
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
The corresponding magnetic induction value B is obtained through inte-
gration of the voltage U2 induced in the secondary coil of a transformer:
1
N2 ⋅ A ∫
B= ⋅ U2 ⋅ dt

A: cross-section of iron core

N2 : number of wiindings of secondary coil
The computer-assisted measurement system CASSY is used to control
the current and to record and evaluate the measured values. The aim
of the experiment is to determine the relative permeability µr in the
magnetization curve and the hysteresis curve as a function of the
magnetic field strength H.
CASSY ®

Magnetic flux in the iron core against the coil current

289
SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY

P7.4.1
SCANNING TUNNELING
MICROSCOPE

P7.4.1.1
Investigating a graphite surface
using a scanning tunneling microscope

P7.4.1.2
Investigating a gold surface
using a scanning tunneling microscope

P7.4.1.3
Investigating a MoS2 sample
using a scanning tunneling microscope

Investigating a graphite surface using a scanning tunneling microscope (P7.4.1.1)

The scanning tunneling microscope was developed in the 1980‘s by G.

P7.4.1.1-2

Binnig and H. Rohrer. It uses a fine metal tip as a local probe; the probe
P7.4.1.3

is brought so close to an electrically conductive sample that the elec-

Cat. No. Description trons “tunnel” from the tip to the sample due to quantum-mechanical
effects. When an electric field is applied between the tip and the sample,
554 581 Scanning tunnel microscope 1 1
an electric current, the tunnel current, can flow. As the tunnel current va-
554 584 Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) sample 1 ries exponentially with the distance, even an extremely minute change in
additionally required: distance of 0.01 nm results in a measurable change in the tunnel current.
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) The tip is mounted on a platform which can be moved in all three spatial
dimensions by means of piezoelectric control elements. The tip is scanned
across the sample to measure its topography. A control circuit maintains
the distance between tip and sample extremely precisely at a constant
distance by maintaining a constant tunnel current value. The controlled
motions performed during the scanning process are recorded and imaged
using a computer. The image generated in this manner is a composite in
which the sample topography and the electrical conductivity of the sam-
ple surface are superimposed.
The experiments P7.4.1.1, P7.4.1.2 and P7.4.1.3 use a scanning tunneling
microscope specially developed for practical experiments, which operates
at standard air pressure. At the beginning of the experiment, a measuring
tip is made from platinum wire. The graphite sample is prepared by tearing
off a strip of tape. When the gold sample is handled carefully, it requires
no cleaning; the same is valid for the MoS2 probe. The investigation of the
samples begins with an overview scan. In the subsequent procedure, the
step width of the measuring tip is reduced until the positions of the indi-
vidual atoms of the sample with respect to each other are clearly visible
in the image.

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 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY

P7.4.1
SCANNING TUNNELING
MICROSCOPE

P7.4.1.4
Investigating of surfaces
using an atomic force
microscope (AFM)

Investigating of surfaces using an atomic force microscope (AFM) (P7.4.1.4)

The experiment P7.4.1.4 uses an AFM to investigate several different

surface structures from a CD stamper to blood cells. In contrast to
P7.4.1.4

a STM non-conductive samples can be used. A microscopic „needle“

Cat. No. Description is touching the surface and scans it. In static mode, that needle just
scratches along the surface and records the height variations. Using
554 5863 LD AFM extended 1
extended modes, not only topography can be recorded, but also local
additionally required: properties like elasticity or magnetism. For example the needle is set
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64) into vibration and slightly touches the surface. Hard and soft areas of
the sample will dampen the oscillation of the needle differently and can
be imaged.

AFM image of an uncoated CD with data structures in 2D and 3D

291
 SOLID-STATE PHYSICS
APPLIED SOLID-STATE PHYSICS

P7.5.1
X-RAY FLUORESCENCE
ANALYSIS

P7.5.1.1
Application of X-ray fluorescence
for the non-destructive analysis
of the chemical composition

P7.5.1.2
Determination of the chemical
composition of a brass sample by
X-ray fluorescence analysis

Application of X-ray fluorescence for the non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition (P7.5.1.1)

X-ray fluorescence is a very useful tool for a non-destructive analysis

of the chemical composition of a target alloy. When irradiating a
P7.5.1.2
P7.5.1.1

sample with X-rays, all the different elements it contains emit

Cat. No. Description characteristic X-rays due to fluorescence, which are fingerprints of
every single element.
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1
In the experiment P7.5.1.1, X-ray fluorescence is used to do qualitative
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1
analysis by identifying the substances in four alloy samples, made from
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 chrome-nickel steel, two different kinds of brass and rare earth magnet.
559 938 X-ray energy detector 1 1 In the experiment P7.5.1.2, the composition of one brass alloy is
554 848 Set of target alloys 1 1 analysed quantitatively. The weight percentage of each component in
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 the alloy is calculated from the strength of different fluorescence lines.
524 058 MCA box 1 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 1
554 844 Set of targets for K-line fluorescence 1
554 846 Set of targets for L-line fluorescence 1
additionally required:
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 (x86 or x64)
CASSY ®

X-Ray fluorescence spectrum of a brass sample

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P8 REGISTER

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α, β, γ Air resistance............................................................................................ 62

α radiation...............................................................................................264 Airfoil........................................................................................................... 62

α spectrum..............................................................................................268 Alloy composition..................................................................................292

β radiation...............................................................................................264 Amontons‘ law.......................................................................................... 78

β spectrum...............................................................................................269 Ampere, definition of............................................................................ 113

γ radiation................................................................................................264 Amplifier................................................................................................... 157

γ spectrum...............................................................................................269 Amplifier, optical....................................................................................220

Amplitude hologram............................................................................. 187

3 Amplitude modulation (AM)............................................................... 135

3D...............................................................................................................259 AND-Gate.................................................................................................162
Angle of inclination............................................................................... 121

A Angled projection.................................................................................... 23

Abbe refractometer...............................................................................209 Angular acceleration............................................................................... 26

Aberration,chromatic............................................................................169 Angular velocity....................................................................................... 26

Aberration, lens......................................................................................169 Anharmonic oscillation.......................................................................... 36

Absorber, saturable................................................................................ 218 Annihilation radiation...........................................................................269

Absorption............................................................................. 206, 212, 214 Anomalous Hall effect..........................................................................281

Absorption edge.....................................................................................253 Anomalous Zeeman effect..................................................................249

Absorption of β radiation....................................................................269 Anomaly of water.................................................................................... 67

Absorption of γ radiation.....................................................................264 Antenna...........................................................................................139, 170

Absorption of light................................................................................ 173 Apparent power...................................................................................... 132

Absorption of microwaves................................................................... 137 Archimedes‘ principle............................................................................. 56

Absorption of X-rays.............................................................................253 Astigmatism.............................................................................................169

Absorption spectra................................................................................ 174 Atom, size of............................................................................................ 231

Absorption spectrum............................................................................ 241 Atomic force microscope.....................................................................291

AC power meter...................................................................................... 118 Atomic size...............................................................................................278

Acceleration................................................................................................15 Attenuation..............................................................................................252

AC-DC generator.................................................................................... 123 Attenuation X-rays................................................................................253

Acousto-optic modulator...................................................................... 54 Attenuation of α, β and γ radiation.................................................264

Action = reaction..................................................................................... 19 Autocollimation...................................................................................... 167

Active power........................................................................................... 132

Activity determination.........................................................................269 B
AD converter...........................................................................................164 Babinet‘s theorem................................................................................. 176

Adder.........................................................................................................160 Balmer series...........................................................................................239

Additive colour mixing......................................................................... 171 Balmer-Serie............................................................................................239

Adiabatic exponent................................................................................. 79 Band gap...................................................................................................281

Aerodynamics.....................................................................................60-62 Barrel distortions...................................................................................169

AFM............................................................................................................291 Beam analysis, Laser.............................................................................227

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Beam deflection..................................................................................... 211 Capacitive impedance.........................................................126, 128-129

Beam profiler...........................................................................................205 Capacitor................................................................................ 101-103, 126
Beam, Gaussian......................................................................................205 Cathode rays........................................................................................... 147
Beamsplitter............................................................................................ 211 Cavendish hemispheres.......................................................................... 99
Beats..............................................................................................44-45, 51 CCD Camera............................................................................................ 212
Bell............................................................................................................. 133 Center of gravity...................................................................................... 24
Bending..........................................................................................................6 Central force............................................................................................. 24
Bending radius.............................................................................................3 Centrifugal and centripetal force........................................................ 27
Bernoulli equation................................................................................... 62 Chaotic oscillation................................................................................... 36
Bessel method......................................................................................... 167 Characteristic radiation.......................................................................254
Biot-Savart‘s law.................................................................................... 114 Characteristic(s) of a diode.................................................................153
Bipolar transistors.................................................................................. 156 Characteristic(s) of a field-effect transistor.................................. 156
Biprism......................................................................................................180 Characteristic(s) of a glow lamp........................................................153
Birefringence.........................................................................190, 192-193 Characteristic(s) of a light-emitting diode.....................................153
Birefringent tuner.................................................................................. 216 Characteristic(s) of a photoresistor..................................................284
Black body................................................................................................196 Characteristic(s) of a phototransistor..............................................158
Block and tackle..........................................................................................9 Characteristic(s) of a solar battery................................................... 152
Bohr‘s magneton....................................................................................248 Characteristic(s) of a transistor......................................................... 156
Bohr‘s model of the atom...........................................................244-246 Characteristic(s) of a tube diode.......................................................140
Boyle-Mariotte‘s law.............................................................................. 78 Characteristic(s) of a tube triode...................................................... 141
Bragg reflection.....................................................................................254 Characteristic(s) of a varistor.............................................................153
Braun tube...............................................................................................143 Characteristic(s) of a Z-diode.............................................................153
Break-away method................................................................................ 59 Charge carrier concentration.............................................................281
Breit-Rabi formula.................................................................................249 Charge distribution.................................................................................. 99
Bremsstrahlung......................................................................................254 Charge transport....................................................................................104
Brewster angle........................................................................................189 Charge, electric................................................................89-93, 140-144
Bridge rectifier........................................................................................ 156 Chromatic aberration............................................................................169
Brightness control.................................................................................160 Circular motion............................................................................24, 26-27
Brownian motion of molecules............................................................ 77 Circular polarization.................................................................................41
Building materials.................................................................................... 68 Circular waves........................................................................................... 42
Buoyancy.................................................................................................... 57 Cloud chamber........................................................................................265
Coercive force.........................................................................................289
C Coherence.............................................................................179, 184, 208
Calcite.......................................................................................................190 Coherence length...................................................................................184
Calliper gauge..............................................................................................3 Coherence time.......................................................................................184
Canal rays................................................................................................. 147 Coil............................................................................................................. 127
Capacitance of a plate capacitor...................................................... 101 Coincidence.............................................................................................269
Capacitance of a sphere......................................................................100 Collision.........................................................................................18-19, 25

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Color mixing............................................................................................ 212 Curve form factor..................................................................................130

Colour filter............................................................................................. 174 Cushion distortions................................................................................169
Colour mixing.......................................................................................... 171 CW value.................................................................................................... 61
Coma..........................................................................................................169 Czerny-Turner monochromator.......................................................... 211
Comparator..............................................................................................160
Complementary colours....................................................................... 171 D
Composition of forces...............................................................................7 DA converter...........................................................................................164
Compton effect......................................................................................254 Damped oscillation.................................................................................. 35
Compton scattering..............................................................................258 Daniell element....................................................................................... 110
Condensation heat....................................................................................74 De Broglie wavelength..........................................................................237
Conductivity...................................................................................281-283 Debye temperature................................................................................283
Conductor, electric............................................. 99, 105-107, 283-284 Debye-Scherrer diffraction of electrons.........................................237
Conoscopic image..................................................................................206 Debye-Scherrer photograph...............................................................278
Conoscopic ray path.............................................................................193 Debye-Sears effect.................................................................................. 54
Conservation of angular momentum................................................. 27 Decimeter waves.................................................................................... 135
Conservation of energy......................................................18, 25, 27, 31 Decomposition of forces...........................................................................7
Conservation of linear momentum........................................18-19, 25 Decomposition of white light............................................................. 171
Constant-current source..................................................................... 151 Deflection of electrons in a magnetic field.......................... 142-144
Constant-voltage source..................................................................... 151 Deflection of electrons in an electric field.....................................143
Control, closed-loop..............................................................................160 Density balance...........................................................................................4
Control, open-loop................................................................................160 Density maximum of water................................................................... 67
Cork-powder method.............................................................................. 47 Density measuring......................................................................................4
Coulomb‘s law.....................................................................................91-93 Density of air................................................................................................4
Counter.....................................................................................................163 Density of liquids........................................................................................4
Counter tube...........................................................................................261 Density of solids..........................................................................................4
Counting rates, determination of......................................................262 Detection of radioactivity...................................................................261
Coupled pendulums................................................................................. 37 Detection of X-rays...............................................................................250
Coupling of oscillations.......................................................................... 37 Deuterium spectrum.............................................................................240
Cp, CV.......................................................................................................... 79 D-Flip-Flop...............................................................................................163
Crest factor.............................................................................................. 132 Diamagnetism.........................................................................................288
Critical point.............................................................................................. 76 Dielectric constant................................................................................ 101
Cross grating........................................................................................... 176 Dielectric constant of water............................................................... 135
Crystal lattice.........................................................................................277 Differentiator..........................................................................................160
Crystal structure....................................................................................279 Diffraction................................................................................................208
CT................................................................................................................259 Diffraction at a crossed grating........................................................ 176
Current source........................................................................................ 151 Diffraction at a double slit.................................. 43, 51, 137, 176-178
Current transformation of a transformer....................................... 119 Diffraction at a grating.......................................................... 43, 51, 176
Curvature of image...............................................................................169 Diffraction at a half-plane.................................................................. 178

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Diffraction at a multiple grating................................ 43, 51, 176-177 Eddy currents.......................................................................................... 118

Diffraction at a pinhole diaphragm.................................................. 176 EDFA...........................................................................................................220
Diffraction at a post............................................................................. 176 Edge absorption......................................................................................254
Diffraction at a single slit.................................... 43, 51, 137, 176-178 Edge, diffraction at............................................................................... 178
Diffraction at a standing wave............................................................ 54 Edison effect...........................................................................................140
Diffraction of electrons........................................................................237 Effective voltage.................................................................................... 132
Diffraction of light....................................................................... 176-178 Efficiency of a heat pump..................................................................... 85
Diffraction of microwaves................................................................... 137 Efficiency of a hot air engine............................................................... 83
Diffraction of ultrasonic waves........................................................... 51 Efficiency of a solar collector.............................................................. 69
Diffraction of water waves................................................................... 43 Efficiency of a transformer................................................................. 119
Diffraction of X-rays.............................................................................254 Einstein coefficients.............................................................................. 214
Diode....................................................................................... 140, 154-156 Elastic collision............................................................................18-19, 25
Diode characteristic............................................................140, 153-154 Elastic deformation...............................................................................280
Diode laser............................................................................................... 211 Elastic rotational collision..................................................................... 27
Directional characteristic.................................................................... 135 Elastic strain constant...............................................................................6
Directional characteristic of antennas............................................ 139 Electric charge......................................................... 89-93, 99, 140-144
Dispersion.................................................................................................206 Electric conductor.............................................. 99, 105-107, 283-284
Dispersion of glasses............................................................................. 171 Electric current as charge transport................................................104
Dispersion of liquids.............................................................................. 171 Electric energy.........................................................................73, 131-132
Distortions................................................................................................169 Electric field..............................................................................94-98, 103
Doping.......................................................................................................281 Electric generator.................................................................................. 123
Doppler effect...........................................................................42, 52, 213 Electric motor......................................................................................... 124
Doppler effect, optical.........................................................................225 Electric oscillator circuit........................................................................ 53
Dosimetry................................................................................................. 251 Electric potential...................................................................................... 96
Double mirror..........................................................................................180 Electric power......................................................................................... 131
Double pendulum..................................................................................... 37 Electric work............................................................................................ 131
Double slit, diffraction at.................................... 43, 51, 137, 176-178 Electrical machines.......................................................................122-124
DPSS Laser............................................................................................... 218 Electrochemistry.................................................................................... 110
Dualism of wave and particle.............................................................237 Electrolysis...............................................................................................109
Duane and Hunt‘s law..........................................................................254 Electromagnet..........................................................................................111
Dynamic pressure..................................................................................... 60 Electromagnetic oscillations................................................................. 53
Electromechanical devices.................................................................. 133
E Electrometer.............................................................................................. 90
E, determination of................................................................................232 Electron charge......................................................................................232
E/m, determination of...........................................................................144 Electron diffraction...............................................................................237
Earth inductor......................................................................................... 121 Electron holes...................................................................... 281-282, 284
Earth‘s magnetic field........................................................................... 121 Electron spin................................................................................... 247-249
Echo sounder............................................................................................. 50 Electron spin resonance....................................................................... 247

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Electrostatic induction.............................................................89-90, 99 Fieldmill....................................................................................................... 96

Electrostatics............................................................................................ 90 Fine beam tube.......................................................................................233
Elliptical polarization............................................................................190 Fine structure..........................................................................................256
Emission....................................................................................................206 Fine structure, X-ray.............................................................................256
Emission spectra....................................................................................243 Fixed pulley...................................................................................................9
Emission spectrum................................................................................. 241 Flame colouration..................................................................................243
Energy loss of α radiation...................................................................268 Flame probe............................................................................................... 96
Energy spectrum of X-rays..................................................................254 Fletcher‘s trolley........................................................................................12
Energy, electrical.....................................................................73, 131-132 Flip-Flop....................................................................................................163
Energy, heat............................................................................................... 73 Flow velocity........................................................................................... 213
Energy, mechanical............................................9-10, 16-19, 24, 27, 72 Fluorescence............................................................................................ 174
Energy, conservation of............................................... 18-19, 25, 27, 31 Fluorescent screen.................................................................................250
Energy, mechanical.................................................................................. 31 Focal point, focal length...................................................................... 167
Energy-band interval............................................................................281 Force.............................................................................................6-9, 11, 13
Equilibrium....................................................................................................8 Force along the plane............................................................................. 10
Equilibrium of angular momentum........................................................8 Force in an electric field........................................................................ 98
Equipotential surface.............................................................................. 96 Force normal to the plane..................................................................... 10
ESR............................................................................................................. 247 Force, measuring on current-carrying conductors...................... 113
Evaporation heat.......................................................................................74 Forced oscillation..................................................................................... 35
Excitation of atoms......................................................................244-246 Foucault-Michelson method..............................................................198
Expansion coefficient............................................................................. 65 Fourier transformation........................................................................... 53
Franck-Hertz experiment.....................................................................245
F Fraunhofer lines......................................................................................243
Fabry Perot.............................................................................................. 215 Free fall.................................................................................................21-23
Fabry-Perot Interferometer................................................................186 Frequency............................................32, 35-47, 50-53, 134-135, 137
Falling-ball viscosimeter........................................................................ 57 Frequency doubling............................................................................... 218
Faraday constant...................................................................................109 Frequency modulation (FM)................................................................ 135
Faraday effect.........................................................................................194 Frequency response...............................................................................130
Faraday‘s cup............................................................................................ 99 Fresnel biprism........................................................................................180
Feedback................................................................................................... 134 Fresnel mirror..........................................................................................208
Ferromagnetism.....................................................................................288 Fresnel zone plate..................................................................................208
FET.............................................................................................................. 156 Fresnel‘s laws..........................................................................................189
Fiber cleaving..........................................................................................221 Fresnel‘s mirror.......................................................................................180
Fiber laser.................................................................................................220 Friction........................................................................................................ 10
Fibre........................................................................................................... 174 Friction coefficient...................................................................................11
Field effect transistor........................................................................... 156 Fringe counter.........................................................................................223
Field emission microscope...................................................................277 Full-wave rectifier................................................................................. 156

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G Hall effect................................................................................................281

Gain profile.............................................................................................. 216 Hammer interrupter.............................................................................. 133

Galilean telescope.................................................................................. 170 Harmonic oscillation........................................................................ 33-36

Galvanic element.................................................................................... 110 Heat capacity............................................................................................ 71

Gas discharge.......................................................................................... 145 Heat conduction....................................................................................... 68

Gas discharge spectra...........................................................................243 Heat energy............................................................................................... 73

Gas elastic resonance apparatus......................................................... 79 Heat engine................................................................................. 81, 83-84

Gas laser...................................................................................................205 Heat equivalent, electric........................................................................ 73

Gas laws...................................................................................................... 78 Heat equivalent, mechanical................................................................ 72

Gas thermometer..................................................................................... 78 Heat insulation......................................................................................... 68

Gaussian beam........................................................................................205 Heat pump................................................................................... 82-83, 85

Gay-Lussac‘s law...................................................................................... 78 Helical spring................................................................................................6

Geiger counter........................................................................................261 Helical spring after Wilberforce.......................................................... 38

Geiger-Müller counter tube................................................................261 Helical spring waves................................................................................ 39

Generator circuits.................................................................................. 157 Helium Neon Laser................................................................................ 216

Generator, electric................................................................................. 123 Helmholtz coils....................................................................................... 114

Geometrical optics........................................................................167-170 He-Ne laser..............................................................................................205

Glassfiber.................................................................................................221 Heterodyne mixing................................................................................224

Glowing layer..........................................................................................146 High voltage............................................................................................ 120

Golden rule of mechanics.........................................................................9 High-temperature superconductor...................................................287

Graetz circuit..........................................................................................154 Hologram.................................................................................................. 187

Grating spectrometer..................................................................203-205 Holographic grating...........................................................205, 240, 242

Grating, diffraction at............................................................ 43, 51, 176 Holography.............................................................................................. 210

Gratings.................................................................................................... 211 Homogeneous electric field.................................................................. 97

Gravitation torsion balance after Cavendish......................................5 Hooke‘s law...................................................................................................6

Gravitational acceleration................................................. 21-22, 32-33 Hot-air engine.....................................................................................81-84

Gravitational constant..............................................................................5 Huygens priciple.....................................................................................208

Gyroscope.................................................................................................. 28 Huygens‘ principle................................................................................... 42

Gyroscope, laser.....................................................................................226 Hydrogen spectrum...............................................................................240

Hydrostatic pressure............................................................................... 55

H Hyperfine structure...............................................................................249

H determination.....................................................................................269 Hysteresis.................................................................................................289

H α-line......................................................................................................239
H, determination of.................................................. 234-236, 234, 254 I
Half-life................................................................................... 126-127, 263 Ideal gas...................................................................................................... 78
Half-plane, diffraction at.................................................................... 178 Image charge............................................................................................. 98
Half-shadow polarimeter..................................................................... 191 Image distortion.....................................................................................169
Half-wave rectifier................................................................................ 156 Impedance....................................................................................... 126-128

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Implant model.........................................................................................250 Keplerian telescope............................................................................... 170

Inclined plane............................................................................................ 10 Kerr effect................................................................................................192
Independence principle.......................................................................... 23 Kinetic energy........................................................................................... 16
Induction................................................................................. 115-117, 122 Kinetic theory of gases....................................................................77-79
Inductive impedance.....................................................................127-129 Kirchhoff‘s law of radiation................................................................196
Inelastic collision.........................................................................18-19, 25 Kirchhoff‘s laws......................................................................................106
Inelastic electron collision..........................................................244-246 Kirchhoff‘s voltage balance.................................................................. 98
Inelastic rotational collision................................................................. 27 Klein-Nishina formula..........................................................................270
Integrator.................................................................................................160 Kundt‘s tube.............................................................................................. 47
Interference.................................................................179, 208, 215, 272
Interference of light..............................................................................180 L
Interference of microwaves................................................................ 137 Lambert-Beer law..................................................................................206
Interference of ultrasonic waves......................................................... 51 Lambert‘s law of radiation..................................................................195
Interference of water waves................................................................. 43 Laser.............................................................205, 213-214, 216-220, 226
Interferometer............................................................................... 183-185 Laser beam analysis..............................................................................227
Interferometer........................................................................................209 Laser doppler Anemometer.................................................................225
Interferometer, Fabry-Perot................................................................ 186 Laser doppler anemometry................................................................. 213
Interferometer, heterodyne.................................................................224 Laser gyroscope......................................................................................226
Interferometer, Mach-Zehnder..........................................................209 Laser resonator....................................................................................... 216
Interferometer, Michelson...................................................................209 Laser safety............................................................................................. 214
Internal resistance............................................................... 108, 151-152 Laser vibrometer....................................................................................224
Intrinsic conduction..............................................................................281 Laser, fiber...............................................................................................220
Inverse-square law of distance..........................................................264 Laser, pulse..............................................................................................224
Inverting operational amplifier..........................................................160 Laser, pulsed............................................................................................ 218
Ion dose rate........................................................................................... 251 Laser, ring.................................................................................................220
Ion trap.....................................................................................................238 Laserdiode................................................................................................ 217
Ionization chamber................................................................................ 251 Latent heat..................................................................................................74
IR position detector....................................................................................5 Laue...........................................................................................................279
Isoelectric lines......................................................................................... 95 Laue diagram...........................................................................................278
Isotope splitting.....................................................................................240 Laws of images....................................................................................... 167
Laws of radiation...................................................................................196
J LDA.............................................................................................................225
JK-Flip-Flop.............................................................................................163 Leaf spring....................................................................................................6
Jones Matrix............................................................................................206 Lecher line................................................................................................ 136
LED.................................................................................................... 153-155
K Length measurement.................................................................................3
Kα-line.......................................................................................................254 Lens aberration.......................................................................................169
K-edge.......................................................................................................253 Lenses........................................................................................................206

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Leslie‘s cube.............................................................................................196 Magnetic moment..................................................................................112

Lever...............................................................................................................8 Magnetization curve.............................................................................289
Lever with unequal sides..........................................................................8 Magnetostriktion...................................................................................183
Light emitting diode..................................................................... 153-155 Magnets.....................................................................................................111
Light guide............................................................................................... 174 Magnifier.................................................................................................. 170
Light waveguide.....................................................................................158 Maltese-cross tube............................................................................... 142
Light, velocity of..................................................................198-199, 201 Malus‘ law................................................................................................189
Light, velocity of....................................................................................200 Mathematical pendulum........................................................................ 32
Line spectrum.............................................................202-203, 239, 241 Maxwell measuring bridge.................................................................. 129
Linear air track.................................................................................... 15-18 Maxwell‘s wheel....................................................................................... 31
Linear expansion...................................................................................... 65 Measuring bridge, Maxwell................................................................. 129
Linear motion......................................................................... 11-13, 15-17 Measuring bridge, Wheatstone..........................................................106
Lines of force............................................................................................ 94 Measuring bridge, Wien....................................................................... 129
Lines of magnetic force........................................................................111 Measuring range, expanding..............................................................108
Littrow condition...................................................................................205 Mechanical energy............................................9, 16-19, 24-25, 27, 72
Littrow prism........................................................................................... 216 Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect...............................................................287
Lloyd‘s experiment................................................................................... 43 Melde‘s law.................................................................................................41
Logic gate........................................................................................ 162-164 Melting heat...............................................................................................74
Longitudinal laser modes..................................................................... 215 Mercury spectrum................................................................................. 242
Longitudinal waves.................................................................................. 39 Metallic conductor................................................................................283
Loose pulley..................................................................................................9 Michelson interferometer.............................. 183-184, 209, 223, 272
Luminescence..........................................................................................285 Micrometer screw.......................................................................................3
Luminous intensity................................................................................ 195 Microscope.............................................................................................. 170
Luminous zone........................................................................................146 Microwaves.............................................................................................. 137
Millikan experiment..............................................................................232
M Mirror, Fresnel.........................................................................................208
Machine........................................................................................... 123-125 Mixing temperature................................................................................ 70
Machine(s)................................................................................................ 122 Mobility of charge carriers..................................................................281
Machine(s), electrical............................................................................ 125 Mode locking...........................................................................................220
Machine(s), simple......................................................................................9 Modulation of light...............................................................................193
Mach-Zehnder Inderferotmeter.........................................................209 Modulus of elasticity.................................................................................6
Mach-Zehnder-Interferometer..........................................................185 Molecular motion..................................................................................... 77
Magnetic field of a coil........................................................................ 114 Molecule, size of.................................................................................... 231
Magnetic field of Helmholtz coils..................................................... 114 Mollier diagram........................................................................................ 85
Magnetic field the Earth...................................................................... 121 Moment of inertia................................................................................... 28
Magnetic field, earth............................................................................ 121 Monochromator..................................................................................... 211
Magnetic focusing................................................................................. 142 Moseley‘s law..........................................................................................254
Magnetic force....................................................................................... 113 Motions with reversal of direction............................................... 15-17

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Motions, one-dimensional................................................. 11-13, 15-17 Optical amplifier.....................................................................................220

Motions, two-dimensional.................................................................... 24 Optical analogon....................................................................................237
Motions, uniform.....................................................12-13, 15-17, 26-27 Optical cavity..........................................................................................205
Motions, uniformly accelerated...........................11-13, 15-17, 26-27 Optical pumping..................................................................................... 214
Motor, electric........................................................................................ 124 Optical resonator................................................................................... 215
Multimeter............................................................................................... 130 Optical time domain reflectometry..................................................222
Multiple slit, diffraction at........................................... 43, 51, 176-178 Optical transmission line.....................................................................158
Multiplexer...............................................................................................163 Optoelectronics......................................................................................158
Muon.........................................................................................................273 Orbital spin..............................................................................................248
OR-Gate....................................................................................................162
N Oscillation of a string............................................................................. 46
Nd:YAG Laser........................................................................................... 218 Oscillation period.......................................................32, 34-38, 79, 134
n-doped germanium.............................................................................281 Oscillations............................................................................32-38, 46, 53
Newton rings........................................................................................... 181 Oscillator.................................................................................................. 157
Newton, definition of............................................................................. 13 Oscillator circuit....................................................................................... 53
Newton‘s experiments with white light.......................................... 171 OTDR..........................................................................................................222
Newton‘s law............................................................................................. 25
Newtons rings.........................................................................................208 P
Night vision.............................................................................................. 212 Parallel connection of capacitors...................................................... 101
NMR...........................................................................................................267 Parallel connection of resistors.........................................................106
Non-inverting operational amplifier................................................160 Parallelogram of forces.............................................................................7
Non-self-maintained gas discharge.................................................145 Paramagnetism.......................................................................................288
Normal Hall effect.................................................................................281 Paths of particles...................................................................................265
Normal Zeeman effect.........................................................................248 Path-time diagram.........................................................11-13, 15-17, 26
NTC resistor.............................................................................................153 Paul trap...................................................................................................238
Nuclear magnetic resonance..............................................................267 p-doped germanium.............................................................................281
Nuclear magneton.................................................................................249 Peak voltage............................................................................................ 132
Nuclear spin.............................................................................................249 Pendulum, amplitude.............................................................................. 33
Nutation..................................................................................................... 28 Pendulums, coupled................................................................................ 37
Pendulums, mathematical and physical............................................ 32
O Performance number.............................................................................. 85
Ohmic resistance...........................................................................105-108 Permanent magnets...............................................................................111
Ohm‘s law.................................................................................................105 Perrin tube...............................................................................................143
Oil spot experiment............................................................................... 231 Phase hologram...................................................................................... 187
One-sided lever............................................................................................8 Phase transition..................................................................................74-76
Operational amplifier............................................................................159 Phase velocity..............................................................................39, 41-42
Opposing force......................................................................................... 25 Phosphorescence...................................................................................206
Optical activity....................................................................................... 191 Photoconductivity.................................................................................284

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Photodiode...............................................................................................158 pV diagram................................................................................... 81-82, 84

Photoelasticity........................................................................................190 Pyknometer...................................................................................................4
Photoelectric effect.....................................................................234-236
Photoresistor...........................................................................................153 Q
Phototransistor.......................................................................................158 Q-switch................................................................................................... 218
Physical pendulum................................................................................... 32 Quantum eraser......................................................................................272
PID controller..........................................................................................160 Quantum nature.................................................187, 189-190, 196-197
Pinhole diaphragm, diffraction at..................................................... 176 Quantum nature of charges................................................................232
Planck‘s constant................................................................234-236, 254 Quartz, right-handed and left-handed polarization.................... 191
Plastic deformation...............................................................................280
Plastic fibers............................................................................................221 R
Plate capacitor............................................................................... 101-103 Radiant flux density.............................................................................. 195
PMMA fibre............................................................................................. 174 Radioactive dating.................................................................................268
Pockels effect..........................................................................................193 Radioactive decay..................................................................................263
Poisson distribution...............................................................................262 Radioactivity...........................................................................................261
Polarimeter.............................................................................................. 191 Reactance........................................................................................ 126-128
Polarisation..............................................................................................207 Reactive power....................................................................................... 132
Polarity of electrons..............................................................................143 Real gas....................................................................................................... 76
Polarization of decimeter waves....................................................... 135 Recoil........................................................................................................... 18
Polarization of light......................................................................189-194 Rectification......................................................................... 140, 154-155
Polarization of microwaves................................................................. 137 Redox pairs.............................................................................................. 110
Post, diffraction at................................................................................ 176 Reflection.................................................................................................207
Potentiometer.........................................................................................106 Reflection hologram............................................................................. 210
Power plant generator.......................................................................... 123 Reflection of light..................................................................................167
Power transmission of a transformer............................................... 120 Reflection of microwaves.................................................................... 137
Precession.................................................................................................. 28 Reflection of ultrasonic waves............................................................ 50
Pressure...................................................................................................... 55 Reflection of water waves.................................................................... 42
Primary colours...................................................................................... 171 Reflection spectra................................................................................. 175
Prism spectrometer...............................................................................202 Reflection, law of.....................................................................42, 50, 167
Prism, Littrow.......................................................................................... 216 Refraction................................................................................................206
Prisms........................................................................................................206 Refraction of light................................................................................. 167
Projection parabola................................................................................. 23 Refraction of microwaves................................................................... 137
Propagation of electrons..................................................................... 142 Refraction of water waves.................................................................... 42
Propagation of water waves................................................................. 42 Refraction, law of.................................................................................... 42
Propagation velocity of voltage pulses...........................................199 Refractive index.........................................42, 171, 185, 189, 200-201
Propagation velocity of waves...................................................... 40-42 Refractometer.........................................................................................209
PTC resistor..............................................................................................153 Refrigerating machine............................................................................ 82
Pulsed Laser............................................................................................. 219 Relay.......................................................................................................... 133

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Remanence..............................................................................................289 SHG............................................................................................................ 218

Resistance................................................................................................105 Shift register...........................................................................................163
Resistors, special....................................................................................153 Simple machines.........................................................................................9
Resonance.................................................................................................. 35 Single slit, diffraction at.......................................43, 51, 137, 177-178
Resonance absorption.......................................................................... 247 Single slit, diffraction at a.................................................................. 176
Resonator, Laser..................................................................................... 216 Slide gauge...................................................................................................3
Reversing pendulum................................................................................ 32 Sliding friction...........................................................................................11
Revolving-field generator.................................................................... 123 Slit, diffraction at.................................................. 43, 51, 137, 176-178
Rigid body.................................................................................................. 24 Snellius‘ law.............................................................................42, 167, 206
Ring laser..................................................................................................220 Sodium D-lines.......................................................................................203
Rocket principle........................................................................................ 18 Solar battery........................................................................................... 152
Rolling friction...........................................................................................11 Solar collector........................................................................................... 69
Rotating the plane of polarization.................................................... 191 Solid state Laser..................................................................................... 214
Rotating-mirror method......................................................................198 Sound.......................................................................................................... 53
Rotational motion..............................................................................24-26 Sound waves........................................................................44-45, 47-49
Rotational oscillation.............................................................................. 35 Sound, velocity of in air......................................................................... 48
Rotor................................................................................................. 122-125 Sound, velocity of in gases................................................................... 48
Rüchardt..................................................................................................... 79 Sound, velocity of in solids................................................................... 49
Rutherford scattering...........................................................................266 Spatial coherence.................................................................................. 179
Rydberg constant...................................................................................254 Special resistors.....................................................................................153
Specific conductivity............................................................................283
S Specific electron charge...................................................144, 233, 248
Saccharimeter......................................................................................... 191 Specific heat.............................................................................................. 71
Safety, Laser............................................................................................ 214 Specific resistance.................................................................................105
Sagnac Interferometer.........................................................................226 Spectra, absorption............................................................................... 174
Saturable Absorber................................................................................ 218 Spectra, reflection................................................................................. 175
Scanning tunnelling microscope.......................................................290 Spectrograph........................................................................................... 211
Scattering of γ quanta.........................................................................270 Spectrometer......................................................174-175, 202, 239, 243
Scintillation counter..............................................................................269 Spectrum..................................................................................................202
Second Harmonic generation............................................................. 218 Speech analysis........................................................................................ 53
Secondary colours................................................................................. 171 Speed of light..........................................................................................221
Seebeck effect........................................................................................286 Spherical abberation.............................................................................206
Self-excited generator.......................................................................... 123 Spherical aberration..............................................................................169
Self-maintained gas discharge...........................................................145 Spherometer.................................................................................................3
Semiconductor detector......................................................................268 Spin..........................................................................................247-249, 267
Semiconductors......................................................................................283 Spring.............................................................................................................6
Series connection of capacitors........................................................ 101 Spring pendulum...................................................................................... 34
Series connection of resistors............................................................106 Standard potentials............................................................................... 110

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Standing wave.......................................................... 39, 43, 47, 136-138 Tomography.............................................................................................259

Standing-wave ratio............................................................................. 138 Torsion balance......................................................................................... 91
Static friction............................................................................................ 10 Torsion collision........................................................................................ 27
Static pressure.......................................................................................... 60 Torsion pendulum, Pohl.......................................................................... 35
Stationary-field generator.................................................................. 123 Total pressure............................................................................................ 60
Stator................................................................................................ 122-125 Total reflection.......................................................................................206
Stefan-Boltzmann‘s law.......................................................................196 Total reflection of microwaves.......................................................... 137
Steiner‘s law.............................................................................................. 30 Traffic-light control system................................................................160
Stirling process...................................................................................81-84 Transformer.............................................................................................. 119
Straight waves.......................................................................................... 42 Transformer under load........................................................................ 119
Subtractive colour mixing................................................................... 171 Transistor.................................................................................................. 156
Subtractor................................................................................................160 Transit time measurement...................................................................199
Sugar solution, concentration of....................................................... 191 Transition temperature.........................................................................287
Superconductivity..................................................................................287 Translational motion............................................................................... 24
Superpositioning principle..................................................................... 23 Transmission hologram.........................................................................188
Surface tension........................................................................................ 59 Transmission of filters..........................................................................204
Synchronous motor............................................................................... 124 Transmitter............................................................................................... 135
Transversal waves.................................................................................... 39
T Transverse modes...................................................................................205
Telescope.................................................................................................. 170 Triode......................................................................................................... 141
TEM modes...............................................................................................205 Tube diode................................................................................................140
Temperature............................................................................................... 70 Tube triode............................................................................................... 141
Temperature variations........................................................................... 68 Tuning fork................................................................................................. 44
Terrestrial telescope.............................................................................. 170 Two-beam interference.......................................................................... 44
Thermal emission in a vacuum...........................................................143 Two-dimensional motion....................................................................... 24
Thermal expansion of liquids................................................................ 66 Two-point regulator..............................................................................160
Thermal expansion of solid bodies...................................................... 65 Two-pole rotor........................................................................................ 124
Thermal expansion of water................................................................. 67 Two-pronged lightning rod................................................................. 120
Thermodynamic cycle.......................................................................81-85 Two-quantum transitions....................................................................249
Thermoelectric voltage.........................................................................286 Two-sided lever............................................................................................8
Thermoelectricity...................................................................................286 Tyndall effect..........................................................................................189
Thomson tube.........................................................................................144
Thread waves............................................................................................. 39 U
Three-phase generator......................................................................... 125 Ultrasonic waves............................................................................... 50-52
Three-phase machine........................................................................... 125 Ultrasound................................................................................................. 54
Three-pole rotor..................................................................................... 124 Ultrasound in liquids............................................................................... 54
Time constant L/R.................................................................................. 127 Uniform acceleration..............................................11-13, 15-17, 24, 26
Time constant RC................................................................................... 126 Uniform motion.................................................11-13, 15-17, 24, 26-27

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Universal motor...................................................................................... 124 Wheatstone measuring bridge...........................................................106

Wheel and axle............................................................................................8
V White light............................................................................................... 171
Vapour pressure........................................................................................ 75 White light reflection hologram........................................................ 187
Velocity....................................................................................11, 13, 15-17 Wien measuring bridge........................................................................ 129
Velocity filter for electrons.................................................................144 Wilberforce, helical spring.................................................................... 38
Venturi tube............................................................................................... 60 Wilson cloud chamber..........................................................................265
Verdet‘s constant...................................................................................194 Wind speed................................................................................................ 60
Vernier............................................................................................................3 Wind tunnel............................................................................................... 62
Vibrometer...............................................................................................224 Work, electrical.........................................................73, 81-84, 131-132
VideoCom.................................. 13, 17, 19, 22, 37, 178, 204, 240, 242 Work, mechanical.............................................. 9-10, 16-17, 72, 81-84
Viscosity..................................................................................................... 57
Voltage amplification with a tube triode........................................ 141 X
Voltage balance........................................................................................ 98 XOR-Gate.................................................................................................162
Voltage control.......................................................................................160 X-ray contrast medium........................................................................250
Voltage divider........................................................................................106 X-ray fine structure...............................................................................256
Voltage pulse........................................................................................... 115 X-ray fluorescence................................................................................255
Voltage series.......................................................................................... 110 X-ray hardening......................................................................................252
Voltage source........................................................................................ 151 X-ray photography................................................................................250
Voltage transformation in a transformer........................................ 119 X-ray scattering.....................................................................................258
Voltage-current characteristic...........................................................154 X-ray spectra...........................................................................................255
Volume flow............................................................................................... 60 X-ray structural analysis......................................................................278
Volume measurement................................................................................4 X-ray tomography..................................................................................259
Volumetric expansion............................................................................. 66 X-rays.................................................................. 250-255, 278-279, 292
Volumetric expansion coefficient....................................................... 66
Vowel analysis........................................................................................... 53 Y
Young‘s experiment............................................... 43, 51, 137, 176-179
W
Wagner interrupter................................................................................ 133 Z
Waltenhofen‘s pendulum..................................................................... 118 Z-diode............................................................................................. 153-155
Water........................................................................................................... 67 Zeeman effect.........................................................................................248
Water waves.............................................................................................. 42 Zone plate................................................................................................208
Wave machine........................................................................................... 40
Waveguide............................................................................................... 138
Wavelength......................................................... 39-42, 46-47, 183-184
Wavelength multiplex...........................................................................221
Wavepaltes...............................................................................................207
Waves.......................... 39-53, 135-139, 176-178, 180-185, 187-188

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 P2.5.2.1
Pressure-dependency of
the volume of a gas at
a constant temperature
(Boyle-Mariotte’s law)
 Technical details subject to change without notice.
1200300EN 07.2015 LD
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