Concise Notes

CONCISE NOTES ON INDIAN GEOGRAPHY.
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Consized Indian Agriculture Notes .pdf
Consize notes on World Geography.pdf
Indian History Timeline.pdf
Ancient Indian History - Notes.pdf
CONCISE NOTES ON INDIAN MEDIEVAL HISTORY.pdf
NIOS Culture Notes.pdf
CONCISE NOTES ON MODERN INDIAN HISTORY.pdf
Major Social reform Movements.pdf
Post Independent India.pdf
Budget Highlights.pdf
Consize Notes on Indian Economy.pdf
CONCISED NOTES ON INDIAN POLITY.pdf
CONCISE NOTES ON INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
INDIA
1. In the north, it is bound by the lofty Himalayas.
2. The Arabian Sea in the west
3. The Bay of Bengal in the east and the Indian Ocean in the south
4. The north-south extent from Kashmir to Kanyakumari is about 3,200 km.
5. And the east-west extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kutch is about 2,900 km.
LOCATIONAL SETTING
1. India is located in the northern hemisphere

2. The Tropic of Cancer (23°30 ' N) passes almost halfway through the country
3. From south to north, India extends between 8°4' N and37°6' N latitudes.
4. From west to east, India extends between 68°7 ' E and97°25 'E longitudes.
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5. The southernmost point of the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under the sea water in
2004 during the Tsunami.
SIZE
1. An area of 3.28 million square km.

2. India’s total area accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world.
3. India is the seventh largest country of the world.
4. India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km
5. The total length of the coast line of the mainland including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep
is 7,516.6 km.
6. India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest, north and north east.
7. From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh there is a time lag of two hours.
8. Hence, time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar
Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country.
9. Rajasthan is the largest state
10. Goa is the smallest state in terms of area.
11. No other country has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean as India has and indeed, it is India’s
eminent position in the Indian Ocean which justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.
12. Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe has been reduced by 7,000
km.
Do you know?
1. The USA and Canada have six time zones extending from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic coast.
2. The local time changes by four minutes for every one degree of longitude.
3. The local time of longitude of 82°30' E has been taken as the Indian Standard Time.
INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS
1. There are seven countries that share land boundaries with India
2. Across the sea to the south, lie our island neighbours— Sri Lanka and Maldives.
3. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
India shares its land boundaries with
1. Pakistan
2. Afghanistan
3. China (Tibet)
4. Nepal
5. Bhutan
6. Myanmar
7. Bangladesh
Two island countries
1. Sri Lanka
2. Maldives
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA
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1. Most volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are located at plate margins, but some do occur within
the plates.
2. The oldest landmass, (the Peninsula part of India), was a part of the Gondwana land.
3. The Gondwanaland included India, Australia, South Africa and South America as one single land
mass.
4. The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces.

5. This leads to the drifting of the Indo-Australian plate after being separated from the Gondwana land,
towards north.
6. The northward drift resulted in the collision of the plate with the much larger Eurasian Plate
7. Due to this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosynclines known as the
Tethys were folded to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya.
What is Gondwanaland?
1. It is the southern part of the ancient super continent Pangea with Angara Land in the northern part.
2. The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys Sea and subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsular
plateau resulted in the formation of a large basin.
3. In due course of time this depression, gradually got filled with deposition of sediments by the rivers
flowing from the mountains in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south.
4. A flat land of extensive alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India.
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5. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the earth’s
surface.
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF INDIA
India can be divided into six physiographic regions.
1) The Northern Mountains (The North and North-eastern Mountains)
2) The Peninsular Plateau
3) Indo Gangetic Plains
4 Indian Deserts
5) The Coastal Plains (East & West)
6) Island
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1) The Northern Mountains (The North and North-eastern Mountains)
1. The Himalayas consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges.

2. The general orientation of these ranges is from northwest to the southeast direction in the north-
western part of India
3. Himalayas in the Darjeeling and Sikkim regions lie in an east west direction
4. While in Arunachal Pradesh they are from southwest to the northwest direction
5. In Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, they are in the north south direction
6. The approximate length of the Great Himalayan range, also known as the central axial range, is 2,500
km from east to west
7. Their width varies between 160-400 km from north to south.
8. Himalayas are not only the physical barrier; they are also a climatic, drainage and cultural divide.
On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphologic features the
Himalayas can be divided into the following sub-divisions
(i) Kashmir or North-western Himalayas
(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
(iii) Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
(iv) Arunachal Himalayas
(v) Eastern Hills and Mountains
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(i) Kashmir or North-western Himalayas
Comprise a series of ranges such as
1. Karakoram
2. Ladakh
3. Zaskar
4. Pir Panjal
Figure (1) - Western Himalaya
1. The north-eastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies between the Greater
Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges
2. Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range, lies the world famous valley of Kashmir and the famous Dal
Lake.
3. The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for Karewa formations, which are useful for the cultivation of
Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
4. This region is drained by the river Indus, and its tributaries such as the Jhelum and the Chenab.
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5. The Kashmir and north-western Himalayas are well-known for their scenic beauty and picturesque
landscape
6. Famous places of pilgrimage such as Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar -e-Sharif, etc. are also
located here and large number of pilgrims visit these places every year
7. Srinagar, capital city of the state of Jammu and Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum River.
8. Srinagar, capital city of the state of Jammu and Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum River.
9. An Interesting Fact
10. In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelum River are caused by the local base level provided by the
erstwhile larger lake of which the present Dal Lake is a small part.
11. The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
12. This part lies approximately between the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the
east
13. It is drained by two major river systems of India, i.e. the Indus and the Ganga.
14. Tributaries of the Indus include the river Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
15. The tributaries of Ganga flowing through this region include the Yamuna and the Ghaghara.
16. The northernmost part of the Himachal Himalayas is an extension of the Ladakh cold
Some Important facts of this region
KAREWAS
KAREWAS ARE THE THICK DEPOSITS OF GLACIAL CLAY AND OTHER MATERIALS EMBEDDED WITH MORAINES.
Important passes of the region are
1. Zoji La on the Great Himalayas

2. Banihal on the Pir Panjal
3. Photu La on the Zaskar
4. Khardung La on the Ladakh range.
Important fresh lakes
1. Dal
2. Wular
Salt water lakes such as
1. Pangong Tso
2. Tso Moriri
‘Valley of flowers’
1. The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region.

2. The places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib
are also situated in this part.
3. The region is also known to have five famous Prayags (river confluences)
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(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
Great Himalaya or Himadri
1. Northern most range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’.
2. ‘Himadri’. It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of
6,000 metres.
3. The folds of Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature.
4. The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.
It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range. The Himalayan Mountains are
divided into three main parallel ranges.
Bhotia’s
1. In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia’s.
2. These are nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer glasslands in the higher reaches)
during summer months and return to the valleys during winters.
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Himachal or lesser Himalaya
1. The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is
known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya.
2. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km.
3. The Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range
4. The Dhaula Dharand the Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones.
5. This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal
Pradesh.
6. This region is well known for its hill stations
Shiwaliks
1. The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks.

2. They extend over a width of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres.
3. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main
Himalayan ranges located farther north.
4. Covered with thick gravel called Alluvium.
5. The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns.
6. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.
7. The word shiwalik has its origin in the geological formation found in and around a place called Sivawala
near Dehra Dun
8. Which was once a headquarter of the Imperial Survey and which subsequently established its
permanent headquarters at Dehra Dun.
9. Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns with an approximate length of 35-45 km and a width of 22-25
km.
Some of the important hill stations
1. Dharamshala
2. Mussoorie
3. Shimla
4. Kaosani
The cantonment towns and health resorts
1. Shimla
2. Mussoorie
3. Kasauli
4. Almora
5. Lansdowne
6. Ranikhet
The two distinguishing features of this region
1. The ‘Shiwalik
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2. ‘Dun formations’
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Some important duns
1. Chandigarh-Kalka dun
2. Nalagarh dun
3. Dehra Dun
4. Harike dun
5. The Kota dun
(iii) The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
1. They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east.
2. It is relatively small but is a most significant part
3. Known for its fast-flowing Rivers such as Tista
4. It is a region of high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga (Kanchengiri), and deep valleys.
5. The higher reaches of this region are inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the southern part, particularly
the Darjiling Himalayas, has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
6. The British, taking advantage of the physical conditions such as
• Moderate slope
• Thick soil cover
• High organic content
• Well distributed rainfall throughout the year
• And mild winters,
7. Introduced tea plantations
8. In place of the Shiwaliks here, the ‘duar formations’ are important
9. Which have also been used for the development of tea gardens
(iv) The Arunachal Himalayas
1. These extend from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the east.
2. The general direction of the mountain range is from southwest to northeast.
3. Some of the important mountain peaks of the region are Kangtu and Namcha Barwa.
4. These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the north to the south, forming deep gorges.
5. Bhramaputra flows through a deep gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa.
6. Some of the important rivers are
• The Kameng
• Subansiri
• The Dihang
• The Dibang
• The Lohit.
7. An important aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal community inhabiting
in these areas.
8. Some of the prominent ones from west to east are
• The Monpa
• Daffla
• Abor
• Mishmi
• Nishi
• The Nagas
9. Most of these communities practise Jhumming.
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(v) The Eastern Hills and Mountains
1. These are part of the Himalayan mountain system having their general alignment from the north to
the south direction
2. They are known by different local names
3. In the north, they are known as Pataki Bum, Naga Hills,
4. In the south as Mizo or Lushai hills.
5. Most of these ranges are separated from each other by numerous small rivers.
6. The Barak is an important river in Manipur and Mizoram.
7. The physiography of Manipur is unique by the presence of a large lake known as ‘Loktak’ lake at the
centre, surrounded by mountains from all sides.
8. Mizoram which is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated
deposits.
9. Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of the Brahmaputra.
10. While two rivers of Mizoram and Manipur are the tributaries of the Barak River, which in turn is the
tributary of Meghna;
Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas
Peak Country Height in metres
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848
Kanchenjunga India 8598
Makalu Nepal 848
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Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172
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Nanga Parbat India 8126
Annapurna Nepal 8078
Nanda Devi India 7817
Kamet India 7756
Namcha Barwa India 775
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728
THE HIMALAYAS AND OTHER PENINSULAR MOUNTAINS

1. The Himalayas along with other peninsular mountains are young, weak and flexible in their geological
structure
2. They are still subjected to the interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces,
3. Resulting in the development of faults, folds and thrust plains.
4. These mountains are tectonic in origin, dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are in their youthful
stage.
5. Various landforms like (are indicative of these stages)
a) Gorges
b) V-shaped valleys
c) Rapids
d) Waterfalls
2) The Peninsular Plateau
1. Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900 m is the irregular
triangle known as the peninsular plateau.
2. Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the
west and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer extent
3. An extension of this is also seen in the northeast, in the form of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau
4. This is one of the oldest and the most stable landmass of India.
5. The general elevation of the plateau is from the west to the east
6. This is also proved by the pattern of the flow of rivers.
7. Some of the important physiographic features of this region are tors, block mountains rift valleys,
spurs, bare rocky structures, series of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes
On the basis of the prominent relief features, the peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups:
(i) The Deccan Plateau
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(ii) The Central Highlands
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(iii) The Northeastern Plateau
The Deccan Plateau
1. This is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west.

2. Eastern Ghats in the east and the Satpura.
3. Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north.
4. Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala.
5. Western Ghats are comparatively higher in elevation and more continuous than the Eastern Ghats.
6. Their average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height increasing from north to south.
7. ‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located on the Anaimalai hills of the
Western Ghats.
8. Most of the Peninsular rivers have their origin in the Western Ghats.
9. Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous and low hills are highly eroded by the rivers such as the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri.
10. Some of the important ranges include the Javadi hills, the Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, the
Mahendragiri hills
11. The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.
The Central Highlands
1. They are bounded to the west by the Aravali range.

2. The Satpura range is formed by a series of scarped plateaus on the south.
3. Generally at an elevation varying between 600-900 m above the mean sea level.
4. It is a classic example of the relict mountains which are highly denuded and form discontinuous
ranges.
5. The extension of the peninsular plateau can be seen as far as Jaisalmer in the West.
6. The general elevation of the Central Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above the mean sea
level.
7. It slopes towards the north and north-eastern directions.
8. Most of the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
9. Banas is the only significant tributary of the river Chambal that originates from the Aravalli in the
west.
The North-eastern Plateau
1. It is an extension of the main peninsular plateau.

2. Due to the force exerted by the north-eastward movement of the Indian plate at the time of the
Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau.
3. Later, this depression got filled up by the deposition activity of the numerous rivers.
4. Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from the main Peninsular Block.
5. The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three: Named after the tribal groups inhabiting
this region.
(i) The Garo Hills

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(ii) The Khasi Hills
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(iii) The Jaintia Hills

6. An extension of this is also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.
7. The Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and
uranium.
8. This area receives maximum rainfall from the south west monsoon.
9. The Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface.
10. Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent vegetation cover.
Some quick facts
1. The northern boundary of the Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular line running from Kachchh
along the western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and
the Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta.
2. The north-eastern parts are separated by the Malda fault in West Bengal from the Chotanagpur
plateau.
3. The Peninsula is formed essentially by a great complex of very ancient gneisses and granites,
4. Since the Cambrian period, the Peninsula has been standing like a rigid block
5. As a part of the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjected to various vertical movements and block
faulting.
6. The rift valleys of the Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura block mountains are
some examples of it.
7. The river valleys here are shallow with low gradients
8. Aravali hills, one of the oldest ranges of the world
9. The Vindhyas and the Satpuras are the important ranges.
10. The rivers Narmada and Tapi flow through these ranges.
11. These are west-flowing rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea.
12. Western Ghats are almost continuous,
13. The Eastern Ghats are broken and uneven
14. The plateau is rich in minerals like coal and iron-ore.
15. The western coastal plains are very narrow
16. The eastern Coastal plains are much broader
17. There are a number of east flowing rivers. The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri drain
into the Bay of Bengal.
18. These rivers have formed fertile deltas at their mouth.
The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual mountains like
1. The Aravali hills

2. The Nallamala hills
3. The Javadi hills
4. The Veliconda hills
5. Palkonda range
6. The Mahendragiri hills
3) INDO GANGETIC PLAINS

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1. The third geological division of India comprises the plains formed by the river Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra.
2. It was a geo-synclinal depression which attained its maximum development
3. During the third phase of the Himalayan mountain formation approximately about 64 million years
ago.
4. Since then, it has been gradually filled by the sediments brought by the Himalayan and Peninsular
rivers.
5. Average depth of alluvial deposits in these plains ranges from 1,000-2,000 m.
The Northern Plain
1. Formed by the interplay of the three major river systems, namely– the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra
2. Formed of alluvial soil
3. It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km.
4. The plain being about 2400 Km long and 240 to 320 Km broad, is a densely populated physiographic
division
5. The velocity of the river decreases which results in the formation of riverine islands
6. Majuli, in the Brahmaputra River is the largest inhabited riverine island in the world.
7. The rivers in their lower course split into numerous channels due to the deposition of silt
8. These channels are known as distributaries
9. The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections.
10. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains. Formed by the Indus and
its tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan.
11. The Indus and its tributaries–the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj originate in
the Himalaya. This section of the plain is dominated by the doabs.
12. ‘Doab’ is made up of two words- ‘do’ meaning two and ‘ab’ meaning water
13. ‘Punjab’ is also made up two words- ‘Punj’ meaning five and ‘ab’ meaning water.
14. The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers.
15. It is spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West
Bengal to its East, particularly in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain.
From the north to the south these plains can be divided into three major zones -
Bhabar
1. The rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km
in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks.
2. As a result of this,the streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit heavy materials of rocks
and boulders.
3. All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt.
Terai
1. South of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region
2. This was a thickly forested region full of wildlife
3. The forests have been cleared to create agricultural land and to settle migrants from Pakistan after
partition.
Alluvial Plains
1. The alluvial plains can be further divided into Khadar, Kankar and the Bhangar
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Bhangar
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1. The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. They lie above the flood plains of
the rivers and present a terrace like feature.
Kankar
1. The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits
Khadar
1. The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains

2. They are renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.
4) The Indian Desert
1. The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.
2. It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
3. Receives very low rainfall below 150 mm per year.
4. Arid climate with low vegetating cover.
5. This is also known as Marusthali.
6. Due to extreme arid conditions, its surface features have been carved by physical weathering and
wind actions .
7. Some of the well pronounced desert land features present here are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes
and oasis (mostly in its southern part).
8. Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral.
9. There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical case of
inland drainage by joining a lake or playa.
10. The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.
11. Luni is the only large river in this region
12. On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two parts
13. The northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh.
Barchans (crescent shaped dunes)
Cover larger areas but longitudinal dunes become more prominent near the Indo-Pakistan boundary.
5) The Coastal Plains (east & west)
• Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along the Arabian Season
the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
• Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea.
• These are coral islands located off the coast of Kerala.
• The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the southeast of the Indian mainland in the Bay of
Bengal.
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The western coast
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1. Sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, is a narrow plain. It consists of three
sections.
2. The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa),
3. The central stretch is called the Kannad Plain
4. The southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar Coast.
The plain along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level
Northern Circar
• In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar
Coromandal Coast
• The southern part is known as the Coromandal Coast.

• Large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have farmed extensive
delta on this coast.
• Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast
• The Chilika Lake is the largest salt water lake in India. It lies in the state of Orissa, to the south of the
Mahanadi delta.
6) The Islands
1. The country has also two groups of islands.

2. Lakshadweep Islands group lying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala
3. This group of islands is composed of small coral islands.
4. It covers small area of 32 sq. km.
5. Kavaratti Island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
6. This island group has great diversity of flora and fauna.
7. The Pitli Island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary
Corals
1. Coral polyps are short-lived microscopic organisms, which live in colonies

2. They flourish in shallow, mud free and warm waters.
3. They secrete hard rock like substance
4. The coral secretion and their skeletons from coral deposits in the form of reefs:
5. They are mainly of three kinds
• Barrier reef
• Fringing reef
• Atolls
6. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is a good example of the first kind of coral reefs. Atolls are circular
or horse shoe shaped coral reefs
Andaman and Nicobar islands
1. Elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal extending from north to south
2. They are bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered.
3. Divided into two broad categories
• The Andaman in the north
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• The Nicobar in the south
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4. It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains.

5. These islands lie close to equator and experience equatorial climate and have thick forest cover.
6. India’s only active volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands.
7. Each region complements the other and makes the country richer in its natural resources.
Conclusion -
The northern mountains are the major sources of water and forest wealth.
The northern plains are the granaries of the country.
The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the industrialisation of the country.
The coastal region and island groups provide sites for fishing and port activities.
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CLIMATE
• Refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of
time (more than thirty years).
Weather
• Refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time.
• The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind,
humidity and precipitation.
• The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which literally means season.
• Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.
• The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type
• This type of climate is found mainly in the south and the Southeast Asia
• In the Thar Desert the day temperature may rise to 50°C, and drop down to near 15°C the same night.
• There is hardly any difference in day and night temperatures in the Andaman and Nicobar islands or
in Kerala.
CLIMATIC CONTROLS
1. There are six major controls of the climate of any place

• Latitude
• Altitude
• Pressure
• Wind system
• Distance from the sea
• Ocean currents and relief features.
Latitude
• Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude
Altitudes
• As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense
and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during summers.
Pressure and wind
• The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it
influences the temperature and rainfall pattern.
Distance from the sea
• The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate: As the distance from the sea increases, its
moderating influence decreases and the people experience extreme weather conditions. This
condition is known as continentally (i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters).
Ocean currents
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• Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas, For example, any
coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing past it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are
onshore.
Relief
• Plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High mountains act as barriers for cold or hot
winds; they may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing
winds. The leeward side of mountains remains dry.
FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE
Latitude
1. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the west
to Mizoram in the east
2. Almost half of the country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area
3. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
4. Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates.
Altitude
1. India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6,000 metres.
2. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 metres.
3. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent.
4. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences comparatively milder winters as
compared to central Asia.
Pressure and Winds
1. The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following atmospheric
conditions:
• Pressure and surface winds;
• Upper air circulation;
• Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.
2. India lies in the region of north easterly winds.
3. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere.
4. They blow south, get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force, and move on towards the
equatorial low-pressure area.
5. Generally, these winds carry very little moisture as they originate and blow over land.
6. Therefore, they bring little or no rain. Hence, India should have been an arid land, but, it is not so
Coriolis force
An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting winds towards
the right in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This is also known as
‘Ferrel’s Law’.
7. During winter, there is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas.

8. Cold dry winds blow from this region to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the south.
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9. In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior Asia as well as over north-western India.
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10. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer.
11. Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction,
crosses the equator,
12. Turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent.
13. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds.
14. These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall over the
mainland of India.
Jet stream
1. The upper air circulation in this region is dominated by a westerly flow. An important component of
this flow is the jet stream
2. These jet streams are located approximately over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are known as
subtropical westerly jet streams
3. Over India, these jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, all through the year except in summer.
4. The western cyclonic disturbances experienced in the north and north-western parts of the country
are brought in by this westerly flow.
5. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent
movement of the sun.
Tropical easterly
An easterly jet stream, called the tropical easterly Jetstream blows over peninsular India, approximately over
14°N during the summer months.
Jet stream
These are a narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the troposphere. Their speed
varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter. A number of separate jet streams have
been identified. The most constant are the mid-latitude and the sub-tropical jet stream.
Western Cyclonic Disturbances
1. The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by the
westerly flow from the Mediterranean region.
2. They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of India
3. Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon as well as in October -November, and are part of the
easterly flow.
4. These disturbances affect the coastal regions of the country.
THE INDIAN MONSOON
1. The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S.
2. To understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are important.
• The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India
while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
• (b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga
plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator – also known as the
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monsoon trough during the monsoon season).
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• (c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the Indian
Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon.
• (d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air
currents and the formation of high pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
• (e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the
tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
1. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial latitudes.
2. This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge.
3. This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but moves north or south with the
apparent movement of the sun.
4. Changes in the pressure conditions over the southern oceans also affect the monsoons.
Southern Oscillation or SO
1. Normally when the tropical eastern South Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical
eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure.
2. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower
pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean.
3. If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean below average and late monsoons.
El Nino
1. A feature connected with the SO is the El Nino, a warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian
Coast
2. In place of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years.
ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations)
• The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is referred
to as ENSO
El Nino
1. This is a name given to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along the coast of Peru
2. It occurs when easterly trade winds in the tropical pacific relax- even reverse- to allow a vast pool of
warm water piled up in of central and South America, leading to higher- than- normal sea- surface
temperatures across the equatorial Pacific.
3. As a temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current
4. El Nino’ is a Spanish word meaning ‘the child’,
5. Refers to the baby Christ, as this current starts flowing during Christmas
6. As the ocean releases its heat and moisture to the atmosphere, intense thunderstroms once cooped
up over the western pacific spread along the equator as well.
7. The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase in sea-surface temperatures and weakening of the
trade winds in the region
8. The cumulative effect of this activity changes large scale circulation patterns at higher latitudes,
altering storm tracks that change the typical distribution of rain and snowfall, as well seasonal
temperatures.
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THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL
1. The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by
different atmospheric conditions encountered by it
2. The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-September.
‘Burst ‘of the monsoon,
• Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues constantly for
several days. This is known as the ‘burst ‘of the monsoon
3. The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of June.
4. Subsequently, it divides into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
5. The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later on approximately the 10 Th of June.
6. The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the first week of June.
7. The lofty mountains causes the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west
8. Over the Ganga plains
9. By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central
part of the country.
10. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over the north-western part
of the Ganga plains.
11. Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of June
(tentative date is 29 Th of June).
12. By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience
the monsoon.
13. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country
14. The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in north-western states of India by early September.
15. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula.
16. The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid
17. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country.
18. The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, progressively from south to north,
19. From the first week of April to the first week of May.
20. The withdrawal, takes place progressively from north to south from the first week of December to the
first week of January.
THE SEASONS
1. The monsoon type of climate is characterised by a distinct seasonal pattern.

2. The weather conditions greatly change from one season to the other.
3. Any seasons are experienced in your place? Four main seasons can be identified in India –
• The cold weather season,
• The hot weather season
• The advancing monsoon
• The retreating monsoon
The Cold Weather Season (winter)
1. The cold weather season begins from mid-November in northern India and stays till February.
2. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India.
3. The northeast trade winds prevail over the country.
4. They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season.
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5. Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they blow from
sea to land.
6. In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light winds moving
outwards from this area.
7. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga valley from the west and the northwest.
8. The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble, variable
winds.
9. A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow of cyclonic
disturbances from the west and the northwest.
10. These low-pressure systems, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into
India, Along with the westerly flow.
‘Mahawat
They cause the much-needed winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the mountains. Although the total
amount of winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat ’is small, they are of immense importance for the
cultivation of ‘rabi ’crops
The Hot Weather Season (summer)
1. Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northward.
2. In March, the highest temperature is about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan plateau.
3. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius.
4. In May, temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the north-western parts of the country
5. In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the oceans.
‘Loo’
These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and north-western India.
1. Sometimes they even continue until late in the evening

2. Direct exposure to these winds may even prove to be fatal
‘Kaal Baisakhi’
In West Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’ calamity for the month of Baisakh
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)
1. By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies.
2. It attracts, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere.
3. These south-east trade winds originate over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They
cross the equator
4. Blow in a south-westerly direction entering the Indian peninsula as the south-west monsoon.
5. As these winds blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent.
6. These winds are strong and blow at an average velocity of 30 km per hour.
7. Early in the season, the windward side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, more than
250 cm
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8. The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in spite of lying in
the rain shadow area.
9. The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country.
10. Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the
world.
11. Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to the west.
12. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall.
13. Phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall.
14. It has wet and dry spells.
15. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time.
16. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough.
17. The trough and its axis keep on moving northward or southward
18. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts
19. Whenever the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells in the plains,
20. Widespread rain occur in the mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan Rivers.
21. These heavy rain bring in their wake, devastating floods causing damage to life and property in the
plains.
22. The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions too, determine the amount and duration of
monsoon rains.
23. These depressions form at the head of the Bay of Bengal and cross over to the mainland.
24. The depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon trough of low pressure”.
25. The monsoon is known for its uncertainties.
26. The alternation of dry and wet spells vary in intensity, frequency and duration.
Retreating Monsoon (The Transition Season)
1. During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south,
2. The monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker.
3. Gradually replaced by a high-pressure system.
4. The south-west monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually
5. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains.
6. The months of October-November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter
conditions.
7. Mawsynram, the wettest place on the earth is also reputed for its stalagmite and stalactite caves.
Cyclonic depressions
1. The low-pressure conditions, over north-western India

2. Get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November.
3. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions,
4. Which originate over the Andaman Sea.
5. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widespread rain.
6. These tropical cyclones are often very destructive.
7. Deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which cause
great damage to life and property.
DISTRIBUTION OFRAINFALL
1. The western coast and north-eastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
2. It is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab.
3. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east of the Sahyadris
4. A third area of low precipitation is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir
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5. The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall.
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6. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
DRAINAGE
1. The term drainage describes the river system of an area.
2. The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin.
Water divide
Any elevated area, such as a mountain or upland, separates two drainage basins. Such an upland is known as a
water divide
The world’s largest drainage basin is of the Nile River in Egypt
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN INDIA
1. The drainage systems of India are mainly controlled by the broad relief features of the subcontinent.
2. The Indian rivers are divided into two major groups:
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The Himalayan Rivers
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1. Most of the Himalayan Rivers are perennial.

2. The two major Himalayan Rivers, the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate from the north of the
mountain ranges.
3. They have cut through the mountains making gorges.
4. The Himalayan Rivers have long courses from their source to the sea.
5. They perform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses and carry huge loads of silt and sand.
6. In the middle and the lower courses, these rivers form meanders, oxbow lakes, and many other
depositional features
The Peninsular Rivers
1. A large number of the Peninsular Rivers are seasonal
The Himalayan Rivers
The major Himalayan Rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
River system -
A river along with its tributaries may be called a river system.
The Indus River System
1. The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar.

2. Flowing west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir.
3. It forms a picturesque gorge in this part.
4. Several tributaries, the Zaskar, the Nubra, the Shyok and the Hunza, join it in the Kashmir region.
5. The Indus flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at Attock.
6. The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near
Mithankot in Pakistan.
7. Beyond this, the Indus flows southwards eventually reaching the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
8. The Indus plain has a very gentle slope.
9. With a total length of 2900 km
10. A little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan.
• According to the regulations of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per cent of the total
water carried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in the Punjab, Haryana and the
southern and western parts of Rajasthan
The Ganga River System
1. The headwaters of the Ganga, called the ‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and joined by the
Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttaranchal.
2. At Haridwar the Ganga emerges from the mountains on to the plains.
3. The Ganga is joined by many tributaries from the Himalayas, a few of them being major rivers such as
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the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi.
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4. The river Yamuna rises from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas.
5. It flows parallel to the Ganga and as a right bank tributary, meets the Ganga at Allahabad
6. The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya.
7. They are the rivers, which flood parts of the northern plains every year, causing widespread damage
to life and property but enriching the soil for the extensive agricultural lands.
8. The main tributaries, which come from the peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the Betwa and the
Son.
9. These rise from semi-arid areas, have shorter courses and do not carry much water in them.
10. The Ganga flows eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal.
11. This is the northernmost point of the Ganga delta
12. The river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows southwards through the
deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal.
13. The mainstream, flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
14. Further downstream, it is known as the Meghna.
15. The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km.
16. Ambala is located on the water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
17. The plains from Ambala to the Sunderban stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its slope is
hardly 300 metres.
18. In other words, there is a fall of just one metre for every 6 km. Therefore, the river develops large
meanders.
Meghna
This mighty river, with waters from the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, flows into the Bay of Bengal. The delta
formed by these rivers is known as the Sunderban delta. The Sundarban Delta derived its name from the
Sundari tree which grows well in marshland, it is the world’s largest and fastest growing delta. It is also the
home of Royal Bengal tiger.
The Brahmaputra River System
1. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarowar Lake very close to the sources of the Indus and
the Satluj.
2. It is slightly longer than the Indus, and most of its course lies outside India.
3. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. On reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m), it takes a ‘U’
turn
4. Enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge.
5. Here, it is called the Dihang and it is joined by the Dibang, the Lohit, the Kenula and
6. Many other tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam
7. Brahmaputra is known as the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
8. In Tibet the river carries a smaller volume of water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area
9. In India it passes through a region of high rainfall.
10. Here the river carries a large volume of water and considerable amount of silt.
11. The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands
12. Unlike other north Indian rivers the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed causing
the river bed to rise. The river also shifts its channel frequently
The Peninsular Rivers

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1. The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from north to
south close to the western coast.
2. Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
3. There are numerous small streams flowing west of the Western Ghats
4. The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers, which flow west and make estuaries.
The Narmada Basin
1. The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh.

2. It flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting.
3. The ‘Marble rocks’, near Jabalpur where the Narmada flows through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar
falls’ where the river plunges over steep rocks, are some of the notable ones.
4. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
The Tapi
1. The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
2. It also flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is much shorter in length.
3. Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
4. The coastal plains between Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea are very narrow.
5. Hence, the coastal rivers are short. The main west flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharathpuzha
and Periyar. Find out the states in which these rivers drain the water.
The Godavari Basin
1. The Godavari is the largest Peninsular River.

2. It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra.
3. Its length is about 1500 km.
4. It drains into the Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin is also the largest among the peninsular rivers.
5. The basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin area lies in Maharashtra),
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
6. The Godavari is joined by a number of tributaries such as the Purna, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the
Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga.
‘Dakshin Ganga’
Because of its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’
The Mahanadi Basin
1. The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh.

2. It flows through Orissa to reach the Bay of Bengal.
3. The length of the river is about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, and Orissa.
The Krishna Basin
1. Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, the Krishna flows for about 1400 km and reaches the Bay
of Bengal.
2. The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the Bhima are some of its tributaries.
3. Basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
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The Kaveri Basin
1. The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of Bengal in
south of Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu.
2. Total length of the river is about 760 km.
3. Its main tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati and Kabini.
4. Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
5. The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India. It is known as Sivasamudram. The fall
supplies hydroelectric power to Mysore, Bangalore and the Kolar Gold Field.
6. 71 per cent of the world’s surface is covered with water, but 97 per cent of that is salt water. • Of the
3 per cent that is available as freshwater, three quarters of it is trapped as ice.
LAKES
1. Lakes of large extent are called the seas, like the Caspian, the Dead and the Aral seas.
2. A meandering river across a flood plain forms cut-offsthat later develop into ox-bow lakes.
3. Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas, eg the Chilika Lake, the Pulicat Lake, and the Kolleru
Lake.
4. Most of the fresh water lakes are in the Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin.
5. In other words, they formed when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled with snowmelt.
6. The Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of the tectonic activity. It is the
largest freshwater lake in India.
7. The Dal Lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak and Barapani are some other important fresh water lakes
8. The damming of the rivers for the generation of hydel power has also led to the formation of Lakes
such as Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).
9. Lakes are of great value to human beings. A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river.
10. During heavy rainfall, it prevents flooding and during the dry season, it helps to maintain an even flow
of water.
11. Lakes can also be used for developing hydel power
12. They moderate the climate of the surroundings;
13. Maintain the aquatic ecosystem
14. Enhance natural beauty, help develop tourism and provide recreation
ROLE OF RIVERS IN THE ECONOMY
1. Rivers have been of fundamental importance throughout the human history.

2. The river banks have attracted settlers from ancient times
3. Using rivers for irrigation, navigation, hydro-power generation is of special significance
RIVER POLLUTION
1. The growing domestic, municipal, industrial and agricultural demand for water from rivers naturally
affects the quality of water.
2. As a result, more and more water is being drained out of the rivers reducing their volume.
3. A heavy load of untreated Sewage and industrial effluents are emptied into the rivers.
4. This affects not only the quality of water but also the self-cleansing capacity of the river.
5. Given the adequate stream flow, the Ganga water is able to dilute and assimilate pollution loads
within 20 km of large cities.
6. But the increasing urbanisation and industrialisation do not allow it to happen and the pollution level
of many rivers has been rising.
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WATER RESOURCES
71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per cent
of the total water.
Water Resources of India
1. India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area
2. 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population.
3. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km.
4. The availability from surface water and replenish able groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
5. Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses
6. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
Surface Water Resources
1. There are four major sources of surface water

2. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks
3. There are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.
4. The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
5. Only about 690 cubic km (32 per cent) of the available surface water can be utilised.
6. Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak rivers,
7. Although account for only about one-third of the total area in the country
8. Have 60 per cent of the total surface water resources.
Groundwater Resources
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1. The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km.
2. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent of the total replenishable
groundwater resources.
3. The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-western region
and parts of south India.
4. The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil
Nadu.
5. However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small proportion
of their groundwater potentials.
6. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are utilising their ground water
resources at a moderate rate.
Lagoons and Backwaters
1. India has a vast coastline and the coast is very indented in some states
2. The States like Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal have vast surface water resources in these lagoons and
lakes.
3. Although, water is generally brackish in these water-bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating certain
varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
Water Demand and Utilisation
1. India has traditionally been an agrarian economy, and about two-third of its population have been
dependent on agriculture.
2. Hence, development of irrigation to increase agricultural production has been assigned a very high
priority in the Five Year Plans
3. And multipurpose river valleys projects like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna
Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been taken up.
4. Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilisation, it accounts for 89 per cent
of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation.
5. While the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per
cent of the ground-water.
6. The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared to
groundwater.
Demand of Water for Irrigation
1. The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone.
2. North-western India and Deccan plateau constitute such areas.
3. Winter and summer seasons are more or less dry in most part of the country.
4. Water need of certain crops also makes irrigation necessary. For instance, water requirement of rice,
sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can be met only through irrigation.
5. Provision of irrigation makes multiple cropping possible.
6. It has also been found that irrigated lands have higher agricultural productivity than unirrigated land.
7. The high yielding varieties of crops need regular moisture supply,
8. This is why that green revolution strategy of agriculture development in the country has largely been
successful in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
9. In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net sown area is under
irrigation.
10. Wheat and rice are grown mainly with the help of irrigation in these states.
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11. Of the total net irrigated area 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryana are irrigated
through wells and tube wells.
12. In fact, over withdrawals in some states like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increased fluoride
concentration in ground-water
13. This practice has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.
Emerging Water Problems
1. The per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population.
2. The available water resources are also getting polluted with industrial, agricultural and domestic
effluents,
3. Water quality refers to purity of water, or water without unwanted foreign substances.
4. Water gets polluted by foreign matters such as microorganisms, chemicals, industrial and other
wastes
5. The Ganga and the Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers in the country.
Water Conservation and Management
1. Besides developing water saving technologies and methods, attempts are also to be made to prevent
the pollution.
2. There is need to encourage watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse,
and conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.
3. Prevention of Water Pollution
4. Available water resources are degrading rapidly.
5. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has
been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations.
6. Data obtained from these stations show that organic and bacterial contamination continues to be the
main source of pollution in rivers.
7. The Yamuna River is the most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah.
8. Other severely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the
Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga
at Kanpur and Varanasi.
9. Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride and
nitrates at different parts of the country.
10. The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974,
11. Environment Protection Act 1986
12. Have not been implemented effectively.
13. The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has also made marginal impacts.
Recycle and Reuse of Water
1. Another way through which we can improve fresh water availability is by recycle and reuse.
2. Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed waste-water would be an attractive option for
industries for cooling and firefighting to reduce their water cost.
3. Similarly, in urban areas water after bathing and washing utensils can be used for gardening.
4. Watershed Management
5. Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and
groundwater resources.
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6. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods
like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc.
7. However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious
use of all resources – natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.
8. Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand
and society on the other.
9. Haryali is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central Government which aims at
enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.
10. The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation.
11. Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh)
12. Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various water-harvesting
structures such as percolation tanks, dug out ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through people’s
participation.
13. Tamil Nadu has made water harvesting structures in the houses compulsory. No building can be
constructed without making structures for water harvesting.
14. Watershed development projects in some areas have been successful in rejuvenating environment
and economy.
Rainwater Harvesting
1. Rain water harvesting is a method to capture and store rainwater for various uses
2. It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers.
3. It is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rain water
to bore well, pits and wells
4. In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures locally known as Kund or Tanka Irrigation
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Population
1. Population is the pivotal element in social studies. It is the point of reference from which all other
elements are observed and from which they derive significance and meaning
Census
1. A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically. In India the first census was held
in the year 1872.
2. The first complete census, however was taken in the year 1881. Since then censuses have been held
regularly every tenth year
Three major questions about the population
1. Population size and distribution

2. Population growth and processes of population change
3. Characteristics or qualities of the population
POPULATIONSIZE AND DISTRIBUTION
1. India’s Population Size and Distribution by Numbers

2. India’s population as on March 2001 stood at 1,028 million, which account for 16.7 per cent of the
world’s population.
3. These 1.02 billion people are unevenly distributed over our country’s vast area of 3.28 million square
km
4. Which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s area
5. The 2001 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of 166 million people is the
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most populous state of India
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6. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 16 per cent

7. On the other hand, the Himalayan state Sikkim has a population of just about 0.5 million
8. Lakshadweep has only 60 thousand people.
9. Almost half of India’s population lives in just five states.
10. These are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh. Rajasthan,
11. The biggest state in terms of area, has only 5.5 per cent of the total population of India
India’s Population Distribution by Density
1. Population density provides a better picture of the uneven distribution

2. Calculated as the number of persons per unit area.
3. India is one of the most densely populated countries of the world
4. Only Bangladesh and Japan have higher average population densities than India. Find out the
population densities of Bangladesh and Japan.
5. The population density of India in the year 2001 was 324 persons per sq. km
6. Only 13 persons per sq. km in Arunachal Pradesh
7. The Northern Plains and Kerala in the south have high to very high population densities because of
the flat plains with fertile soils and abundant rainfall.
POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES OF POPULATION CHANGE
1. Population is a dynamic phenomenon.

2. The numbers, distribution and composition of the population are constantly changing.
3. This is the influence of the interaction of the three processes, namely-births, deaths and migrations
Population Growth
1. Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a country/territory during
a specific period of time
2. Such a change can be expressed in two way
• In terms of absolute numbers
• In terms of percentage change per year
3. The absolute numbers added each year or decade is the magnitude of increase
4. It is obtained by simply subtracting the earlier population (e.g. that of 1991) from the later population
(e.g. that of 2001). It is referred to as the absolute increase
5. The rate or the pace of population increase is the other important aspect.
6. It is studied in per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of 2 per cent per annum means that in a
given year
7. There was an increase of two persons for every 100 persons in the base population.
8. This is referred to as the annual growth rate
9. Since 1981, however, the rate of growth started declining gradually
10. During this period, birth rates declined rapidly.
11. It is essential to realise that India has a very large population.
12. When a low annual rate is applied to a very large population
13. It yields a large absolute increase
14. When more than a billion people increase even at a lower rate, the total numbers being added
becomes very large
Processes of Population Change/Growth
1. There are three main processes of change of population

2. Birth rates, death rates and migration.
3. Birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year
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4. It is a major component of growth because in India, birth rates have always been higher than death
rates
5. The main cause of the rate of growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death
rates
6. Till 1980, high birth rates and declining death rates led to a large difference between birth rates and
death rates resulting in higher rates of population growth
7. Since 1981, birth rates have also started declining gradually,
8. Resulting in a gradual decline in the rate of population growth.
9. The third component of population growth is migration
10. Migration can be internal (within the country) or international (between the countries)
11. Internal migration does not change the size of the population, but influences the distribution of
population within the nation
12. In India, the rural-urban migration has resulted in a steady increase in the percentage of population in
cities and towns
13. The urban population has increased from 17.29 per cent of the total population in 1951 to 27.78 per
cent in 2001.
Age Composition
1. The age composition of a population refers to the number of people in different age groups in a
country.
2. It is one of the most basic characteristics of a population
3. To an important degree, a person’s age influences what he needs, buys, does and his capacity to
perform?
4. The number and percentage of a population found within the children, working age and aged groups
are notable determinants of the population’s social and economic structure.
Children (generally below 15 years)
• They are economically unproductive and need to be provided with food, clothing, education and
medical care
Working Age (15-59 years)
• They are economically productive and biologically reproductive. They comprise the working
population
Aged (Above 59 years)
• They can be economically productive though they and may have retired.
• They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment through recruitment
• The percentage of children and the aged affect the dependency ratio because these groups are not
producers.
Sex Ratio
• Sex ratios defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population
• This information is an important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and
females in a society at a given time
• The sex ratio in the country has always remained unfavourable to females.
• Kerala has a sex ratio of 1058 females per 1000 males, Pondicherry has 1001 females for every
1000males, while Delhi has only 821 females per 1000 and Haryana has just 861
Literacy Rates
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1. Literacy is a very important quality of a population. Obviously, only an informed and educated citizen
can make intelligent choices
2. Undertake research and development projects
3. Low levels of literacy are a serious obstacle for economic improvement.
4. According to the Census of 2001, a person aged 7 years. And above who can read and write with
understanding in any language, is treated as literate.
Occupational Structure
1. The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of development.

2. The distribution of the population according to different types of occupation is referred to as the
occupational structure.
3. Developed nations have a high proportion of people in secondary, and tertiary activities
4. Developing countries tend to have a higher proportion of their workforce engaged in primary
activities
5. In India, about 64 per cent of the population is engaged only in agriculture
6. Health
7. Health is an important component of population composition, which affects the process of
development
8. Sustained efforts of government programmes have registered significant improvements in the health
conditions of the Indian population.
9. Death rates have declined from 25 per 1000 population in 1951 to 8.1 per 1000 in 2001
10. Death rates have declined from 25 per 1000 population in 1951 to 8.1 per 1000 in 2001
11. . The per capita calorie consumption is much below the recommended levels and malnutrition afflicts
a large percentage of our population
Adolescent Population
1. The most significant feature of the Indian population is the size of its adolescent population.
2. It constitutes one-fifth of the total population of India.
3. Adolescents are generally grouped in the age-group of 10 to 19 years
4. They are the most important resource for the future.
5. Nutrition requirements of adolescents are higher than those of a normal child or adult.
6. Nutrition requirements of adolescents are higher than those of a normal child or adult.
7. But in India, the diet available to adolescents is inadequate in all nutrients.
National Population Policy
1. Recognising that the planning of families would improve individual health and welfare,
2. The Government of India initiated the comprehensive Family Planning Programme in 1952.
3. The Family Welfare Programme has sought to promote responsible and planned parenthood on a
voluntary basis.
4. The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory school education up to
14 years of age
5. Reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births,
6. Achieving universal immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable diseases,
7. Promoting delayed marriage for girls, and making family welfare a people-cantered programme
NPP 2000 and Adolescents
1. NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the major sections of the population that need greater
attention.
2. Besides nutritional requirements, the policy put greater emphasis on other important needs of
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adolescents including protection from unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (STD).
52
3. It called for programmes that aim towards encouraging delayed marriage and child-bearing,
education of adolescents about the risks of unprotected sex
4. Making contraceptive services accessible and affordable, providing food supplements
5. Providing food supplements, nutritional services, strengthening legal measures to prevent child
marriage
6. People are the nation’s most valuable resource. A well- educated healthy population provides
potential power.
POPULATION D distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

1. India’s population is larger than the total population of North America, South America and Australia
put together.
2. More often, it is argued that such a large population invariably puts pressure on its limited resources
and is also responsible for many socio-economic problems in the country.
Distribution of Population
1. Uttar Pradesh has the highest population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra
Pradesh
2. U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat, together account for about 76 per cent of the total population of
the country.
3. On the other hand, share of population is very small in the states like Jammu & Kashmir (0.98%),
Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%) and Uttaranchal (0.83%) in spite of these states having fairly large
geographical area
4. Such an uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests a close relationship between
population and physical, socioeconomic and historical factors.
5. Consequently, we observe that the North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher
proportion of population than the interior districts of southern and central Indian States
6. Himalayas, some of the north eastern and the western states. However, development of irrigation
(Rajasthan), availability of mineral and energy resources (Jharkhand) and development of transport
network (Peninsular States) have resulted in moderate to high proportion of population in areas
which were previously very thinly populated
7. Among the socio-economic and historical factors of distribution of population, important ones are
evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development
8. Pattern of human settlement; development of transport network, industrialisation and urbanisation.
9. The concentration of population remains high because of an early history of human settlement and
development
10. On the other hand, the urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad,
Chennai and Jaipur have high concentration of population
11. On the other hand, the urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad,
Chennai and Jaipur have high concentration of population
Density of Population
1. The density of population in India (2001) is 313 persons per sq. km and ranks third among the most
densely populated countries of Asia following Bangladesh (849 persons) and Japan (334 persons).
2. There has been a steady increase of about 200 persons per sq. km over the last 50 years as the
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density of population increased
54
3. From 117 persons/ sq. km in 1951 to 313 persons/sq. km in 2001

4. Which ranges from as low as 13 persons per sq. km in Arunachal Pradesh to 9,340 persons in the
National Capital Territory of Delhi.
5. Among the northern Indian States, West Bengal (903), Bihar (880) and Uttar Pradesh (690) have
higher densities
6. While Kerala (819) and Tamil Nadu (480) have higher densities among the peninsular Indian states
7. States like Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand, and Orissa have moderate densities
Growth of Population
1. Growth of population is the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two
points of time
2. Its rate is expressed in percentage.
Population growth has two components
1. Namely; natural and induced

2. While the natural growth is analysed by assessing the crude birth and death rates
3. Induced components are explained by the volume of inward and outward movement of people in any
given area the growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual
birth rate and death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends.
4. There are four distinct phases of growth identified within this period:
5. Phase I: The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of
growth of India’s population
6. Even recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921
7. Phase II: The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth.
8. An overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality
rate.
9. Phase III: The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India
10. Which was caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the
country.
11. Phase IV: In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of country’s population though remained high
12. A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth
13. It has been projected by World Development Report that population of India will touch 1,350 million
by 2025.
Regional Variation in Population Growth
1. The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Pondicherry, and Goa show a
low rate of growth not exceeding 20 per cent over the decade.
2. Kerala registered the lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this group of states but also in the country
as a whole
3. A continuous belt of states from west to east in the north-west, north, and north central parts of the
country has relatively high growth rate than the southern states.
4. It is in this belt comprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the
growth rate on the average remained 20-25 per cent
5. An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its adolescents.
6. At present the share of adolescents i.e. up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 22 per cent
7. Among which male adolescents constitute 53 per cent and female adolescents constitute 47 per cent
8. The adolescent population, though, regarded as the youthful population having high potentials, but at
the same time they are quite vulnerable if not guided and channelized properly.
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Population Composition
56
• Analysis of age and sex, place of residence, ethnic characteristics, tribes, language, religion, marital
status, literacy and education, occupational characteristics, etc.
Rural – Urban Composition
1. Composition of population by their respective places of residence is an important indicator of social

and economic characteristics
2. 72 per cent of its total population lives in villages
3. The distribution of rural population is not uniform throughout the country
4. States like Bihar and Sikkim have very high percentage of rural population
5. The states of Goa and Maharashtra have only little over half of their total population residing in
villages
6. The size of villages also varies considerably
7. It is less than 200 persons in the hill states of north-eastern India
8. Western Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh
9. As high as 17 thousand persons in the states of Kerala and in parts of Maharashtra.
10. The proportion of urban population (27.8 per cent) in India is quite low but it is showing a much faster
rate of growth over the decades
11. In fact since 1931, the growth rate of urban population has accelerated due to enhanced economic
development and improvement in health and hygienic conditions.
Linguistic Composition
1. India is a land of linguistic diversity

2. According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 – 1928) there were 179 languages and as many
as 544 dialects in the country
3. In the context of modern India, there are about 18 scheduled languages (1991 census) and a number
of non-scheduled languages
4. Among the scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage (40.42)
5. The smallest language groups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers (0.01 per cent each).
Linguistic Classification
1. The speakers of major Indian languages belong to four language families

2. Which have their sub-families and branches or groups
• Austric (Nishada) 1.38%
• Dravidian (Dravida) 20%
• Sino-Tibetan (Kirata) 0.85%
• Indo – European (Aryan) 73%
Religious Composition
1. Religion is one of the most dominant forces affecting the cultural and political life of the most of
Indians.
2. Muslims, the largest religious minority, are concentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, certain districts of
West Bengal and Kerala
3. Many districts of Uttar Pradesh, in and around Delhi and in Lakshadweep.
4. They form majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep
5. The Christian population is distributed mostly in rural areas of the country
6. The main concentration is observed along the Western coast around Goa, Kerala and also in the hill
states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur
7. Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states of
Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
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8. Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religious groups in India have their concentration only in selected
areas of the country.
9. Major concentration in the urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra
10. While the Buddhists are concentrated mostly in Maharashtra.
11. The other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir,
Tripura, and Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.
12. The other religions of India include Zoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths and beliefs.
Composition of Working Population
1. The population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups
• Main workers
• Marginal workers
• Non-workers.
Standard Census Definition
• Main Worker is a person who works for atleast183daysinayear

• Marginal Worker is a person who works for lessthan183daysinayear
• It is observed that in India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 39 per cent
(2001)
2. Leaving a vast majority of 61 per cent as non-workers.
3. This indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent population,
4. Further indicating possible existence of large number of unemployed or under employed people.
5. The proportion of working population, of the states and Union Territories show a moderate variation
from about 25 per cent in Goa to about 53 per cent in Mizoram
6. The states with larger percentages of workers are Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya
7. Among the Union Territories, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have higher participation
rate.
8. In the context of a country like India, the work participation rate tends to be higher
9. In the areas of lower levels of economic development since number of manual workers are needed to
perform the subsistence or near subsistence economic activities
MIGRATION Types, Causes and Consequences
1. Migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881.
2. This data were recorded on the basis of place of birth
3. However, the first major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional
components viz; place of birth i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere)
4. Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of
enumeration were incorporated.
5. Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive
Censuses
In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases
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• Place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time
migrant);
• Place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as
migrant by place of last residence).
Streams of Migration
Under the internal Migration four streams are identified:
• Rural to rural (R-R)

• Rural to urban (R-U)
• Urban to urban (U-U)
• Urban to rural (U-R).
1. Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract migrants from other states such as
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc.
2. Maharashtra occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat
and Haryana
3. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states, which had the
largest number of net out-migrants from the state
4. Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater Mumbai received the higher number of in migrants.
5. Intra-states migration constituted the largest share in it
Consequences of Migration
• People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity
and better safety.
Economic Consequences
1. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange.
2. Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very significant amount
Demographic Consequences
1. Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country.

2. Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities.
3. Age and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic
structure.
4. However, high out migration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra
have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states.
Social Consequences
1. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as
evolution of composite culture
2. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as
evolution of composite culture
3. Negative consequences such as anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection
among individuals
Others
1. Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly.
2. In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well
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mental pressure on the women
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3. Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the
economy but also increases their vulnerability.
4. If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source region,
5. The loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
First Human Development Report by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990.
What is Human Development?
1. “Human development is a process of enlarging the range of people’s choices, increasing their
opportunities for education, health care, income and empowerment and covering the full range of
human choices from a sound physical environment to economic, social and political freedom.”
2. According to the Human Development Report 1993, “progressive democratisation and increasing
empowerment of people are seen as the minimum conditions for human development”.
3. It also mentions that “development must be woven around people, not the people around
development” as was the case previously
Human Development in India

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1. India with a population of over 1.09 billion is ranked 127 among 172 countries of the world in terms
of the Human Development Index (HDI).
2. With the composite HDI value of O.602 India finds herself grouped with countries showing medium
human development (UNDP 2005).
3. Using the indicators selected by the UNDP, the Planning Commission of India also prepared the
Human Development Report for India.
4. The final HDI by the Planning Commission of India has been calculated by taking the three indicators
5. This report also discussed other indicators like
• Economic attainment
• Social empowerment
• Social distributive justice
• Accessibility
• Hygiene
• Indicators of Economic Attainments
Gross National Product (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as measures to assess the resource
base/ endowment of any country
For India, it is estimated that its GDP was Rs. 3200 thousand crores (at current Price) and accordingly, per
capita income was Rs. 20,813 at current prices.
Indicators of a Healthy Life
1. Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long life span are indicative of a healthy life.
2. India has done reasonably well in some of the health indicators like
3. Decline in death rate from 25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1 per thousand in 1999
4. Infant mortality from 148 per thousand to 70 during the same period.
5. It also succeeded in increasing life expectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males
6. 36.2 to 65.3 years for females from 1951 to 1999.
7. It has also done reasonably well in bringing down birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1 during the same years
Indicators of Social Empowerment
1. “Development is freedom”. Freedom from hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy
and any other forms of domination is the key to human development
2. Literacy is the beginning of access to such a world of knowledge and freedom.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
1. Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human
beings live.
2. Settlements could be small and sparsely spaced; they may also be large and closely
spaced.
3. It can be divided into rural settlement and urban settlement.
Types of Rural Settlement
1. There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in
India. These include
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• Physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water
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• Cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion

• Security factors – defence against thefts and robberies.
Rural settlements in India can broadly be put into four types
1. Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated

2. Semi-clustered or fragmented
3. Hamleted
4. Dispersed or isolated
Clustered Settlements
1. The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses.

2. In this type of village the general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms,
barns and pastures.
3. Intervening streets present some recognisable pattern or geometric shape.
4. Rectangular, radial, linear, etc.
5. Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the north eastern states
6. In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilisation of
available water resources
Semi-Clustered Settlements
1. Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may result from tendency of clustering in a restricted area
of dispersed settlement
2. Fragmentation of a large compact village.
3. In such cases, generally, the land-owning and dominant community occupies the central part of the
main village
4. Whereas people of lower strata of society and menial workers settle on the outer flanks of the village
5. Such settlements are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan
Hamleted Settlements
1. Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each other bearing
a common name
2. These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc.
3. This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors.
4. Such villages are more frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower
valleys of the Himalayas.
5. Reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan, scarcity of
water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilisation of available water resources.etc.
In various parts of the country. This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and
ethnic factors. Such villages are more frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga plain,
Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlements
1. Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of
few huts in remote jungles
2. Pasture on the slopes
3. Extreme dispersion of settlement is often caused by extremely fragmented nature of the terrain
4. Land resource base of habitable areas
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Urban Settlements
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On the basis of evolution in different periods Indian towns may be classified as:
• Ancient towns
• Medieval towns
• Modern towns
Ancient Towns
1. Historical background spanning over 2000 years

2. Most of them developed as religious and cultural centres
3. Varanasi is one of the important towns among these
4. Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other examples of ancient towns in the
country
Medieval Towns
1. About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period
2. Most of them developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms
3. These are fort towns which came up on the ruins of ancient towns
4. Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur
Modern Towns
1. The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India
2. The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India
3. Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc.
4. The British later consolidated their hold around three principal nodes
5. Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta)
Urbanisation in India
• The level of urbanisation is measured in terms of percentage of urban population to total population.
Definitions of town
For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;
1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or Notified town area committee, etc.
2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria:
i) A minimum population of 5,000
ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits
iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

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The first category of urban units is known as Statutory Towns.
The second category of Towns (as in item 2 above) is known as Census Town. These were identified on the
basis of Census 2001 data.
Number of UAs/Towns and Out Growths (OGs)
At the Census 2011 there are 7,935 towns in the country. The number of towns has
Increased by 2,774 since last Census. Many of these towns are part of UAs and the
rest are independent towns. The total number of Urban Agglomerations/Towns,
This constitutes the urban frame, is 6166 in the country.
Classification of Towns on the basis of Population Size
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1. Census of India classifies urban centres into six classes

2. Urban centre with population of more than one lakh is called a city or class I town
3. Cities accommodating population size between one to five million are called metropolitan cities
4. More than five million are mega cities
5. Majority of metropolitan and mega cities are urban agglomerations
Functional Classification of Towns
Administrative towns and cities
• Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as
• Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur Chennai,
etc.
Industrial towns
• Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,
Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.
Transport Cities
• They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities

• Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc.
• Hubs of inland transport such as
• Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni,
Commercial towns
• Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class.
• Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc.
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Mining towns
• These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as

• Raniganj
• Jharia
• Digboi
• Ankaleshwar
• Singrauli
Garrisson Cantonment towns
• These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as

• Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc.
Educational towns
• Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns
• Such as Roorki,
• Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad etc.
Religious and cultural towns
• Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain
came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance
• Tourist towns
• Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu are
some of the tourist destinations
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Resource and Development

‘Resource’
• It is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as

‘Resource’
• Resources are a function of human activities
These resources can be classified in the following ways
1. On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic

2. On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
3. On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
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4. On the basis of status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves
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5. On the basis of status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves

6. On the Basis of Origin
Biotic Resources
• These are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries,
livestock etc.
Abiotic Resources:
• All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic resources. For example,
rocks and metals.
On the Basis of Exhaustibility
Renewable Resources
1. The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes
are known as renewable or replenishable resources.
2. For example, solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.
3. The renewable resource may further be divided into continuous or flow
Non-Renewable Resources:
1. These occur over a very long geological time

2. Minerals and fossil fuels are examples of such resources
On the Basis of Ownership
1. Individual Resources
2. Community Owned Resources
3. National Resources
4. Technically, all the resources belong to the nation. The country has legal powers to acquire even
private property for public good.
5. All the minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, land within the political boundaries
6. Oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (19.2 km
International Resources
1. There are international institutions which regulate some resources

2. The oceanic resources beyond 200 km of the Exclusive Economic Zone
3. Belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of
international institutions
4. From that area which lies beyond the exclusive economic zone
Do you know that India has got the right to mine manganese nodules from the bed of the
Indian Ocean.
On the Basis of the Status of Development
1. Resources which are found in a region, but have not been utilised
2. For example, the western parts of India particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential
for the development of wind and solar energy
3. But so far these have not been developed properly
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Developed Resources
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1. Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for utilisation
2. The development of resources depends on technology and level of their feasibility
Stock
1. Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but human beings do
not have the appropriate technology to access these
2. For example, water is a compound of two inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen
3. Which can be used as a rich source of energy
4. But we do not have the required technical ‘know-how’ to use them for this purpose. Hence, it can be
considered as stock
Reserves
1. Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing technical
‘know-how’ but their use has not been started.
2. These can be used for meeting future requirements
3. River water can be used for generating hydroelectric power but presently
4. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future
DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES
1. Resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable existence is a
component of sustainable development
2. Sustainable development
3. Sustainable economic development means ‘development should take place without damaging the
environment
4. And development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations
5. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
6. In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil
7. For the first International Earth Summit.
8. Socioeconomic development at the global level
• The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21for achieving
Sustainable Development in the 21 st century.
• Agenda 21
• It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED)
• Which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• It aims at achieving global sustainable development.
• One major objective of the Agenda 21 is that every local government should draw its own local
Agenda 21
RESOURCEPLANNING
1. The states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development.
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2. The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources
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3. The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources
Resource Planning in India
• Resource planning is a complex process which involves

• Identification and inventory of resources
• Evolving a planning structure
• Endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resource
development plans
• Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
India has made concerted efforts for achieving the goals of resource planning right from the First Five Year
Plan
Conservation of Resources
1. Irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to socio-economic and

environmental problems.
2. Gandhiji was very apt in voicing his concern about resource conservation in these words
3. “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.”
4. He was against mass production and wanted to replace it with the production by the masses
5. At the international level, the Club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in a
more systematic way in 1968
6. Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy was once again presented by Schumacher in his book
Small is Beautiful
7. The seminal contribution with respect to resource conservation at the global level was made by the
Brundtland Commission Report, 1987
8. This report introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated it as a means for
resource conservation
9. Which was subsequently published in a book entitled Our Common Future
10. Another significant contribution was made at the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
11. However, land is an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the available land for
various purposes with careful planning
12. About 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry
13. Mountains account for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the country and ensure perennial flow
of some river
14. Provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects. About 27 per cent of the area of the country is
the plateau region.
LAND UTILISATION
• Forests
1. Land not available for cultivation
• Barren and waste land
• Land put to non-agricultural uses,
2. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
o Permanent pastures and grazing land,
o Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area),
o Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
3. Fallow lands
o Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year),
o Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years)
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Net sown area
• Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is known as gross cropped area
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA
4. Most of the other than the current fallow lands are either of poor quality or the cost of cultivation of
such land is very high.
5. The pattern of net sown area varies greatly from one state to another
6. It is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana
7. Less than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands
8. Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert areas
9. Non-agricultural uses includes settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.
LAND DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES
1. Ninety-five per cent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing
2. At present, there are about 130 million hectares of degraded land in India
3. 28 per cent of it belongs to the category of forest degraded area
4. 56 per cent of it is water eroded area and the rest is affected by saline and alkaline deposits
5. States like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to mining have
caused severe land degradation.
6. In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main
reasons for land degradation.
7. In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land
degradation
8. The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for
ceramic industry generate huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere
9. Afforestation and proper management of grazing can help to some extent
10. Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by growing
thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land degradation.
SOIL AS ARESOURCE
1. Soil is the most important renewable natural resource.

2. The soil is a living system. It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few cm in depth.
3. Temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contribute to
the formation of soil.
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Minerals and Resources

• Most toothpaste are made white with titanium oxide, which comes from minerals called rutile,
limonite and anatase
• The sparkle in some toothpaste comes from mica.
What is a mineral?
1. Geologists define mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal
structure.
2. Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
3. Rocks are combinations of homogenous substances called minerals
MODE OFOCCURRENCE OFMINERALS
1. Where are these minerals found?

2. Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral
mixed with other elements.
3. Minerals generally occur in these forms:
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4. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints.
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5. The smaller occurrences are called veins

6. And the larger are called lodes.
7. In most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward
through cavities towards the earth’s surface.
8. They cool and solidify as they rise.
9. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes
10. In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers.
11. Formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata
12. Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks,
13. And the removal of soluble constituents
14. Leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores
15. Bauxite is formed this way
Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills.
1. These deposits are called ‘placer deposits

2. Generally contain minerals, which are not corroded by water
3. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals.
4. The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but most of these are too widely diffused to be
of economic significance.
5. However, common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.
6. The ocean beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules.
7. India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied mineral resources
8. Peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other non-
metallic minerals.
9. Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula, in Gujarat and Assam have
most of the petroleum deposits.
10. Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many non-ferrous minerals
11. The vast alluvial plains of north India are almost devoid of economic minerals. These variant
12. Ferrous Minerals
13. Ferrous minerals account for about three fourths of the total value of the production of metallic
minerals.
14. They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.
Iron Ore
1. Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
2. India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of iron ore
3. India is rich in good quality iron ores
4. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 per cent
5. Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used,
6. Has slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent)
7. Kudre in Kannada means horse. The highest peak in the western ghats of Karnataka resembles the
face of a horse. The Bailadila hills look like the hump of an ox, and hence its name.
The major iron ore belts in India are:
1. Orissa-Jharkhand belt:
2. In Orissa high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is mined in Goa and
Noamundi.
3. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt
4. Lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra
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5. Very high grade haematites are found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh.
6. The range of hills comprise of 14 deposits of super high grade hematite iron ore.
7. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making
8. Iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakhapatnam port.
9. Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur beltin Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore
10. The Kudermukh mines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export unit
11. Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest in the world
12. The ore is transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.
13. Maharashtra-Goa beltincludes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.
14. Though, the ores are not of very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited.
15. Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port
Manganese
1. Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy

2. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel.
3. It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
4. Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.
5. It accounted for one-third of the country’s total production in 2000-01
Non-Ferrous Minerals
India’s reserves and production of non- ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory
However, these minerals, which include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a vital role in a number of
metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries
Copper
1. India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper.

2. Being malleable, ductile and a good conductor, copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics
and chemical
3. The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52 per cent of India’s copper
4. The Singbhum district of Jharkhand is also a leading producer of copper.
5. The Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also famous.
Bauxite
1. Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and
later aluminium is obtained
2. Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates
3. Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength
4. Of metals such as iron, with extreme lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability.
5. India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau
region of Bilaspur- Katni.
6. Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state in India with 45 per cent of the country’s total production
7. In 2000-01. Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in the
state.
After the discovery of aluminium Emperor Napoleon III wore buttons and hooks on his clothes made of
aluminium
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Served food to his more illustrious guests in aluminium utensils
The less honourable ones were served in gold and silver utensils.
Thirty years after this incident aluminium bowls were most common with the beggars in Paris.
Non-Metallic Minerals
1. Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets.
2. These sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be layered into a mica sheet of a few centimetres
high.
3. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown.
4. Due to its excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to
high voltage, mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries.
5. Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau
6. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer.
7. In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is
also an important producer in the country.
Rock Minerals
1. Limestoneis found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and
magnesium carbonates.
2. It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological formations
3. Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the
blast furnace.
CONSERVATION OF MINERALS
1. The total volume of workable mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction i.e. one per cent of the
earth’s crust.
2. Required millions of years to be created and concentrated.
3. Mineral resources are, therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich mineral deposits are our country’s
extremely valuable but short-lived possessions.
4. Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs
5. Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs
Energy Resources
1. Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from
electricity
2. Energy resources can be classified as conventional and nonconventional sources
3. Conventional sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
(both hydel and thermal)
4. Non-conventional sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
5. Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India. According to one estimate more than
70 per cent energy requirement in rural households is met by these two
6. Continuation of these is increasingly becoming difficult due to decreasing forest area
Conventional Sources of Energy
1. Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the
nation’s energy needs. It is used for power generation,
2. Decaying plants in swamps produce peat. Which has a low carbon and high moisture contents and
low heating capacity
3. Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content
4. The principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity.
5. Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminous coal.
6. It is the most popular coal in commercial use.
7. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special value for smelting iron in blast
furnaces
8. Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal
9. In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a little over 200
million years in age and in tertiary deposits which are only about 55 million years old.
10. Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields.
11. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
12. Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and
Nagaland
Petroleum
1. Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal.
2. It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries.
3. Act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries
4. Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock
formations of the tertiary age
5. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold
6. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow.
7. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter
usually occurs above the oil.
8. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat
and 16 per cent from Assam
9. Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the important oil fields in the state.
Natural Gas
1. Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum.
2. Natural gas is considered an environment friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide emissions
3. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin.
4. The 1700 km long Hazira-BijaipurJagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien
with the fertilizer
Electricity
1. Electricity has such a wide range of applications in today’s world that, it’s per capita consumption is
considered as an index of development
2. There are over 310 thermal power plants in India
3. Nuclear or Atomic Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms
4. Uranium and thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and the Aravali ranges of Rajasthan
5. Generating atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala are also rich in thorium.
6. Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
7. The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the country becoming increasingly dependent on
fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas.
8. The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the country becoming increasingly dependent on
fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas.
9. India is a tropical country. It has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy
10. Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity
11. The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to
sterlise milk cans
Wind power
1. India now ranks as a “wind super power” in the world

2. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai
3. Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have
important wind farms. Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the
country.
Biogas
1. Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption
in rural areas
2. Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher thermal efficiency
Tidal Energy
1. Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across inlets.
2. During high tide water flows into the inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed.
3. After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea
via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine
4. In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy. A 900 mw tidal
energy power plant is set up here by the National Hydropower Corporation
Geo Thermal Energy
1. Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of
the Earth
2. Shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
3. There are several hundred hot springs in India,
4. Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy
5. Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
1. Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable
products is called manufacturing.
2. The economic strength of a country is measured by the development of manufacturing industries.
3. Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development
4. India’s prosperity lies in increasing and diversifying its manufacturing industries as quickly as possible
Contribution of Industry to National Economy
1. Over the last two decades, the share of manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per cent of GDP –
2. Out of a total of 27 per cent for the industry which includes 10 per cent for mining, quarrying,
electricity and gas.
3. Where it is 25 to 35 per cent. The trend of growth rate in manufacturing over the last decade has
been around 7 per cent per annum.
4. The desired growth rate over the next decade is 12 per cent.
5. With appropriate policy interventions by the government and renewed efforts by the industry to
improve productivity,
6. The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council (NMCC) has been set up with this objective.
Industrial Location
These are influenced by availability of raw material, labour, capital, power and market, etc.
Agglomeration economies
• Many industries tend to come together to make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres
known as agglomeration economies
Classification of Industries
On the basis of source of raw materials used:
1. Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil
2. Mineral based: iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals.
According to their main role
1. Basic or key industries which supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other goods e.g.
iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminium smelting.
2. Consumer industries that produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper,
sewing machines, fans etc.
3. A small scale industry is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets of
a unit.
4. This limit has changed over a period of time. At present the maximum investment allowed is rupees
one crore
On the basis of ownership:
1. Public sector, owned and operated by government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
2. Private sector industries owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals –TISCO, Bajaj
Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries
3. Joint sector industries which are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. Oil
India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly owned by public and private sector.
4. Cooperative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials,
workers or both.
5. They pool in the resources and share the profits or losses proportionately such as the sugar industry
in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
Heavy industries such as iron and steel
1. Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical industries.
Agro Based Industries
1. Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industry are based on agricultural raw
materials.
Textile Industry
1. The textile industry occupies unique position in the Indian economy

2. It contributes significantly to industrial production (14 per cent), employment generation (35 million
persons directly
3. The second largest after agriculture) and foreign exchange earnings (about 24.6 per cent).
4. It contributes 4 per cent towards GDP. It is the only industry in the country,
5. Which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw material to the highest value
added products
Cotton Textiles
1. In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving
techniques.
2. After the 18th century, power-looms came into use. Our traditional industries suffered a setback
during the colonial period because they could not compete with the mill-made cloth from England.
3. Today, there are nearly 1600 cotton and human made fibre textile mills in the country.
4. The first successful textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
5. The two world wars were fought in Europe, India was a British colony. There was a demand for cloth
in U.K
6. Hence, they gave a boost to the development of the cotton textile industry.
7. In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat
8. Availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port facilities, labour, moist climate,
etc.
9. Contributed towards its localisation

10. This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and
workers engaged in
11. Ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing.
12. The industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes, mill
stores, packaging materials and engineering works.
13. While spinning continues to be centralised in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
14. Weaving is highly decentralised to provide scope for incorporating traditional skills and designs of
weaving in cotton, silk, zari, embroidery, etc.
15. India has world class production in spinning, but weaving supplies low quality of fabric as it cannot
use much of the high quality yarn produced in the country.
16. The handspun khadi provides large scale employment to weavers in their homes as a cottage
industry.
17. India exports yarn to Japan. Other importers of cotton goods from India are U.S.A., U.K., Russia,
France, East European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and African countries.
18. India has the second largest installed capacity of spindles in the world, next to China, at around 34
million (2003-04)
19. Since the mid-eighties, the spinning sector has received a lot of attention.
20. We have a large share in the world trade of cotton yarn, accounting for one fourth of the total trade
21. Our trade in garments is only 4 per cent of the world’s total.
22. The weaving, knitting and processing units cannot use much of the high quality yarn that is produced
in the country.
23. The weaving, knitting and processing units cannot use much of the high quality yarn that is produced
in the country.
24. But most of the production is in fragmented small units,
25. This mismatch is a major drawback for the industry.
Jute Textiles
1. India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an exporter
after Bangladesh.
2. There are about 70 jute mills in India.
3. Most of these are located in West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli River, in a narrow belt
(98 km long and 3 km wide).
4. The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1859 at Rishra
5. After Partition in 1947, the jute mills remained in India but three-fourth of the jute producing area
went to Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).
6. Factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute producing areas,
inexpensive water transport, supported by a good network of railways,
7. roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to the mills, abundant water for
processing raw jute, cheap labour from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Orissa and Uttar
Pradesh.
8. Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking, insurance and port facilities for export of jute goods
9. The jute industry supports 2.61 lakh workers directly and another 40 lakhs small and marginal farmers
who are engaged in cultivation of jute and Mesta.
10. Challenges faced by the industry include stiff competition in the international market from synthetic
substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand.
11. However, the internal demand has been on the increase due to the Government policy of mandatory
use of jute packaging.
12. And, the products need to be diversified. In 2005, National Jute Policy was formulated with the
objective of increasing productivity,
13. Improving quality, ensuring good prices to the jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare.
14. The main markets are U.S.A., Canada, Russia, United Arab Republic, U.K. and Australia.
Sugar Industry
1. India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the first place in the production of
gurand khandsari.
2. The raw material used in this industry is bulky, and in haulage its sucrose content reduces.
3. There are over 460 sugar mills in the country spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat along with Punjab, Haryana and Madhya
Pradesh.
4. Sixty per cent mills are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
5. This industry is seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to the cooperative sector.
6. In recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western
states, especially in Maharashtra
7. This is because the cane produced here has a higher sucrose content.
8. The cooler climate also ensures a longer crushing season.
9. Moreover, the cooperatives are more successful in these states.
10. Major challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry
11. Old and inefficient methods of production, transport delay in reaching cane to factories and the need
to maximise the use of baggase.
12. Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral based industries
Iron and Steel Industry
1. The iron and steel Industry is the basic industry since all the other industries — heavy, medium and
light, depend on it for their machinery.
2. Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of engineering goods, construction material, defence,
medical, telephonic, scientific equipment and a variety of consumer goods.
3. Production and consumption of steel is often regarded as the index of a country’s development.
4. Iron and steel is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as well as finished goods are heavy
and bulky entailing heavy transportation costs.
5. Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4: 2: 1.
6. Some quantities of manganese, are also required to harden the steel.
7. Today with 32.8 million tons of steel production, India ranks ninth among the world crude steel
producers.
8. It is the largest producer of sponge iron. Inspite of large quantity of production of steel, per capita
consumption per annum is only 32 kg.
9. Presently, there are 10 primary integrated and many mini steel plants in India.
10. All public sector undertakings market their steel through, Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL) while
TISCO markets its produce through Tata Steel.
11. In the 1950s China and India produced almost the same quantity of steel.
12. In 2004, India was the largest exporter of steel which accounted for 2.25 per cent of the global steel
trade.
13. In 2004, India was the largest exporter of steel which accounted for 2.25 per cent of the global steel
trade.
14. It is largely, because of the relative advantages this region has for the development of this industry.
15. These include, low cost of iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and vast
growth potential in the home market.
16. Though, India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world yet, we are not able to
perform to our full potential largely due to
• High costs and limited availability of coking coal
• Lower productivity of labour
• Irregular supply of energy and
• Poor infrastructure.
Aluminium Smelting
1. Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India.

2. It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires.
3. There are 8 aluminium smelting plants in the country located in
• Orissa (Nalco and Balco)
• West Bengal
• Kerala
• Uttar Pradesh
• Chhattisgarh
• Maharashtra
• Tamil Nadu
4. In 2004, India produced over 600 million tons of aluminium
5. Bauxite, the raw material used in the smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured rock.
6. Regular supply of electricity and an assured source of raw material at minimum cost are the two
prime factors for location of the industry.
Chemical Industries
1. The Chemical industry in India is fast growing and diversifying

2. It contributes approximately 3 per cent of the GDP
3. It is the third largest in Asia and occupies the twelfth place in the world in term of its size.
4. It comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units
5. Rapid growth has been recorded in both inorganic and organic sectors.
6. Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics,
adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and
detergents, paper) and caustic soda.
7. Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing of synthetic fibers,
synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
8. Organic chemical plants are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
9. The chemical industry is its own largest consumer
10. Basic chemicals undergo processing to further produce other chemicals that are used for industrial
application
11. Agriculture or directly for consumer markets.
12. The fertiliser industry is centred on the production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic
fertilisers and ammonium phosphate (DAP
13. Complex fertilisers which have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).
14. The third, i.e. potash is
15. Entirely imported as the country does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or
potassium compounds in any form.
16. India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers.
17. There are 57 fertiliser units manufacturing nitrogenous and complex nitrogenous fertilisers
18. 29 for urea and 9 for producing ammonium sulphate as a by-product and 68 other small units produce
single superphosphate
19. At present, there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in cooperative sector at Hazira in Gujarat
under the Fertiliser Corporation of India.
20. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half the fertiliser
production.
21. Other significant producers are Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Assam, West
Bengal, Goa, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
Cement Industry
1. Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads,
airports, dams and for other commercial establishments.
2. This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum.
3. Coal and electric power are needed apart from rail transportation
4. The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904
5. After Independence the industry expanded. Decontrol of price and distribution since 1989 and other
policy reforms led the cement industry
6. To make rapid strides in capacity, process, technology and production.
7. There are 128 large plants and
8. 332 mini cement plants in the country.
9. Improvement in the quality has found the produce a readily available market in East Asia, Middle
East, Africa and South Asia apart from a large demand within the country
10. This industry is doing well in terms of production as well as export.
Automobile Industry
1. Automobiles provide vehicle for quick transport of good services and passengers.
2. Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters, three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
manufactured in India at various centres.
3. After the liberalisation, the coming in of new and contemporary models stimulated the demand for
vehicles in the market
4. This led to the healthy growth of the industry including passenger cars, two and three-wheelers.
5. This industry had experienced a quantum jump in less than 15 years.
6. Foreign Direct Investment brought in new technology and aligned the industry with global
developments.
7. At present, there are 15 manufacturers of passenger cars and multiutility vehicles, 9 of commercial
vehicles, 14 of the two and three-wheelers.
Information Technology and Electronics Industry
1. The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to television,
telephones, cellular telecom, pagers, telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other
equipment’s required by the telecommunication industry.
2. Bangalore has emerged as the electronic capital of India
3. Other important centres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata,
Lucknow and Coimbatore.
4. 18 software technology parks provide single window service and high data communication facility to
software experts.
5. . It is encouraging to know that 30 per cent of the people employed in this sector are women.
6. This industry has been a major foreign exchange earner in the last two or three years because of its
fast growing Business Processes Outsourcing (BPO) sector.
7. The continuing growth in the hardware and software is the key to the success of IT industry in India.
8. Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation
Roadways
1. Aggregating to about 2.3 million km at present.
2. In India, roadways have preceded railways.
3. They still have an edge over railways in view of the ease with which they can be built and maintained.
4. In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways
1. The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata Chennai-
Mumbai and Delhi. By six-lane Super Highways.
2. The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu),
3. And East-West Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbandar (Gujarat) are part of this project
4. These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
National Highways
• National Highways link extreme parts of the country

• These are the primary road systems and are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works
Department (CPWD).
• The historical Sher Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1 between Delhi and Amritsar.
Do you know?
National Highway-7 is the longest and traverses 2, 369 km between Varanasi and Kanyakumari
Via Jabalpur, Nagpur, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Madurai
Delhi and Mumbai are connected by National Highway-8, while National Highway-15 covers most of Rajasthan.
State Highways
1. Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State Highways.
2. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State
and Union Territories.
District Roads
• These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These roads are
maintained by the Zila Parishad.
Other Roads
• Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this category
• These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana
• Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a major
town in the country by an all season motorable road.
Border Roads
1. Apart from these, Border Roads Organisation a Government of India undertaking constructs and
maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country.
2. This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in
the northern and north-eastern border areas.
Road Density
1. The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as density of roads.
2. Distribution of road is not uniform in the country.
3. Density of all roads varies from only 10 km in Jammu & Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala with the national
average of 75 km (1996-97).
Railways
1. The Indian Railway have a network of 7, 031 stations spread over a route length of 63, 221 km.
2. with a fleet of 7817 locomotives, 5321 passenger service vehicles, 4904 other coach vehicles and 228,
170 wagons as on 31 March 2004.
3. The Indian Railways is the largest public sector undertaking in the country.
4. The first train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
5. The Indian Railway network runs on multiple gauge operations
Gauge in metres Route (Km) Running Track (Km) Total Track (Km.)
Broad Gauge (1. 676) 46, 807 66, 754 88, 547
Metro Gauge (1.000) 13, 209 13, 976 16, 489
Narrow Gauge (0.762 & 0.610) 3, 124 3, 129 3, 450
6. The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 16 zones
Pipelines
1. Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India.

2. There are three important networks of pipeline transportation in the country.
3. From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad.
4. It has branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and Guwahati to
Siliguri.
5. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat.
6. It has branches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places.
7. Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via Vijaipur in Madhya
Pradesh
8. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in Uttar Pradesh.
Waterways
1. Waterways are the cheapest means of transport

2. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
3. It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.
4. India has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length.
5. Out of these only 3,700 km are navigable by mechanised boats.
6. The following waterways have been declared as the National Waterways by the Government.
7. The Ganga River between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
8. The Brahmaputra River between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2
9. The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and Champakkara canals-205
km) – N.W. No.3
10. The other viable inland waterways include the Godavari, Krishna, Barak, Sunderbans, Buckingham
Canal, Brahmani, East-west Canal and Damodar Valley Corporation Canal.
11. 95 per cent of the country’s trade volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is moved by sea.
Major Sea Ports
1. With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 12 major and 181 medium and minor ports.
2. These major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade. Kandla in Kuchchh w
3. Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease the volume of trade
on the Mumbai port,
4. In the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition
5. Kandla is a tidal port. It caters to the convenient handling of exports and imports of
6. highly productive granary and industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
7. Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
8. The Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
9. Hub port for this region
10. Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country.
11. This port accounts for about fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export
12. New Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore concentrates from
Kudremukh mines.
13. Kochi is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.
14. Along the east coast,
15. The extreme south-eastern port of Tuticorin, in Tamil Nadu.
16. This port has a natural harbour and rich hinterland
17. Thus, it has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even our neighbouring
countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc.
18. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of the country.
19. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and cargo.
20. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port
21. This port was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron ore exports
22. Paradip port located in Orissa, specialises in the export of iron ore
23. This port serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra basin
24. Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly.
25. Haldia port was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata
port.
Airways
1. The air transport was nationalised in 1953

2. Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary of Indian Airlines), private scheduled airlines and non-
scheduled operators provide domestic air services.
3. Air India provides international air services
4. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Commission in its off-
shore operations,
5. To inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the interior parts of
Jammu and Kashmir,
6. It is only in the north-eastern states that special provisions are made to extend the services to the
common people.
Communication
1. To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities

2. Six mail channels have been introduced recently
3. They are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, and Green Channel
4. Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel
5. Mass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various
national programmes and policies.
6. All India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local
languages for various categories of people, spread over different parts of the country
7. Doordarshan, the national television channel of India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the
world.
8. It broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment, educational to sports, etc. for people of
different age groups
9. The largest number of newspapers published in the country are in Hindi, followed by English and Urdu
10. India is the largest producer of feature films in the world
11. It produces short films; video feature films and video short films
12. The Central Board of Film Certification is the authority to certify both Indian and foreign films
International Trade
1. The exchange of goods among people, states and countries is referred to as trade
2. The exchange of goods among people, states and countries is referred to as trade
3. It may take place through sea, air or land routes.
4. Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity.

5. It is, therefore, considered the economic barometer for a country.
6. Among the commodities of export,
• Agriculture and allied products
• Ores and minerals
• Gems and jewellery
• Chemical and allied products
• Engineering goods
• Petroleum products
7. The commodities imported to India include
• Petroleum and petroleum products
• Earls and precious stones
• Inorganic chemicals
• Coal, coke and briquettes
• Machinery
• Bulk imports as a group registered a growth accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports.
• This group includes
• Fertilizers
• Cereals
• Edible oils
• Newsprint
8. India has emerged as a software giant at the international level and it is earning large foreign
exchange through the export of information technology.
Tourism as a Trade
9. Tourism in India has grown substantially over the last three decades
10. Foreign tourist’s arrivals in the country witnessed an increase of 23.5 per cent during the year 2004
11. As against the year 2003, thus contributing Rs 21,828 crore of foreign exchange.
12. Over 2.6 million foreign tourists visit India every year.
13. More than 15 million people are
14. Directly engaged in the tourism industry.
15. Tourism also promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural
pursuits.
16. Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco-tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism,
medical tourism and business tourism.
17. Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and temple towns of south India are important destinations of
foreign tourists in India.
18. There is vast potential of tourism development in the north-eastern states and the interior parts of
Himalayas,
19. But due to strategic reasons these have not been encouraged so far.
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

• A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical
properties.
Types of Mineral Resources
1. On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals may be grouped under two main
categories of metallic and non-metallic
2. Metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal
3. Metallic minerals are further divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals
4. Ferrous Refers to iron
5. All those minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself
6. Those which do not have iron content are non-ferrous such as copper, bauxite, etc.
7. Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels
8. Which are derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum
9. Good quality minerals are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals
10. All minerals are exhaustible over time.
11. These take long to develop geologically and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of
need
Agencies involved in the exploration of minerals
1. In India, systematic surveying, prospecting and exploration for minerals is undertaken by the
Geological Survey of India (GSI)
2. Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC)
3. Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd. (MECL)
4. National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC)
5. Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM)
6. Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML)
7. Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL)
8. National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO)
9. The Departments of Mining and Geology in various states
Distribution of Minerals in India
1. Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline
rocks
2. Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari.
3. Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-
shore region in the Arabian Sea.
4. Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.
5. Most of the major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.
6. Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India.
The North-Eastern Plateau Region
1. This belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh.
2. It has variety of minerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
The South-Western Plateau Region
1. This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
2. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.
3. It also contains high grade iron ore, manganese and limestone.
4. This belt packs in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite. This belt does
5. This belt does not have as diversified mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
6. Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.
The North-Western Region
1. This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and minerals are associated with
Dharwar system of rocks.
2. Copper, zinc have been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite,
marble.
3. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive
4. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry
5. Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits.
6. Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources of salt.
7. The Himalayan belt is another mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten are known
to occur.
8. They occur on both the eastern and western parts.
9. Assam valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides oil resources are also found in off-shore-areas near
Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
Ferrous Mineral
1. Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc., provide a strong base for the
development of metallurgical industries.
2. Our country is well-placed in respect of ferrous minerals both in reserves and production.
Iron Ore
1. It has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.

2. The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite.
3. It has great demand in international market due to its superior quality.
4. The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields in the
5. North-eastern plateau region of the country which adds to their advantage.
6. The total reserves of iron ore in the country were about 20 billion tonnes in the year 2004-05.
7. About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron ore is located in the States of Orissa, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
8. In Orissa, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar.
9. The important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu (Kendujhar) and
Bonai (Sundergarh).
10. Similar hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest
11. Iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel plants are located around them.
12. Most of the important mines such as Noamundi and Gua are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi
Singhbhum districts.
13. This belt further extends to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila.
14. Dalli, and Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of iron ore in the country
15. In Karnataka, iron ore deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area of Bellary district,
16. Baba Budan hills and Kudremukh in Chikmagalur district and parts of Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur
districts.
17. The districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
18. Salem and Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu are other iron mining regions.
19. Goa has also emerged as an important producer of iron ore.
Manganese
1. Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing
ferro alloys.
2. It is mainly associated with Dharwar system.
3. Orissa is the leading producer of Manganese
4. Major mines in Orissa are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of India,
5. Particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
6. Karnataka is another major producer and here the mines are located in Dharwar, Bellary, Belgaum,
North Canara, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur.
7. Maharashtra is also an important producer of manganese which is mined in Nagpur, Bhandara and
Ratnagiri districts.
8. The disadvantage to these mines is that they are located far from steel plants.
9. The manganese belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and
Jhabua districts.
10. Andhra Pradesh, Goa, and Jharkhand are other minor producers of manganese.
11. India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite.
Bauxite
1. Bauxite is the ore which is used in manufacturing of aluminium.

2. Bauxite is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks
3. Occurring extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal
tracts of the country
4. Orissa happens to be the largest producer of Bauxite
5. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers
6. The other two areas which have been increasing their production are Bolangir and Koraput.
7. The patlands of Jharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits
8. Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are other major producers.
9. Bhavanagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat have the major deposits.
10. Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau while Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in
M.P. have important deposits of bauxite.
11. Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in Maharashtra are important producers.
12. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are minor producers of bauxite.
Copper
1. Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical industry for making wires, electric motors,
transformers and generators.
2. It is alloy able, malleable and ductile. It is also mixed with gold to provide strength to jewellery.
3. The Copper deposits mainly occur in Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya
Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.
4. Minor producers of Copper are Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh)
5. Chitradurg and Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).
6. Non-metallic Minerals
7. Among the non-metallic minerals produced in India, mica is the important one
8. The other minerals extracted for local consumption are limestone, dolomite and phosphate.
Mica
1. Mica is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries

2. It can be split into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible
3. Mica in India is produced in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh
4. In Jharkhand high quality mica is obtained in a belt extending over a distance of about 150 km, in
length and about 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau
5. In Andhra Pradesh. Nellore district produces the best quality mica.
6. In Rajasthan mica belt extends for about 320 mms from Jaipur to Bhillama and around Udaipur.
7. Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Hasan districts of Karnataka,
8. Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu,
9. Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal
Energy Resources
1. Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as fossil fuels),
2. Nuclear energy minerals, are the Conventional sources of energy.
3. These conventional sources are exhaustible resources.
Coal
1. Coal is a one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal power and
smelting of iron ore.
2. Coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely Gondwana and tertiary deposits
3. About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade.
4. The most important Gondwana coal fields of India are located in Damodar Valley.
5. They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the important coal fields in this region are Raniganj, Jharia,
Bokaro, Giridih, and Karanpura.
6. Jharia is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj
7. The other river valleys associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone
8. The most important coal mining centres are Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli coal field
lies in Uttar Pradesh)
9. Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Orissa
10. Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni and Pandur in Andhra Pradesh.
11. It is extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya
12. Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in upper Assam
13. Namchik – Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh)
14. Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir)
15. The brown coal or lignite occur in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Gujarat and Jammu
and Kashmir.
Petroleum
1. It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways and
aircraft.
2. Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries such as fertiliser, synthetic
rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics
3. Petroleum is referred to as liquid gold because of its scarcity and diversified uses.
4. Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period
5. Oil exploration and production was systematically taken up after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission
was set up in 1956
6. Till then, the Digboi in Assam was the only oil producing region but the scenario has changed after
1956
7. In recent years, new oil deposits have been found at the extreme western and eastern parts of the
country
8. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran are important oil producing areas.
9. The major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej.
10. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off Mumbai was discovered in 1973, production commenced in 1976
11. Oil and natural gas have been found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin on the
east coast
12. Oil extracted from the wells is crude oil and contains many impurities
13. It cannot be used directly. It needs to be refined
14. There are two types of refineries in India:
(a) Field based
(b) Market based
15. Digboi is an example of field base
16. Barauni is an example of market based refinery
17. There are 18 refineries in India
Natural Gas
1. The Gas Authority of India Limited was set up in 1984 as a public sector undertaking to transport and
market natural gas.
2. It is obtained along with oil in all the oil fields but exclusive reserves have been located along
3. The eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and off-
shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Nuclear Energy Resources
1. Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times

2. Important minerals used for the generation of nuclear energy are uranium and thorium
3. Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar rocks.
4. Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several locations along the Singbhum Copper
belt.
5. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan
6. Durg district of Chhattisgarh,
7. Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
8. Thorium is mainly obtained from monazite and limonite in the beach sands
9. The coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
10. World’s richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala
11. Near Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in Orissa.
12. Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948, progress could be made only after
13. The establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967.
14. The important nuclear power projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan),
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).
Non-Conventional Energy Sources

1. Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy use exhaustible raw
materials.
2. Sustainable energy resources are only the renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro-
geothermal and biomass.
Solar Energy
1. Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into energy, known as solar energy
2. The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaic and
solar thermal technology
3. Solar thermal technology has some relative advantages over all other non-renewable energy sources.
4. It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to construct
5. Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than coal or oil based plants and 10 per cent more effective
than nuclear plants.
6. The western part of India has greater potential for the development of solar energy in Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
Wind Energy
1. Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy

2. Conversion from blowing wind is simple
3. The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into electrical energy.
4. The permanent wind systems such the trade winds, westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have
been used as source of energy.
5. Besides these, local winds, land and sea breezes can also be used to produce electricity
6. Spread over 12 suitable locations, especially in coastal areas.
7. According to the estimation by Ministry of Power, India will be able to produce 3,000 megawatts of
electric from this source.
8. The Ministry of non-conventional sources of energy is developing wind energy in India to lessen the
burden of oil import bill
9. The country’s potential of wind power generation exceeds 50,000 megawatts, of which one fourth
can be easily harnessed.
10. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind energy exist.
11. Another, wind power plant is located at Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu
Tidal and Wave Energy
1. Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite energy

2. Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India
3. Hence, India has great potential for the development of tidal energy along the coasts but so far these
have not yet been utilised
Geothermal Energy
1. When the magma from the interior of earth, comes out on the surface, tremendous heat is released.
2. This heat energy can successfully be tapped and converted to electrical energy.
3. Apart from this, the hot water that gushes out through the geyser wells is also used in the generation
of thermal energy.
4. Apart from this, the hot water that gushes out through the geyser wells is also used in the generation
of thermal energy.
5. The hot springs and geysers are being used since medieval period.
6. In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
7. The first successful (1890) attempt to tap the underground heat was made in the city of Boise, Idaho
(U.S.A.),
8. Where a hot water pipe network was built to give heat to the surrounding buildings. This plant is still
working.
Bio-energy
1. Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural residues,
municipal, industrial and other wastes.
2. It can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking
3. It will also process the waste and garbage and produce energy.
4. This will improve economic life of rural areas in developing countries, reduce environmental pollution
5. Enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuel wood
6. One such project converting municipal waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.
Conservation of Mineral Resources
1. The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of quest for economic development
with environmental concerns.
2. Traditional methods of resource use result into generating enormous quantity of waste as well as
create other environmental problems.
3. The alternative energy sources like solar power, wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustible
resource
4. These should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources
5. In case of metallic minerals, use of scrap metals will enable recycling of metals.
6. Use of scrap is especially significant in metals like copper, lead and zinc in which India’s reserves are
meagre
7. Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption.
8. Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for
a longer period.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Types of Industries
• Industries are classified in a number of ways. On the basis of size, capital investment and labour force
employed
• Industries are classified as large, medium, small scale, and cottage industries.
On the basis of ownership, industries are categorised as
o Public sector, (ii) private sector, and (iii) joint and cooperative sector,
o Industries of strategic and national importance are usually in the public sector.
On the basis of the use of their products
o Basic goods industries, (ii) capital goods industries (iii) intermediate goods industries, and (iv)
consumer goods industries.
On the basis of raw materials used by them.
o Agriculture based industries, (ii) forest-based industries, (iii) mineral-based industries, and
(iv) industrially processed raw material based industries
Based on the nature of the manufactured products. Eight classes of industries, thus identified are
o Metallurgical Industries, (2) Mechanical Engineering Industries, (3) Chemical and Allied
Industries, (4) Textile Industries, (5) Food Processing Industries, (6) Electricity Generation, (7)
Electronics and (8) Communication Industries.
Foot loose industries
o An industry that is not tied to any particular location or country, and can relocate across
national borders in response to changing economic conditions. Many manufacturing
industries seem to have this characteristic.
Industrial Policy
1. India, being a democratic country aims at bringing about economic growth with balanced regional
development
2. Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on decision to develop
backward tribal areas of the country.
3. At present, government of India provides lots of incentives to industries locating in backward areas.
4. Major Industries
5. The iron and steel industry is basic to the industrial development of any country
6. The cotton textile Industry is one of our traditional industries
7. The sugar Industry is based on local raw materials which prospered even in the British period
8. Petrochemical Industry
9. IT industry
The Iron and Steel Industry
1. In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa,
Jharkhand and western West Bengal
2. Which is extremely rich in high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and other supplementing raw
materials.
Integrated Steel Plants
TISCO
1. The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km
away from Kolkata
2. Which is the nearest port for the export of steel
3. The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai provide water to the plant.
4. The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi and Badam Pahar
5. Coal is brought from Joda mines in Orissa
6. Coking coal comes from Jharia and west Bokaro coalfields.
IISCO
1. The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at Hirapur and later on another at
Kulti.
2. In 1937, the Steel Corporation of Bengal was constituted in association with IISCO
3. Set up another iron and steel producing unit at Burnpur (West Bengal).
4. All the three plants under IISCO are located very close to Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia,
and Ramgarh)
5. Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
6. Water is obtained from the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar
7. All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway line
8. Unfortunately, steel production from IISCO fell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants were taken
over by the government.
Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)
1. The third integrated steel plant, the Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially called the Mysore
Iron and Steel Works
2. Is located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills.
3. Limestone and manganese are also locally available
4. But this region has no coal
5. At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was used as fuel till 1951.
6. Afterwards, electric furnaces were installed which use hydroelectricity from the Jog Falls hydel power
project
7. The Bhadravati River supplies water to the plant
8. This plant produces specialised steels and alloys.
9. After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated steel plants
were set up with foreign collaboration
10. Rourkela in Orissa
11. Bhilai in Chhattisgarh
12. Durgapur in West Bengal.
13. These were public sector plants under Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL)
14. In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was created to manage these plants.
Rourkela Steel Plant
1. The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Orissa in collaboration with
Germany
2. The plant was located on the basis of proximity to raw materials,
3. Thus, minimising the cost of transporting weight losing raw material.
4. Has a unique locational advantage, as it receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron ore from
Sundargarh and Kendujhar.
5. The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric furnaces and water is obtained from the Koel and
Sankh rivers.
Bhilai Steel Plant
1. The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with Russian collaboration in Durg District of Chhattisgarh
2. Started production in 1959
3. The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine
4. Coal comes from Korba and Kargali coal fields.
5. The water comes from the Tanduladam and the power from the Korba Thermal Power Station.
6. This plant also lies on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route.
7. The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.
Durgapur Steel Plant
1. Durgapur Steel Plant, in West Bengal, was set up in collaboration with the government of the United
Kingdom
2. Started production in 1962.
3. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi
4. Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route
5. Hydel power and water is obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC)
Bokaro Steel Plant
1. This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian collaboration
2. This plant was set up on the principle of transportation cost minimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkela
combine
3. It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on return take coal to Rourkela.
4. Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km
5. Water and Hydel power is supplied by the Damodar Valley Corporation.
Other Steel Plants
1. New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan period are away from the main raw material
sources.
2. All the three plants are located in South India.
3. The Vizag Steel Plant, in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the
4. First port based plant which started operating in 1992. Its port location is of advantage.
5. The Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka was developed using indigenous technology
6. This uses local iron ore and limestone.
7. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982.
8. Apart from these major steel plants, there are more than 206 units located in different parts of the
country
9. Most of these use scrap iron as their main raw material, and process it in electric furnaces.
The Cotton Textile Industry
1. The cotton textile industry is one of the traditional industries of India

2. In the ancient and the medieval times, it used to be only a cottage industry
3. India was famous worldwide for the production of muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos,
chintz and other different varieties of fine cotton cloth
4. The development of this industry in India was due to several factors
5. One, it is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and humid climate
6. Second, large quantity of cotton was grown in India
7. Abundant skilled labour required for this industry was available in this country.
8. In fact, in some areas the people were producing cotton textiles for generations and transferred the
skill from one generation to the other and in the process perfected their skills.
9. Initially, the British did not encourage the development of the indigenous cotton textile industry.
10. They exported raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool and brought back the finished
products to be sold in India.
11. In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai.
12. This city had several advantages as a cotton textile manufacturing centre.
13. It was very close to the cotton producing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra
14. Raw cotton used to be brought to Mumbai port to be transported to England.
15. Therefore, cotton was available in Mumbai city itself. Moreover, Mumbai even then was the financial
centre and the capital needed to start an industry was available there
16. As a large town, providing employment opportunities attracted labour in large numbers.
17. Hence, cheap and abundant labour too was available locally
18. Subsequently, two more mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill were established in Ahmedabad
19. By 1947, the number of mills in India went up to 423 but the scenario changed after partition and
this industry suffered a major recession.
20. This was due to the fact that the most of the good quality cotton growing areas had gone to West
Pakistan
21. And India was left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent of the cotton producing area.
22. After Independence, this industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished
23. In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of which, 192 mills were in the public sector and 151 mills in the
cooperative sector.
24. The largest number, that is, 1,439 mills were in the private sector
25. The cotton textile industry in India can be broadly divided into two sectors,
26. The organised sector and the decentralised sector
27. The decentralised sector includes cloth produced in handlooms (including Khadi) and power looms.
28. The production of the organised sector has drastically fallen from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth
century to only about 6 per cent in 2000.
29. At present, the power looms on the decentralised sector produce more than 59 per cent and the
handloom sector produces about 19 per cent of all cotton cloth produced in the country
30. Cotton is a “pure” raw material which does not lose weight in the manufacturing process.
31. So other factors, like, power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market may determine the location
of the industry
32. At present the trend is to locate the industry at or close to markets, as it is the market that decides
what kind of cloth is to be produced
33. The Swadeshi movement gave a major impetus to the industry as there was a call for boycotting all
British made goods in favour of Indian goods.
34. After 1921, with the development of the railway network other cotton textile centres expanded
35. In southern India, mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai and Bangalore.
36. In central India, Nagpur, Indore, Solapur and Vadodara became cotton textile centres
37. Cotton textile mills were set up at Kanpur based on local investment.
38. Mills were also set up at Kolkata due to its port facilities.
39. The development of hydro-electricity also favoured the location of the cotton textile mills away from
the cotton producing areas.
40. The rapid development of this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of the abundant availability of
hydel power for the mills
41. Lower labour costs at centres like Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also
caused industries to be located away from cotton producing areas.
42. Thus, the cotton textile industry is located in almost every state in India,
43. Presently, the major centres of the cotton textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur,
Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain.
44. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton producing states
45. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjab are the other important cotton textile producers.
46. Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of them produce yarn rather than cloth
47. Coimbatore has emerged as the most important centre with nearly half the mills located there
48. Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other
important centres.
49. In Karnataka, the cotton textile industry has developed in the cotton producing areas in the north-
eastern part of the state.
50. Davangere, Hubli, Bellary, Mysore and Bangalore are important centres.
51. In new state Telangana, the cotton textile industry is located in the cotton producing Telangana
region, where most of the mills are spinning mills producing yarn
52. The important centres are Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Warangal and Guntur
53. In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest centre.
54. Some of the other important centres are Modinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra and Lucknow
55. In West Bengal, the cotton mills are located in the Hugli region.
56. Howrah, Serampore, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the important centres.
57. Production of cotton cloth increased almost five times from 1950-51 to 1999-2000
58. Cotton textile has been facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.
Sugar Industry
1. The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based industry in the country
2. India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes about 8 per cent of the
total sugar production in the world.
3. Besides, khandasariand guror jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane.
4. This industry provides employment for more than 4 lakh persons directly and a large number of
farmers indirectly
5. Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonality of raw materials.
6. Development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar mill was started in
Bihar.
7. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
8. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation producing 11.34 lakh tonnes of sugar.
9. The number of sugar factories rose to 506 and production to 176, 99 lakh tonnes in 2000-01.
Location of the Sugar Industry
1. Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 per cent
depending on its variety
2. Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been harvested from the field.
3. Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within 24 hours of its harvesting
4. Sugar factories hence, are located within the cane producing regions
5. Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-
third of the total production of the sugar in the country.
6. There are 119 sugar Mills in the state in a narrow belt extending from Manmad in the north to
Kolhapur in the south.
7. There are 87 mills in the cooperative sector.
8. Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar.
9. The sugar factories are concentrated in two belts – the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the tarai region.
10. The major sugar producing centres in the Ganga -Yamuna doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
Meerut, Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshahr districts
11. While Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugar producing districts in
the Tarai region
12. In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located in Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and
Tiruchchirappalli districts.
13. Belgaum, Bellary, Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and Chitradurg districts are the major producers in
Karnataka.
14. The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e. East Godavari, West Godavari, Vishakhapatnam
districts and Nizamabad, and Medak districts of Telangana
15. Along with Chittoor district of Rayalseema.
16. The other States which produce sugar are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya are the important sugarcane
producing districts in Bihar.
17. The relative significance of Punjab has declined, although Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and
Amritsar are major sugar producers.
18. In Haryana, sugar factories are located in Yamuna Nagar, Rohtak, and Hissar and Faridabad districts.
19. Sugar industry is comparatively new in Gujarat.
20. Sugar mills are located in the cane growing tracts of Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Valsad and
Bhavnagar districts.
Petrochemical Industries
1. This group of industries has been growing very fast in India

2. In 1960s, demand for organic chemicals increased so fast that it became difficult to meet this
demand.
3. At that time, petroleum refining industry expanded rapidly.
4. Many items are derived from crude petroleum, which provide raw materials for many new industries
This group of industries is divided into four sub-groups:
o Polymers,
o Synthetic fibres
o Elastomers,
o Surfactant intermediate.
Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical industries.
Three organisations are working in the petrochemical sector
1. Under the administrative control of the Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals

2. First is the Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL), a public sector undertaking
3. It is responsible for the manufacture and distribution of the various petrochemicals like polymers,
chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates
4. Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL), a joint venture of the Government of India and
Weaver’s Cooperative Societies
5. It produces polyester filament yarn and nylon chips at its two plants located at Vadodara and Naldhari
in Gujarat
6. Third is the Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Technology (CIPET), involved in imparting
training in petro-chemical industry
Polymers
1. Polymers are made from ethylene and propylene

2. These materials are obtained in the process of refining crude oil
3. Among polymers, polyethylene is a widely used thermoplastic.
4. Plastic is first converted into sheets, powder, resin and pellets, and then used in manufacturing plastic
products
5. Plastic products are preferred because of their strength, flexibility, water and chemical resistance and
low prices
6. Production of plastic polymers started in India in the late fifties and the early sixties using other
organic chemicals.
The National Organic Chemicals Industries Limited (NOCIL)
1. Established in private sector in 1961, started the first naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai
2. The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni, Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra are the major producers of plastic
materials
3. About 75 per cent of these units are in small scale sector.
4. The industry also uses recycled plastics, which constitutes about 30 per cent of the total production.
5. Synthetic fibres are widely used in the manufacturing of fabrics because of their inherent strength,
durability, wash ability, and resistance to shrinkage.
6. Industries manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar,
Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna.
7. Due to its non-biodegradable quality it has emerged as the greatest threat to our environment
8. Hence, use of plastic is being discouraged in different states of India
Industrial Regions in India
• Industries are not evenly distributed in the country.

• Major Industrial Regions (8)
o Mumbai-Pune Region,
o Hugli Region,
o Bangalore- Tamil Nadu Region,
o Gujarat Region
o Chotanagpur Region,
o Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region,
o Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region,
o Kollam-Tiruvantapuram Region
• Minor Industrial Regions (13)
o Ambala-Amritsar
o Saharanpur -Muzaffarnagar -Bijnor
o Indore-Dewas-Ujjain
o Jaipur-Ajmer,
o Kolhapur -South Kannada,
o Northern Malabar
o Middle Malabar
o Adilabad-Nizamabad,
o Allahabad- Varanasi-Mirzapur
o Bhojpur -Munger
o Durg-Raipur
o Bilaspur-Korba
o Brahmaputra valley
• Industrial Districts (15)
o Kanpur
o Hyderabad
o Agra
o Nagpur
o Gwalior
o Bhopal
o Lucknow
o Jalpaigur
o Cuttack
o Gorakhpur
o Aligarh,
o Kota
o Purnia
o Jabalpur
o Bareilly
Several indices are used to identify the clustering of industries, important among them are
o The number of industrial units

o Number of industrial workers
o Quantum of power used for industrial purposes
o Total industrial output
o Value added by manufacturing
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region
1. It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nasik and Solapur
2. Development of this region started with the location of cotton textile industry in Mumbai
3. Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided impetus to the growth of Mumbai port
4. Machineries were imported through this port
5. Hydro-electricity was developed in the Western Ghat region to meet the requirements of this industry
6. With the development of cotton textile industry, chemical industry also developed
7. Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy plants added additional
pull to this region
Hugli Industrial Region
1. Located along the Hugli River, this region extends from Bansberia in the north to Birlanagar in the
south for a distance of about 100 km.
2. It developed with the opening of river port on Hugli
3. Later, Kolkata was connected with interior parts by railway lines and road routes.
4. Development of tea plantations in Assam and northern hills of West Bengal
5. The processing of indigo earlier and jute later coupled with the
6. Opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron ore deposits
7. Of the Chotanagpur plateau, contributed to the industrial development of the region.
8. Cheap labour available from thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa also
contributed to its development
9. Kolkata, being the capital city of British India (1773-1911),
10. Attracted the British capital. The establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of
modern industrial clustering in this region.
11. The major concentration of jute industry is at Haora and Bhatapara.
12. The partition of the country in 1947 adversely affected this industrial region.
13. Cotton textile industry also grew along with jute industry, paper, engineering, textile machinery,
electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and petrochemical industries have also developed
within this region.
14. Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at Konnagar and diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan are
landmarks of this region.
15. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has facilitated the development of a variety of industries
16. Important industrial centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampore, Rishra, Shibpur,
Naihati, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia, Belgurriah,
Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
17. However, industrial growth of this region has slowed down in comparison to other regions.
18. Decline of the jute industry is one of the reasons
Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region
1. This region witnessed most rapid industrial growth in post-Independence period.

2. Till 1960, industries were confined to Bangalore, Salem and Madurai districts but now they have
spread over all the districts of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram
3. Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to the presence of cotton growing areas.
4. Along with cotton mills, loom industry spread very rapidly. Several heavy engineering industries
converged at Bangalore.
5. Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of this
region
Gujarat Industrial Region
1. The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and Vadodara

2. But this region extends upto Valsad and Surat in the south and to Jamnagar in the west.
3. Development of this region is also associated with the location of the cotton textile industry since
1860s.
4. This region became an important textile region with the decline of the cotton textile industry at
Mumbai.
5. Located in cotton growing area, this region has double advantage of the proximity of raw materials as
well as of market.
6. The discovery of oil fields led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar,
Vadodara and Jamnagar.
7. The port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali provided
raw materials to a host of petrochemical industries.
8. Recently, largest petroleum refinery has been set up at Jamnagar.
Chotanagpur Region
1. This region extends over Jharkhand, northern Orissa and western West Bengal and is known for the
heavy metallurgical industries.
2. This region owes its development to the discovery of coal in the Damodar Valley and metallic and
non-metallic minerals in Jharkhand and northern Orissa.
3. Proximity of coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated the location of heavy industries in this region
4. Six large integrated iron and steel plants at Jamshedpur, BurnpurKulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela
are located within this region
5. Densely populated surrounding regions provide cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast market
for its industries.
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region
1. This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district to Kurnool and Prakasam districts in the
south.
2. Industrial development of this region hinges upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports and
developed agriculture and rich reserves of minerals in their hinterlands.
3. Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide energy
4. Ship building industry was started at Vishakhapatnam in 1941
5. Petroleum refinery based on imported petroleum facilitated the growth of several petrochemical
industries
6. One lead-zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district
7. Iron and steel plant at Vishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore
Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region
1. Industries located in this region have shown very fast growth in the recent past
2. This region is located far away from the mineral and power resources
3. Therefore, the industries are light and market-oriented
4. Electronics, light engineering and electrical goods are major industries of this region.
5. Software industry is a recent addition.
6. To the south lies the Agra-Mathura industrial area which specialises in glass and leather goods
7. Mathura with an oil refinery is a petrochemical complex
8. Among industrial centres, mention be made of Gurgaon, Delhi, Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut,
Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura
Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region
1. This industrial region is spread over Tiruvanantapuram, Kollam, Alwaye, Ernakulam and Alappuzha
districts
2. Plantation agriculture and hydropower provide industrial base to this region

3. Located far away from the mineral belt of the country
4. Agricultural products processing and market oriented light industries predominate the region
5. Among them, cotton textile, sugar, rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser and fish-based
industries are important.
6. Location of petroleum refinery at Kochchi has added a vista of new industries to this region
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

Road Transport
1. India has one of the largest road networks in the world with a total length of 33.1 lakh km
2. It is second largest in the world about 85 per cent of passenger and 70
3. Per cent of freight traffic are carried by roads every year.
Road
1. Road transport is relatively suitable for shorter distance travel.

2. Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen and consolidate his empire from the Indus
Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal.
3. This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the British period, connecting Calcutta and
Peshawar.
4. At present, it extends from Amritsar to Kolkata.
5. It is bifurcated into 2 segments: (a) National Highway (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amritsar
(c) NH- 2 from Delhi to Kolkata.
6. The first serious attempt was made in 1943 when ‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn.
7. This plan could not be implemented due to lack of coordination among the princely states and British
India.
8. After Independence, twenty-year road plan (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads
in India.
National Highways
1. The main roads which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government are known as the
National Highways.
2. These roads are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and material in
strategic areas.
3. The length of the National Highways has increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 65,769 km in 2005
4. The National Highways constitute only two per cent of the total road length but carry 40 per cent of
the road traffic.
5. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was operationalised in 1995.
6. It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport.
7. National Highways Development Projects
8. NHAI has taken up some major projects in the country under different phases
Golden Quadrilateral
• It comprises construction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, high density traffic corridor,
• To connect India’s four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai Kolkata.
• With the construction of Golden Quadrilateral, the time-distance and cost of movement among the
mega cities of India will be considerably minimised.
North-South and East-West Corridors
• North-South corridor aims at connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with Kanyakumari in
Tamilnadu (including Kochchi-Salem Spur) with 4,076kmlong road.
Other Roads
1. Other roads include Border Roads and International Highways.

2. The Border Road Organisation (BRO) was established in May 1960
3. For accelerating economic development and strengthening defence preparedness
4. Through rapid and coordinated improvement of strategically important roads
5. Along the northern and north-eastern boundary of the Country
6. It is a premier multifaceted construction agency.
7. It has constructed roads in high altitude mountainous terrain joining Chandigarh with Manali
(Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh).
8. This road runs at an average altitude of 4,270 metres above the mean sea level.
Rail Transport
1. Indian railways network is one of the longest in the world.

2. Mahatma Gandhi said, the Indian railways “brought people of diverse cultures together to contribute
to India’s freedom struggle.”
3. Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, when a line was constructed from Bombay to Thane covering
a distance of 34 km.
4. Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country.
5. In India, the railway system has been divided into sixteen zones.
Railway Zone Headquarters
Central Mumbai CST
Eastern Kolkata
East Central Hajipur
East Coast Bhubaneswar
Northern New Delhi
North Central Allahabad

North Eastern Gorakhpur
North East Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati)
North Western Jaipur
Southern Chennai
South Central Secunderabad
South Eastern Kolkata
South East Central Bilaspur
South Western Hubli
Western Mumbai (Church Gate)
West Central Jabalpur
Konkan Railway
1. One of the important achievements of Indian Railways has been the construction of Konkan Railway
in 1998.
2. It is 760 km long rail route connecting Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka.
3. Asia’s largest tunnel which is nearly 6.5km long, also lies on this route.
4. The states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka are partners in this undertaking.
The famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race (VALLANKALI) is also held in the backwaters.
Oceanic Routes
1. India has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517 km, including islands

2. Twelve major and 185 minor ports provide infrastructural support to these routes.
3. Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70 per cent by value moves through
ocean routes.
4. Air Transportation
5. Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little
distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini.
6. But its real development took place in post-Independent period
7. The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical
communication services in the Indian Air Space
8. The authority manages 126 airports including 11 international, 86 domestic and 29 civil enclaves at
defence air fields.
Air India
1. Air India provides International Air Services for both passengers and cargo traffic
2. In 2005, it carried 12.2 million passengers and 4.8 lakh metric tonnes of cargo.
3. About 52 per cent of the total air traffic was handled only at Mumbai and Delhi airports.
4. Pawan Hans is the helicopter service operating in hilly areas and is widely used by tourists in north-
eastern sector.
Oil and Gas Pipelines
1. Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and gases over long
distances
2. Even solids can also be transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry.
3. It was incorporated in 1959 as a company. Asia’s first cross country pipeline covering a distance of
1,157 km
4. Constructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar.
5. It was further extended up to Kanpur in 1966
6. Another extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western region of India of which
Ankleshwar-Koyali
7. Mumbai High Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) are most important
8. Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) has been
constructed
9. It supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.
10. OIL is in the process of constructing of 660 km long pipeline from Numaligarh to Siliguri.
Mass Communication System
1. Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay.

2. Since then, it gained immense popularity and changed the sociocultural life of people.
3. Government took this opportunity and brought this popular mode of communication under its control
in 1930
4. Under the Indian Broadcasting System.
5. It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashwani in 1957
6. All India Radio broadcasts a variety of programmes related to information, education and
entertainment
7. Special news bulletins are also broadcast at specific occasions like session of parliament and state
legislatures.
Television (T.V.)
1. Television broadcasting has emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium

2. For disseminating information and educating masses.
3. Initially, the T.V. services were limited
4. Only to the National Capital where it began in 1959.
5. After 1972, several other centres became operational
6. In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR)
7. Got a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD).
8. After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational,
9. Common National Programmes (CNP)
Satellite Communication
1. Satellites are mode of communication in themselves as well as they regulate the use of other means
of communication.
2. However, use of satellite in getting a continuous and synoptic view of larger area
3. Has made satellite communication very vital for the country due to the economic and strategic
reasons.
4. Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast, monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance of
border areas, etc.
5. Satellite system in India can be grouped into two
6. Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)
7. Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS)

8. The INSAT, which was established in 1983,
9. Is a multipurpose satellite system for telecommunication
10. Meteorological observation and for various other data and programmes
11. The IRS satellite system became operational
12. With the launching of IRS-IA in March 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia.
13. India has also developed her own Launching Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle).
14. These satellites collect data in several spectral bands and transmit them to the ground stations for
various uses.
15. The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition of data
and its processing.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
1. The capacity of Indian ports increased from 20 million tonnes of cargo handling in 1951 to more than
500 million tonnes at present.
2. Some of the Indian ports along with their hinterlands are as follows
Kandla Port
1. Situated at the head of Gulf of Kuchchh has been developed as a major port
2. To cater to the needs of western and north western parts of the country
3. Also to reduce the pressure at Mumbai port.
4. The port is specially designed to receive large quantities of petroleum and petroleum products and
fertiliser.
5. The offshore terminal at Vadinar has been developed to reduce the pressure at Kandla port.
6. Demarcation of the boundary of the hinterland would be difficult as it is not fixed over space.
7. In most of the cases, hinterland of one port may overlap with that of the other.
Mumbai
1. Mumbai is a natural harbour and the biggest port of the country.

2. The port is situated closer to the general routes from the countries of Middle East,
3. Mediterranean countries, North Africa, North America and Europe where the major share of country’s
overseas trade is carried out.
4. The port is 20 km long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths and has the country’s largest oil terminal.
5. M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P. and parts of Rajasthan constitute the main hinterlands of Mumbai
ports.
6. Jawaharlal Nehru Port
7. Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva was developed as a satellite port to relieve the pressure
8. At the Mumbai port.
9. It is the largest container port in India.
Marmagao Port
1. Marmagao Port, situated at the entrance of the Zuari estuary

2. Is a natural harbour in Goa.
3. It gained significance after its remodelling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.
4. Construction of Konkan railway has considerably extended the hinterland of this
5. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra constitute its hinterland.
6. New Mangalore Port
7. New Mangalore Portis located in the state of Karnataka and caters to the needs of the export of iron-
ore and iron-concentrates.
8. It also handles fertilisers, petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yarn, granite stone,
molasses, etc.
9. Karnataka is the major hinterland for this port.
Kochchi Port
1. Kochchi Port, situated at the head of Vembanad Kayal, popularly known as the “Queen of the Arabian
Sea,” is also a natural harbour.
2. This port has an advantageous location being close to the Suez-Colombo route.
3. It caters to the needs of Kerala, southern Karnataka and south western Tamil Nadu.
Kolkata Port
1. Kolkata Portis located on the Hugli River, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal.
2. Like the Mumbai port, this port was also developed by the British.
3. Kolkata had the initial advantage of being the capital of British India.
4. The port has lost its significance considerably on account of the diversion of exports to the other ports
such as Vishakhapatnam
5. Paradwip and its satellite port, Haldia.
6. Kolkata port is also confronted with the problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli River
7. Which provides a link to the sea
8. Its hinterland covers U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim and the north-eastern states
9. Apart from this, it also extends ports facilities to our neighbouring land-locked countries such as
Nepal and Bhutan.
Haldia Port
1. Haldia Port is located 105 km downstream from Kolkata.

2. It has been constructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkata port.
3. . It handles bulk cargo like iron ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and fertilisers, jute, jute
products, cotton and cotton yarn, etc.
4. Paradwip Port
5. Paradwip Portis situated in the Mahanadi delta,
6. About 100 km from Cuttack. It has the deepest harbour especially suited to handle very large vessels.
7. It has been developed mainly to handle large-scale export of iron-ore.
8. Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are the parts of its hinterland.
9. Visakhapatnam Port
10. Visakhapatnam Port in Andhra Pradesh is a land-locked harbour,
11. Connected to the sea by a channel cut through solid rock and sand
Chennai Port
1. Chennai Portis one of the oldest ports on the eastern coast.

2. It is an artificial harbour built in 1859.
3. It is not much suitable for large ships because of the shallow waters near the coast. Tamil Nadu and
Pondicherry are its hinterland
Ennore
1. Ennore, a newly developed port in Tamil Nadu, has been constructed 25 km north of Chennai to
relieve the pressure at Chennai port.
Tuticorin Port
1. Tuticorin Port was also developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai port.
2. It deals with a variety of cargo including coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals and
petroleum products.
Agriculture
1. Primary activities include all those connected with extraction and production of natural resources.
2. Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of these resources.
3. Agriculture is a primary activity. It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of
livestock.
4. The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land
5. Sericulture commercial rearing of silk worms. It may supplement the income of the farmer.
6. Agriculture The science and art of cultivation on the soil, raising crops and rearing livestock. It is also
called farming
7. Pisciculture breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds
8. Viticulture Cultivation of grapes.
9. Horticulture Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use.
TYPES OF FARMING
1. These are subsistence farming and commercial farming
2. Organic Farming In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of
chemicals. No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.
3. Intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more
labour.
4. Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.
5. Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the world Jhumming North-East
India Milpa-Mexico Roca- Brazil. Ladang- Malaysia
6. Shifting cultivation is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of
Southeast Asia and Northeast India.
7. Nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of
India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.
8. Herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water,
9. In commercial grain farming crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are
common commercially grown grains.
Major areas
1. Temperate grasslands of North America
2. Europe and Asia.
3. Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.
4. Mixed farming the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
5. Practised in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
6. Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew,
rubber, banana or cotton are grown.
7. Found in the tropical regions of the world. Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka
are some examples.
8. Rice: Rice is the major food crop of the world.

9. Diet of the tropical and sub-tropical regions.
10. Needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall
11. Grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water
12. China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt
13. Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at the
time of harvest.
14. Thrives best in well drained loamy soil
15. Grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India. In India it is grown in
winter.
16. Hardy crop that needs low rainfall
17. High to Moderate temperature and adequate rainfall.
18. Juwan, bare and rage are grown in India. Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.
19. Do you know? Maize is also known as corn. Various colourful varieties of maize are found across the
world.
20. Maize: Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine.
21. Well-drained fertile soils. Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and
Mexico.
22. Cotton: Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days and
bright sunshine for its growth.
23. Grows best on black and alluvial soils.
24. China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the leading producers of cotton
25. Jute: Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.

26. Grows well on alluvial soil
27. Requires high temperature
28. Heavy rainfall and humid climate.
29. Grown in the tropical areas.
30. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute.
31. Coffee: Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well drained loamy soil.
32. Hill slopes are more suitable for growth of this crop.
33. Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.
34. Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations.

35. Requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its tender
leaves.
36. It needs well-drained loamy soils and gentle slopes.
37. Labour in large number is required to pick the leaves. Kenya, India, China, Sri Lanka produce the best
quality tea in the world.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Primitive Subsistence Farming

1. It is jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
2. Pamlou in Manipur
3. Dipa in Bastar district of Chattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
4. ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central America
5. ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela
6. Masole’ in Central Africa
7. Ladang’ in Indonesia
8. Ray’ in Vietnam
9. ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh,
10. Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh
11. ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Orissa
12. ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats
13. ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan
14. Khil’ in the Himalayan belt
15. Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand
16. ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region
Intensive Subsistence Farming

1. Practised in areas of high population pressure on land
2. Labour-intensive farming
Commercial Farming
1. Use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seed
2. Chemical fertilisers,
3. Rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab
4. In Orissa, it is a subsistence crop
5. Plantation is also a type of commercial farming
6. A single crop is grown on a large area
7. Plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry
8. Cover large tracts of land
9. Using capital intensive inputs
10. With the help of migrant labourers.
11. Tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc... Are important plantation crops
12. Tea in Assam and North Bengal
13. Coffee in Karnataka are some of the important plantation crops
14. Production is mainly for market
15. A well-developed network of transport and communication connecting the plantation areas, processing
industries and markets plays an important role
CROPPING PATTERN
1. India has three cropping seasons — Rabi, kharif and zaid
2. Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December
3. Harvested in summer from April to June
4. Important Rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard
5. Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh are
important for the production of wheat and other Rabi crops.
6. Availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate cyclones helps in the
success of these crops
7. Success of the green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has
also been an important factor
8. Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon
9. Harvested in September-October
10. Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean
11. Rice-growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
12. Paddy has also become an important crop of Punjab and Haryana
13. Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are grown in a year
a. Aus, Aman and Boro.
Zaid season
1. Between the Rabi and the kharif seasons

2. Short season during the summer
3. Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber
4. Vegetables and fodder crops
5. Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow.
Major Crops
Rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.
Rice
1. Staple food crop of a majority of the people in India

2. Second largest producer of rice in the world after China
3. Kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above
100 cm
4. Grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.
Wheat
1. Second most important cereal crop

2. Second most important cereal crop
3. Rabi crop requires a cool growing season
4. Bright sunshine at the time of ripening
5. Requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season
6. Two important wheat-growing zones
7. The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest
8. Black soil region of the Deccan
9. Major wheat-producing states are Punjab
10. Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh
Millets
1. Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India
2. Known as coarse grains
3. They have very high nutritional value
4. Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage
5. Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production.
6. Rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation.
7. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh
8. Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil
9. Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana
10. Grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils
11. Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu.
12. Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh are also important for the
production of ragi.
Maize:
1. Used both as food and fodder.

2. A kharif crop
3. Temperature between 21°C to 27°C
4. Grows well in old alluvial soil.
5. States like Bihar maize is grown in Rabi season also
6. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh
Pulses
1. India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.
2. Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.
3. Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
4. Being leguminous crops
5. All these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air
6. Mostly grown in rotation with other crops
7. Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
Karnataka
8. Food Crops other than Grains
Sugarcane
1. It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop

2. It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C
3. Annual rainfall between 75cm and 100cm
4. Grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
5. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil
6. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana
Oil Seeds
1. Largest producer of oilseeds in the world

2. Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the
country
3. Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, and coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor
seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower
4. Edible and used as cooking mediums
5. Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in the country
6. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of groundnut followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and
Maharashtra
7. Linseed and mustard are Rabi crops
8. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and Rabi crop in south India
9. Castor seed is grown both as Rabi and kharif crop
Tea
1. Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture

2. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile well-
drained so
3. Grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile well-drained soil
4. Rich in humus and organic matter
5. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year
6. Processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness
7. States are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
8. Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing states in
the country.
9. India is the leading producer as well as exporter of tea in the world
Coffee
1. Four per cent of the world’s coffee production

2. Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality
3. The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country
4. Cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills
5. Cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Horticulture Crops:
1. India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world

2. India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits
3. Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,
4. Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya)
5. Bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu
6. Lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
7. Pineapples of Meghalaya
8. Grapes of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
9. Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
10. India produces about 13 per cent of the world’s vegetables.
11. Producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato
Non-Food Crops
Rubber:
1. It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas
2. Moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C.
3. Mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicabar islands and Garo hills of
Meghalaya
4. India ranks fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers
Fibre Crops
1. Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India
2. Obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves specially mulberry
3. Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture
Cotton:
1. India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant
2. Cotton is one of the main raw materials for cotton textile industry
3. India is the third-largest producer of cotton in the world
4. Grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires high temperature, light
rainfall
5. Kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature
6. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh
Jute
1. Golden fibre.
2. Grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year.
3. High temperature is required during the time of growth
4. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states
5. It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts.
6. Due to its high cost
7. It is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon
Technological and Institutional Reforms

1. The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology
2. White Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the lot of Indian
agriculture.
3. In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated,
4. Included both institutional and technical reforms
5. Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease, establishment of Grameen
banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest
6. Kissan Credit Card (KCC)
7. Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS)
8. Special weather bulletins
Agricultural
1. Vinobha Bhave undertook padyatrato spread Gandhiji’s message covered almost the entire country
2. Land to be distributed among 80 land-less villagers. This act was known as ‘Bhoodan’.
3. Villages offered to distribute some villages among the landless. It was known as Gramdan.
4. This Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinobha Bhave is also known as the Blood-less Revolution.
Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and

output
1. Registered a declining trend from 1951 onwards
2. Its share in providing employment and livelihood to the population continues to be as high as 63 per
cent in 2001
3. Government of India made concerted efforts to modernise agriculture
4. Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
5. Agricultural universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centres
6. Horticulture development
7. research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast
FOODSECURITY
1. National food security system
2. Consists of two components
3. (a) buffer stock
4. (b) Public distribution system (PDS).
5. Food Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for procuring and stocking food grains
6. Distribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS)
7. The FCI procures food grains from the farmers at the government announced minimum support price
(MSP)
8. Provide subsidies on agriculture inputs such as fertilizers, power and water
9. Excessive and imprudent use of fertilizers and water has led to waterlogging, salinity and depletion of
essential micronutrients in the soil
10. The high MSP, subsidies in input and committed FCI purchases have distorted the cropping pattern
11. Wheat and paddy crops are being grown more for the MSP they get
12. Punjab and Haryana are foremost examples
13. Serious imbalance in inter-crop parities.
14. Each district and block can be made self-sufficient in food grain production if government provides
proper agricultural infrastructure
15. Credit linkages and also encourages the use of latest techniques.
16. Food crop with a better growth potential in that particular area must be encouraged.
17. Creation of necessary infrastructure like irrigation facilities, availability of electricity
18. There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to cultivation of fruits, vegetables, oil-
seeds and industrial crops
19. Led to the reduction in net sown area under cereals and pulses
Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

1. Despite being an important producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and spices our
agricultural products are not able to compete with the developed countries
2. Because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries
3. Proper thrust should be given to the improvement of the condition of marginal and small farmers
4. It has caused land degradation due to overuse of chemicals, drying aquifers and vanishing biodiversity
5. The keyword today is “gene revolution”. This includes genetic engineering.
6. Genetic engineering is recognised as a powerful supplement in inventing new hybrid varieties of
seeds
Soil
1. Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface.
2. The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and
other life-forms and time
3. Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air.
4. ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral
matter, nutrients and water,
5. ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and contains matter derived
from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it,
6. ‘Horizon C’ is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil formation
process and eventually forms the above two layers
7. This arrangement of layers is known as the soil profile
8. Underneath these three horizons is the rock which is also known as the parent rock or the bedrock
CLASSIFICATION OFSOILS
1. In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups – Urvara and Usara
2. Fertile and sterile
3. In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and
external features such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture content in the soil
4. In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and
external features such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture content in the soil
5. Sandy, clayey, silty and loam, etc.
6. On the basis of colour -Red, yellow, black, ET
Soil Survey of India
1. Established in 1956, The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning an Institute under
the control of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
2. The ICAR has classified the Indian soils on the basis of their nature and character as per the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy
(i) Inceptisols
(ii) Entisols
(iii) Alfisols
(iii) Alfisols
(iv) Vertisols
(vi) Ultisols
(vi) Mollisols
ICAR classification on the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location,

(i) Alluvial soils
(ii) Black soils
(ii) Black soils
(iv) Laterite soils
(v) Arid soils
(vi) Saline soils
(vii) Peaty soils
(viii) Forest soils
Alluvial Soils
1. Widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys

2. 40 per cent of the total area of the country
3. Depositional soils
4. Transported and deposited by rivers and streams
5. Transported and deposited by rivers and streams
6. Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys
7. Vary in nature from sandy loam to clay
8. Rich in potash but poor in phosphorous
9. Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have developed
Khadarand Bhangar.
1. Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by depositing
fine silts
2. Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains
3. Khadarand Bhangarsoils contain calcareous concretions (Kankars
4. More loamy and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and the Brahamaputra valley
5. More loamy and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and the Brahamaputra valley
6. Colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash grey
7. Shades depend on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, time taken for attaining
maturity
8. Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
Black Soil
1. Includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil
Nadu.
2. Western part of the Deccan Plateau
3. And the north western part of the Deccan Plateau,
4. Western part of the Deccan Plateau,
5. Also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil
6. Generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
7. Generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
8. There occurs a kind of ‘self-ploughing’
9. The black soil retains the moisture for a very long time
10. Helps the crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season
11. Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime and also contain potash
12. Lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
13. Soil ranges from deep black to grey
Red and Yellow Soil
1. Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part
of the Deccan Plateau
2. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil
3. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa and Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the
middle Ganga plain
4. Develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks
5. Fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile
6. Coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility
7. Generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus
Laterite Soil
1. Derived from the Latin word ‘Later ‘which means brick

2. Develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall
3. Result of intense leaching due to tropical rains
4. With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are
left behind
5. Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature.
6. While iron oxide and potash are in excess
7. Not suitable for cultivation
8. Application of manures and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation
9. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like
cashewnut
10. Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction
11. Mainly developed in the higher areas of the peninsular plateau
12. Commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Orissa and
Assam
Arid Soils
1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour

2. Generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.
3. The salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water
4. Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus
5. Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate
6. Content is normal
7. Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the increasing calcium content
downwards
8. The ‘Kankar ’layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water,
9. The soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant growth
10. Characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid topography
11. Soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter
Saline Soils
1. Also known as Usara soils

2. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium
3. Potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile,
4. Do not support any vegetative growth
5. More salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage
6. Occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas
7. Structure ranges from sandy to loamy
8. Lack in nitrogen and calcium
9. Saline soils are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban
areas of West Bengal
10. Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust
11. Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils.
12. Areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation, especially in areas of green revolution,
the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline
13. Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which results in the
deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil.
14. Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem of salinity in the soil
Peaty Soils
1. Found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity
2. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent
3. Soils are normally heavy and black in colour
4. Occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of
West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu
Forest Soils
1. Formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available

2. They are loamy and silty on valley sides
3. Coarse-grained in the upper slopes
4. In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience denudation
5. Acidic with low humus content
6. Soils found in the lower valleys are fertile
SOIL DEGRADATION
1. Decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and
misuse
2. Soil degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India
3. In the soil. Peaty Soils they are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity,
4. Where there is a good growth of vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these
areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic content to the soil.
5. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are normally heavy and black in
colour. At many places, they are alkaline also.
6. It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
7. Forest Soils As the name suggests, forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are formed.
8. They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the snow-bound areas of the
Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are acidic with low humus content.
9. The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile. It is evident from the foregoing discussions that soils, their
texture, quality and nature are vital for the germination and growth of plant and vegetation including crops.
10. Soils are living systems. Like any other organism, they too develop and decay, get degraded, respond to proper
treatment if administered in time.
11. These have serious repercussions on other components of the system of which they themselves are important
parts.
SOIL DEGRADATION IN BROAD SENSE

1. In a broad sense, soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility,
2. When the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse.
3. Soil degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India. The degree of soil
degradation varies from place to place according to the topography, wind velocity and amount of the rainfall.
Destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion.
4. The soil forming processes and the erosional processes of running water and wind go on simultaneously
5. There is a balance between these two processes.
6. Sometimes, such a balance is disturbed by natural or human factors, leading to a greater rate of removal of soil
Wind erosion
1. Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-arid regions

2. In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion by running water is more significant
3. Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after a heavy shower and the soil removal is not easily
noticeable.
4. Harmful since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil.
Gully erosion
1. Gully erosion is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the agricultural lands into
small fragments and make them unfit for cultivation
2. A region with a large number of deep gullies or ravines is called a badland topography
Ravines
1. Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal basin.

2. The country is losing about 8,000 hectares of land to ravines every year
Others
1. Eroded materials are carried down to rivers and they lower down their carrying capacity, and cause
frequent floods and damage to agricultural lands
2. Deforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion
3. Plants keep soils bound in locks of roots
4. They also add humus to the soil by shedding leaves and twigs
5. Their effect on soil erosion are more in hilly parts of the country
6. A fairly large area of arable land in the irrigated zones of India is becoming saline because of over
irrigation
7. The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the surface and destroys its fertility
8. This problem is common in all the command areas of the river valley projects, which were the first
beneficiaries of the Green Revolution
9. About half of the total land of India is under some degree of degradation.
Ways to curb soil erosion
1. The first step in any rational solution is to check open cultivable lands on slopes from farming
2. And with a slope gradient of 15 - 25 per cent should not be used
3. Terraces should carefully be made.
4. Should be regulated and controlled by educating villagers about the consequences. Contour bonding,
Contour terracing
5. Prevent gully erosion and control their formation
6. Constructing a series of check dams.
7. Special attention should be made to control headward extension of gullies
8. In arid and semi-arid areas, protect cultivable lands from encroachment by sand dunes through
developing shelter belts of trees and agro-forestry.
9. Lands not suitable for cultivation should be converted into pastures for grazing.
10. Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the Government of India, has prepared a number of plans
for soil conservation in different parts of the country
11. Land use maps should be prepared and lands should be put to right uses
Primary Activities
People engaged in primary activities are called red collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.
Economic activities -Human activities which generate income
HUNTING AND GATHERING
Gathering is practised
1. High latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile
2. Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the
interior parts of Southeast Asia
3. The name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavour is gone? It is called Chicle — it is made
from the milky juice of zapota tree.
PASTORALISM
1. Domestication of animals
2. People living in different climatic conditions selected and domesticated animals found in those
regions
Nomadic Herding
1. Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on
animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
2. They move from one place to another along with their livestock, depending on the amount and
quality of pastures and water.
3. Each nomadic community occupies a well-identified territory as a matter of tradition.
4. In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important livestock
5. While in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camel are reared
6. In the Arctic and sub-Arctic areas, reindeer are the most important animals.
7. Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions
8. The core region extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa eastwards across the Arabian
peninsula into Mongolia and Central China.
9. The second region extends over the tundra region of Eurasia
10. The second region extends over the tundra region of Eurasia
Transhumance
1. The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summers and again from
mountain pastures to plain areas during winters
2. In mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate from plains
to the mountains in summers and to the plains from the high altitude pastures in winters.
Commercial Livestock Rearing

1. Commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital intensive
2. Commercial livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practised on
permanent ranches.
3. These ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to
regulate the grazing.
4. When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel.
5. This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is reared
6. Important animals include sheep, cattle, goats and horses
7. Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported to
different world markets. Rearing of animals in ran
8. New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and United States of America are important countries
where commercial livestock rearing is practised
AGRICULTURE
Subsistence Agriculture
In which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two
categories
1. Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
2. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
1. Widely practised by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and Central America and
south East Asia
2. The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil.
3. Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture
4. One of the major problems of shifting cultivation is that the cycle of jhumbecomes less and less due
to loss of fertility in different parcels.
It is also known as
Milpa in Central America and Mexico
Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

1. Largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia
2. There are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture
3. Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation
4. This type of agriculture is characterised by dominance of the rice crop.
5. Land holdings are very small due to the high density of population.
6. Farmers work with the help of family labour leading to intensive use of land.
7. Use of machinery is limited and most of the agricultural operations are done by manual labour
8. Farm yard manure is used to maintain the fertility of the soil.
9. The yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity is low
10. Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy:
11. Wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and
North Japan
12. In India wheat is grown in western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains
13. Millets are grown in dry parts of western and southern India.
Plantation Agriculture
1. Introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics
2. Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane,
bananas and pineapples
Characteristic features
1. Large estates or plantations
2. Large capital investment,
3. Managerial and technical support
4. Scientific methods of cultivation
5. Single crop specialisation
6. Cheap labour
7. A good system of transportation
Background
1. The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa.

2. The British set up large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka
3. Rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies.
4. Spanish and Americans invested heavily in
5. Coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines
6. Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by Europeans
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation
1. Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlatitudes
2. Wheat is the principal crop
3. Other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown.
4. The size of the farm is very large, therefore entire operations of cultivation from ploughing to
harvesting are mechanised
5. There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.
This type of agriculture is best developed
1. Eurasian steppes
2. The Canadian and American Prairies
3. The Canadian and American Prairies
4. The Velds of South Africa
5. The Australian Downs
6. The Canterbury Plains of New Zealand
Mixed Farming
1. Found in the highly developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western Europe, Eastern North America,
parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents
2. Mixed farms are moderate in size and usually the crops associated with it are
3. Wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops
4. Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming
5. Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility
6. Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and animal husbandry
7. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income along with crops
8. Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery
9. Building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of
the farmers
Dairy Farming
1. Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals.
2. It is highly capital intensive
3. Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milching machines add to the cost of dairy
farming.
4. Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
5. There is no off season during the year as in the case of crop raising
6. It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood market for fresh
milk and dairy products.
7. The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation processes
have increased the duration of storage of various dairy products.
There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming
1. The largest is North Western Europe
2. Second is Canada
3. The third belt includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania
Mediterranean Agriculture
1. Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised commercial agriculture
2. It is practised in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean
3. In North Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast
4. Southern California
5. Central Chile, south western parts of South Africa and south and south western parts of Australia.
6. This region is an important supplier of citrus fruits.
7. Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region.
8. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants
9. This region also produces olives and figs.
10. The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables
are grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.
Market Gardening and Horticulture
1. Market gardening and horticulture specialise in the cultivation of high value crops
2. Vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets.
3. Farms are small
4. Located where there is good transportation
5. Links with the urban centre
6. High income group of consumers is located.
7. It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds,
fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions.
8. This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of
9. North West Europe
10. North eastern United States of America
11. Mediterranean regions
12. The Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and horticultural crops especially tulips, which
are flown to all major cities of Europe
Truck farming
1. The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only,
2. This requires heavy capital investment in terms of building, machinery for various operations,
3. Veterinary services and heating and lighting.
4. One of the important features of poultry farming and cattle rearing is breed selection and
scientific breeding.
Co-operative Farming
1. Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming,
2. Sell the products at the most favourable terms and help in processing of quality products at
cheaper rates.
Co-operative movement
1. Has been successful in many western European countries
2. Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc.
3. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member
of a cooperative.
Collective Farming
1. Based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour.
2. Collective farming or the model of Kolkhozwas introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve
upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural
production for self- sufficiency.
3. The farmers pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour.
4. Yearly targets are set by the government and the produce is also sold to the state at fixed prices.
5. Produce in excess of the fixed amount is distributed among the members or sold in the market.
6. The farmers have to pay taxes on the farm produces, hired machinery
7. This type of farming was introduced in former Soviet Union under the socialist regime which
was adopted by the socialist countries
8. After its collapse, these have already been modified.
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CONTENT
Basic concepts 2
Earth's Interior 8
Important geographical phenomenon 13
Plate tectonic theory 18
Different types of folds and end genetic forces 21
Faults and resultant landforms with that 27
Erosion and deposition 39
Landform 44
Groundwater 52
Low sedimentary coast 61
Climatology introduction to atmosphere 71
Solar radiation heat balance and temperature 77
Atmospheric circulation and weather system 16
Seasonal wind 93
Atmospheric humidity and condensation 103
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Basic concepts (Geomorphology)

To understand the interior of the Earth
1. Crust – The outermost layer, or shell, of the earth (or any other differentiated)
planet. Earth’s crust is generally defined as the part of the Earth above the Mohorovivic
discontinuity. It represents less than one per cent of Earth’s total.
2. Mantle – The zone of earth’s interior between the base line of the crust (the
Mohorovivic (Moho) discontinuity) and the core. The mantle has an average density of
about 3.3g/cm3 and accounts for about 68 per cent of earth’s mass. The mantle lies
between the crust and the core of the earth. The lower layers of mantle are floored by the
Gutenberg discontinuity.
3. Core – The central part of the earth below the depth of 2900 Km.
4. Mohorovivic (Moho) Discontinuity – The first global seismic discontinuity below the
surface of the Earth. It lies at a depth varying from about 5 to 10 km beneath the ocean
floor to about 35 km beneath the continents, commonly referred to as the Moho.
5. Vulcanicity – The movement of magma, both into earth’s crust (intrusion) and onto
Earth’s surface.
6. Magma – A mobile silicate melt, which can contain suspended crystals and dissolved
gasses as well as liquid.
7. Silicate (silicate minerals) – A mineral containing silicon oxygen tetrahedral, in which
four oxygen atoms surround each silicon.
8. Seismology – It is the science which study various aspect of seismic waves, generated
during the occurrence earthquakes.
9. Seismic waves – The different types of tremors and waves generated during the
occurrence of an earth quake are called seismic waves.
10. Seismograph – Seismic waves are recorded with the help of an instrument known as
seismograph.
11. Sial – A general term for the silica – rich rocks that form the continental masses.
12. Sima - A general term for the magnesium – rich igneous rocks (basalt, gabbro and
peridotite) of the ocean basin.

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13. Nife – It is located just below ‘sima’ layer.this layer is composed of nickel (NI) and
ferrium (Fe).
14. Lithosphere –It is having thickness of about 100 km is mostly composed of granites.
Silica and aluminium are dominant constituents. Average density is 3.5.
15. Pyrosphere – It stretches for a thickness of 2780 km having an average density of 5.6.
The dominant rock is Basalt.
To understand the continents and ocean basins
1. Continent - A large landmass, from 20 to 60 km thick, composed mostly of granitic
rock. Continents rise abruptly above the deep – ocean floor and include the marginal areas
submerged beneath sea level. Examples – the African continent, the Asiatic continent, the
North American and South American continent, etc.
2. Basin – A depression into which the surrounding area drains.
3. Plate- The rigid lithospheric slabs or rigid and solid crustal layers are tectonically
called plates.
4. Plate tectonics – The whole mechanism of the evolution, nature and motion of plates
and resultant reaction.
5. Constructive plate margins- these are also called as ‘divergent plate margins’ or
‘accreting plate margins’. Constructive plate margins (boundaries) represents zones of
divergence where her is continues upwelling of molten materials (lava) and new oceanic
crust is continuously formed.
6. Destructive Plate margins – these are also called as ‘consuming plate margins’ or
‘convergent plate margin’ because two plates move towards each other or two plates
converge along a line and leading edge of one plate overrides the other plate and the
overridden pate is subducted or thrust into the mantle and thus part of the crust (plate) is
lost in the mantle.
7. Sea floor spreading – The theory of that the sea floor spreads laterally away from the
oceanic ridge as new lithosphere is created along the crest of the ridge by igneous activity.
8. Pangaea - About 700million years ago all the land masses were united together in the
form of one single giant land mass known as Pangaea.
9. Isostasy – The continental crust of earth has a visible part above the surface and
lower, in visible one. The balance between these two is Isostasy. If part of the upper
surface is removed by erosion, the continental crust will rise to offset this erosion, at least

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in part. Section of the continental crust have been pushed down by the weight of glacial
ice, the extent of depression varying with the thickness of ice, and the density of the
material below. It is believed that the critical size for an ice cap to depress a landmass is a
500km diameter. Landmass will rise again if the ice melts.
To understand the Movement of Earth
1. Endogenetic forces – the forces coming from within the earth are called as
Endogenetic forces which cause two types of movement in the earth viz (i) Horizontal
movement and (ii) vertical movement
2. Exogenetic forces – it applies to the processes which occur at or near the earth’s
surface.
3. Folds – Wave – like bands are formed in the crustal rocks due tangential compressive
force resulting from m horizontal movement caused by the Endogenetic force originating
deep within the earth. Such bands are called folds.
4. Faults - A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks wherein the rocks are displaced along
a plane called as fault plane.
5. Plate tectonics – the study of whole mechanism of evolution, nature and motion of
plates, deformation within plates and interaction of plate margin with each other is
collectively called as plate tectonics.
6. Volcano – A land form at the end of a conduit or pipe which rises from the below the
crust and vents to the surface. Magma rises and collect in a magma chamber deep below,
resulting in eruptions that are effusive or explosive forming the mountain/plateau
landform.
To understand mountain building
1. Mountain – A general term for any land mass that stands above its surrounding. In
the stricter geological sense, a mountain belt is a highly deformed part of the earth’s crust
that has been injected with igneous intrusion and the deeper part of which have been
metamorphosed. The topography of Young Mountain is high, but erosion can reduce Old
Mountain to flat low land.
2. Geosyncline – A subsiding part of the lithosphere in which thousands of metres of
sediment accumulate.
To understanding Weathering and Mass movement

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1. Weathering – the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ, it’s a

static process.
2. Mass Movement (mass wasting) – Disintegrated and fragmented rock materials due
to mechanism of weathering process (mechanical, chemical, biotic and biochemical).
3. Landslide – a general term for relatively rapid types of mass movement such as
debris flows, debris slides, rockslide, and slumps.
4. Slump –It involves intermittent sliding of rock fragments, rock blocks or soil down
slope along a curve plane caused by rotational movement and displaced blocks (whether
rocks blocks or soil blocks) cover very short distance.
5. Rock slide – its most significant of all types of slides wherein large rock blocks slide
down the hillslope.
6. Creep – very slow and imperceptible movement of materials (colluviums) is called
creep.
To understand erosion
1. Erosion – the processes that loosen sediment and move it from one place to another
on earth’s surface. Agents of erosion include running water, ice, wind, sea waves ,
underground water, and gravity.
2. Denudation – A general term that refers to all processes that cause degradation of
the landscape weathering, mass movement, erosion, and transport.
To understand drainage systems
1. Drainage – An integrated system of tributaries and trunk stream, which collect and
funnel surface water to the sea, a lake, or some other body of water.
2. Stream – long, narrow body of flowing water occupying a stream channel and moving
to lower levels under the force of gravity.
3. Drainage pattern – the drainage pattern means the ‘form’ (geometrical forms) of the
drainage system and the spatial arrangements of streams in a particular locality or regions.
To understand fluvial landforms
1. Fluvial - Pertaining to river or rivers
2. Fluvial landforms – the landforms either carved out (due to erosion) or built up (due
to deposition) by running water.
3. Surface runoff – The rainwater reaching the earth’s surface becomes surface runoff
when it spreads laterally on the ground surface.

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4. Solution or corrosion – It involves the dissolution of soluble materials through the

process of disintegration and decomposition of carbonate rocks.
5. River meanders – It refers to the bands of longitudinal courses of the rivers.
6. Ox bow lakes – The lakes formed due to impounding of water in the abandoned
meander loops are called ox bow or horse – shoe lakes.
7. Peneplains – It represents featureless plain having undulating surface and remnants
of convexo – concave residual hills.
8. Delta – the depositional feature of almost triangular shape at the mouth of river
debouching either in a lake or a sea is called delta.
To understand karst landforms
1. Regolith – The blanket of soil and loose rock fragment overlying the bedrock
2. Groundwater – The water present in the pore spaces of regolith and bedrocks (those
rocks which have not been weathered and eroded) below the ground surface.
3. Aquifers - A permeable stratum or zone below the earth’s surface through
groundwater moves.
4. Ponores – The vertical pipe – like chasms or passages that connect the caves and the
swallow holes are called ponores.
To understand coastal landforms
1. Swell – The regular pattern of smooth rounded waves that characterizes the surface
of ocean during fair weather.
2. Wavelength – The straight horizontal distance between two successive crests or
through.
3. Swash or uprush – The turbulent water, known as swash or uprush rushes shoreward
with great velocity and force.
4. Plungeline – The distance from the shore where the waves break is called plungeline,
where the depth of seawater and the wave height is approximately equal.
5. Surf – The turbulent forward moving swash or breaker.
6. Hydraulic action – It refers to the impact of moving water on coastal rocks.
7. Cliffs - Steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water is called sea cliff,
which is very precipitous, with overhanging creast.
8. Wave cut platform – Rock – cut flat surface in front of cliffs they are also known as
shore platform, which are slightly concave upward.

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9. Beaches – Temporary or short – lived deposits of marine sediment consisting of

sands, shingles, cobbles etc. On the sea shore.
10. Bars – The ridges, embankments or mounds of sand formed by sedimentation
through sea waves parallel to the shore line.
11. Barriers – The larger forms of bars.
To understand arid and semiarid landforms
1. Ergs – The deserts having mobile sands, Arabic word erg means shifting sands
2. Attrition – It involves mechanical tear and wear of the particle suffered by
themselves, while they are being transported by wind through the processes of saltation,
and surface creep
3. Saltation – It involves the movement of sand and gravels through the mechanisms
bouncing, jumping and hopping by turbulent air flow.
4. Mushroom rocks – The rocks having broad upper part and narrow base resembling
an umbrella or mushoroom.
5. Inselbergs – These are very controversial landforms , this is a German word, was used
by Passarge in 1904 to indicate sharply rising residual hill above the flat surfaces in South
Africa.
6. Zeugen – Rock masses of tabular form resembling a capped inkpot standing on softer
rock, pedestal shale, mudstone etc.
7. Yardangs – These are steep sided deeply undercut overhanging rock ridges separated
from one another by long groups corridors or passage ways cut in desert floors relatively
softer rocks
8. Loess – It is the example of most significant windblown deposits. Loess (German term
loess meaning there by fine loam, loose or unconsolidated materials) represents thick
deposits of unstratified, non indurated, buff- coloured, well sorted, fine grained sediments
consisting of quartz silt
9. Badland topography -The regions of weak sedimentary formation are extensively
eroded by numerous rills and channels which are occasionally developed due to occasional
rain storms.

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Earth’s Interior
Introduction -
1. The earth is the only known planet where life is possible
2. Earth is spherical in shape, hot water and molten lava eject out from earth’s interior
3. World’s deepest mining is limited only to the depth of less than 5 km as the
temperature below earth is very high.
4. The interior of the earth –
5. Because of huge size and changing nature of its internal composition, its not possible
to make direct observation.
6. We have limited information of earth’s interior, through mining and drilling
operation , its so hot that it can even melt any tool for drilling.
Structure –
1. The innermost layer surrounding the earth surface is called core.
2. Core is the densest layer of the earth with its density more than 11.0.
3. It is composed mainly of iron and nickel thus known as Nife.
4. Core consist of two sub layers, the inner one is solid (C2) and the outer one is semi
liquid (C1)
5. The layer surrounding the core is mantle, is composed of basic silicates.
6. Major constituent of mantle are magnesium and silicon, hence it’s also known as
Sima (Silica+Magnesium).
7. Its density varies from 3.1 to 5.1 and surrounded by the outermost layer of the earth,
known as lithosphere and its density varies from 2.75 to 2.90.
8. Major constituent elements of lithosphere are silica (Si) and aluminium (Al), it is also
known as Sial.
9. The outermost part of lithosphere is known as crust.

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The sources which provide knowledge about the interior of the earth may be classified into
1. Artificial sources
2. Natural sources
3. Evidence from the theories of the origin of earth
Artificial sources to understand Interior of the earth
We can know about the interior of the earth with the help of following sources
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Density
Temperature
1. It increases with the depth, as observed in the mines and deep wells

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2. The molten lava erupted from the earth’s interior also support this fact.
3. It’s not uniform from the surface towards the earth’s centre, in beginning its
increases at an average rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 32 meters increase in depth.
4. With such a speed it will be 300 degree celcius at a depth of 10 km, and 1200 degree
celcius at 40 km.
5. But its interior is not in molten state, because rocks buried under the pressure of
several km thicknesses of overlying rocks melt at higher temperature
6. Than similar rock on the surface, a basaltic lava rock which will melt at 1250 degree
celcius at surface, will take 1400 degree celcius at 32 km of depth.
So from where we get extra heat –
It is being produced by radioactivity, as the result of breakdown of atomic nuclei of minerals
emitting radiant energy from in the form of heat from the rocks.
Pressure
1. It also increases from the surface towards the centre of the earth due to huge weight
of overlying rocks.
2. In deeper portion pressure is tremendously high, its 3 to 4 million times near centre
as compared with the pressure of atmosphere at sea level.
3. Due to high pressure the molten material beneath earth acquires the property of a
solid and is probably in plastic state.
Density
1. It increases due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials towards
the earth’s centre
2. The outermost layer is composed of sedimentary rock; thickness varies from (0.8km
to 1.6 km)
3. The second layer is of crystalline rocks, the density of which ranges from 3.0 to 3.5 at
different places.
4. The average density of earth is about 5.5, so without doubt we can say that it will be
more than 5.5 at the core.
Natural sources to understand Interior of the earth

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We can know about the interior of the earth with the help of following sources
• Vulcanicity
• Seismology (EQ waves)
Vulcanicity
1. On the basis of upwelling of and spread of hot and liquid lava on the earth surface
during volcanic eruption, we can say that there is such a layer which is in liquid state.
2. Such molten chamber has been termed as magma chamber which supplies magma
and lava during volcanic eruptions.
Seismology (Earth quake waves)
1. The place of the occurrence of earth quake is called focus, and place which
experiences the seismic evens first called epicentre.
2. It is located on the earth’s surface and is always perpendicular to the focus.
3. The focus is always inside the earth, the deepest focus has been measured at the
depth of 700km from the earth’s surface.
4. There are three broad categories of seismic waves
Primary waves –
1. Longitudinal or compressional waves or P waves, are analogous to sound waves,
particles move both to and fro from the line of the propagation of the ray.
2. It travels with fastest speed through solid materials.
Secondary waves –
1. Also called transverse waves or distortional wave or simply S waves.
2. These are analogous to water ripples or light waves, wherein the particles move at
right angles to the rays.
3. It cannot pass through liquid materials
Surface waves –
1. Also called long period waves or simply L waves. These waves generally affects
surface of earth and die out at smaller depth.
2. This wave covers longest distances of all the seismic waves.
3. Their speed is slower than P and S waves but these are most violent and destructive.
How seismic waves are helpful in determining the earth’s interior
1. So we can say that the nature and properties of the composition of the interior of the
earth may be successfully obtained on the basis of the study of these waves.

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2. The main aspects such as velocity and travel paths of these waves passing through a
homogeneous solid body.
3. But these waves reflect or refract while passing through a body having
heterogeneous composition
4. In reality the recorded seismic waves denote the fact that these waves seldom follow
the straight line paths.
5. Thus it become clear that earth is not made of homogenous materials rather there is
variation of density inside the earth
Evidence from the theories of the origin of earth
Several attempts to explain the origin and evolution of the continent and ocean basin have been
registered, the scientifically recognized are
1. Planetesimal hypothesis
2. Tidal hypothesis
3. Nebular hypothesis
Planetesimal hypothesis
1. The earth was originated due to accretion and aggregation of solid dust particles.
2. Based on this corollary the core of the earth should in a solid state
Tidal hypothesis
1. The core of the earth should be in liquid state.
2. According to this the earth have been formed from the tidal material ejected from
the primitive sun
Nebular hypothesis
1. It was coined by Laplace, and according to this theory the core of the earth should be
in the gaseous state.
But from the above discussion we have already proved that these hypotheses have no place in
current scenario, and now we have solid evidence to prove earth’s origin.
Important geographical phenomenon

1. In order to understand important geographical phenomenon of geography, as per
the syllabus of GS it is necessary to understand the origin of continents and ocean basins.
2. Continent and ocean basins are fundamental relief feature of the globe.

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3. They are considered as relief features of the first order, and different theories
regarding the origin of the continents and oceans are being put forth by the scientists.
4. About 70.8 percent of the total surface area of the globe is represented by the
oceans and 29.2 are represented by the continents.
Distributional pattern of the continents and ocean basins
1. There is overwhelming dominance of land areas in the northern hemisphere; more
than 75% of total globe is situated to the north of the equator.
2. Continents are arranged in roughly triangular shape; most have their bases (of
triangle) in the north while their apices are pointed towards south.
3. The oceans are also triangular in shape, contrary to the continents the base of
oceans is in the south while their apices are in the north.
4. The North Pole is surrounded by oceanic water, while South Pole is surrounded by
land area (of the Antarctic Ocean).
5. There is antipodal situation of continents and oceans, only 44.6 percent oceans are
situated opposite to oceans.
6. 1.4 percent of the total land area of the globe is opposite to land area; more than
95% of the total land area is situated opposite to water bodies.
7. The great Pacific Ocean basin occupies almost one – third of the entire surface area
of the globe.
The above mentioned characteristic would help us to validate the authenticity of any hypothesis
or theory dealing with the origin and evolution of the continents and ocean basins.
There are various hypotheses regarding the origin of the earth, but we would discuss the
following one, they are considered to be much more scientific.
1. Tetrahedral hypothesis postulated by Lowthian Green
2. Continental drift theory of Taylor
3. Plate tectonic theory
4. Sea floor spreading
Tetrahedral hypothesis
1. It is based on the fundamental principles of geometry
2. Elie de Beaumont is considered to be first the attempted in this field

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3. But the theory of Lowthain (in 1875) is most significant of all hypotheses based on
gromatric principles.
4. He based his hypothesis on the two basic principle of geometry
(i) A sphere is that which contains the largest volume with respect to its surface
area
(ii) A tetrahedron is that body which contains the largest volume with respect to
its surface area.
Basic assumption
1. It is based on the characteristics of a tetrahedron which is a solid body having four
equal plane surfaces.
2. Each of which is an equilateral triangle. He postulated it after considering the
characteristics of the distributional pattern of the land and water over the globe.
3. There is dominance of land area in the northern hemisphere and water areas in the
southern hemisphere
4. Triangular shape of continent and oceans,
5. Situation of continuous ring of land around north polar sea and location of south pole
in land area (Antarctica) surrounded by water from all sides
6. Antipodal arrangement of continent and oceans
7. Largest extent of Pacific Ocean covering one third area of the globe
8. Location of chain folded mountains around Pacific Ocean.
9. According to him when earth was originated it was in sphere form
10. In the beginning earth was very hot but it gradually began to cool down due to loss of
heat.
11. First the quarter part of the earth cooled down and thus was formed the crust but the
inner part was continued to cool down
12. Consequently the inner part of the earth was subjected to much more contraction,
thus there was marked reduction in the inner part of the earth.
13. Upper part of the earth (crust) was already cooled down, and could not be subjected
to further contraction.
14. This resulted into possible gap between the upper and inner parts of the earth.
15. Consequently the upper part collapsed on the inner part and ultimately the earth
began to assume the shape of a tetrahedron.

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16. He also clarified that due to structural variations; there may be some deviations from
a true tetrahedron.
17. Four oceans (the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Arctic
Ocean) were created on the four plane faces of the terrestrial tetrahedron.
18. These plane faces retain water because of the fact that these were lower than the
level of the apices or coigns of the terrestrial tetrahedron.
Fig- Distribution of land and water on a tetrahedron

Criticism
1. To major extent it successfully explains the characteristics feature of the
distributional pattern of the present day continents and ocean basin.
2. But because of certain basic defects and errors the theory is not acceptable to the
modern scientific community.
3. It is argued that balance of the earth in the form of a tetrahedron while rotating on
an apex cannot be maintained.
4. The earth rotating so rapidly on its axis that the spherical earth cannot be converted
into a tetrahedron while contracting on cooling.
5. This hypothesis believes more or less in the permanency of continents and ocean
basins, while plate tectonic theory has validated the concept of continental drift.
Continental drift theory of Taylor

16
1. F.B .Taylor postulated his concept of horizontal displacement of the continents in

1908.
2. The main purpose of his hypothesis was to explain the problems of the origin of the
folded mountains of tertiary period.
3. The concept of Taylor is considered to be the first attempt in the field of continental
drift, though Antonio Snider presented his views about drift in the year 1858 in France.
Basic Assumption
1. According to him there were two land masses during Cretaceous period.
2. Lauratia and Gondwanaland were located near the north and south pole
respectively.
3. The continent were made of sial which was practically absent in the oceanic crust.
4. Continent moved towards the equator, the main driving force of the continental drift
was tidal force.
5. Continents were displaced in two ways:
(i) Equator wards movement
(ii) Westward movement
Hypothesis
1. Lauratia started moving away from the north pole because of enormous tidal force of
the moon towards the equator in a radial manner.
2. This movement of landmass resulted into tensional force near the north pole which
caused stretching, splitting and rupture in landmass.
3. The displacement of the Gondwana land from the South Pole towards the equator
caused splitting and disruption.
4. Arctic sea was formed between Greenland and Serbia due to earthward movement
of Lauratia.
5. Atlantic and Indian Ocean were supposed to have been formed because of filling of
gaps between the drifting continents with water.
6. Taylor assumed that the landmasses began to move in the lobe form while drifting
through the zones of lesser resistance.
7. Thus mountain and island arcs were formed in the frontal part of the moving lobes.

17
8. The Himalayas. Caucasus and Alps are considered to have been formed during
equator ward movement of the Lauratia and Gondwanaland from the north and south
poles respectively
9. The Rockies and Andes formed due to westward movement of the landmasses.
Criticisms
1. Taylor’s main aim was to explain the origin of the tertiary folded mountains and
hence he made the continents to move at a very large scale.
2. He described displacement of the landmasses for thousands of kilometres, but
displacement of landmasses up to 32-64 Km would have been sufficient enough for the
purpose.
3. Tidal force was used as mode of displacement , if it was so enormous during
cretaceous period that it could displace the landmasses for thousands of kilometres
4. Apart then it might have also put a break on the rotatory motion of the earth and
thus rotation of the earth might have been stopped within a year.
5. Though the concept of F.B. Taylor is not acceptable but his hypothesis is considered
to be significant on the ground that
6. He raised his voice very forcefully through deductive postulation against the
prevalent concept of the permanency of the continents and ocean basins.

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Plate tectonic theory

1. It was a great scientific achievement of the decade of 1960s; it is based on the two
major scientific concepts
(i) The concept of continental drift
(ii) The concept of sea – floor spreading
2. Lithosphere is internally made of rigid plates (first used by Canadian geophysicist J.T.
Wilson in 1965), six major plates and 20 minor plates have been identified so far.
3. Six major plates are Eurasian plate, Indian – Australian plate, American plate, Pacific
plate, African plate and Antarctic plate.
4. W.J.Morgan and Le Pichon elaborated the various aspects of plate tectonics in 1968
5. Now the continental drift and the displacement are considered a reality on the basis
of plate tectonics.
6. Tectonic plate boundaries are most important because all tectonic activities occur
along the plate margins.
Fig- Main aspects of plate tectonics

Plate margins are generally divided into three groups
Constructive plate margins
1. These are also called divergent plate margins or accreting plate margins.
2. It represents zone of divergence where there is continuous upwelling of molten
material (lava) and thus new oceanic crust is continuously formed.
19
Destructive plate margins

1. These are also called as consuming plate margins or convergent plate margins.
2. Two plates move towards each other or two plates converge along a line and leading
edge of one plate overrides the other plate.
3. The overridden plate is sub ducted or thrust into the mantle and thus part of the
crust (plate) is lost in the mantle.
Conservative plate margins
1. These are also called as shear plate margins
2. Two plates pass or slide past one another along a transform faults and thus crust is
neither created nor destroyed.
Fig- Different types of plate margins

Conclusion
1. H. Hess postulated the concept of plate tectonics in 1960, in support of continental
drift.
2. The continents and ocean move with the movement of these plates.
3. The present shape and arrangement of continent and ocean basins could be attained
because of continuous movement of different plates.
4. Plate tectonic theory is based on the evidences of sea floor spreading and
palaeomagnetism .

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Sea – floor spreading

1. Propounded by the Harry Hess of the Princeton University in the year 1960.
2. He propounded that mid – oceanic ridges were situated on the rising thermal
convection currents, coming up from the mantle.
3. The oceanic crust move in opposite directions from mid – oceanic ridges.
4. This molten lava cool down and solidify to form new crust along the trailing ends of
divergent plates (oceanic crust).
5. Thus there is continuous creation of new crust along the mid – oceanic ridges and the
expanding crusts (plates) are destroyed along the oceanic trenches.
6. These facts prove that continents and ocean basins are in constant motion.
Fig – pattern of thermal connective currents and plate movements

21
Endogenetic forces
1. The forces coming from within the earth are called as endogenetic forces.
2. It causes two types of movements in the earth; (i) horizontal movements, (ii) vertical
movements
3. There is lack of precise knowledge regarding the mode of origin of the endogenetic
forces and movements.
4. On the basis of intensity, these are divided into two categories
(i) Sudden forces
(ii) Diastrophic forces
Sudden forces
1. It causes rapid events and massive destruction at and below the earth’s surface.
2. These force work very quickly and there results are seen within minutes.
3. It’s the result of long period preparation deep within the earth.
4. Because these forces create certain relief features on the earth’s surface, they are
also termed as constructive forces.
Diastrophic forces
1. These forces operate slowly and their effects become discernible after thousand and
millions of years.
2. They affect larger areas of globe and produce meso – level reliefs (e.g.) mountains,
plateaus, plain, lakes, big faults etc.)
3. It is divided into two groups
(i) Epeirogenetic movements
(ii) Orogenetic movements
Epeirogenetic movements
1. It is continent forming
2. Acts along the radius of earth, therefore also called radial movement
3. Direction may be towards (subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre.
4. Results are seen in relief i.e. sea beaches (Kathiwar, Orissa), elevated wave cut
terraces, sea caves.
Example of Emergence

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1. Evidence of marine fossils above sea level in parts of Britain Norway is examples of
epeirogenetic uplift
Example of Submergence
1. Downward movements cause subsidence of continental masses.
2. In 1819, Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of earthquake.
Orogenetic movement
1. It means mountain building
2. It is caused due to endogenetic forces working in horizontal manner.
3. Thus these forces create rupture, cracks, fracture and faults in the crustal parts of the
earth.
4. When these forces work face to face these are called compressional forces or
convergent force.
5. It causes crustal bending leading to the formation of folds
6. The crustal rocks undergo the process of crustal bending in two ways
(i) Wrapping
(ii) Folding
Wrapping
1. It affects the larger areas of the crust, wherein the crustal parts are either warped
(raised) upward or downward.
2. When it affects larger areas, the resultant mechanism is called broad wrapping.
Folding
1. Waves like bands are formed in the crustal rocks due to tangential compressive
force.
2. It is the result of horizontal movement caused by the endogenetic force
3. Some parts of bent are in upward direction, they are called anticlines, and they are
upfolded rock strata in arch like form.
4. The down folded structure forming through – like features is called syncline.

23
Fig – Anticline & Syncline

5. Anticlinorium represents a folding structure, where extensive anticline having
numerous minor anticline and synclines.
6. Synclinoriu m represents a folding structure, where extensive syncline having
numerous minor anticline and
synclines.
7. The two sides of folds are called limbs of the fold, the limb shared between anticline
and syncline is called middle limb.
8. The plain line which bisects the angle between the two limbs of the anticline or
middle limb of the syncline is called axis of fold or axial plane.

24
9. It’s also necessary to understand dip and strike, in order to understand the structural
form.
10. The inclination of rock beds with respect to horizontal plane is called dip.
11. The angle of dip is measured with an instrument called clinometers.
12. The strike of an inclined bed is the direction of any horizontal line along a bedding
plane.
13. The direction of dip is always at right angle to the strike.

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Types of folds
1. The elasticity of rocks largely affects the nature and the magnitude of folding
process.
2. The softer and more elastic rocks are subjected to more intense folding, while rigid
and less elastic rocks are moderately folded.
3. Difference in intensity and magnitude of compressive forces also causes variations in
the characteristics of folds.
4. Normally both the limbs of folds are having equal limbs, but mostly they are not.
5. Based on the inclination of the limbs, folds are divided into five types.
(i) Symmetrical folds – The limbs (both) of which incline uniformly,
compressive force work regularly with moderate intensity.
(ii) Asymmetrical folds – characterized by unequal and irregular limbs,
both the limbs incline at different angles, one limb is relatively larger than other.
(iii) Monoclinal folds – one limb inclines moderately with regular slope,
while other limb inclines steeply at right angle and slope is almost vertical.
(iv) Isoclinal folds – when both the limbs of fold become parallel but not
horizontal.
(v) Recumbent folds – when the compressive forces are so strong that
both the limbs of the fold become parallel as well as horizontal.

26
(vi) The other types of fold are overturned fold (one limb of the fold is
thrust upon another), plunge fold (when axis of fold become tilted), fan fold
(extensive and broad fold consisting of several minor anticline and syncline),
open folds (in which angle between the two limbs of the fold is more than 90
degree but less than 180 degree) and lastly closed folds (angle between two
limbs of a fold is acute angle).
Nappes
1. Nappes are the result of complex folding mechanism caused by intense horizontal
movement and resultant compressive force.
2. Both the limbs of a recumbent fold are parallel and horizontal.
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3. Due to further increase in the continued compressive force one limb of the
recumbent folds slides forward and overrides the other fold.
4. This process is called thrust and plane along which one part of the fold is thrust is
called thrust plane.
5. The upthrust part of the fold is called overthrust fold.
Important Geographical Phenomenon

1. As we know that there are several factors behind folded structure, in the same way
tensional and compressional forces causes displacement of rock along a plane.
2. The force may be vertical or horizontal and sometime it may be in both ways.
3. These crustal fractures depend on the strength of rock and intensity of tensional
force.
4. Fractures are divided into two parts
(i) Faults
(ii) Joints
Faults
1. A fault is a fracture is a fracture in the crustal rocks, due to tensional movement
caused by the endogenetic forces, wherein the rocks are displaced along a plane, known as
fault plane.
2. The movement responsible for the formation of a fault may operate in vertical or
horizontal or any direction.
Types of fault
Normal fault
1. These are formed due to displacement of both the rocks blocks in opposite
directions,
2. Due to fracture consequent upon greatest stress, the fault plane is usually between
45 degree and the vertical.
Reverse faults
1. These are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock blocks towards
each other.

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2. The fault plane, in a reverse direction is usually inclined at an angle between 40

degree and the horizontal (0degree).
Lateral or strike faults
1. These are formed when the rocks blocks are displaced horizontally along the fault
plane due to horizontal movement.
2. When displacement of rock occurs to the left, they are called left – lateral or sinistral
fault.
3. When displacement of rock occur to the right , they are called right – lateral fault or
dextral fault.
Step faults
1. When a series of faults occur in any area in such a way, that the slopes of all the fault
planes of all the faults are in same direction.
Exogenetic forces
1. The Exogenetic forces or processes also called denudational processes
or destructional forces.
2. They are continuously engaged in the destruction of the relief features created by
the endogenetic forces.
3. The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the
ultimate energy from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors.
4. Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tend to
produce movement of matter in down slope direction.
5. Force applied per unit area is called stress.
6. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling. This induces deformation.
7. Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating
forces).
8. It is this stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials.
9. The shear stresses result in angular displacement or slippage.
10. The gravitational stress earth materials become subjected to molecular stresses
11. Molecular stresses may be caused by a number of factors amongst which
temperature changes, crystallisation and melting are the most common

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12. Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of
soluble minerals or cementing materials
13. The basic reason that leads to weathering, mass movements, erosion and deposition
is development of stresses in the body of the earth materials.
14. As there are different climatic regions on the earth’s surface the exogenic geomorphic
processes vary from region to region.
15. Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control
various processes
16. All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation
17. The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass
wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in denudation.
18. Within different climatic regions there may be local variations of the effects of
different climatic elements.
19. Due to altitudinal differences, aspect variations and the variation in the amount of
insolation (amount of sun rays) received by north and south facing slopes as compared to
east and west facing slopes.
20. Differences in wind velocities and directions, amount and kind of precipitation, its
intensity, the relation between precipitation and evaporation, daily range of temperature,
freezing and thawing frequency, depth of frost penetration, the geomorphic processes
vary within any climatic region.
21. Climatic factors being equal, the intensity of action of exogenic geomorphic processes
depends upon type and structure of rocks.
22. The term structure includes such aspects of rocks as folds, faults, orientation and
inclination of beds.
23. Presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of constituent
minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral constituents.
24. Different types of rocks with differences in their structure offer varying resistances to
various geomorphic processes
25. Under varying climatic conditions, particular rocks may exhibit different degrees of
resistance to geomorphic processes and hence they operate at differential rates.
26. The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow and
may be imperceptible in a short time span

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WEATHERING
1. Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials.
2. There are a number of processes within weathering which act either individually or
together to affect the earth materials in order to reduce them to fragmental state.
3. Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
4. As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situor on-
site process.
5. Weathering processes are conditioned by many complex geological, climatic,
topographic and vegetative factors.
6. Climate is of particular importance.
7. There are three major groups of weathering processes
a. Chemical
b. Physical
c. Biological weathering processes

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Chemical weathering process

1. A group of weathering processes, include in this
a. Carbonation
b. Hydration
c. Oxidation
d. Reduction
2. They act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state
through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids.
3. Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat must be present to speed
up all chemical reactions
4. Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of plants and
animals increases the quantity of carbon dioxide underground.
Steps involved in chemical weathering

Solution
1. When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved
contents is called solution.
2. This process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon solubility of a
mineral in water or weak acids.
3. This process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon solubility of a
mineral in water or weak acids.
4. On coming in contact with water many solids disintegrate and mix up as suspension
in water.

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5. Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are
affected by this process.
6. So, these minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
7. Minerals like calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in
limestones are soluble in water containing carbonic acid (formed with the addition of
carbon dioxide in water)
8. Are carried away in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced by decaying organic
matter along with soil water greatly aids in this reaction.
Carbonation
1. Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a
common process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals.
2. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, to form
carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid.
3. Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and
are removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
Hydration
1. Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock
2. Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than
calcium sulphate
3. This process is reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes
fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.
4. Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid and repeated hydration and help in rock
fracturing.
5. The volume changes in minerals due to hydration will also help in physical
weathering through exfoliation and granular disintegration.
Oxidation and Reduction
1. Oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
hydroxides.
2. Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the atmosphere and oxygenated
waters.

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3. The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulphur
etc.
4. In the process of oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by
addition of oxygen.
5. Red colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown or yellow.
6. When oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place.
7. Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and
waterlogged ground.
8. Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey.
9. These weathering processes are interrelated. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation
go hand in hand and hasten the weathering process.
Physical Weathering Processes

1. Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces.
2. The applied forces could be
3. Gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, load and shearing stress
4. Expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity
5. Water pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles
6. Many of these forces are applied both at the surface and within different earth
materials leading to rock fracture.
7. Most of the physical weathering processes are caused by thermal expansion and
pressure release.
8. These processes are small and slow but can cause great damage to the rocks because
of continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to repetition of contraction and expansion.
Unloading and Expansion

1. Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure
release with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand producing disintegration of
rock masses.
2. Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground surface

34
3. In areas of curved ground surface, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets
or exfoliation slabs of rock.
4. Exfoliation sheets resulting from expansion due to unloading and pressure release
may measure hundreds or even thousands of metres in horizontal extent.
5. Large, smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes
Temperature Changes and Expansion
1. Various minerals in rocks possess their own limits of expansion and contraction.
2. With rise in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its neighbour
3. As temperature falls, a corresponding contraction takes place.
4. Because of diurnal changes in the temperatures, this internal movement among the
mineral grains of the superficial layers of rocks takes place regularly.
5. This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations
6. Where diurnal temperature changes are drastic.
7. As has been mentioned earlier though these movements are very small they make
the rocks weak due to continued fatigue
8. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand more than the rock at depth and this
leads to the formation of stress within the rock resulting in heaving and fracturing parallel
to the surface.
Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
1. This process is most effective at high elevations in mid-latitudes where freezing and
melting is often repeated.
2. Glacial areas are subject to frost wedging daily. In this process, the rate of freezing is
important.
3. Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden expansion and high pressure
4. The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks and small inter granular fractures to
become wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
Salt Weathering
1. Expansion of these salts depends on temperature and their thermal properties
2. High temperature ranges between 30 and 50 o C of surface temperatures in deserts
favour such salt expansion.
3. Salt crystals in near-surface pores

35
4. Cause splitting of individual grains within rocks, which eventually fall off
5. Salt crystallisation is most effective of all salt-weathering processes
6. Sodium chloride and gypsum crystals in desert areas heave up overlying layers of
materials and with the result polygonal cracks develop all over the heaved surface.
7. With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down most readily, followed by limestone,
sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc.
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING

1. Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals and ions from the
weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
2. Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in
exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture
and air.
3. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in
mixing and creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials.
4. Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and
other acids which enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
5. Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and
other acids which enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
6. Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth and help in concentration of iron and
manganese oxides.

36
MASS MOVEMENTS
1. Disintegrated and fragmented rock materials due to mechanism of weathering
process.
2. That means, air, water or ice does not carry debris with them from place to place but
on the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice
3. The movements of mass may range from slow to rapid, affecting shallow to deep
columns of materials and include creep, flow, slide and fall.
4. Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of weathering.
So, weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements.
5. Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over
unweathered materials.
6. Mass movements are aided by gravity and no geomorphic agent like running water,
glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate in the process of mass movements.
7. That means mass movements do not come under erosion though there is a shift
(aided by gravity) of materials from one place to another.
8. Materials over the slopes have their own resistance to disturbing forces and will yield
only when force is greater than the shearing resistance of the materials.
9. Several activating causes precede mass movements
a. Removal of support from below to materials above through natural or artificial
means
b. Increase in gradient and height of slopes
c. Overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling
d. Removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces
e. Occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery

37
f. Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow
outflow of water from under the slopes or river banks
g. Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation
Mass Movements
1. Mass movements can be grouped under three major classes
a. Slow movements
b. Rapid movements
c. Landslides
Slow Movements
2. Movement of materials is extremely slow and imperceptible except through
extended observation. Materials involved can be soil or rock debris.
3. Depending upon the type of material involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep,
talus creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc., can be identified.
4. This process is quite common in moist temperate areas where surface melting of
deeply frozen ground and long continued rain respectively, occur frequently.
5. When the upper portions get saturated and when the lower parts are impervious to
water percolation, flowing occurs in the upper parts.
Rapid Movements
1. These movements are mostly prevalent in humid climatic regions and occur over
gentle to steep slopes.
2. Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle
terraces or hillsides is known as earthflow.
3. When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock especially of soft sedimentary rocks like
shale or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide downslope.
4. Another type in this category is mudflow. In the absence of vegetation cover and
with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered materials get saturated with water and either
slowly or rapidly flows down along definite channels.

38
5. It looks like a stream of mud within a valley

6. Mudflows occur frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes.
7. Volcanic ash, dust and other fragments turn into mud due to heavy rains and flow
down as tongues or streams of mud causing great destruction to human habitations
8. A third type is the debris avalanche, which is more characteristic of humid regions
with or without vegetation cover and occurs in narrow tracks on steep slopes.
9. This debris avalanche can be much faster than the mudflow. Debris avalanche is
similar to snow avalanche
10. In Andes mountains of South America and the Rockies mountains of North America,
there are a few volcanoes which erupted during the last decade and very devastating
mudflows occurred down their slopes during eruption as well as after eruption.
Landslides
1. These are known as relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials
involved are relatively dry.
2. The degree of weathering and the steepness of the slope. Depending upon the type
of movement of materials several types are identified in this category.
3. Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with
respect to the slope over which the movement takes place
4. Rapid rolling or sliding of Earth Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris from a
vertical or overhanging face.
5. Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces is rockslide.
6. Over steep slopes, rock sliding is very fast and destructive.
7. Landslide scars over steep slopes. Slides occur as planar failures along discontinuities
like bedding planes that dip steeply.
8. Rock fall is free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope keeping itself away from
the slope
9. Rock falls occur from the superficial layers of the rock

39
EROSION AND DEPOSITION

1. Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris. When massive rocks
break into smaller fragments
2. Through weathering and any other process, erosional geomorphic agents like
running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove and transport it to other
places
3. Depending upon the dynamics of each of these agents.
4. Abrasion by rock debris carried by these geomorphic agents also aids greatly in
erosion.
5. By erosion, relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn down.
6. Weathering, mass-wasting and erosion are degradational processes.
7. It is erosion that is largely responsible for continuous changes that the earth’s surface
is undergoing.
8. Denudational processes like erosion and transportation are controlled by kinetic
energy
9. The erosion and transportation of earth materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water.
Wind, running water, glaciers represent three states of matter gaseous (wind), liquid (running
water) and solid (glacier) respectively
1. The erosion can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy associated with the
agent to the surface of the land along which it moves
2. Kinetic energy is computed as KE = 1 / 2 mv2 where ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is the
velocity
3. Hence the energy available to perform work will depend on the mass of the material
and the velocity with which it is moving.

40
4. In case of waves it is the location along the interface of litho and hydro sphere —
coastal region — that will determine the work of waves,
5. Work of ground water is determined more by the lithological character of the region
6. If the rocks are permeable and soluble and water is available only then karst
topography develops
7. Deposition is a consequence of erosion
8. The erosional agents lose their velocity and hence energy on gentler slopes and the
materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
9. Deposition is not actually the work of any agent the coarser materials get deposited
first and finer ones later
10. By deposition depressions get filled up.
11. Running water, glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as aggradational or
depositional agents also.
SOIL
Soil and Soil Contents
1. Pedologist who studies soils defines soil as a collection of natural bodies on the
earth’s surface containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants.
2. Soil is a dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological activities
go on constantly.
3. Soil is a result of decay, it is also the medium for growth
4. It is a changing and developing body.
5. It has many characteristics that fluctuate with the seasons.
6. Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the soil becomes too cold or too dry
7. Organic matter increases when leaves fall or grasses die.
8. The soil chemistry, the amount of organic matter, the soil flora and fauna, the
temperature and the moisture, all change with the seasons
9. Soil becomes adjusted to conditions of climate, landform and vegetation and will
change internally when these controlling conditions change.
Process of Soil Formation
1. Soil formation or paedogenesis depends first on weathering
2. First, the weathered material or transported deposits are colonised by bacteria and
other inferior plant bodies like mosses and lichens.

41
3. Several minor organisms may take shelter within the mantle and deposits.
4. The dead remains of organisms and plants help in humus accumulation.
5. Minor grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and trees will start growing through
seeds brought in by birds and wind.
6. Plant roots penetrate down, burrowing animals bring up particles, mass of material
becomes porous and sponge like with a capacity to retain water and to permit the passage
of air
7. Finally a mature soil, a complex mixture of mineral and organic products forms.
Soil-forming Factors
• Five basic factors control the formation of soils
o Parent material
o Topography
o Climate
o Biological activity
o Time
Parent Material
1. Parent material is a passive control factor in soil formation.
2. Parent materials can be any insitu or on-site weathered rock debris (residual soils) or
transported deposits (transported soils).
3. Soil formation depends upon the texture (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition
of individual grains/particles of debris) as well as the mineral and chemical composition of
the rock debris/deposits.
4. Nature and rate of weathering and depth of weathering mantle are important
consideration under parent materials.
5. There may be differences in soil over similar bedrock and dissimilar bedrocks may
have similar soils above them.
6. Young soils show strong links with the type of parent rock.
Topography
1. Topography like parent materials is another passive control factor.

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2. The influence of topography is felt through the amount of exposure of a surface

covered by parent materials to sunlight
3. The amount of surface and sub-surface drainage over and through the parent
materials.
4. Soils will be thin on steep slopes and thick over flat upland areas.
5. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow and percolation of water is good, soil
formation is very favourable.
6. Soils over flat areas may develop a thick layer of clay with good accumulation of
organic matter giving the soil dark colour.
7. In middle latitudes, the south facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different
conditions of vegetation and soils
8. the north facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have some other soils and
vegetation.
Climate
1. Climate is an important active factor in soil formation.
2. The climatic elements involved in soil development are
(i) Moisture in terms of its intensity, frequency and duration of
precipitation - evaporation and humidity
(ii) Temperature in terms of seasonal and diurnal variations
3. Precipitation gives soil its moisture content which makes the chemical and biological
activities possible.
4. Excess of water helps in the downward transportation of soil components through
the soil (eluviation) and deposits the same down below (illuviation).
5. In climates like wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, not only calcium,
sodium, magnesium, potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is removed from the soil
6. Removal of silica from the soil is known as desilication
7. In dry climates, because of high temperature, evaporation exceeds precipitation and
hence ground water is brought up to the surface by capillary action
8. In the process the water evaporates leaving behind salts in the soil. Such salts form
into a crust in the soil known as hardpans
9. In tropical climates and in areas with intermediate precipitation conditions, calcium
carbonate nodules (kanker) are formed.

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10. Temperature acts in two ways

11. Increasing or reducing chemical and biological activity
12. Chemical activity is increased in higher temperatures,
13. Reduced in cooler temperatures (with an exception of carbonation) and stops in
freezing conditions.
14. Tropical soils with higher temperatures show deeper profiles
15. In the frozen tundra regions soils contain largely mechanically broken materials.
Biological Activity
1. The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy the parent materials from the
beginning and also at later stages help in adding organic matter, moisture retention,
nitrogen etc.
2. Dead plants provide humus, the finely divided organic matter of the soil.
3. Some organic acids which form during humification aid in decomposing the minerals
of the soil parent materials.
4. Intensity of bacterial activity shows up differences between soils of cold and warm
climates.
5. Humus accumulates in cold climates as bacterial growth is slow.
6. With undecomposed organic matter because of low bacterial activity, layers of peat
develop in sub-arctic and tundra climates.
7. In humid tropical and equatorial climates, bacterial growth and action is intense and
dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in the soil.
8. Bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous nitrogen from the air and convert it
into a chemical form that can be used by plants.
9. This process is known as nitrogen fixation
10. Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants and fixes
nitrogen beneficial to the host plant.

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11. The influence of large animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents etc., is
mechanical, but, it is nevertheless important in soil formation as they rework the soil up
and down.
12. In case of earthworms, as they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of the soil that
comes out of their body changes.
Time
1. Time is the third important controlling factor in soil formation.
2. The length of time the soil forming processes operate, determine maturation of soils
and profile development
3. A soil becomes mature when all soil-forming processes act for a sufficiently long time
developing a profile.
4. Soils developing from recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are considered young
and they exhibit no horizons or only poorly developed horizons
5. No specific length of time in absolute terms can be fixed for soils to develop and
mature.
Landform
• Small to medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface are called landforms
Landscape
• Several related landforms together make up landscapes, (large tracts of earth’s
surface)
1. Each landform has its own physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action
of certain geomorphic processes and agent(s)
2. Actions of most of the geomorphic processes and agents are slow results take a long
time to take shape
3. Due to continued action of geomorphic processes Landforms may change in their
shape, size and nature slowly or fast.
Reasons for the modification in landforms

1. Changes in climatic conditions

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2. Vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses
Evolution of landforms
1. Stages of transformation of either a part of the earth’s surface from one landform
into another or transformation
2. Each and every landform has a history
3. A landmass passes through stages of development
a. Youth
b. Mature
c. Old age
4. Geomorphology deals with the reconstruction of the history of the surface of the
earth
Geomorphic agents
1. Running water
2. Ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves
3. Acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to sequential
development of landforms.
4. Each geomorphic agent produces its own assemblage of landforms
5. Each geomorphic process and agent leave their distinct imprints on the landforms
6. Most of the geomorphic processes are imperceptible can only be seen and measured
through their results
Two sets of landforms are produced

1. Erosional or destructional
2. Depositional or constructional
3. Many varieties of landforms develop by the action of each of the geomorphic agents
depending upon the type and structure
4. Folds, faults, joints, fractures, hardness and softness, permeability and
impermeability, etc. come under structure of rocks.
Some independent controls

46
(i) stability of sea level

(ii) tectonic stability of landmasses
(iii) climate
(iv) Any disturbance in any of these three controlling factors can upset the systematic and
sequential stages in the development and evolution of landforms.
(v) A brief discussion is presented as to how landmasses are reduced in their
relief through erosion and then, development
RUNNING WATER
1. In humid regions running water is considered the most important of the geomorphic
agents in bringing about the degradation of the land surface.
2. There are two components of running water.
3. One is overland flow on general land surface as a sheet another is linear flow as
streams and rivers in valleys.
4. Most of the erosional landforms made by running water are associated with vigorous
and youthful rivers flowing along gradients.
5. With time, stream channels over steep gradients turn gentler due to continued
erosion lose their velocity, facilitating active deposition
6. Depositional forms associated with streams flowing over steep slopes will be on a
small scale compared to those associated with rivers flowing over medium to gentle
slopes.
7. The gentler the river channels in gradient or slope, the greater is the deposition.
8. When the stream beds turn gentler due to continued erosion, downward cutting
becomes less dominant.
9. Lateral erosion of banks increases and as a consequence the hills and valleys are
reduced to plains.
10. Overland flow causes sheet erosion depending upon irregularities of the land surface.
11. The overland flow may concentrate into narrow to wide paths, because of the sheer
friction of the column of flowing water

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12. Minor or major quantities of materials from the surface of the land are removed in
the direction of flow and gradually small and narrow rillswill form.
13. These rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies
14. The gullies will further deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise to a network
of valleys
15. In the early stages, down-cutting dominates during which irregularities such as
waterfalls and cascades will be removed.
16. In the middle stages, streams cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of valley sides
becomes severe.
17. The valley sides are reduced to lower and lower slopes.
18. The divides between drainage basins are likewise lowered until they are almost
completely flattened
19. A lowland of faint relief with some low resistant remnants
called monadnocks standing out here and there.
20. This type of plain forming as a result of stream erosion is called peneplain (an almost
plain) characteristics of each of the stages
Youth
1. Streams are few during this stage with poor integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys.
2. With very narrow floodplains along trunk streams.
3. Streams divides are broad and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
4. Meanders develop over these broad upland surfaces.
5. These meanders entrench themselves into the uplands.
6. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature
1. During this stage streams are plenty with good integration.
2. The valleys are still V-shaped but deep
3. Trunk streams are broad enough to have wider floodplains
4. Streams may flow in meanders confined within the valley
5. The flat and broad inter stream areas and swamps and marshes of youth disappear
6. The stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and rapids disappear.

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Old
1. Smaller tributaries during old age are few with gentle gradients
2. Streams meander freely over vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow lakes,
etc.
3. Divides are broad and flat with lakes, swamps and marshes.
4. Most of the landscape is at or slightly above sea level.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Valleys
1. Valleys start as small and narrow rills.
2. The rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies.
3. The gullies will further deepen, widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys.
4. Depending upon dimensions and shape, many types of valleys like V-shaped valley,
gorge, canyon, etc. can be recognised.
5. A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides.
6. A canyon is characterised by steep step-like side slopes may be as deep as a gorge.
7. A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as its bottom.
8. A canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom a canyon is a variant of gorge.
9. Valley types depend upon the type and structure of rocks in which they form.
10. Canyons commonly form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and gorges form in
hard rocks.
11. Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or less circular depressions
called potholes form because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion of rock fragments.
12. Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in
those depressions
13. Get rotated by flowing water and consequently the depressions grow in dimensions.
14. A series of such depressions eventually join and the stream valley gets deepened.
15. At the foot of waterfalls large potholes, quite deep and wide, form because of the
sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.
16. Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are called plunge pools

49
17. These pools also help in the deepening of valleys.
INCISED OR ENTRENCHED MEANDERS
1. In streams that flow rapidly over steep gradients, normally erosion is concentrated
on the bottom of the stream channel.
2. In the case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion on the sides of the valleys is not
much when compared to the streams flowing on low and gentle slopes.
3. Because of active lateral erosion, streams flowing over gentle slopes develop sinuous
or meandering courses.
4. It is common to find meandering courses over floodplains and delta plains where
stream gradients are very gentle.
5. Very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard rocks.
6. Such meanders are called incised or entrenched meanders
7. Meander loops develop over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages of
development of streams
8. Same loops get entrenched into the rocks normally due to erosion or slow, continued
uplift of the land over which they start.
9. They widen and deepen over time and can be found as deep gorges and canyons in
hard rock areas.
River Terraces
1. River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or floodplain levels.
2. They may be bedrock surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial terraces
consisting of stream deposits.
3. River terraces are basically products of erosion as they result due to vertical erosion
by the stream into its own depositional floodplain.
4. There can be a number of such terraces at different heights indicating former river
bed levels
5. The river terraces may occur at the same elevation on either side of the rivers in
which case they are called paired terraces.

50
6. When a terrace is present only on one side of the stream and with none on the other
side or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, the terraces are called non-
paired terraces.
7. Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow uplift of land or where the water
column changes are not uniform along both the banks.
8. The terraces may result due to
(i) Receding water after a peak flow
(ii) Change in hydrological regime due to climatic changes
(iii) Tectonic uplift of land
(iv) Sea level changes in case of rivers closer to the sea
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORM
Alluvial Fans
1. Formed when streams flowing from higher levels break into foot slope plains of low
gradient.
2. Normally very coarse load is carried by streams flowing over mountain slopes.
3. This load becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler gradients and
gets dumped and spread as a broad low to high cone shaped deposit called alluvial fan.
4. The streams which flow over fans are not confined to their original channels for long
and shift their position across the fan forming many channels called distributaries.
5. Alluvial fans in humid areas show normally low cones with gentle slope.
6. They appear as high cones with steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.
Deltas
1. Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a different location.
2. The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread into the sea.
3. If this load is not carried away far into the sea or distributed along the coast, it
spreads and accumulates as a low cone.
4. Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with clear
stratification.

51
5. The coarsest materials settle out first and the finer fractions like silts and clays are
carried out into the sea.
6. As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue to increase in length delta
continues to build up into the sea.
Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars
1. Deposition develops a floodplain just as erosion makes valleys.
2. Floodplain is a major landform of river deposition.
3. Large sized materials are deposited first when stream channel breaks into a gentle
slope.
4. Fine sized materials like sand, silt and clay are carried by relatively slow moving
waters in gentler channels.
5. Found in the plains and deposited over the bed and when the waters spill over the
banks during flooding above the bed.
6. A river bed made of river deposits is the active floodplain.
7. The floodplain above the bank is inactive floodplain.
8. Inactive floodplain above the banks basically contain two types of deposits
a. Flood deposits
b. Channel deposits
9. In plains, channels shift laterally and change their courses occasionally leaving cut-off
courses
10. get filled up gradually
11. Such areas over flood plains built up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain coarse
deposits.
12. The flood deposits of spilled waters carry relatively finer materials like silt and clay.
The flood plains in a delta are called delta plains.
13. Natural levees and point bars are some of the important landforms found associated
with floodplains.
14. Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers.
15. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of rivers,
16. During flooding as the water spills over the bank, the velocity of the water comes
down and large sized and high specific gravity materials get dumped in the immediate
vicinity of the bank as ridges.

52
17. They are high nearer the banks and slope gently away from the river.
18. The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood waters away from
the river.
19. When rivers shift laterally, a series of natural levees can form.
20. Point bars are also known as meander bars.
21. They are found on the convex side of meanders of large rivers and are sediments
deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank.
22. They are almost uniform in profile and in width and contain mixed sizes of sediments.
23. If there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated depressions are found in
between the point bars.
24. Rivers build a series of them depending upon the water flow and supply of sediment.
25. As the rivers build the point bars on the convex side, the bank on the concave side
will erode actively.
Meanders
1. In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight courses.
2. Loop-like channel patterns called meanders develop over flood and delta
3. Meander is not a landform but is only a type of channel pattern
4. This is because
(i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work
laterally on the banks
(ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks with
many irregularities which can be used by water exerting pressure laterally
(iii) coriolis force acting on the fluid water deflecting it like it deflects the
wind
5. When the gradient of the channel becomes extremely low, water flows leisurely and
starts working laterally
6. Slight irregularities along the banks slowly get transformed into a small curvature in
the banks

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7. the curvature deepens due to deposition on the inside of the curve and erosion along
the bank on the outside
8. If there is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting, the tendency to meander is
reduced.
9. Normally, in meanders of large rivers, there is active deposition along the convex
bank and undercutting along the concave bank
10. The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which shows up as a steep scarp and the
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and is known as slip-off bank
11. As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the
inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes.
Braided Channels
1. When rivers carry coarse material, there can be selective deposition of coarser
materials causing formation of a central bar which diverts the flow towards the banks
2. This flow increases lateral erosion on the banks
3. The valley widens, the water column is reduced and more and more materials get
deposited as islands
4. Lateral bars developing a number of separate channels of water flow.
5. Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are essential for the formation of braided
pattern
6. Channel bars and islands of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor of the
channel and the water flow is divided into multiple threads.
7. These thread-like streams of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give a typical
braided pattern.

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GROUNDWATER
1. Our focus is not on the definition but work of groundwater in the erosion of
landmasses and evolution of landforms.
2. The surface water percolates well when the rocks are permeable, thinly bedded and
highly jointed and cracked.
3. After vertically going down to some depth, the water under the ground flows
horizontally through the bedding planes, joints or through the materials themselves.
4. It is this downward and horizontal movement of water which causes the rocks to
erode.
5. Physical or mechanical removal of materials by moving groundwater is insignificant in
developing landforms.
6. That is why; the results of the work of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of
rocks.
7. But in rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium carbonate
8. The surface water as well as groundwater through the chemical process of solution
and precipitation deposition develops varieties of landforms.

55
9. These two processes of solution and precipitation are active in limestones or

dolomites occurring either exclusively or interbedded with other rocks.
Fig – Limestone
10. Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action
of groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst
topography
11. The typical topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the Balkans
adjacent to Adriatic Sea.
12. The karst topography is also characterised by erosional and depositional landforms.

56
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone Pavements
1. Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded shallow depressions called swallow

holes form on the surface of limestones through solution.
2. Sinkholes are very common in limestone/karst areas.
3. A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shapped towards
the bottom with sizes varying in area from a few sq. m to a hectare and with depth from a
less than half a metre to thirty metres or more
4. Some of these form solely through solution action (solution sinks) and others might
start
5. As solution forms first and if the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a void or cave
underground.
6. It might collapse leaving a large hole opening into a cave or a void below (collapse
sinks).
7. Quite often, sinkholes are covered up with soil mantle and appear as shallow water
pools.
8. Anybody stepping over such pools would go down like it happens in quicksands in
deserts.
9. The term dolineis sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks.
10. Solution sinks are more common than collapse sinks.
11. Quite often the surface run-off simply goes down swallow and sink holes and flow as
underground streams and re-emerge at a distance downstream through a cave opening.
12. When sink holes and dolines join together because of slumping of materials along
their margins or due to roof collapse of caves, long, narrow to wide trenches called valley
sinks or Uvalasform.

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Fig – Example of collapse sinkhole

13. Gradually, most of the surface of the limestone is eaten away by these pits and
trenches, leaving it extremely irregular with a maze of points, grooves and ridgesor lapies.
14. Especially, these ridges or lapies form due to differential solution activity along
parallel to sub-parallel joints.
15. The lapie field may eventually turn into somewhat smooth limestone pavements.
Caves
1. In areas where there are alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites)
with limestone or dolomites in between
2. In areas where limestones are dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, cave
formation is prominent.
3. Water percolates down either through the materials or through cracks and joints and
moves horizontally along bedding planes.
4. It is along these bedding planes that the limestone dissolves and long and narrow to
wide gaps called caves result.
5. There can be a maze of caves at different elevations depending upon the limestone
beds and intervening rocks.
6. Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged.
7. Caves having openings at both the ends are called tunnels.

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Depositional Landforms
1. Many depositional forms develop within the limestone caves
2. The chief chemical in limestone is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in
carbonated water (carbon dioxide absorbed rainwater).
Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars
1. Stalactites hang as icicles of different diameters.

2. Normally they are broad at their bases and taper towards the free ends showing up
in a variety of forms.
3. Stalagmites rise up from the floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites form due to
dripping water from the surface or through the thin pipe, of the stalactite, immediately
below it
4. Stalagmites may take the shape of a column, a disc, with either a smooth, rounded
bulging end or a miniature crater like depression.
5. The stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give rise to columns and pillars of
different diameters.

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GLACIERS
1. Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier
if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows
down the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers)
are called glaciers
2. The movement of glaciers is slow unlike water flow.
3. The movement could be a few centimetres to a few metres a day or even less or
more.
4. Glaciers move basically because of the force of gravity.
5. We have many glaciers in our country moving down the slopes and valleys in
Himalayas.
6. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, are places
to see some of them.
7. Bhagirathi is basically fed by melt waters from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the
Gangotri glacier.
8. In fact, Alkapuri glacier feeds waters to Alakananda River. Rivers Alkananda and
Bhagirathi join to make river Ganga near Deoprayag
9. Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of friction caused by sheer weight of the
ice.
10. The material plucked from the land by glaciers (usually large-sized angular blocks and
fragments) get dragged along the floors or sides of the valleys and cause great damage
through abrasion and plucking.
11. Glaciers can cause significant damage to even un-weathered rocks and can reduce
high mountains into low hills and plains.
12. As glaciers continue to move, debris gets removed, divides get lowered and
eventually the slope is reduced to such an extent that glaciers will stop moving
13. leaving only a mass of low hills and vast outwash plains along with other depositional
features

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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Cirque
1. Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains.

2. The cirques quite often are found at the heads of glacial valleys.
3. The accumulated ice cuts these cirques while moving down the mountain tops.
4. They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically
dropping high walls at its head as well as sides.
5. A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier
disappears.
6. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.

61
7. There can be two or more cirques one leading into another down below in a stepped
sequence.
8. Horns and Serrated Ridges
9. Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls.
10. If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp
pointed and steep sided peaks called horns form.
11. The divides between cirque side walls or head walls get narrow because of
progressive erosion and turn into serrated or saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as
arêtes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag outline.
12. The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
Everest are in fact horns formed through headward erosion of radiating cirques.
Glacial Valleys/Troughs
1. Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively
smooth, and steep sides.
2. The valleys may contain littered debris or debris shaped as moraines with swampy
appearance.

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3. There may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris within the valleys.
4. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial
valley.
5. The faces of divides or spurs of such hanging valleys opening into main glacial valleys
are quite often truncated to give them an appearance like triangular facets.
6. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high
latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.
1. The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called
glacial till
2. Most of the rock fragments in till are angular to subangular in form.
3. Streams form by melting ice at the bottom, sides or lower ends of glaciers.
4. Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt-water streams
is washed down and deposited.
5. Such glaciofluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.
6. Unlike till deposits, the outwash deposits are roughly stratified and assorted.
7. The rock fragments in outwash deposits are somewhat rounded at their edges.
Moraines

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1. They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.

2. Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers.
3. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys.
4. The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge.
5. There can be many lateral moraines on either side in a glacial valley.
6. These moraines partly or fully owe their origin to glacio-fluvial waters pushing up
materials to the sides of glaciers.
7. Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their valley
floors.
8. Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called
ground moraines.
9. The moraine in the centre of the
10. Glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is called medial moraine.
11. They are imperfectly formed as compared to lateral moraines.
12. Sometimes medial moraines are indistinguishable from ground moraines.
Eskers
1. When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps
down along the margins or even moves through holes in the ice.
2. These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel
beneath the ice.
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3. Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming
its banks.
4. Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of
rock debris carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier
5. After the ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker.
Outwash Plains
1. The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice
sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans
2. This may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.
Drumlins

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1. Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till
with some masses of gravel and sand.
2. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement.
3. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.
4. One end of the drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss end is blunter and steeper
than the other end called tail.
5. The drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice through
fissures in the glacier.
6. The stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by moving ice.
7. Drumlins give an indication of direction of glacier movement.
WAVES AND CURRENTS

1. Coastal processes are the most dynamic and hence most destructive
2. Some of the changes along the coasts take place very fast
3. At one place, there can be erosion in one season and deposition in another.
4. Most of the changes along the coasts are accomplished by waves.
5. When waves break, the water is thrown with great force onto the shore, and
simultaneously, there is a great churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
6. Constant impact of breaking waves drastically affects the coasts.
7. Storm waves and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching changes in a short period of
time than normal breaking waves.
8. As wave environment changes, the intensity of the force of breaking waves changes.
9. Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms depend upon
(i) The configuration of land and sea floor
(ii) Whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating
(submerging) landward
10. Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are considered to explain the
concept of evolution of coastal landforms
(i) High, rocky coasts (submerged coasts)
(ii) Low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).
HIGH ROCKY COASTS

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1. Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear to have been drowned with highly
irregular coastline.
2. The coastline appears highly indented with extension of water into the land where
glacial valleys (fjords) are present.
3. The hill sides drop off sharply into the water.
4. Shores do not show any depositional landforms initially. Erosion features dominate.
5. Along high rocky coasts, waves break with great force against the land shaping the
hill sides into cliffs
6. With constant pounding by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut platform in
front of the sea cliff.
7. Waves gradually minimise the irregularities along the shore.
8. The materials which fall off, and removed from the sea cliffs, gradually break into
smaller fragments and roll to roundness will get deposited in the offshore.
9. After a considerable period of cliff development and retreat when coastline turns
somewhat smooth
10. With the addition of some more material to this deposit in the offshore, a wave-built
terrace would develop in front of wave-cut terrace.
11. As the erosion along the coast takes place a good supply material becomes available
to long shore currents and waves to deposit them as beaches
12. Along the shore and as bars (long ridges of sand and/or shingle parallel to the coast)
in the near shore zone.
13. Bars are submerged features and when bars show up above water, they are called
barrier bars.
14. Barrier bar which get keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a spit.
15. When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms.
16. The lagoons would gradually get filled up by sediments from the land giving rise to a
coastal plain.
LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS

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1. Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear to extend their length by building
coastal plains and deltas.
2. The coastline appears smooth with occasional incursions of water in the form of
lagoons and tidal creeks.
3. The land slopes gently into the water.

4. Marshes and swamps may abound along the coasts. Depositional features dominate.
5. When waves break over a gently sloping sedimentary coast.
6. Lagoons would eventually turn into a swamp which would subsequently turn into a
coastal plain.
7. The maintenance of these depositional features depends upon the steady supply of
materials
8. Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
9. Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
10. The west coast of our country is a high rocky retreating coast.
11. Erosional forms dominate in the west coast.
12. The east coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
13. Depositional forms dominate in the east coast.

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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
1. Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually found where erosion is the
dominant shore process.
2. Almost all sea cliffs are steep and may range from a few m to 30 m or even more.
3. At the foot of such cliffs there may be a flat or gently sloping platform covered by
rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind.
4. Such platforms occurring at elevations above the average height of waves is called a
wave-cut terrace.
5. The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
smashed against the cliff along with lashing waves create hollows and these hollows get
widened and deepened to form sea caves.

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6. The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede further inland.
7. Retreat of the cliff may leave some remnants of rock standing isolated as small
islands just off the shore.
8. Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks.
9. Like all other features, sea stacks are also temporary and eventually coastal hills and
cliffs will disappear because of wave erosion giving rise to narrow coastal plains
10. And with onrush of deposits from over the land behind may get covered up by
alluvium or may get covered up by shingle or sand to form a wide beach.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Beaches and Dunes
1. Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are dominated by deposition, but may
occur as patches along even the rugged shores.

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2. Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes from land carried by the
streams and rivers or from wave erosion.
3. Beaches are temporary features.
4. The sandy beach which appears so permanent may be reduced to a very narrow strip
of coarse pebbles in some other season.
5. Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized materials.
6. Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.
7. Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and winnowed from over the beach surfaces
will be deposited as sand dunes.
8. Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the coastline are very common along low
sedimentary coasts.
Bars, Barriers and Spits

1. A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the off-shore zone (from the position
of low tide waterline to seaward) lying approximately parallel to the coast is called an off-
shore bar.

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2. An off-shore bar which is exposed due to further addition of sand is termed a barrier
bar.
3. The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across the mouth of a river or at the
entrance of a bay.
4. Sometimes such barrier bars get keyed up to one end of the bay when they are called
spits(
5. Spits may also develop attached to headlands/hills.

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6. The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of the bay gradually extend leaving only a
small opening of the bay into the sea and the bay will eventually develop into a lagoon.
7. The lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment coming from the land or from the
beach it (aided by wind) and a broad and wide coastal plain may develop replacing a
lagoon.
8. Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars offer the first buffer or defence against
storm or tsunami by absorbing most of their destructive force.
9. Then come the barriers, beaches, beach dunes and mangroves,
10. If any, to absorb the destructive force of storm and tsunami waves.
11. if we do anything which disturbs the ‘sediment budget’ and the mangroves along the
coast,
12. These coastal forms will get eroded away leaving human habitations to bear first
strike of storm and tsunami waves.
WINDS
1. Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot deserts.
2. The desert floors get heated up too much and too quickly because of being dry and
barren.
3. The heated floors heat up the air directly above them and result in upward
movements in the hot lighter air with turbulence
4. Any obstruction in its path sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and downdrafts.
5. Winds also move along the desert floors with great speed and the obstructions in
their path create turbulence.
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6. Of course, there are storm winds which are very destructive.

7. Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
8. Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust and smaller particles from the surface
of rocks.
9. In the transportation process sand and silt act as effective tools to abrade the land
surface.
10. The impact is simply sheer force of momentum which occurs when sand is blown into
or against a rock surface.
11. It is similar to sandblasting operation.
12. The wind action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features
in the deserts.
13. Many features of deserts owe their formation to mass wasting and running water as
sheet floods.
14. Though rain is scarce in deserts, it comes down torrentially in a short period of time.
15. The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, exposed to mechanical and chemical
weathering processes due to drastic diurnal temperature changes
16. decay faster and the torrential rains help in removing the weathered materials easily
17. the weathered debris in deserts is moved by not only wind but also by rain/sheet
wash.
18. The wind moves fine materials and general mass erosion is accomplished mainly
through sheet floods or sheet wash.
19. Stream channels in desert areas are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for a brief
time after rains.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Pediments and Pediplains
1. Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily concerned with the formation and
extension of pediments.

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2. Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a
thin cover of debris are called pediments.
3. Such rocky floors form through the erosion of mountain front through a combination
of lateral erosion by streams and sheet flooding.
4. Erosion starts along the steep margins of the landmass or the steep sides of the
tectonically controlled steep incision features over the landmass.
5. Once, pediments are formed with a steep wash slope followed by cliff or free face
above it
6. The steep wash slope and free face retreat backwards.
7. This method of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of slopes through backwasting.
8. So, through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the
expense of mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg
which is a remnant of the mountain.
9. That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains called
pediplains.

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Fig – showing Playa, pediment & Inselberg

Playas
1. Plains are by far the most prominent landforms in the deserts.
2. In basins with mountains and hills around and along, the drainage is towards the
centre of the basin.
3. Due to gradual deposition of sediment from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms
at the centre of the basin.
4. In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body.
5. Such types of shallow lakes are called as playas
6. Where water is retained only for short duration due to evaporation and quite often
the playas contain good deposition of salts.
7. The playa plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
Deflation Hollows and Caves

1. Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent
movement of wind currents in one direction.
2. This process may create shallow depressions called deflation hollows.
3. Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces.
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4. The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
depressions called blow outs are created
5. Some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.
6. Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks
7. Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion
are worn out quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks.
8. Polished beautifully in the shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and
rounded pear shaped cap above.
9. Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table top and quite often, the remnants
stand out like pedestals.
1. Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon the velocity of wind
2. different sizes of grains are moved along the floors by rolling or saltation and carried
in suspension and in this process of transportation itself,
3. The materials get sorted. When the wind slows or begins to die down
4. Depending upon sizes of grains and their critical velocities, the grains will begin to
settle.
5. in depositional landforms made by wind, good sorting of grains can be found
6. Wind is there everywhere and wherever there is good source of sand and with
constant wind directions, depositional features in arid regions can develop anywhere.
Sand Dunes
1. Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation.
2. Obstacles to initiate dune formation
3. are equally important

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4. There can
be a great
variety of dune forms
Barchans
1. Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings directed away from
wind direction i.e., downwind
2. Form where the wind direction is constant and moderate and where the original
surface over which sand is moving is almost uniform.
3. Parabolic dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation.
4. That means parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction being the
same.
5. Seifis similar to barchan with a small difference
6. Seif has only one wing or point. This happens when there is shift in wind conditions.
7. The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and high.
8. Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant.
9. They appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height.
10. Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
11. These dunes form when the wind direction is constant and the source of sand is an
elongated feature at right angles to the wind direction.
12. They may be very long and low in height.
13. When sand is plenty, quite often, the regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their
individual characteristics.
14. Most of the dunes in the deserts shift and a few of them will get stabilised especially
near human habitations.

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Climatology – Introduction to Atmosphere
1. The air is an integral part of the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total mass of the
atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 km from the earth’s surface
2. The air is colourless and odourless and can be felt only when it blows as wind.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1. The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles.

2. The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way
3. That oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km
4. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the
earth.

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Gases
1. Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas
2. It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing
terrestrial radiation.
3. It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the
earth’s surface.
4. It is largely responsible for the green house effect
5. The volume of other gases is constant but the volume of carbon dioxide has been
rising in the past few decades because of the burning of fossil fuels.
6. This has also increased the temperature of the air.

7. Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found between 10 and 50
km above the earth’s surface.
8. Acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents
them from reaching the surface of the earth.
Water Vapour
1. Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere
2. This decreases with altitude. In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per
cent of the air by volume.
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3. While in the dry and cold areas of desert and Polar Regions, it may be less than one
per cent of the air.
4. Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
5. It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated
heat.
6. It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot.
7. Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.
Dust Particles
1. Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles
2. This may originate from different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot,
ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors.
3. Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere; yet,
convectional air currents may transport them to great heights.
4. The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate
regions

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Fig – Relative size chart of common air contaminants (Shown in micrometers)
5. Due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.

6. Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour
condenses to produce clouds.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature
2. Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing
altitude.
3. The column of atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the
temperature condition.

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They are -
I. Troposphere
II. Stratosphere
III. Mesosphere
IV. Ionosphere
V. Exosphere
The troposphere
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1. The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.

2. Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles
and about 18 km at the equator.
3. Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported
to great heights by strong convectional currents.
4. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
5. All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
6. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1 ° C for every 165m of height.
7. This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
Figure – Showing how changes in weather take place

Tropopause
1. The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause.
2. The air temperature at the tropopause is about minus 800 C over the equator about
minus 45 o C over the poles.
3. The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called the tropopause.
The stratosphere
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1. The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
2. One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
3. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from intense,
harmful form of energy.
The mesosphere
1. The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km.
2. In this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude
and reaches up to minus 100 ° C at the height of 80 km.
3. The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
4. The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
5. It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as
ionosphere
6. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
7. Temperature here starts increasing with height.
Fig – showing various function of each layer

The exosphere
1. The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the ionosphere is known as the
exosphere.
2. This is the highest layer but very little is known about it.
3. Whatever contents are there, these are extremely rarefied in this layer, and it
gradually merges with the outer space.

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4. Although all layers of the atmosphere must be exercising influence on us,

geographers are concerned with the first two layers of the atmosphere.
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE
1. We live at the bottom of a huge pile of air.
2. We inhale and exhale but we feel the air when it is in motion
3. Air in motion is wind
4. Earth is surrounded by air all around
5. This envelop of air is atmosphere which is composed of numerous gases
6. These gases support life over the earth’s surface
7. The earth receives almost all of its energy from the sun.
8. The earth in turn radiates back to space the energy received from the sun.
9. As a result, the earth neither warms up nor does it get cooled over a period of time.
10. Thus, the amount of heat received by different parts of the earth is not the same.
11. This variation causes pressure differences in the atmosphere.
12. This leads to transfer of heat from one region to the other by winds.
SOLAR RADIATION
1. The earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths.
2. The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short
is termed as insolation
3. The earth is a geoid resembling a sphere the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the
atmosphere
4. The earth intercepts a very small portion of the sun’s energy.
5. On an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute at the top of its
atmosphere.
6. The solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year.
7. Due to the variations in the distance between the earth and the sun.
8. The earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km on 4th July).This position of the
earth is called aphelion.
9. On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is
called perihelion.

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10. The annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the
amount received on 4th July.
11. However, the effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other factors
like the distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric circulation.
12. This variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather changes
on the surface of the earth.
Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth
1. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a
year.
2. The factors that cause these variations in insolation are;
a. The rotation of earth on its axis
b. The angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
c. The length of the day
d. The transparency of the atmosphere
3. The earth’s axis makes an angle of 66½ with the plane of its orbit round the sun has a
greater influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.
4. It also impact length of the Day in Hours and Minutes on winter and Summer
Solstices in the Northern Hemisphere
5. Second factor that determines the amount of insolation received is the angle of
inclination of the rays.
6. This depends on the latitude of a place.
7. The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth
resulting in slant sun rays.
8. If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per
unit area decreases.
9. The slant rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere
resulting in more absorption, scattering and diffusion.
10. The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation.
11. The incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere before striking the
earth’s surface.
12. Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the
near infrared radiation.

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13. Very small-suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to
the space and towards the earth surface.
14. This process adds colour to the sky.
15. The red colour of the rising and the setting sun and the blue colour of the sky are the
result of scattering of light within the atmosphere.
16. The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m 2 in the tropics
to about 70 Watt/m 2in the poles.
17. Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is
the least.
18. At the same latitude the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans.
19. In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.
HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE
1. There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere.
2. The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in contact
with the lower layers also get heated.
3. This process is called conduction.
4. Conduction takes place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with
one another
5. There is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body.
6. The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature or
the contact is broken.
7. Conduction is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere
8. The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents
and further transmits the heat of the atmosphere.
9. This process of vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as convection.
10. The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.
11. The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection.
12. Horizontal movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical
movement.
13. In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variations in daily weather
are caused by advection alone.

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14. In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds
called ‘loo’ is the outcome of advection process.
Terrestrial Radiation
1. The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface.
2. The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy
to the atmosphere in long wave form.
3. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial
radiation.
4. The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon
dioxide and the other green house gases.
5. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth’s radiation.
6. The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space.
7. Finally the amount of heat received from the sun is returned to space, thereby
maintaining constant temperature at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
Heat Budget of the Planet Earth
1. The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat.
2. It maintains its temperature.
3. This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals
the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
4. Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent.
5. While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected,
scattered and absorbed.
6. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface.
7. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s
surface.
8. Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds.
9. 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth
10. The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth.

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11. The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by
the earth’s surface.
12. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
13. Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are
absorbed by the atmosphere
14. 6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and
turbulence 19 units through latent heat of condensation
15. 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere, 14 units from insolation +34 units from
terrestrial radiation are also radiated back into space.
16. The total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is
17+48=65 units which balance the total of 65 units received from the sun.
17. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth
18. This explains why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge
transfer of heat that takes place.
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surface

1. As explained earlier, there are variations in the amount of radiation received at the
earth’s surface.
2. Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.
Temperature
1. The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates
heat which is measured in terms of temperature.
2. While heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance
3. The temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a
place) is.
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

The temperature of air at any place is influenced by
a) The latitude of the place
b) The altitude of the place
c) Distance from the sea

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d) The air mass circulation

e) The presence of warm and cold ocean currents
f) Local aspects
The latitude
1. The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received
2. It has been explained earlier that the insolation varies according to the latitude
hence the temperature also varies accordingly.
The altitude
1. The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below
2. The places near the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at
higher elevations
3. The temperature generally decreases with increasing height.
4. The rate of decrease of temperature with height is termed as the normal lapse rate.
5. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
Distance from the sea
1. Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with respect
to the sea
2. Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly
3. Land heats up and cools down quickly
4. The variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land.
5. The places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and
land breezes which moderate the temperature.
Air-mass and Ocean currents
1. Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the
temperature.
2. The places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses experience higher
temperature and the places
3. The places that come under the influence of cold air masses experience low
temperature

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4. The places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher
temperature
5. The places located on the coast where the cold currents flow record lower
temperature
Distribution of Temperature
1. The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the
temperature distribution in January and July
2. The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help
of isotherms.
3. The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
4. The effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map
5. As the isotherms are generally parallel to the latitude

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Figure: The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January
6. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July
especially in the northern hemisphere
7. In the northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern
hemisphere
8. The effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced
9. In January the isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over
the continent
10. This can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean.
11. The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the
Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north.

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12. Over the land the temperature decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards
south in Europe.
13. It is much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
14. The mean January temperature along 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N and
50° N latitudes.
15. The mean monthly temperature for January is over 27° C, in equatorial oceans over
24° C in the tropics and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes.
16. Its –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian continental interior.
17. The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere.
18. Here the isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes
19. The variation in temperature is more gradual than in the northern hemisphere.
20. The isotherm of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes
respectively.
Figure: The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July

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21. In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitude.

22. The equatorial oceans record warmer temperature, more than 27°C
23. Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia,
along the 30° N latitude.
Figure: The range of temperature between January and July

24. Along the 40° N runs the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S the temperature is 10°
C.
25. The highest range of temperature is more than 60° C over the north-eastern part of
Eurasian continent.
26. This is due to continentality.
27. The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S and 15° N.

95
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS

1. Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled.
2. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure
setting the air in motion
3. Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink
4. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet.
5. Maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole.
6. The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds and bring
precipitation.
.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
1. Our body is subjected to a lot of air pressure.
2. As one moves up the air gets varified and one feels breathless.
3. The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the
top of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
4. The widely used unit is kilo Pascal written as hPa.
5. At sea level the average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 mb or 1,013.2 hPa.
6. The air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure.
Air pressure
1. Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid
barometer.
2. At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is the primary cause of
air motion
3. Air motion - wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
Vertical Variation of Pressure

1. The decrease amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation.

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2. It does not always decrease at the same rate.

3. It is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force
4. We do not experience strong upward winds
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

1. Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and
velocity.
2. Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels
3. Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure.
4. It is measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of
comparison.
Figure shows the patterns of isobars corresponding to pressure systems.

5. Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in
the centre.
6. High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest
pressure in the centre.
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
1. The world distribution of sea level pressure in January and July has been shown
in Figure

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2. Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial
low.
3. Along 30° N and 30° S are found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical
highs.
4. Further pole wards along 60 o N and 60o S, the low-pressure belts are termed as
the sub polar lows.
5. These pressure belts are not permanent in nature
6. They oscillate with the apparent movement of the sun.
7. In the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the summer
northwards.
Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

1. The air is set in motion due to the differences in atmospheric pressure.
2. The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.
3. The wind at the surface experiences friction.
4. In addition, rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement.
5. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.
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6. Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of
three forces – the pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force.
7. In addition, the gravitational force acts downward.
Pressure Gradient Force

1. The differences in atmospheric pressure produce a force

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2. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak
where the isobars are apart.
Frictional Force
1. It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface
2. Its influence generally extends up to an elevation of 1 - 3 km.
3. The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind.
4. It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere,to the left in
the southern hemisphere.
5. The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
6. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
7. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
8. The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.
9. The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar.
10. The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the
larger is the deflection in the direction of wind.
11. As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-
pressure areas
12. The wind blows around it.
13. At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the
isobars.
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14. The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified.

15. That is the reason why tropical cyclones are not formed near the equator.
Pressure and Wind

1. The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating
forces.
2. The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from
frictional effect of the surface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis
force.
3. When isobars are straight and when there is no friction
4. The pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind
blows parallel to the isobar.
5. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
6. Around a high it is called anti cyclonic circulation.
7. The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in
different hemispheres.
8. Generally, over low pressure area the air will converge and rise.
Fig- convergence and divergence of wind

9. Over high pressure area the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface,
which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
General circulation of the atmosphere

General circulation of the atmosphere widely depend upon
a) Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
b) Emergence of pressure belts
c) The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun
d) The distribution of continents and oceans
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e) The rotation of earth

1. The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation
of the atmosphere.
2. It influences the earth’s climate.
3. The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection
caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created.
4. The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
5. The converged air rises along with the convective cell.
6. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards
the poles.
Figure: Simplified general circulation of the atmosphere

7. This causes accumulation of air at about 30 degree N and S.
8. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
9. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30 degree N and S
latitudes.
10. Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies.

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11. The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
12. Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells.
13. In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the
poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
14. At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel
cell.
15. At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards
middle latitudes as the polar easterlies.
16. This cell is called the polar cell.
17. These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere.
18. The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the
general circulation
19. The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans.
20. The large-scale winds of the atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of
the ocean.
21. Oceans in turn provide input of energy and water vapour into the air.
22. These interactions take place rather slowly over a large part of the ocean.
General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans
I. Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms
of general atmospheric circulation.
II. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards
South American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current.
III. The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in
the Central Pacific and Australia.
IV. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the
southern oscillation.
V. The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is
known as ENSO.
VI. The arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall; drought
occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.

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Seasonal Wind
1. The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of
regions of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts
2. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons, especially
over Southeast Asia.
3. Differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop
daily annually can create several common, local or regional winds.
Land and Sea Breezes

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1. The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently

2. During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea.
3. Therefore, over the land the air raises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the
sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively high.
4. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea
to the land as the sea breeze.
5. In the night the reversal of condition takes place.
6. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.
7. The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.
Mountain and Valley Winds

105
1. In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley.
2. This wind is known as the valley breeze.
3. During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as
the mountain wind.

106
4. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is
called katabatic wind.
5. Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges.
6. The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condenses and
precipitates.
7. When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up
by adiabatic process.
8. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.
Air Masses
1. When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time
2. It acquires the characteristics of the area.
3. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains.
4. The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called
an airmass.
5. It is defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and
moisture.
6. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
7. The air masses are classified according to the source regions
8. Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold
There are five major source regions.

107
i. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans

ii. The subtropical hot deserts
iii. The relatively cold high latitude oceans
iv. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes
v. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and
Antarctica.
. Following types of airmasses are recognised
i. Maritime tropical (mT)

ii. Continental tropical (cT)
iii. Maritime polar (mP)
iv. Continental polar (cP)
v. Continental arctic (cA)

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Fronts
1. When two different air masses meet the boundary zone between them is called a
front
2. The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis.
There are four types of fronts
i. Cold
ii. Warm
iii. Stationary
iv. Occluded front
1. When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front

2. When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called
the cold front
3. whereas if the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is
a warm front.
4. If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front.
5. The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in
temperature and pressure.
6. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds and
cause precipitation.
Extra Tropical Cyclones

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1. The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called
the middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones.
2. The passage of front causes abrupt changes in the weather conditions over the area
in the middle and high latitudes.
Fig – Showing areas of Extra tropical cyclone
Process of formation
1. Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front.
2. Initially, the front is stationary. In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the
south and cold air from the north of the front
3. When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the
cold air move towards, south setting in motion ananticlockwise cyclonic circulation.

110
Figure – Extra tropical Cyclone

4. The cyclonic circulation leads to a well developed extra tropical cyclone with a warm
front and a cold front.
5. In figure the plan and cross section of a well developed cyclone is given
6. There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged between the forward and the
rear cold air or cold sector.
7. The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the sky
ahead of the warm front and cause precipitation.
8. The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up.
9. Cumulus clouds develop along the cold front.
10. The cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm
front.
11. The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is occluded and the cyclone
dissipates.
12. The processes of wind circulation both at the surface and aloft are closely interlinked
13. The extra tropical cyclone differs from the tropical cyclone in number of ways.
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14. The extra tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not present in the
tropical cyclones.
15. They cover a larger area and can originate over the land and sea.
16. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only over the seas and on reaching the land
they dissipate.
17. The extra tropical cyclone affects a much larger area as compared to the tropical
cyclone.
18. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it is more destructive.
19. The extra tropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move from
east to west.
Tropical Cyclones
1. Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and
move over to the coastal areas.
2. Bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall
and storm surges.
3. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are known as Cyclones in
the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic,Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South
China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
4. Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are
a. Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
b. Presence of the Coriolis force
c. Small variations in the vertical wind speed
d. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation
e. Upper divergence above the sea level system.
Mechanism of formation
1. The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process
2. In the towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm.
3. With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is further strengthened.
4. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates.

112
5. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone.
6. The cyclones, which cross 20 degree N latitude generally, recurve and they are more
destructive.
7. A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong spirally circulating wind

around the centre, called the eye.
8. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
9. The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
10. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to
greater height reaching the tropopause.
Features of tropical cyclone
1. The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per
hour
2. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and trains of
cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.
3. The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean is
between 600 -1200 km.
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4. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.

5. The cyclone creates storm surges and they inundate the coastal low lands. The storm
peters out on the land.
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

1. Other severe local storms are thunderstorms and tornadoes.
2. They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent.
3. Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
Process of formation (thunderstorms)
1. A thunderstorm is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and

lightning.
2. When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are
formed and they come down as hailstorm.
3. If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate duststorms.
4. A thunderstorm is characterised by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes
the clouds to grow bigger.

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5. This causes precipitation. Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and the
rain.
6. From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force.
Process of formation (tornado)
1. With very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its way such a
phenomenon is called a tornado.
2. Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea is called
water sprouts.
3. These violent storms are the manifestation of the atmosphere’s adjustments to
varying energy distribution.

115
4. The potential and heat energies are converted into kinetic energy in these storms
and the restless atmosphere again returns to its stable state.
ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY AND CONDENSATION
Introduction
1. Atmospheric humidity refers to the content of water in gaseous form in a parcel of
air having definite volume and temperature at a particular time and place.
2. It is obtained through various processes of evaporation from the land and water
surfaces of the earth.
3. The humidity or vapour content in the atmosphere ranges between zeros to 5
percent by volume.
4. Climatically water is very important constituent of the atmosphere.
5. Vapour depends on temperature and therefore it decreases from the equator
towards the poles.
6. The content of vapour in the surface air in the moist tropical areas, at 50° and
70° latitude is 2.6 percent, 0.9 percent and 0.2 percent (by volume) respectively.
7. More than 90 percent of the total atmospheric vapour (humidity) is found up to the
altitude of 5 Km.
8. If there is a condensation of all the atmospheric vapour at a time, there would result
a 2.5 cm thick layer of water around the earth.
9. This meagre amount of water vapour is responsible for various types of weather
phenomenon.
10. The moisture content in the atmosphere creates several forms of condensation and
precipitation e.g. dew, fog, cloud, rainfall, frost, ice, snowfall, hailstorms etc.

116
11. Vapour is almost transparent to incoming solar radiation, but it is less transparent for
outgoing short waves terrestrial radiation.
12. Therefore it helps in heating the earth’s surface and lower portion of atmosphere
because it absorbs terrestrial radiation back to the earth’s surface.
13. It is also the evident that water vapour also helps in intensifying green house effect of
the atmosphere.
14. The process of transformation of liquid water into gaseous form is called evaporation.
15. A stable air becomes saturated soon because there is no transfer of moisture while
unstable air attains saturation quite late because there is much transfer of moisture.
16. There is more evaporation from oceanic surfaces than from the surfaces.
17. There is maximum evaporation from the lands between 10° north and 10° south
latitudes.
18. There is maximum evaporation from the oceans between 10° – 20° latitude in both
the hemispheres.
19. The process of conversion of vapour into liquid (water) and solid from (ice, snow,
frost) is called condensation.
20. It is apparent that evaporation and condensation are opposite processes.
Some concept under evaporation process

1. Sublimation – the process of transformation of solid (ice) directly into gaseous from
(water vapour), by the use of heat energy.
2. Latent heat of vaporisation – Heat energy required to transform water into water
vapour through evaporation. Latent means hidden
3. Latent heat of sublimation – the heat energy spent in transforming ice into water
vapour
Rate of evaporation
There are spatial – temporal variations in the rate and amount of evaporation due to a host of
factors:
a) Vapour pressure of water surface
b) Vapour pressure of the air
c) Wind velocity
d) Salinity of water bodies

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Vapour pressure of water surface

1. It depends on the temperature of the water surface
2. It is difference between the temperature of water surface and air temperature
which motivates the process of v evaporation.
Vapour pressure of the air
1. It represents the pressure exerted by water vapour of a given parcel of air.
2. The greater the vapour pressures of a parcel of air, the lower the rate of evaporation
and vice versa.
Wind velocity
1. It is directly positively related to the rate of evaporation.
2. Greater the wind velocity, higher the rate of evaporation and slower the wind
velocity, lower the rate of evaporation.
Salinity of water bodies
1. Salt content in different water bodies is inversely related to the rate of evaporation.
2. Higher the salt content in water, the lower the rate of evaporation and lower the
salinity and vice versa.
Some concepts under condensation
1. The process and mechanism of condensation depends upon the amount of relative
humidity present in the air.
2. The air having 100 percent relative humidity is called saturated air.
3. The temperature at which an air becomes saturated is called dew point.
The condensation depends upon
1. The percentage of relative humidity of the air
2. The degree of cooling of the air
3. Forms of condensation
4. Condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei results ultimately in the
formation of water droplets.
The forms of condensation varies on a host of factors
1. Nature of moist air

118
2. Rate and mode of cooling of ascending air

3. Temperature of air
4. Nature and rate of movement of air
5. Nature and amount of hygroscopic nuclei
6. Places of condensation
Condensation occurs both
1. Near the ground surface -
2. Up in the air above ground surface
Condensation near the ground surface

1. The ground level condensation occur in several forms, depending upon local
environmental conditions
2. Of which climatically important are dew, frost, rime, mist, fog etc.
Dew
1. It refers to direct deposition of water vapour into without hygroscopic nuclei on the
surfaces of object on the ground
2. It happens after the condensation of moist air caused by radiation and contact
cooling of air lying above the ground surface.
3. The necessary condition for dew formation include high relative humidity, almost
calm air with low wind velocity, suitable radiating surface, effective nocturnal radiation.
Frost
1. It is defined as transformation of gaseous form of water (water vapour) directly into
solid form (the process being called sublimation) at the ground surface
2. It occurs in the soils and the air layer just lying over the ground surface due to
condensation occurring below freezing point.
3. It is generally divided into two forms namely (i) ground frost and (ii) air frost
4. When the vapour is directly transformed into ice (by the process of sublimation)
which is deposited on roofs, grasses, pavement etc., it is called hoar frost.
5. When the ice sheets as a result of frost formation are deposited on roads the
resultant frost is called black ice or glazed frost.
Rime

119
1. It is an opaque coating of tiny white, granular ice particle, caused by rapid freezing of
super – cooled water droplets on impact with an object below freezing point
2. Rime is deposited mainly on the edges and points of objects.
Mist and fogs
1. These are formed when condensation occurs above freezing point in the air lying just
over the ground surface around tiny hygroscopic nuclei.
2. These are the suspended water droplets in the air which reduce visibility.
3. The difference between mist and fog is related to the size of suspended water
droplets.
Condensation above the ground surface
1. It is caused by adiabatic cooling of ascending moist air results in the formation of
clouds
2. They are defined as aggregates of innumerable tiny water droplets, ice particles or
mixture of both in the air above the ground surface.
3. Clouds are formed due to condensation of water vapour around the hygroscopic
nuclei caused by cooling due to lifting of moist air and consequent expansion volume.
Other forms of condensation
Snowfall
1. The fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds on the ground surface.
2. Snowfall is precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice; it occurs when freezing
level is so close to the ground surface (less than 300m from the surface).
3. The aggregation of ice crystals reach the ground without being melted in a solid form
of precipitation as snow.
Sleet
1. It refers to a mixture of snow and rain but in American terminology sleet means
falling of small pellets of transparent or translucent ice having a diameter of 5 mm or less.
Hail
1. It consist of large pallets or spheres of ice, it is a form of solid precipitation wherein
small balls or pieces of ice know as hailstones.
2. It is having a diameter of 5 to 50 mm fall downward known as hailstorms
Drizzle
1. The fall of numerous minute droplets of water having diameter of less than 0.5 mm

120
2. It fall continuously from low stratus cloud, but total amount of water received on the
ground surface is significantly low.

Timeline: Indian History
7500 BC : Civilization at Gulf of Khambar 320-335 : Reign of Chandragupta-I.
2500-1500 BC: Indus Valley Civilisation. 335-380 : Reign of Samudragupta known as Indian
2000-1500: Aryans arrive from central Asia. Napoleon.
380-414 : Reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
1500-1000: The Early Vedic Age – Rigveda.
405-411 : The visit of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien
1000-500: Later Vedic Period - Samaveda,
to India.
Yajurveda and Atharvaveda,
500-527 : Rule of Huns over North India.
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Samhitas, early
606-647 : Harsha Vardhana of Kanauj. Hiuen-Tsang
Upanishads and Sutras.
visited India (AD 630-644).
563-483 : Gautama Buddha – born at Lumbini
500-757 : First Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi
(Nepal); attainment of knowledge –
630 : Harsha's clash with PulakesinII
Bodh Gaya (Bihar); first sermon –
973-1190 : Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani
Sarnath, near Varanasi (UP); Nirvana –
Kusinagar (Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh). 760-1142 : Palas of Eastern India.
985-1014 : Reign of Rajaraja, the Great. Starts a
540-468 : Mahavira – born at Kundagrama near
great land survey (AD 1000).
Vaishali (Bihar) and nirvana at Pavapuri
(Patna, Bihar). 1014-1044 : Reign of Rajendra Chola. Naval cam-
paign against Sri Vijaya kingdom.
492-460 : Rule of Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara,
788-820 : Sankaracharya and his philosophy of
king of Magadha.
Advaita.
364-321 : Rule of Nandas of Magadha
712 : Arabs occupy Sindh.
326 : Invasion of India by Alexander Battle 871-1173 : Imperial cholas of Tanjore.
of Hydaspes.
916-1203 : Construction of Khajuraho Temples.
322-298 : Reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the 1000-1027: Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni.
founder of the Mauryan dynasty. 1191 : Prithviraj III, defeated Muhammad Ghori
273-232 : Reign of Ashoka , son of Bindusara in the first battle of Tarain .
261 : Kalinga war. 1192 : Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj in
257 : Asoka's conversion to Budhism by theSecond Battle of Tarain in 1192.
Upagupta. 1206 : Foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi by
250 : Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
90 : Sakas invade India. 1210 : Death of Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
58 : The Vikrama Samvat (vikram era) intro- 1210-1236: Reign of Iltutmish.
duced by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain. 1221 : Mongol invasion under Chenghis Khan.
20-46 AD : Gondophernes, the king of Indo- 1231 : Iltumish completed the construction of
Parthians. Qutub Minar at Delhi.
78 : Accession of Kanishka, The Saka era begins. 1236-1240: Reign of Empress Raziya, daughter of
Iltutmish, the first and last woman ruler
100-300 : The Sangam Age in south India.
of Medieval India.
50 BC-250 AD : Satavahana dynasty in the Deccan.
1266-1287: Reign of Sultan Balban.
36 3
1288-1293: Visit of Marco Polo in India. 1540 :Humayun’s defeat near Kanauj.
1290-1296 : Sultan Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji, founder 1542 :Birth of Akbar.
of the Khalji dynasty. 1545 :Battle of Kalinjar.
1296 : Alauddin Khalji invades Devagiri. 1545 :Death of Sher Shah.
1296-1316: Reign of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. 1555 :Battle of Sirhind. Sikandur Suri was de-
1309-1311: Malik Kafur's expedition into South India. feated by Humayun, Humayun recov-
1320-1325: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik), ers the throne of Delhi.
founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. 1556 : Death of Humayun and accession of
1325-1351: Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Transferred Akbar. Second Battle of Panipat.
the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad- 1556-1605: Akbar's reign.
1327. Issue of token currency – 1329. 1564 : Abolition of Jezyah.
1333 : Ibn Batuta arrives in India. 1565 : Battle of Talikota Vijayanagar destroyed.
1351-1388: Sultan Firuz Tughlaq. 1571 : Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri.
1398 : Invasion of Timur during the reign of 1576 : Battle of Haldighati and defeat of
Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Maharana Pratap.
1414-1451: Reign of Sayyid dynasty. 1579 : Infalliability decree issued by Akbar.
1420 : Visit of Nicolo Conti. 1581 : Din-i-Ilahi promulgated by Akbar.
1451-1526: Bahlul Lodhi (1451-89), Sikandar Lodhi 1600 : Deccan expedition and siege of
(1489-1517), and Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26) Ahmadnagar
1526 : The first Battle of Panipat (1526) Babur : Charter to British East India company.
defeats Ibrahim Lodhi. 1605 : Death of Akbar and accession of
1336 : Foundation of the empire of Vijayanagar Jahangir.
by Harihara and Bukka 1605-1627: Reign of Jahangir.
1438-1468: Reign of Rana kumbha in Mewar. 1609 : William Hawking visited Jahangir.
1509-1530: Reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the great- 1615 : Sir Thomas Roe in the court of Jahangir.
est king of Vijayanagar. 1627 : Death of Jahangir.
1565 : Battle of Talikota, decline of the empire 1628 : Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor.
of Vijayanagar.
1631 : Death of Mumtaz Mahal.
1346 : Foundation of the Bahmani kingdom by
1636 : Treaties with Bijapur and Golcunda.
Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-
1658 : Coronation of Aurangzeb.
1358).
1498 : Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut 1659 : Murder of Afzal Khan by Shivaji.
1505 : De Almeida, the first Viceroy of Portuguese 1663 : Death of Mir Jumla.
in India : Attack on Poona by Shivaji.
1510 : Conquest of Goa from the Adilshahi Sul- : Shaista Khan appointed Governor of Ben-
tan of Bijapur – 1510. gal.
1526 : Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodhi at the first 1665 : Conclusion of the treaty of Purandhar -
battle of Panipat. Formation of Mughal signed between Sivaji and Jai Singh.
empire. 1666 : Death of Shah Jahan.
1527 : Battle of Khanwa. Babur defeats Rana 1674 : Sivaji's Coronation and assumption of
Sanga of Mewar. the title of Chatrapati.
1530 : Accession of Humayun. 1675 : Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur.
1538 : Death of Guru Nanak. 1679 : Jeziah imposed on the Hindus by
1539 : Sher Shah defeats Humayun at Chausa Aurangzeb.
and assumes sovereignty. 1680 : Death of Sivaji.
36 4
1686 : Conquest of Bijapur by Aurangzeb. : Pitt’s Act passed, Setting up Board of Con-
1687 : Golconda annexed to the Mughal empire. trol for East India Company.
1707 : Death of Aurangzeb at Ahmadnagar. : Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir
1739 : Invasion of Nadirshah. William Jones.
1740-1761: Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana 1786-93 : Lord Cornwalis, Governor-General.
Saheb). 1790-92 : Third Mysore War.
1746-48 : First Carnatic war. 1792 : Treaty of Srirangapatnam signed be-
1748-54 : Second Carnatic war. tween Tipu and English.
1756-63 : Third Carnatic war. 1793-98 : Sir John Shore, Governor-General.
1757 : Battle of Plassey. 1793 : The Permanent Zamindari Settlement of
1760 : Battle of Wandiwash. Bengal.
1761 : Third Battle of Panipat: The Marathas 1798 : Lord Wellesley as Governor-General and
defeated by the combined troops of brought subsidiary alliance.
Ahmad Shah Abdali; the Mughals, and 1799 : Fourth Mysore War. Fall of Srirangapat-
other Muslim chiefs of India. nam. Death of Tipu.
1764 : Battle of Buxar. The English defeat Shah 1800 : Establishment of the College of Fort Will-
Alam, Shuja-ud-daulah and Mir Qasim. iam.
1765 : Grant of the ‘Diwani’ of Bengal, Bihar, 1802 : The Treaty of Bassein between Peshwa
and Orissa to the East India Company and English.
by Shah Alam II under Treaty of 1803 : Occupation of Delhi by Lord Lake.
Allahabad. 1803-05 : Second Anglo-Maratha War.
: Clive, Company’s Governor in Bengal. 1807-13 : Lord Minto as Governor-General.
1765-72 : Dual Government of Bengal. 1809 : Treaty of Amritsar-Ranjit Singh and Brit-
1767-69 : The First Anglo Mysore War. ish sign treaty of perpetual amity.
1770 : The Great Bengal Famine. 1813-23 : Lord Hastings as Governor-General.
1771 : Marathas occupy Delhi and restore Shah 1814-16 : Anglo-Gurkha War.
Alam who was till then under English 1817-18 : Pindari War – Peshwa defeated at
protection at Allahabad. Kirkee.
1772-73 : Warren Hastings as Governor of Bengal. 1818-19 : Last Anglo-Maratha War.
: Abolition of Dual Government of Bengal 1823-28 : Lord Amherst Governor-General.
(1772). 1824-26 : First Burmese War.
1773 : The Regulating Act was passed, bring- 1828-35 : Lord William Bentinck as Governor-
ing the company partially under General.
Parliament’s control and the Presidencies 1829 : Prohibition of Sati.
under Calcutta’s control. 1829-37 : Suppression of Thuggee.
1773-85 : Warren Hastings Governor-General. 1833 : Renewal of Company’s charter. Abolition
: Establishment of Supreme Court, of the Company’s trading rights.
Calcutta. 1835-36 : Sir Charles Metcalf Governor-General.
1775-82 : The First Anglo-Maratha War. 1835 : Macaulay’s Education Resolution. English
1776 : Treaty of Purandar made official language instead of Per-
1780-84 : Second Mysore War. sian.
1783 : Fox’s India Bills give more powers to Par- 1835 : Foundation of Calcutta Medical College.
liament and to the Governor-General. 1836-1842: Lord Auckland as Governor-General.
1784 : Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu and the 1839 : Death of Ranjit Singh.
English. 1842-44 : Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General.
36 5
1844-48 : Lord Hardinge as Governor-General. 1883-84 : Ilbert Bill controversy.
1845-46 : First Anglo-Sikh War. Treaty of Lahore. 1884-88 : Lord Dufferin Viceroy.
1848-49 : Second Anglo-Sikh War. Defeat of Sikhs 1885 : First session of the Indian National Con-
and annexation of the Punjab. gress held at Bombay.
: Opening of a Hindu Girls’ School in Cal- 1887 : Queen Victoria's Jubilee.
cutta by Bethune. 1888-93 : Lord Landsdowne Viceroy.
1848-56 : Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General. 1892 : Indian Councils Act.
1852 : Second Anglo-Burmese War. 1894-99 : Lord Elgin II Viceroy.
1853 : Railway opened from Bombay to Thana. 1896 : Ramakrishna Mission founded.
Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra. 1899-1905: Lord Curzon Viceroy.
1854 : Charles Wood’s despatch on Education. 1905 : Partition of Bengal.
1855 : Santhal insurrection in Bihar. 1905-10 : Lord Minto II Viceroy.
1856 : Annexation of Awadh. Indian Univer- 1906 : Muslim League formed at Dacca.
sity Act. Hindu Widow’s Remarriage 1907 : Surat Congress, moderates-extremists
Act. clash.
1856-58 : Lord Canning – Governor-General. 1908 : Newspapers Act. Tilak convicted of sedi-
1857-58 : Revolt of 1857. Revolt at Meerut begins tion.
on May 10, 1857. 1909 : Morley-Minto Reforms.
1858 : British India placed under the direct gov- : Indian Councils Act passed.
ernment of the Crown. Queen Victoria’s
1910-16 : Lord Hardinge II Viceroy.
Proclamation.
1911 : Delhi Durbar.
1858-62 : Lord Canning as Viceroy.
: Partition of Bengal annulled. Census of In-
1861 : Indian Councils Act.
dia.
: Archaeological Survey of India set up.
: Transfer of Capital to Delhi announced
: Indian Civil Service Act.
1914 : Gandhi arrives in India.
: Introduction of the Penal code.
1916 : Lucknow Pact of Indian National Con-
1862-63 : Lord Elgin as Viceroy. gress and All-India Muslim League.
1864-69 : Sir John Lawrence Viceroy. : Foundation of Women’s University at
1865 : Telegraphic communication with Europe Poona.
opened. : The Home Rule League founded.
1869-72 : Lord Mayo as Viceroy. 1916-21 : Lord Chelmsford as Viceroy.
1875 : Visit of the Prince of Wales. 1919 : Montague-Chelmsford Reforms.
: Arya Samaj founded by Swami : Rowlatt Act passed.
Dayananda.
: Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar
1877 : Lord Lytton held Durbar at Delhi where (April 13).
Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress
1920 : Khilafat Movement and Non Co-opera-
of India.
tion Movement.
1878 : Vernacular Press Act.
1921 : Moplah Rebellion and Wagon Tragedy.
1879 : Theosophical Society at Adayar, (was
1921-26 : Lord Reading Viceroy.
set up) Madras.
1921 : Harappa excavations begin.
1880-84 : Lord Ripon as Viceroy.
1922 : Mohenjodaro excavations begin.
1881 : Factory Act.
: Chauri Chaura incident.
1883 : Indian National Conference held in
1923 : Swarajists in Indian Councils.
Calcutta.
1926-31 : Lord Irwin Viceroy.
36 6
1927 : Appointment of Simon Commission. 1947 : Announcement of Lord Mountbatten’s
1928 : Simon Commission comes to India. plan for Partition of India (June 3).
: Death of Lala Lajpat Rai following po- : Indian Independence Act passed (July).
lice assault. Nehru Report. : Creation of free India and Pakistan on
1929 : Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt drops midnight of August 14/15, 1947 as do-
bombs in the Legislative Assembly. minions.
1947-64 : Jawaharlal Nehru Prime Minister of In-
: Congress on December 31 at Lahore de-
dia.
claring its objective of Poora Swaraj for
1948 : Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi
India.
(January 30).
1930 : Gandhiji’s Dandi March. Civil Disobedi- : Raja-gopalachari appointed first Indian
ence Movement. Governor-General (June 21).
1930-31 : First Round Table Conference. 1949 : New Constitution of India adopted and
1931 : Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed. signed (November 26).
: Second Round Table Conference. 1950 : India become a Republic. New Consti-
1931-36 : Lord Wellingdon Viceroy. tution comes into force (January 26).
1932 : Third Round Table Conference. : Dr. Rajendra Prasad, first President of
: Communal Award announced. Indian Republic.
: Poona Pact signed. : Planning Commission was set up
1951 : Inauguration of First Five Year Plan.
1934 : Civil Disobedience Movement called off.
1952 : First General Election in India
1935 : Government of India Act, 1935 passed : National Development Council (NDC)
by British Parliament. set up.
1936-44 : Lord Linlithgow Viceroy. : Family Planning is launched.
1937 : Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy. 1953 : Conquest of Mount Everest.
Congress Ministries formed in seven out : University Grants Commission (UGC) is
of eleven provinces. set up
1938 : Haripura session of the Congress. : CBI is set up
1939 : Second World War begins (September). : Formation of Andhra Pradesh on
1940 : Pakistan resolution passed by Muslim linquiestic basis
League at Lahore. 1954 : Chou En-lai, the Chinese Premier visits
1941 : Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from In- India.
dia. : Panchashila signed between China and In-
dia.
1942 : Cripps comes to India with his propos-
1955 : Hindu Marriage Act and Indian Citizen-
als in March.
ship Act.
: Congress rejects Cripps Proposal (11
1956 : Reorganisation of Indian States on lin-
April).
guistic basis
: “Quit India” resolution passed by Con- : 2nd Five Year Plan launched.
gress on August 8. : Nationalisation of insurance companies.
1944-47 : Lord Wavell Viceroy. 1957 : Second General election. Introduction of
1944 : INA reaches Indian soil. decimal system of coinage.
1945 : Labour Government in Britain. INA sur- : National Calender based on Saka era
renders to the British (May). First trial adopted.
of INA men (November 5). 1959 : Dalai Lama reaches India for political
1946 : Cabinet Mission’s plans announced asylum, Indo-Chinese relations worsen.
(June 16). : Panchayat Raj introduced in Rajasthan.
1947-48 : Lord Mountbatten Viceroy. 1961 : Goa, Daman and Diu liberated from Portu-
36 7
guese possession. to scale Mount Everest.
: Arjuna Award introduced : Indira Gandhi assassinated
1962 : Indo-China War. : Rajiv Gandhi sworn in as new Prime
1964 : Death of Jawaharlal Nehru Minister.
: Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes Prime Minis- : Bhopal Gas tragedy
ter. 1985 : Centenary celebrations of Indian Na-
1965 : Indo-Pak War. tional Congress held.
1966 : Tashkent Declaration : Dhronachary Award instituted
: Death of Lal Bahadur Shastri 1986 : Centre and Laldenga sign Mizo Accord.
: Indira Gandhi becomes Prime Minister. 1987 : Frontier Gandhi, Khan Abdul Gaffar
1969 : First Nationalisation of 14 Banks. Khan given Bharat Ratna. First foreigner
: First Dada Sahib Phalke Award was to get Bharatratna.
given to Davika Rani 1988 : Bharat Ratna conferred on M.G.
1971 : Indo-Pak War Ramachandran.
: Birth of Bangladesh. : Contingent of Indian Army flown to
1972 : Shimla Agreement between India and Maldives to help President Abdul
Pakistan. Gayoom.
1973 : Project Tiger : Lok Sabha passes Constitutional
1974 : Underground nuclear explosion carried Amendment Bill reducing voting age
out at Pokhran (May 18). from 21 to 18 years.
1975 : Emergency declared in the country. 1989 : V.P. Singh sworn in as seventh Prime
: Aryabhatta goes to orbit. Minister with Devi Lal as his Deputy.
1977 : Janata Party comes to power. 1990 : Nelson Mandela honoured with Bharat
: Vajpayee address UNO in Hindi. Ratna.
1978 : Denomination of high value notes of Rs. : V.P. Singh resigns after losing vote of
1,000, Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 10,000 confidence in Lok Sabha.
demonetised. : Chandra Shekhar is sworn as New Prime
1979 : Morarji Desai resigns as Prime Minister. Minister.
: Charan Singh becomes Prime Minister. 1991 : Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated at Sriperum
: Death of Loknayak Jayprakash Narayan. budur in Tamil Nadu.
: Bhakara I launched : Bharat Ratna is conferred on Morarji Desai.
1980 : Mother Theresa gets Bharat Ratna. Rajiv Gandhi and Sardar Patel are awarded
: Six more commercial banks nationalised. Bharat Ratna posthumously.
1981 : Apple was launched 1992 : Maulana Azad posthumously awarded
: First Indian Antartic Expedition to Bharat Ratna.
Qusim. Dakshin Gangothri, India’s first : Kar Sevaks demolished Babri Masjid in
permanent station at Antartica was set Ayodhya
up. 1993 : Battle tank “Arjun” inducted into Indian
1983 : Bharat Ratna posthumously awarded to Army.
Acharya Vinoba Bhave. : Job Quota for OBC’s becomes operative.
: INSAT-IB successfully launched. : Earth quake at Lathur, Maharashtra
1984 : Sqn. Ldr. Rakesh Sharma becomes first In- 1994 : Panchayati Raj Act becomes operational.
dian cosmonaut to go into space. 1995 : Morarji Desai, dies. Bombay becomes
: Bachendri Pal becomes first Indian woman mumbai.
1996 : Atal Behari Vajpayee becomes Prime
36 8
Minister on May 16 and resigns on May : Former Indian Air Force Chief, Arjan
28. Singh, is made the first ever marshal of
: H.D. Deve Gowda becomes Prime Min- the IAF.
ister on June 1. Madras becomes : A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 11th President
Chennai. : Bhairon Singh Shekhawat is sworn in
1997 : Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C1) is the 12th Vice-President.
launched from Sriharikota (Andhra : The first exclusive 1,060 kg. meteoro-
Pradesh). logical satellite (METSAT) is success-
: Arundhati Roy bagged the 29th Booker fully launched from the Sriharikotta by
Prize, PSLV.
: Kalpana Chawla became the first Indian- : Justice V.N. Khare is sworn in Chief Jus-
born US woman to go into space. tice of India.
1998 : India’s second (May 11) and third (May 2003 : L.K. Advani is appointed Deputy Prime
13) nuclear explosion at Pokhran. Minister.
: M.S. Subhalekshmi and Jaya Prakash : INSAT 3E, was launched (September 28)
Narayan win Bharat Ratna. : Air Marshal T.M. Asthana is named the
: Vajpayee becomes 12 Prime Minister first Commander-in-Chief of the Strate-
of India. gic Forces Command.
: Param 10000 India’s new super computer : The Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee Chris-
unveailed. tens METSAT, Kalpana I after Kalpana
: Konkan Railway (760 km) inaugurated. Chawla.
1999 : INSAT 2E was launched on April 3 : Mehbooba Mufti takes over as president
: PSLV-C2 launched IRS P4. of the Peoples Democratic Party thus be-
: India becomes leading producer of milk coming the first woman to head a politi-
in the world. cal party in J and K.
: Amarthya Sen wins Bharat Ratna. : INS Talwar the Navy’s first stealth war-
ship is inducted into western fleet.
: India launched Operation Vijay to repel
the Pak intruders from Kargil. : G. Madhavan Nair assumes office as
Chairman, Space Commission and ISRO
2000 : Bill Clinton visits India.
: The government constitutes the 17th
: Lara Dutta of India becomes Miss Uni-
Law Commission with Justice M.
verse.
Jayannatha Rao as Chairman.
: Formation of the states of Chhattisgarh,
: The LokSabha passes the POTA
Jharkhand and Uttaranchal.
Amendment Bill, 2003, providing for safe-
: Karnam Malleswary wins bronze medal
guard against misuse.
in Sydney olympics.
: Rajya Sabha passes dual citizenship bill.
: Priyanka Chopra of India becomes Miss
2004 : India becomes the first developing coun-
world.
try to import LNG.
2001 : GSLV D1 launches GSAT. Indian parlia- : India wins its first ever test series in Pa-
ment attacked. kistan.
2002 : Ms. Poornima Advani is appointed Chair- : Major Rajya Vardhan Singh Rathore gets
person of the National Commission for the silver medal for India in shooting
women. (double trap category) at the Olympic
36 9
Games. : The Government comes out with the first
: EDUSAT - India’s first exclusive satel- ever Outcome Budget.
lite for educational services, placed in : The trial-run, of the first Amritsar- Lahore
orbit. service begins linking the two cities for
: Tata Motors becomes the first company the first time nearly six decades.
in the Indian engineering sector to list 2006 : India’s first rubber dam is installed across
its securities on the New York Stock Ex- the Janjhavati river in Andhra Pradesh’s
change. Vizianagaram district.
: Kerala’s Palakkad district collectorate is : Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy is
the first in India to be totally computer- awarded the 2005 Sahitya Akademi
ised.
Award for English for her book of es-
: The Mahatma Gandhi International
says The Algebra of Infinite Justice.
Peace Award to the former Botswana
: The first-ever-Lahore- Amritsar bus ser-
President Sir Ketimile Masire.
: Over 80,000 people are killed following vice begins.
an undersea earthquake off Sumatra in : The world’s longest rail is flagged off
Indonesia, over 19,000 people are killed from Bhilai steel plant.
in India. : The President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, re-
: ‘Lakshya’ pilotless target aircraft, test turns the Office of Profit Bill for recon-
flown. sideration
2005 : Cabinet decided to offer dual citizenship : A.P.J. Abdul Kalam becomes the first
for all overseas Indians who migrated af- President to make a sortie in a combat
ter January 26, 1950. aircraft after flying in a Sukhoi-30 MKT
: President’s rule was imposed on Goa and after take off from Lahegaon airbase,
the Assembly kept under suspended Pune.
animation, even after the Pratapsingh : N. Gopalaswami takes over as the new
Rane Government wins the trust vote. Chief Election Commissioner.
: Tamil writer D. Jayakanthan is selected : The GSLV - FO2 launch from Sriharikota,
for the 38th Jnanapith Award for 2002. Andhra Pradesh ends in failure after the
He is the second Tamil author after P.V. vehicle crashes into the Bay of Bengal.
Akhilandan to receive the honour. : Social activist Arvind Kajriwal is elected
: Dandi March route (384 km) is declared for the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award
a heritage path and the Prime Minister, in the Emergent Leadership category.
Manmohan Singh, announces a Rs 10 : The President A.P.J Abdul Kalam, con-
crore package for Sabarmati Gandhi fers the 39th Jnanapith Award on
Ashram renovation, on the 75th anniver-
Marathi writer Vinda Karandikar.
sary day of the breaking of the salt act
: Actor Shabana Azmi is chosen for the
by Mahatma Gandhi.
Gandhi International Peace Prize 2006.
: India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
PSLVC-6 is launched from the spaceport : The protection of women from Domestic
in Sriharikota, and it injects two satel- Violence Act 2006 comes into effect.
lites CARTOSAT - 1 and HAMSAT into : The Prime Minister Manmohan Singh,
their orbits. presents the 21st Indira Gandhi Prize for
: The Lok Sabha passes the Right to in- National Integration to lyricist Javed
formation Bill. Akhtar.
: The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, : Sri Lankan President, Mahinda
launches the National Knowledge Com- Rajapaksa inaugurates the three - day
mission. first Asian Mayor’s meet in Dehra Dun.
37 0
INDIAN HISTORY
Pre-Historic Period Banarjee. It is situated in the Larkhana district in
Sind on the right bank of river Indus (Now in
 The earliest traces of human existence in India so Pakistan)
far discovered is between 4,00,000 and 2,00,000
 The Great Granery, the Great Bath a piece of
BC from Sohan valley (now in Pakistan)
woven cotton, a beared man in steatite and a
 Neolithic settlements in Indian subcontinent are bronze dancing girl are found from Mohanjedaro.
not older than 4000 BC.
 An assembly hall was also discovered from
 Wheat and barley were the first cereals grown by Mohanjodaro.
Indians.
 The most important feature of Harappan
 The name India was derived from the rivername civilisation was town planning and urbanism.
Sindhu which is also known as Indus.
 The word Mohanjedaro in Sindi language means
 India was originally considered as a part of a larger ‘the mount of the dead’.
area called Jambu-dvipa (The continent of Jambu
 Mohanjodaro was believed to have destructed
tree)
by flood.
 Krita, Treta, Dwapara and Kali are the four ages
 Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, wheat
of traditional Hindu thought.
and barley.
Gulf of Cambut Culture  Banawali is situated in Hariyana.
 Chanhudaro, discovered by N. Gopal Majundar
 The Gulf of Cambut culture which was discov-
and Mackey, is situated in Sind on the bank of
ered recently from the Bay of Cambut in Gujarat
river Indus.
dates back to 7500 BC.
 Kalibangan, another famous Indus city discov-
 This was found out by the National Institute of
ered in 1953 by A Ghosh, is situated in Rajasthan
Open Technology (NIOT).
on the banks of River Ghaggar. Kalibangan stands
Indus Valley Civilisation for black bangles.
 Lothal, first man made port in the world and dock-
 The Harappan culture spread over the whole of yard made of burnt bricks, was discovered in 1953
Sind, Baluchistan, almost the whole of Punjab, by S.R. Rao is situated in Gujarat on Bhogava
northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. river near Gulf of Cambay.
 Harappa the first Indus site, was discovered by  Ropar is the site situated in Punjab on the banks
Dayaram Sahni in 1921. It is situated in the prov- of river Sutlej. It was discovered in 1953 by
ince of West Punjab, Montgeomery district in Pa- Y.D.Sharma.
kistan.
 Harappan people were the earliest people in the
 Harappa is located on the bank of river Ravi. world to grow cotton and rice.
 Mohanjedaro was excavated in 1922 by R.D.  People cultivated rice at Lothal and Rangpur and
37 1
barley at Benawali. river Indus, aridity of the area, or drying up of
 Harappan people domesticated oxen, buffaloes, river Ghaggar, the invasion of Aryans are the sup-
goats, camel, sheeps, domestic fowls and pigs. posed reasons for the decline of the civilisation
Humped bulls were given special importance. towards 1500 BC.
Horses were unknown to the Harappan people.
Vedic Age
 Indus people had trade contacts with Persian Gulf
and Mesopotamia.  Vedic Age is the period of Aryans in India from
 The ancient name given to Indus region was 1500 - 500 BC.
Meluha.  Most Probable Home of the Aryans is Central
 Indus people used a gold - silver mixture called Asia. This theory is of Max Muller.
Electrum.  The word Aryan literally means high born, but it
 They used bronze and copper but iron was un- generally refers to language.
known to them.  The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the word ‘vid’
 Indus people were the first to use copper in India. which means knowledge.
 Harappans used a system of weights and mea-  Vedas are the oldest literary works of mankind.
sures based on 16 and its multiples. Vedas are four in number, they are Rig Veda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharva Veda. Rig veda
 The chief male deity of the Indus people was
is the oldest veda.
Pasupati Mahadeva (Porto Siva).
 Vedas are collectively known as Sruti
 Their Chief female deity was the Mother Goddess.
 Vedangas are collectively known as Smriti
 They also worshipped fire, pipal trees and Uni-
corn.  Vedangas are six in number. They are,
 Harappan script was Pictographic in nature, which Siksha - Phonetic
has not been desciphered so far. Kalpa - Ritual
 Harappan seals were made of Terra - Cotta. Vyakarana - Grammar
 Chess - like game of Harappans was called Sent. Nirukta - Etymology
 Indus Valley civilisation belongs to the Chhanda - Metrics and
Chalcolithic period dated between 3000 BC and Jyotisha - Astronomy
1500 BC. It is a Bronze Age civilisation or a proto
 There are 1028 hymns in Rigveda. It is divided
Historic civilisation. into ten Mandalas (Chapters).
 The largest number of Harappan sites in post in-
 Rig Vedic Hymns sung by priests were called
dependent India have been discovered from Hotris.
Gujarat.
 ‘Sruti’ literature belonged to the Sathyayuga,
 Harappan civilisation extended from Jammu in the Smriti belonged to Treatayuga, Puranas belonged
North to Narmada in the South and from Makran to Dwaparayuga and Thanthra literature belonged
coast of Baluchistan in the West to Meerat in the
to Kaliyuga.
East.
 Rigveda starts with the line ‘Agnimele Purohitam’
 The Northern most point of Indus valley
 Famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the
civilisation was Gumla in Jammu and the South-
Rigveda (It is believed to have composed by
ernmost was Daimbad.
Vishwamitra)
 Floods and Earthquakes, change in the course of
 Yajurveda deals with sacrifices and rituals.
37 2
 Yajurvedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests  ‘Visah’ was a cluster of gramas.
called ‘Adhavaryu’.  Important tribal assemblies of the Rig Vedic pe-
 Yajurveda is derived into two: SuklaYajurveda riod were Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana.
(White Yajurveda) and Krishna Yajur Veda (Black  The Aghanya mentioned in many passages of
Yajurveda) Rigveda applies to cows.
 Sama Veda deals with Music.  The Rigvedic religion was primitive animism.
 Sama Vedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests  Indra was the greatest God of Aryans and Agni
called Udgatri. occupied second position.
 Atharva veda is a collection of spells and incan-  Varuna was God of water and Yama was the Lord
tations. Ayurveda is a part of Atharva Veda, which of dead.
deals with medicine.
 Savitri was a solar diety to whom the famous
 The saying, ‘‘War begins in the minds of men’’ is Gayatri Mantra is attributed to.
from Atharva Veda.
 Prithvi was Earth Godess.
 The 10th Mandala of Rigveda contain the
 The battle of ten kings mentioned in the Rig Veda
Purusha Sukta hymn which tells about the ori-
was fought on the division of water of river Ravi.
gin of caste system.
It was fought on the banks of River Ravi
 Upanishads are 108 in number. Upanishads are (Purushni).
philosophical works
 Indra was known as Purandara.
 Upanishads are known as the Jnanakantas of
 The people called Panis, during the Vedic period
Vedas.
were cattle breeders.
 The words ‘Sathyameva Jayate’ have been taken
 The Vedic God in charge of truth and moral order
from ‘Mundaka Upanishad’
was Varuna.
 Brahdaranya Upanishad was the first to give the
 Indra Played the role of the Warlord. He is also
doctrine of Transmigration of Soul and Karma.
considered as the rain god.
 Puranas are the part of Smriti literature. They are
 The two priests who played a major part during
18 in number 6 vishnupuranas, 6 sivapuranas and
the Rig Vedic period were Vasishta and
6 Brahmapuranas.
Visvamitra.
 Bhagvata purana is divided into 18 skandas The
10th skanda mentions about the childhood of Sri Later Vedic Period
Krishna.
 The period assigned to Later Vedic Phase is 1000
 Skanda purana is considered as the largest BC to 600 BC.
purana.
 Later Vedic people used particular type of pot-
 Brahmapurana is also known as Adipurana. tery called Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
 Adhyatma Ramayana is included in the  The Later Vedic Aryans were familiar with two
Brahmantapurana. seas, the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
 Cattle was the chief measure of wealth of the vedic  Rice became the staple diet of Indian people dur-
period. ing the Later Vedic Period.
 Rigvedic tribe was referred to as Jana .  The term ‘Rashtra’ which indicates territory first
appeared in the later vedic period.
 Many clans (vis) formed a tribe.
 Mention of the word ‘Sudras’ - Rigveda (10th
 The basic unit of society was kula or the family Mandala)
and Kulapa was the head of the family.
37 3
 Mention of the ‘Gotra’ is found in the  Each Tribal republic was headed by Ganapati or
Atharvaveda. Jyeshtha.
 Origin of Kingship is found in Aitareya  The Vedic Education system revealed through
Brahmana. ‘Frog Hymn’ in the Rigveda and ‘Wedding Hymn’
 ‘Soma’ was an intoxicating drink mentioned in describe the oldest marriage rituals.
the 9th Mandala of the Rig Veda.  Max Mullar was the first person to speak of ‘Ary-
 Mention of the word Varna is found in Rigveda. ans’ as a race.
 The fourfold division of the society is found in Epics
the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda.
 Mention about the Varnashranadhrama is found  Hinduism has two epics Ramayana and
in the Jabla Upanishad. Mahabharata.
 The Doctrine of Trimurti is found in the  Mahabharata was written by ‘Vyasa’.Mahabharata

Maitrayani Upanishad. is also known as Jayasamhita, Satasahasri
Samhita and the fifth veda.
 Mention about the origin of Universe is found in
the Rig Veda (10th Mandala).  Mahabharata has 1,17,000 hymns in it.
 Purohita Senani and Vrajapati were the impor-  Mahabharata is divided into 18 Purvas, an ap-
tant functionaries who assisted the king in day- pendix Harivamsa is considered as 19th Purva.
to-day administration.  12th Purva is the largest and 7th is the smallest.
 The officer who enjoyed authority over the pas-  It describes the 18 days battle of Kurukshetra.
ture land was called Vrajapati.  Stories of Sakuntalam, Pralayam, Ramcharitam,
 The king’s power increased during the Later Vedic Rishysringan, Satyavan Savitri,Nala and
Period. Damayanthi etc are included in the Mahabharata.
 First law giver of ancient India was Manu. He  Valmiki is the author of Ramayana.
wrote ‘Manusmrithi’.  Ramayana has 24000 hymns and is divided into
 Manusmrithi was translated into English by Wil- Seven Skandas (Kandas)
liam Jones.  Bhagavatgita is included in the Bhishma Purva of
 Shyma Shastri translated Arthasastra into En- Mahabharata. It is divided into 18 chapters and
glish has about 700 hymns.
 Bali was a tax, which the king used to collect from
the people of the Vedic period.
Jainism
 Aryans used iron for the first time India.  Vardhamana Mahavira was believed to have born
 Horse, Iron, Sugarcane, Pulses etc reached India in 540 BC in Kundala Grama in Vaishali the capital
by the coming of Aryans. Six systems of Indian Philosophy
 The God who occupied supreme position in the  Samkya ................................ Sage Kapila
Later Vedic Period was Prajapati.
 Yoga ......................................... Patanjali
 Rudra was regarded as preserver and protector
of the people.  Vaisheshika .............................. Kannada
 The most important functionary who assisted the  Nyaya ................... Akshapada (Gautama)
Vedic king was Purohita.  Vedanta Gaudapada and Shankaracharya.
 Manarchy was the normal form of Government in  Mimamsa .................................... Jaimini
the vedic period.
37 4
of Vajji. Now it is in Mussafar district in Bihar.  ‘Ahimsa Paramo Dharma’ is the sacred hymn of
 He belonged to Jnatrika Kshatriya clan. Jainism.
 Mahavira’s family was connected with the royal  Ahimsa, Satya, Asateya, Aparigriha and
Brahmacharya are the five major principles of
family of Magadha.
Jainism.
 The word ‘Jaina’ was originated from the word
 Brahmacharya is the principle added by Mahavira.
‘Jina’ which means conqueror.
 Mahavira taught the three Jewels of Jainism
 Jainism speaks about 24 thinthankaras. Mahavira (Triratna) - Right Faith, Right Knowledge and
was the 24th Thirthankara, who is considered as Right Conduct.
the founder of Jainism.  The Jains repudiated the authority or infallibility
 Rishabha was the first Thirthankara. Neminath of the vedas. The Jains rejected the concept of
and Parswanatha were the 22nd and 23rd Universal soul or a supreme power as the creator
Thirthankaras respectively. and sustainer of the Universe.
 Bhagavatapurana, Vishnupurana, Vayupurana,  Jainism does not condemn the Varna system.
etc mentions about Rishabhadeva. Mahavira believed that all individuals irrespec-
tive of caste can strive for liberation through good
 Sidhartha, ruler of Nandadynasty which ruled deeds and living.
Kundalapuri, was the father of Vardhmana
 First Jain council was held at Pataliputra in the
Mahavira.
fourth century BC under the leadership of
 Mahavira’s mother was Trissala and Yasodha was Stulabahu.
his wife.  Second Jain council was held at Vallabhipur in
 Jameli was the daughter of Mahavira. third Century BC under the leadership of
 Mahavira is also known as ‘Vaishalia’ as he was Aryaskandil Nagarjuna Suri.
born in Vaishali.  Third Jain council was held at Vallabhipur in
Gujarat in 5th Century AD under the leadership
 He got Kaivalya at the age of 42 under a Sal tree
of Devardhi Kshamasramana.
on the bank of river Rajpalika near Village
 Jainism was divided into two sects Swetambaras
Jimbhrikagrama.
and Digambaras after the first Jain Council.
 At first Mahavira followed the practice of an as-
 Digambaras are sky-clad or naked and
cetic group called Nirgrandhas , which earlier led swetambaras are clad in white.
by Parswanath.
 Gomateshwara statue is
 Makhali Gosala was a companion of Mahavira. situated in Sravana
Who later founded the Ajivika sect. belgola.
 Mahavira attained Nirvana at the age of 72 at  ‘Syad Vada’ is a Jain phi-
Pavapuri near Rajagriha in 468 BC. losophy of Knowledge.
 Jains observe the day of his nirvana as Dipavali.  Kharavela of Kalinga
gave patronage to
 Gautama Indrabhuti is considered as his first
Jainism.
desciple.
 Mahavir Jayanti and
 Jain sacred texts are called Angas. Rakshabandan are the
 Jain texts were written under Bhadrabahu in BC festive occassions of Gomateshwara
296. Jainism.
 Jain texts were written in the Prakrit language of  Temple on the Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a fa-
Ardhamagadhi. mous centre of Jain worship.
37 5
 Jain Temple at Sravanabelgola in Hassan district  Buddha made his first sermon after enlightenment
in Mysore is known as ‘Kasi of the Jains’. at a deer park at Saranath in Uttar Pradesh. This
 Names of Rishabhadeva and Arishtanemi are also incident is known as ‘Dharmachakra
mentioned in the Rigveda. pravarthana’.
 Chandragupta Maurya the founder of the  Buddha’s first teacher was Alara Kalama and sec-
Mauryan Empire, abdicated the throne towards ond teacher Udraka Ramaputra.
the end of his life, accepted Jainism reached  During his first sermon at Sarnath, Buddha de-
Sravanabelgola and died there. scribed the ‘four noble truths’ and the eight fold
path.
Buddhism  Buddha made his sermons in Pali language and
 Buddhism originated in the 6th century BC. the early Buddhist texts were also written in Pali
 Gautama Buddha the founder of Buddhism was language.
born in Lumbini in Kapilavasthu on the border of  Buddha died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at
Nepal in 563 BC. Kushinagara in UP. This was known as
 Buddha’s mother Parinirvana. Buddha died by consuming poi-
soned meat or poisoned mushroom.
Mahamaya died seven
days after his birth. He  Last meals of Buddha was served by a blacksmith
was brought up by his ‘Chunda’.
aunt Mahaprajpati  His last words were All composite things decay,
Gautami, hence he got strive diligently.
the name ‘Gautama’.  Four noble truths of Buddhism are:
 First Buddhist nun was life is full of misery, desire is the cause of mis-
Gautami ery, killing desires would kill sorrows, Desire
can be killed by following the eight-told path.
 Budha’s birth place is Gautama Buddha
 The eight fold path of Buddhism are:
now known as Binla.
Right Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech,
 Budhas orginal name was Sidhartha.
 Buddha belonged to the Sakhya clan of JAIN THIRTHANKARAS
Kshatriyas.
 His father was Subhodhana. 1. Rishabhdev 13. Vimalnath
 Buddha’s wife was Yasodhara and his son was 2. Ajitnath 14. Anandanath
Rahulan. 3. Sambhavnath 15. Dharmanath
 Four sights changed his mind and initiated him to 4. Abhinandan 16. Shantinath
spiritual life they were death, old age, sadness 5. Sumitnath 17. Kunthunath
and sufferings. 6. Padmaprabhu 18. Arnath
 He left home at the age of 29 along with his chari- 7. Suparsavanath 19. Mallinath
oteer Channa and favourite horse Kandaka. This
8. Suridhi 20. Munisuvrata nath
incident is known as Mahanishkramana.
9. Chandraprabh 21. Neminath
 Buddha got enlightenment at Bodha Gaya, on the banks
of Niranjana river in Bihar at the Age of 35. 10. Sheetal Nath 22. Arishtanemi
 After enlightenment Buddha came to be known 11. Shreyanshanath 23. Parshvanath
as ‘thadhagatha’. He is also known as 12. Vasupujya 24. Mahavira
‘Sakhyamuni’.
37 6
Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort, Righ  Buddhist worshipping centre is known as Pagoda.
Recollection, Right Meditation  Viharas are the Buddhist monastries.
 Buddhism does not recognise the existence of
 Vajrayana was a sect of Buddhism which believed
God and Soul (Atman)
in achieving salvation through Mantras and
 Buddha accepted the traditional belief in transmi- spells.
gration of the soul and law of Karma.
 ‘Jataka stories’ describe the stories related to
 The ‘three jewels’of Buddhism are – Buddha,
the birth of Buddha. They are 500 in number.
Dhamma and Sangha.
 The first Buddhist council was held in 483 BC at  Holy book of Buddhism is Tripitika- Vinayapitika,
Sattaparni (Rajagriha) under the presidentship Suddhapitika and Abhidhamapitika are collec-
of Mahakashyapa and under the patronage of king tively known as Tripitika.
Ajatasatru of Magadha..  Bimbisara of Magadha was a contemporary of
 Vinayapitaka and Suddhapitaka were codified at Buddha.
the first council.  Kanishka who worked to spread Buddhism like
 Second Buddhist council was held in 383 BC at Ashoka is known a Second Ashoka.
Vaishali under the presidentship of Sabhakami  Ashoka sent his son and daughter, Mahendra
and under the patronage of king Kalashoka. and Sanghamitra to SriLanka to spread Bud-
 At the second Buddhist council Buddhism was dhism.
divided into two Staviravadins and  Sri Buddha is known as the ‘Light of Asia’ He
Mahasankikas which later came to be known a was named as such by Edvin Arnold.
Hinayana and Mahayana respectively.  Edvin Arnold’s ‘Light of Asia’ was translated into
 Third council of Buddhism was held in 250 BC at Malayalam by Nalappad Narayanamenon.
Pataliputhra under the presidentship of  Hinayanism is wide spread in Sri Lanka.
Mogaliputta Tissa and under the patronage of
 The Bodhi tree at Gaya was cut down by Sasanka,
Ashoka the Great.
a Bengal ruler.
 Abhidhamma Pitika was codified at the third council.
 The chief Buddhist monastery was at Nalanda,
 At the third council decision was also taken to which was under the patronage of Pala kings.
send missionaries to spread Buddhism.
 Previous Buddhas are known as ‘Bodhisatvas’.
 The fourth Buddhist council was held in the first
 Milandapanho a book of Nagasena describes how
century AD at Kundalavana in Kashmir under
Greek king Menandar accepted Buddhism.
the President-ship of Vasumithra and Ashvagosha
and under the patronage of Kanishka. Sangham Age
 Clear division of Buddhism into Hinayana and
Mahayana tookplace at the fourth council.  First five centuries of the Christian Era are com-
monly known as Sangham Age.
 Upagupta converted Ashoka to Buddhism.
 Ashvagosha was the first biographer of Buddha 5 SYMBOLS OF BUDDHA
who wrote Budhacharitam in Sanskrit.
Birth ....................................... Lotus and Bull
 Vasubandu is known as Second Buddha.
Renunciation ........................................ Horse
 Ashoka is known as the Constantine of Bud-
dhism. Enlightenment ................................ Bodhitree
 Ashoka accepted Buddhism after the battle of First Sermon ......................... Dharma Chakra
Kalinga in BC 261. Nirvana (Death) ............................ Foot prints
37 7
 Sangham was an Assembly of literature held at  II and XIII rock edicts of Ashoka mention about
Madhurai. the South Indian kingdoms.
 References to the Sangham Age can be found in  Karikala most prominent among early Cholas is
the inscriptions of Ashoka, and Kharavela of known as the master of seven notes of music.
Kalinga and in the Indica of Megastenese.  ‘Bharatam’ was a Tamil version of Mahabharata
 The literature of the Sangham Age was written sung by Perundevanar.
mostly in the form of Poetry.  ‘Manimekhalai’ is looked upon as the Tamil Od-
 In the Sangham Age, the most common form of yssey.
government was hereditary monarchy. The vil-  Thirukkural is known as Tamil Bible compiled
lage was the fundamental unit of administration. by Thiruvalluvar. His statue is seen near
 Small village Assemblies during the Sangham Age Vivekanandappara in Kanyakumari.
were known as Arai.  The greatest of the Chera rulers was
 Tradition refers to three sangham lasting for 9,900 Senguttuvanchera also known as ‘Red Chera’.He
years. built a temple for Kannaki.
 Language of the Sangham literature was Tamil  The famous Chera port Muziris was a great cen-
 People of the Sangham Age mainly worshiped tre of Indo-Roman Trade.
‘Murugan’.
 The largest single tax collected during the Sangha
 The greatest work of the Tamil literature of the period was the land tax called Karai.
Sangham Age is Tholkappium written by
Tholkappiyar.  The founder of later Cholas was Rajaraja I The
most important ruler of this dynasty was Rajendra
 Tholkappium is considered as the earliest sur-
Chola.
viving Tamil literary work. It is a book on Tamil
grammar.  Rajendra Chola is also known as ‘Gagaikonda
 The Capital of the Pandyas was at Madhurai. Chola’ He later named his capital as ‘Gangaikonda
Cholapuram’.
 Uraiyur was the capital of Cholas, known for cot-
ton trade.  RajaRaja I built ‘Brihadeswara temple’ at Tanjore.
 Vanchi was the capital of Cheras.  Cholas were well known for their naval supremacy
 Silappadigaram, Manimegalai and and efficient village administration.
Jeevakachintamani are the three epics of  The Utharameroor inscription tells about the lo-
Sangham literature. cal self government under the cholas.
 Korkai was the main seaport of the Pandyas.  Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar is the Tamil work
 Megastanese described Pandya Kingdom as which is known also as the fifth Veda.
‘Pearl’ as it was ruled by women.
 Jivaka Chintamani the third epic of the Tamil was
 Kaveripumpatnam was the main sea port of the written by Tirukkadevar.
Cholas.
 Silappatigaram as written by Ilango Adikal. It FAMOUS ERAS
describes the love story of Kovalan and Kannaki Vikram Era ........................................ 58 BC
 Nedujezhian is the Pandyan king mentioned in Saka Era .......................................... 78 AD
Silapadigaram. Gupta Era ...................................... 320 AD
 Satanar wrote ‘Manimekhalai’ which is also an Hijra Era ........................................ 622 AD
epic and tells about the story of the daughter of
Kannaki and Kovalan. Kollam Era ..................................... 825 AD
 Manimekhalai gives reference about Buddhism. Illahi Era ....................................... 1583 AD
37 8
 Roman king built a temple of Augustus at  Vasavadatta ...................................... Subandu
Muziris.  Brihat Kathamanjari ................. Kshemendra
 Kathasaritsagara ........................... Somadeva
Literary Activities in Ancient India
 Panchathantra ......................... Vishnusharma
 Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th C.BC) the earliest
grammar book also called Bhagavati Sutra.  Hitopadesha ........................... Narayan Pandit
 Mahabhashya was written by Patanjali.  Kamasutra and Arya Manjushree ..... Vatsyayana
 Manusmriti was a law book composed between  Pavandhoot .......................................... Dhoyi
200 BC and 200AD.  Swapna Vasavadatta ............................. Bhasa
 Arthashastra by Kautilya deals with statecrafts
 Matavilasa Prahasana ....... Mahendravarman I
is a major source of Mauryan administration.
 Indica by ‘Megastenes’ is a source of Mauryan  Si-yu-ki ..................................... Hiuen Tsang
society and administration.  Fo-kuoki ........................................... Fa-hien
 Chandsutra was written by Pingala.  Panchasidhantika ........................ Varahamihir
 Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha is the earliest
 Suryasidhantika and Aryabhatiyam .... Aryabhatta
biography of Buddha. It was written in Pali lan-
guage.  Nitisara ....................................... Kamandaka
 Raghuvamsa by Kalidasa is an epic based on  Charak Samhita ............................... Charaka
Mahabharata.  Hastayurveda ................................... Palkapya
 Naishad Charita by Sri Harsha contains story of
 Mitakshara ................................. Vigneswara
Nala and Damayanti.
 Dayabhaga ................................ Jimutavahana
Drama  Sidhanta Siromani ................ Bhaskaracharya
 Natyashastra by Bharatamuni is the earliest  Nighantu .................................... Dhanvantari
known work in Sanskrit.  Mudrarakshasa ......................... Vishakadatta
 Malavikagnimithram, Vikramorvashiyan and  Prabhanda Chintamani .............. Meruthunga
Abhinjana Syakuntalam are dramas written by  Geography of India ............................ Ptolemy
Kalidasa.  Brihat Kathakosh ............................ Harisena
 Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika are dra-  Mrichakatika ................................... Sudraka
mas written by Harshavardhana.
 Prithviraj Vijaya .............................. Jayanak
Lyric Poetry  Nala Vemba ................................... Pugalendi
 Meghadutam by Kalidasa Magadhan Empire

 Srinagarashataka, Nitishataka and
Vairagyasataka were written by Bhartrihari.  In the 6th century BC there originated 16
Mahajanapadas in North India
 Gita Govinda was written by Jayadeva.
 Four prominent royal dynasties stand out promi-
Historical writing nently out of these Janapadas. They were
Haryankas of Magadha, the Ikshvakus of Kosala,
 Harshacharita - Written by Banabhatta the Pauravas of Vatsa and the Pradyotas of Avanti.
 Vikramamangadeva charita - written by Bilhana.  Haryanka is the name of a new dynasty founded
in Magadha by Bimbisara.
Prose Literature  Bimbisara founded the dynasty by defeating the
 Dasakumaracharitam ........................ Dandin Brihadrathas.
37 9
 Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha.  Alexander died of Malaria at the age of 33 in 323
 Magadha became a supreme power in North In- BC while he was in Babylon.
dia under Ajatasatru. So Ajatasatru is consid-  Alexander was cremated at Alexandria.
ered as the founder of Magadhan Supremacy.
 Alexander was known as Shehansha in Persia and
 Pataliputra and Rajagriha were the capitals of Sikhandar-I-Asam in Indo-Pak region.
Magadhan kingdom.
 The Last general of Alexander in India was
 Magadha falls in the Patna region of Bihar.
Eudamas.
 Haryankas were overthrown by Sisunaga and he
founded the Sisunaga dynasty there.  Alexander’s first General in India was Selucus
Nikator.
 Kalasoka the son and successor of Sisunaga was
succeeded by Mahapadma Nanda and he  Alexander IV succeeded Alexander as the
founded the Nanda dynasty. Masedonian King.
 Ajatasatru’s successor Udayin was the founder  Alexander’s teacher Aristotle is considered as the
of the city of Pataliputra. father of Politics, Biology, Taxonomy and the Sci-
ence of Logic.
Persian Invasion
Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC)
 The Achaemenian king of Persia, Darius (522 -
486 BC) captured some territories the east of  Major sources for the study of Mauryan Empire
Sindhu in 518 BC. are the Arthasastra of Kautilya and Indika of
 The Persian domination over Indian territory Megasthenes.
lasted upto 330 BC.  Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of
 Xerxes was the persian ruler who enlisted Indi- Mauryan Empire.
ans in his army.  Details about his early life are not available
 The Kharoshti script was brought to India by  He is believed to have belonged to Moriya Clan,
Persians. hence got the name Maurya.
 It is also said that his mother was Mura a women
Alexander’s Invasion of lower birth hence got the name Maurya.
 Alexander was born in 356 BC as the son of King  In some texts he is referred to as Vrishala and
Philip II of Mascedonia. Kulahina.
 Epirus or Olympias was Alexanders mother.  He conspired with Chanakya (Kautilya or
 Aristotle was Alexander’s teacher. Vishnugupta) the minister of Nanda to overthrew
the last Nanda ruler DhanaNanda.
 He became the king in 336 BC
 Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne in
 He defeated the Persian ruler Darius III. BC 321.
 Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in  He fought against Selucus in 305 BC. Selucus
Egypt surrendered before him and sent an ambassador,
 In 326 BC Alexander defeated Porus Megasthenese to the court of Chandragupta
(Purushothama) the ruler of Punjab and Captured Maurya.
Taxila through the battle of Hydaspes on the  Chandragupta’s Governor Pushygupta con-
banks of river Jhelum. structed the famous Sudarshana lake.
 Ambhi the ruler of Taxila invited Alexander to In-  ChandraGupta Maurya was converted to Jainism,
dia. abdicated the throne in favour of his son
Bindusara, passed his last days at
38 0
Sravanabelagola (Near Mysore) where he died in adopted from the four lion capital of one of
298 BC. Ashokas pillars which is located in Saranath.
 Chandragupa Maurya was responsible for the po-  Rock-cut architecture in India made a beginning
litical unification of North India for the first time. during Ashoka’s reign.
 Bindusara was a follower of Ajivika sect.  Brihadratha the last Mauryan ruler was killed by
 Bindusara was known as Amitragatha. Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga Dy-
nasty in 185 BC.
 Ashoka ascended the throne in 273BC and ruled
upto 232 BC.  Megasthenese the first foreign traveller to India
mentions about the existence of seven castes in
 He was known as ‘Devanampriya priyadarsi the
India during the Mauryan period.
beautiful one who was the beloved of Gods.
 Stanika in Mauryan administration refers to tax
 Maski and Gujara Edicts of Ashoka gave the
collector.
name Devanampriya Priyadarsi.
 Buddhist tradition says Ashoka killed 99 of his Post Mauryan Period
brothers to capture the throne.
 Ashoka was the first king in Indian history who Sunga Dynasty (185-71 BC)
had left his records engraved on stones.  Sunga Dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra
 Ashokan inscriptions were written in Kharoshti Sunga the commander-in-chief of last Mauryan
and Brahmi scripts. king, Brihadratha.
 Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC Kalinga  Kalidasa’s drama Malavikagnimitram is about the
is in modern Orissa. love story of Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra and
 Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James Malavika.
Princep.  Last ling of sunga dynasty was Devabhuti.
 After the battle of Kalinga Ashoka became a Bud-
dhist, being shocked by the horrors of the war. Kanva Dynasty (72 BC - 27 BC)
 Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by Upagupta
 Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva
or Nigrodha a disciple of Buddha.
in 72 BC after defeating the last Sunga ruler
 For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka started
the institution of Dharmamahamatras. Devabhuti.
 The IV Major Rock Edict of Ashoka tells about  This dynasty ruled for a period of 45 years.
the practice of Dharma  Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susuman
 The Major Rock Edict XII of Ahoka deals with were the rulers of Kanva dynasty.
the conquest of Kalinga.
 Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at his Cheta (Cheti) Dynasty of Kalinga
capital Pataliputra in 250BC under the
 The Cheti Dynasty was believed to have founded
presidentship of Moggaliputa Tissa.
by Maha Meghavahana
 He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka for the
spread of Buddhism (Mahendra and Sanghamitra)  The Hatigumbha inscription of Kharavela, of the
 Ashoka spread Buddhism to SriLanka and Nepal.
 He is known as the Constantine of Buddhism. Important Mauryan Officers
Samaharta ................ Collector of Revenue
 In his Kalinga Edict he mentions ‘‘All man are as
my children’’. Sannidata ....................... Head of Treasury
Dandapala ........................... Head of Police
 Ceylones ruler Devanmpriya Tissa was Ashoka’s
first convert to Buddhism. Durga Pala ................... Head of Royal Fort
 Ashoka ruled for 40 years and died in 232 BC. Pradeshikas .... Head of District Administration
Prashasti .......................... Head of Prisons
 The emblem of the Indian Republic has been
38 1
Kalinga ruler gives details about the Chedis of Alauddin Khilji)
Kalinga.  Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce military
 Kharavela was a follower of Jainism. governorship in India.
Satavahanas (235 BC - 100BC) The Parthians (19 - 45 AD)

 Satavahanas were the most powerful ruling dy-  Parthians also known as Pahalavas were Iranian
nasty after the Mauryas. People.
 Satavahanas were also known as Andhras.  Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian
 Satavahanas were the Indian rulers who prefixed rulers.
their mother’s name along with their names.  St. Thomas is said to have came to India for the
 Most important Satavahana ruler was propagation of Christianity during the period of
Gautamiputra Satakarni. Gondophernes.
 Satavahanas were Brahmanas.
The Sakas (90 BC - Ist AD)
 Nagarjuna Konda and Amaravati in
Andhrapradesh became important seats of Bud-  Sakas were also known as Scythians.
dhist culture under the Satavahanas.  The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga
 The two common structures of Satavahanas were who established Saka power in Gandhara.
the temple called Chaitya and the monastery called  The most famous of the Saka rulers in Western
Vihara. India was Rudra Daman I. His achievements are
 Satavahanas mostly issued lead coins. highlighted in his Junagarh inscription written in
150 AD.
 The official language of the Satavahanas was
Prakrit  Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman was the
first inscription in Sanskrit.
Indo Greeks  Ujjayini was the capital of Rudradaman.
 First to invade India were the Greeks who were
Kushans
called Indo-Greeks.
 The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander  Kushans are also known as Yuch-chis or
with his Capital at Sakala in Punjab (Modern Tocharians.
Sialkot)  Kushans came to India from North Central Asia.
 The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins  First great Kushana king was Kujala Kadphises
in India. or Kadphises I.
 The most famous
 The introduction of Hellenistic art features into
Kushana ruler was
India were also the contribution of Indo-Greek rule.
Kanishka.
 Menander was converted into a Buddhist by Bud-  He became the ruler in 78
dhist monk Nagasena (Nagarjuna) AD and started Saka Era
 Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins bearing in 78 AD.
the figure of kings.  The Capital of Kanishka
 Demitrius, the king of Bacteria invaded India was Peshawar or Kanishka
about 190BC. He is considered as Second Purushapura.
Alexander (But the Indian ruler who accepted the  Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council
name second Alexander (Sikandar-i-sani) was in Kashmir.
38 2
 Scholars like, Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha,  Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.
Charaka and Nagarjuna were the courtiers of  India became ‘‘Greater India’’ under Samudra
Kanishka.
Gupta.
 The Gandhara School of Art received royal pa-
 Samudra Gupta was an accomplished Veena
tronage under the Kushans.
player.
 Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of Bud-
dhism.  Chandragupta II the greatest of Gupta rulers was
popularly known as Vikramaditya.
 Kanishka is righty called the ‘Second Ashoka’
 Kanishka was the first king who inscribed the
image of Lord Buddha on his coins. Historically Important Places
 Kanishka started the Saka era in 78 AD. The first Ayodhya Birth place of Sri Rama (UP)
month of Saka era is Chaithra and the last month Amber Palace Rajasthan
is Phalguna.
Aghakhan Palace Pune (Maharashtra)
 Vasudeva was the last great king of Kushana
(Gandhi and Kasturba were
Dynasty.
kept in prison here)
 Kushana school of art is also referred to as the
Kedarnath Holy place of Hindus
Mathura school.
(Utharanchal)
Gupta Empire (320 - 540 AD) Amarnath Pilgrim centre (Kashmir)
Elephanta caves Near Mumbai
 Gupta Empire was founded by Sri Gupta.
Ellora Caves Maharashtra - 34 cavetemples
 Ghatotkacha was the second ruler. (Hindu, Buddha - Jaina)
 Chandra Gupta I was the real founder of the Gupta Rajgir Jain Temple in Bihar
Empire. He came to the throne in 320 AD. Golden Temple Amritsar - Harmandir Sahib of
 He was the first ruler to adopt the title Sikhs
Maharajadhiraja. Golgumbus Bijapur (Karnataka)
 He laid the foundation of Gupta Era on 26 Febru- Tomb of Muhammed Adil Shah
ary 320 AD. Tanjore Capital of Cholas -
 Samudra Gupta succeeded Chandragupta I in 335 Brihadveswara Temple
AD. Charminar Hyderabad (Monument of
 The Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by Plague eradication)
Harisena contains information about Konark Temple Orissa (Sun Temple)
Samudragupta’s conquests. Qutab Minar Delhi
 Allahabad Pillar inscription is also known as Khajuraho Near Bhopal (M.P.) 80 temples
‘Prayagaprasasti’. Mahabalipuram Centre of Pallava architecture
 Samudra Gupta is also known as ‘Linchchavi (Tamil Nadu)
Dauhitra’’. (son of the daughter Kumaradevi of Kurukshetra Battle of Mahabarata (in
Lichchavis) Haryana)
 Samudra Gupta is described as ‘Indian Napoleon’ TajMahal Agra (UP) Built by Shah Jahan
by V.A. Smith. Sanchi Buddhist Stupa (Madhya
 Samudra Gupta composed ‘‘Vahukabita’’ and had Pradesh)
the title ‘‘Kaviraja’’. Haridwar Holy Place of Hindus
(Uttaranchal)
38 3
 He adopted the title ‘Sakari’ after his victory over belonged to the Gupta period. Aryabhatta was
Rudradaman II of Gujarat. the first to use Decimal System.
 Fa hein, the Chinese traveller, visited India dur-  Panchsidhanta, Brihat Jataka, Laghu Jataka and
ing his period. Brihat Samhita are the works of Varahamihira.
 The exploits of Chandragupta II are glorified in  The best specimen of the Gupta paintings are seen
an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar. at Ajanta caves and the Bhaga caves.
 Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya  The Gupta period marked the beginning of Indian
as a mark of his victory over the Sakakshatraps. temple architecture.
 ‘Nine gems’ or ‘Navratnas’ was a famous Scho-  Guptas issued large number of gold coins in In-
lastic Assembly in the court of Chandragupta II. dia.
The members in the Ninegems were - Kalidasa,  Guptas largely patronised art and architecture.
Kadakarbhara, Kshapanaka, Varahmihira,
 Guptas patronised the Gandhara school of art,
Vararuchi, Vethalabhatta, Dhanvantari,
Madhura School of Art and the Andhra School
Ammarasimha, Sanku.
of Art.
 Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son
 The Fresco paintings in the Ajanta caves are ex-
Kumaragupta I.
amples of the art of the Guptas.
 Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the last great
 The chief source of income was land revenue.
ruler of Gupta Empire.
 The position of women declined during the Gupta
 Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the only hero in
period.
Asia and Europe who defeated the Hunas in their
glorious period.  A renowned physician of
the Gupta period was
 Vishnu Gupta was the last ruler who died in 570
Vaghbhatta
AD.
 Nalanda and Taxila were
 Mantriparishad assisted the king in administra-
the two universities of this
tion.
period.
 Most important Industry of the Gupta period was
 Kalidasa is generally
textile.
called ‘‘Indian
 Period of the Gupta is compared to ‘Periclean Shakespeare’ and the Kalidasa
Age of Greece’, ‘Augustan Age of Rome’ and ‘Prince of Indian Poets’.
‘Elzabethan Age of England’.
 Period of the Guptas is considered as the Golden
Age in the history of India.
Books on Sciences
Chandra Vyakaran ............... Chandragomin
 Earlier Guptas had their capital at Prayag in
Allahabad, later it was shifted to Ujjain by Amar Kosh .............................. Amar Singh
Chandragupta II. Niti Shastra ............................... Kamandak
 The most important officers in the Gupta empire Kamasutra ................................ Vatsya yana
were Kumaramatyas. Panchasiddhantika ................ Varahamihira
 The royal seal of the Guptas bore the emblem of Ashtanga Hridaya ...................... Vaghbhatta
Garuda.
Hastyaurveda ............................... Pulkapya
 Aryabhatta was the first to treat Mathematics as
Sankhyakarika ...................... Iswarkrishna
a separate subject. He wrote Aryabhattiyam. He
38 4
 Patanjali founded ‘Yoga Shastra’, a school of  He made Kanauj his new capital from Taneswar.
Hindu philosophy during this period.  Original name of Harsha was Siladitya.
 Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India dur-
The Hunas ing his reign.
 The Huns were a nomadic and barberic race of  Harsha summoned a religious assembly at Prayag.
Central Asia.  Hieun Tsang said Indians were ‘‘Truthful people
 They were defeated by Skanda Gupta. although quick tempered’’
 In the last quarter of the 5th century AD, the  Harsha’s biography ‘Harsha Charita’ was writ-
Hunas established an independent kingdom in ten by his court poet Banabhatta. He also wrote
the Punjab. ‘Kadambari’.
 Toramana and Mihirakula were important Huna  Harsha Vardhana was a poet and dramatist.
leaders. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda are the
 In 510 AD Bhanu Gupta defeated Toramana. works of Harshavardhana.
 Narasimha Gupta defeated Mihirakula.  Harsha Vardhana was defeated by the Chalukyan
 The Hunas gave rise to the Kshatriya Rajaputs. king Pulikeshin II in AD 634.
 Sialkot was Mihirakula’s capital.  Harshavardhanas empire was the last Buddhist
empire in India.
The Maitrakas of Valabhi  After Harsha, the Karkotas of Kashmir established
 They were of Iranian origin, they ruled Gujarat. their power.
 Valabhi was their Capital.  Mahendravarman I and Pulikeshin II were the
contemporaries of Harshavardhana.
 Siladitya I (606 - 612 AD) was the first indepen-
dent king of Maithrakas.  Matanga, Divakar, Jayasena and Bhartrihari
were the famous scholars in the court of
The Vakatakas (250-500 AD) Harshavadhana.
 Harsha founded the Harsha Era in 606 AD.
 The Vakatakas established their power in Deccan.
 Their capital was Vidarbha. Chalukyas of Badami
 The founder of the dynasty was Vindhyasakthi.
 In 535 Pulikeshin I founded a small kingdom with
 Vakatakas were Brahmins. the Capital at Vatapipura (Modern Badami)
 Vakatakas were later defeated by the Chalukyas  He was succeeded by Kirtivarman and
of Badani. Mangaleshna.
Harsha Vardhana (606 - 647AD)  Pulikeshin II was the most famous ruler of the
Chalukya dynasty.
 The last Hindu Emperor of North India was  The greatest achievement of Pulikeshin II was
Harshavardhana (Last Hindu king of Delhi was the defeat he inflicted on Harshavardhana.
Prithviraj Chauhan)
 The Pallava king Narasimhavarman captured
 Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti Vatapi and adopted the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
Dynasty, also known as Vardhana Dynasty.
 Pulikeshin II defated the Pallavas and captured
 The Pushyabhuti dynasty was founded by Kanchi. He also defeated Cheras, Cholas and
Pushyabhuti. Pandyas.
 Harsha came to power in 606 AD (Harsha Era)  Kirtivarman, the last ruler of this dynasty was
defeated by the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyan
38 5
Rashtrakutas
 Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded by
Dandidurga in 753 AD. With the capital at
Manyakhed or Malkhed.
 Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I wrote
‘Kavirajamarga’ which is the earliest Kannada
work on poetics. He also wrote Prasnottarmalika.
 The Kailasanath Temple at Ellora was founded
by the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I.
Elephanta caves  Krishna III (940 -968) was the last great ruler of
Rashtrakuta dynasty.
rule came to an end in 757 AD.  The Rashtrakuta power was overthrown by Thiala
 The magnificient temples of Belur and Halebid II.
and the Elephanta caves were constructed during
the Chalukyan period. Pratiharas
 From the Chronological point of view Chalukyas  The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara - Pratiharas
can be divided into four - belonging to the 36 clans of Rajputs.
The Chalukyas of Vatapi (535 - 642 AD)  The dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta I (725-
The later Chalukyas of Vatapi (655 - 753 AD) 740)
The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (615 - 1076)  Nagabhatta II made Kanauj his capital.
The Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (973-  Pratihara ruler Mihir Bhoja adopted the title
‘Adivaraha’.
1190 AD)
 Yashpal was the last ruler of this dynasty.
Pallavas  Sulthan Muhammed of Ghazni entred Kanauj dur-
ing the period of the Pratiharas.
 Simhavishnu was the founder of the Pallava dy-
nasty. Palas
 Narasimhavarman , a Pallava ruler, defeated
Pulikeshin II and adopted the title Vatapikonda.  The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 AD.
 Narasimhavarman I was called Mahamalla which  Famous Odandapuri University was founded by
meants a wrestler. Gopala.
 The book Mattavilasa Prahasana was written by  The Vikramsila and Sompur Universities were
Narashimvarman I. founded by the Pala king Dharmapala.
 The Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram (Seven Pa-  The Pala power was destroyed by Vijayasena who
godas) were created by Narasimhavarman I. founded the Sena dynasty.
 Dandin the author of Dasakumaracharitam, lived
in the court of Narasimhavarman II. Senas
 Narasimhavarman II was the most important ruler  The Sena dynasty was founded by Vijayasena
of the Pallava dynasty. towards to end of 11th century. (1093)
 He founded Kailasanatha Temple and the Shore
 Senas had a capital in Vikrampura and another
Temple at Mahabalipuram.
in Vijayapura.
 About the middle of 13th century the senas were
overthrown by the Deva dynasty.
38 6
 Jayadeva, the author of Gitagovinda was patron- Eminent Personalities of Ancient
ized by Sena ruler Lakshmana Sena.
India
Chauhans  Alexander : he was the ruler of Macedonia in
 The four Agnikula Rajputs were the Pratiharas, Greece. He attacked India in 326 BC and captured
Chau-hans the Solankis and Paramaras. upto river Bias.
 Chauhans had their capital at Ajmer and Delhi.  Ajatasatru : Son of Bimbisara. He established the
 Ajayaraya established the city of Ajayameru or city of Pataliputra.
Ajmer.  Arien : Greek historian who wrote about
 The most prominent ruler was Prithviraj III (1177- Alexander’s Indian invasion.
1192). He defeated Muhammed of Ghore in the  Ashwaghosh : Buddhist monk who initiated
First Battle of Tarain (1191). But Ghore defeated Kaniskha to Buddhism wrote Buddha charita,
and killed him in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192). Sutralankar and Sandaranand.
 Prithviraj Chauhan III was the last Hindu ruler  AmarSimha : Sanskrit scholar in the court of
of Delhi.
Chandragupta who wrote Amarakosha.
 Prithvi Raj Rao is the historical Kavya written by
 Aryabhatta : He analysed the reasons for Solar
Chand Bardai.
and Lunar eclipses and declared that the Earth is
The Chandelas of Bundelkhand round. Wrote Aryabhattiyam.
 Bimbisar : Founded the Magadhan Empire or
 The Chandela dynasty was founded by Haryanka dynasty. He was the first influential king
Yasovarman with Mahobas as the Capital of ancient India.
 The Khajuraho temples are the best examples of  Banabhatta : Court poet of Harshavardhana and
the Chandela art. author of Harsha Charita and Kadambari.
Cholas  Charak : He was an Ayurvedic expert wrote
Charak-Samhita and established the Aitereya
 Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola empire. branch of Ayurvedic medicines.
He was a feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi.  Amoghavarsha : He was a famous Rashtrakuta
 Raja Raja I (985 - 1014) adopted the titles of ruler.
Arumudivarman, Mammudichodadeva,
Jaykonda, Marthanda Chola, Mamudichola etc. Temples and Builders
 He built the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur. Kailas Temple at Ellora ........................ Krishna I
which is called the RajaRajeswara temple.
Chunnakesava Temple, Belur .... Vishnuvardhana
 Rajendra I led an expedition to North India, de- Rathas at Mahabilipuram ... Narashimhavarman I
feated the Pala ruler Mahipala I and adtoped the
Brihadeswara Temple, Tanjavur ... RajaRaja Chola
title, Gangaikondachola and established a new
Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram ... Narasimha VarmanII
Capital, Gangai Konda Cholapuram.
Lingaraja Temple, Bhavaneswar ........................
 Cholas maintained a well established local - self
...................................... Eastern Gangarubs
government system. Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha -
Karjuraho Temples ............................ Chandellas
and Nagaram were the assemblies for local ad-
ministration. Rajarajeshwara Temple, Tanjavur ......... Raja raja I
Meenakshi Temple at Madhurai .. Nayaka Rulers
 The Uttaramerur inscription of Dantivarman Pallava
gives details about the local self government. Shiva Temple at Tanjavur ........... Raja Raja Chola
38 7
 Dhanananda : He was a powerful king of  Mihirkula : Huna conqueror defeated by
Magadha. Alexander did not go forward to in- Yashodharma.
vade Magadha only after hearing his reputation.  Skand Gupt : Last mighty Gupta ruler.
 Darius I : The ruler of Iran (Persia) who invaded  Shushrut : He was a doctor of Ayurvedic medi-
India in 6th century BC. cine. He started the Dhanwantri branch and was
 Gautami Putra Shatakarni : He was the most an expert in Plastic Surgery.
famous Satavahana king in 2nd Century.  Pulikeshin II. Most powerful king of Chalukyas
 Harisena : He was the writer of Pryaga Prashasti of Vatapi who defeated Harshavardhana in North
or Allahabad Pillar Inscription. and Mahendravarman of South.
 Kharavel : Ruler of Kalinga in I century AD. The  Pushya Mitra sunga : He killed the last Mauryan
Famous Hathigumbha inscription belonged to ruler and laid the foundation of Sunga dynasty in
him. 185 BC.
 Kanishka : (I century AD) : Most powerful  Pliny : He was a Roman historian who wrote the
Kushan king. Started Shaka Era. Organised fourth Natural History. He wrote about the Mauryas of
Buddhist council at Kundalvan near Kashmir. India.
 Karikala : Chola ruler who founded the city of  Panini : Sanskrit scholar specially of Grammar.
Puhar (Kaveri patanam) in I century BC. He wrote Ashtadyayi.
 Kautilya : also known as Vishnugupta or  Varahamihira : He was famous astronomer who
Chanakya. He wrote Arthasasthra, which is com- wrote Brihat Samhita.
pared to ‘The prince’ of Machiavelli.  Sankaracharya : He was born in Kaladi in Kerala.
 Kalidas : Famous Sanskrit poet who wrote, He propagated Advaita Philosophy.
Raghuvamsa, Kumara Sambhavam, Abhigyana
Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam and Selected Questions from
Malavikagnimitram. He also wrote Ancient Indian History
Meghadootam and Ritusamharam.
 The source of Swastika symbol
 Kamban : A Tamil poet of 11th century who wrote
Indus Valley
Ramayan in Tamil.
 Who is considered as the father of Indian
 Mihir Bhoja : Famous Prathihara ruler of 9th cen-
archaeoloy
tury.
Alexander Cunningham
 Kalhana - Famous Kashmiri poet and historian.He  Meter scale has been discovered from .........
wrote Raja Tarangini.
Harappa
 Marco Polo : Venitian Traveller to India in 13th  Weapon never used by the Indus people
century. Sword
 Menander : He came to India as a foreign aggres-  What was the major industry in Chanhudaro?
sor in II Century BC. MilindaPanho, a book writ- Bead making
ten by Nagasena, is about him.  The word ‘Sindhan’ used by the Indus people
 Nagarjuna : Famous Buddhist monk. He denoted
popounded the philosophy known as Cotton
Madhyamika.  Evidence of fractional burial has been excavated
 Makkali Gosala : Philosopher of 6th Century BC. from
H was the founder of Ajivika sect. Harappa
38 8
 The word ‘godhume’ used in the vedic period  First town in the vedic period to use burned bricks
denote Kausambi
Wheat  First reference about lending money for interest
 ‘Yava’ denoted can be found in
Barley Satpatha Brahmana
 Term used to denote rice in the vedic text  Rigvedic paintings have been discovered from
Vrihi Bhagvanpura. It is in which state ‘
 Vedic term sita denoted Hariyana
Ploughed field  Upanishad which mentions about police system
 Which veda mentions about wheel Brihadaranyaka Upanishads
Rigveda  God who was considered as God of Gods
 Vedi terms ‘Urvara’ or ‘kshetra’ denoted Varuna
Cultivated field  Community which was considered as untouch-
ables by the Buddhists.
 The famous frog hymn in Rig Veda throws light
to Chandalas
Vedic education  The language used by the Jains to spread their
religion
 Who was considered as the god of the vedas?
Prakrit
Varuna
 Who is considered as the St.John of Buddhism
 Rigvedic term ‘Duhitri’ denoted
Ananda
Milker of cows
 Who is considered as Devil by the Buddhists
 Method used to calculate the number of cows in
the Vedic period Mara
Ashtakarni  Three daughters of ‘Mara’
 Part of which veda has prose part lust, emotion and desire
Yajur Veda  The ruler who persecuted Buddhists
 Who spread Aryan religion in South India Pushyamitrasunga
Agasthya  Major philosophic school of Bhagvatism
 Vedic term ‘Aghanya’ denotes Vishishtadvaita
Cows  Earliest reference about Srikrishna can be found
in
 The term ‘Bharata’ and ‘Bharatavarsha’ were
first used in Chandoghya Upanishad
Rig Veda  Hindu God who found place in Greek literature
 Upanishad which mentions the four Ashramas of Sri Krishna
Vedic period  Jain Thirthankara, who was related to Sri Krishna
Jabala Upanishad Rishabhadeva (Ist Thirthankara)
 Largest number of hymns in Rigveda a are in  Tamil god of the Sangham age for War and Vic-
praise of tory
Indra Kottavai
38 9
 Saint who founded the Saivism  The Arab conquest of Sindh was led by
Lakulisa Muhammed Bin Kassim.
 Tamil kingdom of the Sangham Age which sent  Muhammed Bin Khasim was the nephew of Al-
an ambassador to the court of Roman Emperor Hajaj, the governor of the Arab province of Basra.
Augusts  Dahir, a Brahmin was the ruler of Punjab at that
Pandyas time. He was killed by Kassim.
 First Sangham was founded by  The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.
Saint Agasthya  Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of
Islam to North India.
 Famous poetess of the Sangham period
 But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik
Avvaiyar
Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.
 Greeco-Roman traders who visited South India
during the Sangham period were denoted with Turkish Invasions
the term
 Ghazni in Afghanistan was ruled by a Turkish
Yavanas
family called Gamini of Ghaznavid dynasty.
 Sangham work which describes about Buddhism
 Muhammed Ghazni was the first Turkish con-
Manimekhalai queror of North India.
 The word used by Ashoka to denote Buddha  Muhammad Ghazni’s father was Subu ktigin.
Bhagavati  He attacked India only for want of wealth.
 Ashokan inscriptions were desciphered by James  He attacked India seventeen times between 1000
prince in the year and 1027 AD. He made all the raids in the guise of
1837 Jihad.
 Indo-Greek ruler who had his boundaries upto  First Invasion was in 1001 AD.
Pataliputra  He defeated Jaipal and Anandpal of Shahi dy-
Menander nasty in 1001 and 1009 respectively.
 Yuchi ruler who introduced gold coins for the first  The most important raid of Muhammed was the
time Somanath expedition. It was in 1025. He completely
Vima Kadphesus distroyed the temple. Somanath Temple was on
 Edict which mentions about the relation between the sea coast of Gujarat.
India and China  Muhammed Ghazni died in 30th April 1030.
Nagarjunakonda  Later his son Masud attacked India and caputred
Kashmir.
 The famous Persian poet Firdausi who wrote
MEDIEVALINDIA ‘Shahnama’ (The Book of Kings) lived in his
court.
 Alberuni, an Arab Historian, who wrote Tarikh-
Arab Conquest of Sindh ul-Hind (Reality of Hindustan), accompanied
 During the Khaliphate of Omar, Arab forces made Muhammed Ghazni to India.
fertile attempts to get Bombay  Al-Firdausi is known as ‘Indian Homer’, ‘Per-
 Arabs captured Sindh in 712 AD. sian Homer’, or ‘The Immortal Homer of the
East’.
39 0
 Muhammed of Ghore attacked India betwen 1175  He was known as ‘Lakh Baksh’ or ‘giver of lakhs’
and 1206 AD. or ‘giver of favours’ for his magnanimity.
 Muhammed Ghori made his first expedition to In-  Hasan Nizami was a famous historian in the court
dia and captured multan in 1175 AD. of the Aibak.
 In the First Battle Tarain in 1191 (near Taneswar)  Qutub-ud-din Aibak started the construction of
Muhammed Ghori was defeated by the Rajput Qutub Minar in 1199 in Delhi in memory of the
forces under Prithviraj Chauhan III. Sufi saint Quaja Qutub - ud-din Bhaktiar Kaki.
 In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD) Its construction was completed by Ithumish. It is
Muhammed Ghori assisted by Qutub -ud-din a five storied building.
Aibek a slave, defeated Prithviraj Chauhan III and
 Qutub-ud-din Aibak died 1210 by falling from
killed him.
horseback while playing Polo.
 In 1193 Muhamed Ghori attacked Jaichand, fa-
ther in law of Prithviraj . III at Kanauj, Jaichand  After the death of Qutubuddin, Aram Shah as-
was defeated. cended the throne but he was
deposed by Ilthumish and
 Muhammed Ghori returned from India by intrust-
crowned himself the Sulthan.
ing his territories in India in the hands of Qutub-
Uddin Aibak.  During the period of Ilthumish
 After the death of Ghori in 1206 Aibek founded (1210-1236) Chengizkhan, the
the Slave Dynasty. Mongole conqueror attacked
India (1221). Chengizkhan
 Muhammed Ghoris Indian invasion resulted in
the foundation of Islamic rule in India.
Important Court Scholars
Delhi Sultanate Kalidasa .......... Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
 The five dynasties which founded subsequently Banabhatta ............................ Harshavardhana
after the Turkish invasion were collectively known Alberuni ............................ Muhammed Ghazni
as Delhi sulthanate. They are:
Firdausi ............................. Muhammad Ghazni
Slave Dynasty ..................... 1206 - 1290
Amir Khusru ........................... Alauddin Khilji
Khilji Dynasty .................... 1290 - 1320
Todarmal ............................................... Akbar
Tughlaq Dynasty ................. 1320 - 1412
Tansen .................................................. Akbar
Sayyid Dynasty ................... 1414 - 1451
Birbal .................................................... Akbar
Lodi Dynasty ....................... 1451 - 1526
Mansingh ............................................. Akbar
Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290) Abul Fazal ............................................. Akbar
Ashva Ghosha ................................. Kanishka
 Slave Dynasty was also called Ilbari Dynasty,
Yamini Dynasty or Mamluk Dynasty. Amara Simha ......................... Chandragupta II
 Qutub-ud-din Aibak was a slave of Muhammed Chand Bardai ...................... Prithviraj Chauhan
Ghori and he founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206 Revikirti ....................................... Pulikeshin II
AD. Dhanwantari .......................... Chandragupta II
 Aibak was the first Muslim ruler of India. Harisen ................................... Samudra Gupta
 The capital of Qutub-ud-din Aibak was at Lahore Tenali Rama ........................ Krishnadeva Raya
39 1
 Ilthumish is considered as the real founder of  The Chalisa or forty established by Ilthumish was
Delhi Sulthanate. abolished by Balban.
 Ilthumish is considered as the real founder of  His policies are considered to be ‘Draconian’.
Delhi Sulthanate  He started the Iranian system of Sajda and Piabos.
 Ilthumish was the first Sulthan of Delhi to get  He was a patron of men of letters and showed
recognition of the Khalif of Bagdad. special favour to the poet Amir Khusrau.
 Ilthumish was also the first Sulthan to make Delhi  After Balban’s death in 1286, Kayqubad (1287 -90)
his capital. became the Sulthan.
 He issued a purely Arabic coinage of Silver and  Madhavacharya of the Dwaita Philosophy got help
was the first to do so. from Balban.
 Coins introdued by Ilthumish, ‘Silver Thanka’  Balban’s Tomb is situated in Delhi. It was con-
and ‘Copper Jital’ were the two basic coins of structed by Balban himself.
the Sulthanate period.  Kayqubad was the last Slave Sulthan. (Kayumars
 He organised the ‘Chalisa’ or the famous Turk- who ruled for a term of three months was actually
ish forty to help him in the administration. the last Slave Sulthan. He was killed by Jalaluddin
 Iltumish completed the construction of Qutub Khilji) and founded the Khilji Dynasty.
Minar.
 The revenue system of the Sulthanate ‘Iqta sys- Khilji Dynasty (1290 -1320)
tem’, was introduced by Ilthumish.  Khilji dynasty was founded by Malik Firoz in
 Ilthumish was succeeded by his son Ruknuddin 1290 and assumed the title Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-
Firoz Shah. But he was later executed and Razia 96)
became the sulthan (daughter of Ilthumish)
 In 1292 the Mongols under Abdulla accepted de-
 Sulthana Raziya, the only women ruler of, the feat from Jalaluddin Khilji.
Sultanate came to power in 1236 and reigned till
 Alauddin Khilji, the nephew
1240.
of Jalaluddin Khilji, killed him
 Sulthana Raizya rejected the Pardah, she adorned after his victory on Devagiri
the male dress and held open courts. in 1296.
 In October 14, 1240 both Razia and Altunia who  Alauddin Khilji’s early name
earlier raised arms against Razia but later joined was Ali Gurushap.
with her were, beheaded at Kaithal.
 He became the Sulthan in
 After Raizya Behran Shah (1240 - 42) Allaud-din- 1296 AD and ruled till 1316
Masudshah (1242 - 46) and Naziruddin AD. Alauddin Khilji
Muhammad (1246 - 1266) ruled and Balban, the
 In 1303 Alauddin Khilji attacked Chittor, the capi-
founder of the second Ilban dynasty, became the
tal of Mewar, to marry Padmini the wife of Chittor
Sulthan.
king Ratna Singh.
 Ghiasuddin Balban ‘a slave water carreer, hunts-
 But Padmini and other Rajput women committed
man, noble, statesman became the Sulthan of Delhi
Juhar (Juhar is a mass suicide by Jumping into
in 1266 and continued in power till 1686 AD.
fire, committed by Rajput women to escape from
 Balban is considered as the founder of Second being polluted by others)
Ilbary Dynasty.
 Padmavat is a historical kavya about Padmini epi-
 Balban described himself as ‘shadow of God’ or sode written by Malik Muhammed Jayasi.
the ‘viceregent of God on Earth’ (Zil-i-illahi)
 Malik Muhammed Jayasi was the court poet of
 Balban because of his autocratic rule is consid- Shersha Suri.
ered as a ‘typical oriental despot’.
 Alauddin Khilji was the first Muslim ruler to at-
39 2
tack South India.  Khilji dynasty came to an end when the Mubarak
 Malik Kafur was Alauddin Khilji’s Commander shah Khilji was killed by Khusrau Khan.
who attacked South India.  Some historians consider Khusrau Khan as the
 Alauddin Khilji was the most famous ruler of the last Khilji Sulthan.
Khilji Dynasty.
 Alauddin was the Sulthan of Delhi who banned Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 - 1412)
the use of liquor.  Tughlaq Dynasty was founded by Ghiazuddin
 Alauddin had a dream of a World Conquest so he Tughlaq. His real name was Ghazi Malik.
assumed the title ‘Sikhandar-i-sani’ or Second  Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after
Alexander.
killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.
 Demitrius a Bactrian ruler is popularly known as
Second Alexander.
IMPORTANT DYNASTIES
 Alauddin abolished the Zamindari System and IN INDIAN HISTOY
imposed tax on cattle.
MAURYANEMPIRE .............. 322 BC - 185 BC
 He was the first muslim ruler of Delhi to introduce Chandragupta Maurya ........... BC 322 - 297 BC
measurement of land for tax assessment. Bindusara .............................. 297 BC - 274 BC
 His market regulations were to get goods at con- Ashoka ................................. 274 BC - 237 BC
trolled price to the people of Delhi. KUSHANAEMPIRE .............. 20 AD - 225 AD
 Alauddin Khilji was the first Sulthan of Delhi who Kanishka ............................... 78 AD - 120 AD
separated religion from politics. Gupta Empire ........................ 320 AD - 606 AD
 He was also the first to proclaim ‘‘I am the Chandragupta I .................... 320 AD - 330 AD
Khalifa’’. Samudra Gupta ..................... 330 AD - 380 AD
 Alauddin constructed Alai Darwaza the gate way Chandra Gupta II .................. 380 AD - 413 AD
of Qutub Minar. VARDHANA DYNASTY ...... 580 AD - 647 AD
 He built the city of Siri, the second of the seven Harsha Vardhana .................. 606 AD - 647 AD
cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar. SLAVE DYNASTY ........... 1206 AD - 1290 AD
 The first marriage between a muslim ruler and a Qutubuddin Aibak .................. 1206 - 1210 AD
Hindu princess was between Alauddin and Ka- Ilthumish ................................ 1210 - 1236 AD
mala Devi, the widow of the ruler of Gujarat. Raziya Sulthana ...................... 1236 - 1240 AD
 Alauddin Khilji was killed by his commander Balban .................................... 1266 - 1286 AD
Malik Kafur by poisoning. KHILJI DYNASTY ................ 1290 - 1320 AD
 Amir Khusru was the court poet of Alauddin Alauddin Khilji ....................... 1296 - 1316 AD
 Amir Khusru is known as the ‘Parrot of India’ TUGHLAQ DYNASTY .......... 1320 - 1412 AD
Muhammed Bin Tughlaq ......... 1325 - 1351 AD
 He is considered as the father of Urdu language
and the inventor of Sitar. LODHI DYNASTY ................ 1451 - 1526 AD
Ibrahim Lodi ............................ 1517 -1526 AD
 Laila Majnu and Tughlaq Nama are the famous
MUGHAL EMPIRE ...... 1526 - 1540, 1555-1857
works of Amir Khusru.
Babar ..................................... 1526 - 1530 AD
 Alauddin khilji was the first Sulthan to maintain a
Humayun ................. 1530-1540, 1555-1556 AD
permanent standing army.
Akbar ..................................... 1556 - 1605 AD
 Alauddin Khilji was responsible for the introduc- Jahangir ................................. 1605 - 1627 AD
tion of postal system in medieval India.
Shahjahan ................................ 1628-1658 AD
 Mubarak shah khilji was the last ruler of the Aurangazeb ............................ 1658 - 1707 AD
khilji Dynasty. Bahadurshah II ....................... 1837 - 1857 AD
39 3
 Ghiazuddin died by the collapse of a pavilion. the Lame or Tamerlain a Turkish conqueror of
 He built the Tughlaqabad Fort in Delhi the third Tartar tribe from Samarkhand attacked India in
city of Delhi to the east of Qutub complex. 1398.
 Ghiassudhin Tughlaq was the first Sulthan to start  Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the governor of
irrigation works. Multan his authority in India.
 GhiassuddinTughlaq was succeeded by his son
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451)
Jauna Khan, popularly known as Muhammed Bin
Tughlaq.  Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan in
 Muhammed Bin Tughlaq is considered as the 1414.
single most responsible person for the decline of  Last Sayyid Sulthan was Alauddin Alamshah or
Delhi Sulthanate. Shah Alam I. He was killed by Bahalol Lodhi in
 Muhammed Bin Tughlaq was known as a mix- 1451.
ture of opposites, wisest fool, Pagal padushah,
unfortunate idealogue and the predecessor of
Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.  Lodhi dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodhi in
 Ibn Batuta called him ‘‘an illstared idealist’’. 1451. The dynasty lasted upto 1526.
 He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri  Lodhi dynasty was the first Afghan dynasty or
(Daulatabad) in 1327. first Pathan dynasty in India.
 Sikhandar Lodhi, who ruled from 1489 to 1517
 In 1330 he introduced token currency of bronze
shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra.
and copper.
 Sikhandar Lodhi is considered as the Maker of
 Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India dur- Agra City.
ing his period.  Last Lodhi Sulthan or last Delhi Sulthan was
 Edward Thanas described him as ‘prince of Ibrahim Lodhi. Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar
moneyers’. defeated him. His brother Daulat Khan Lodhi in-
 Muhammed Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his vited Babar to India to defeat Ibrahim Lodhi in
1524.
elderly cousin, Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
 Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first Sulthan of Delhi of Panipat in 1526 April 21.
to impose Jaziya. It was a religious tax for the  The title Sulthan was started by the Turkish rul-
freedom of worship. He imposed it only upon Brah- ers. Muhammed Ghazni was the first to assume
mins. the title Sulthan.
 He built the city of Firozbad in Delhi. The Firoz  The official language of the Delhi Sulthanate was
shah Kotla was also built by him. The gate way of Persian.
Firozshah Kottla is Khooni Darwaza, or blood
stained gate. It was constructed by Shersha Suri. Bahmani and Vijayanagara Kingdoms
 He transplanted two Ashokan Pillars to Firozabad.  The decline of the Sulthanate of Delhi gave birth
to two mighty states in South India the Bahmani
 He is the author of Fatuhat -i- Firozshahi
Kingdom of Gulbaraga and the Vijayanagara Em-
 After Firozshah Tughlaq Muhammed Shah pire.
Tughlaq or Naziruddin Muhammed came to the  The Bahmanis were Muslim rulers, while the rul-
throne. ers of the Vijayanagar were Hindus.
 It was during the period of his reign that Timur  The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Zafar
Khan (Hassan) who took the title of Alauddin
39 4
Bahman Shah. He selected Gulbaraga as its capi-  He wrote Ushaparinayam and Amuktamalyada
tal and renamed it Ahsanabad.  Allasani Peddanna, a Telugu poet was a courtier
 There were total eighteen Sulthans and they ruled of Krishna Deva Raya. He is considered as the
from 1347 to 1527.
‘‘Andra Kavita Pitamaha’’ the Grand Father of
 Muhammed Gawan was the famous minister of Telugu poetry.
Bahmini kingdom.
 The last prince of the Bahmani Kingdom was  ‘Ashtadiggajas’ was the famous Scholastic As-
Kalimullah. sembly in the court of Krishna Deva Raya.
 By 1527, the Bahmani kingdom was split up into  Vijayanagar Empire was visited by many foreign
five independent principalities. travellers.
 The Adil Shahis of Bijapur -founder - Yusuf  Nicolo Conti - Venitian traveller, visited during
Adilshah (1489 - 90) the reign of Devaraya I.
 The Nizam Shahis of Ahamadnagar - founder -
 Abdur Razzak : Ambassador of Sulthan
Malik Ahmad (1499)
ShahRukh to the court of Devaraya II.
 The Imadshahis of Berar - founder -Fateh Ulla
Imadshanti (1490)  Damingos Paes : He visited Krishna Devaraya’s
 The Qutubshahi kingdom of Golconda - founder court.
- Qutabshah (1512)  Ferona Nuniz : A Portuguese who visited during
 The Baridshahis of Bidar - founder - Amir Ali Achyuta Raya’s reign.
Barid (1527).  Durate Barbosa : A portuguese who visited
Krishnadeva Raya’s court.
Vijaya Nagara Empire  Athenasius Nikitin (1415) : He was a Russian,
 The founders of Vijaya Nagar Empire were who visited during Deva Raya I’s period He wrote,
Harihara and Bukka Rai, the revenue officers of ‘Voyage to India’.
the Kakatiya ruler Pratap Rudra Deva II of
Warrangal. The Mughal Empire
 They founded the dynasty in 1336 with the capi-  The Mughals were originally Turks.
tal as Vijaya Nagara on the banks of Tungbhadra  They belonged to the Chaghtai branch of the
river witht the help of Saint Vidyaranya. Turkish race.
 Vijayanagara kingdom lasted for 230 years and  Period of the Mughal empire is known as Second
produced four dynasties. Classical Age. First Classical Age is the period
Sangama (1336 - 1485) Guptas.
Saluva - (1485 - 1505)  Mughal Empire is also known as Timurid Empire
Tuluva (1505 - 1565) and because of its relation to Amir Timur.
Aravidu (1565 - 1672)  Mughal Emperors are 20 in number. They ruled
 Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - India from 1526 to 1857. Only six are considered
1529) belonged to the great They are:
Tuluva dynasty. The Ital-  Zahiruddin Muhammed Babur (1526 - 1530)
ian traveller Nicolocont  Naziruddin Mirza Muhammed Humayun (1530 -
visited his court. 40 & 1555 - 1556)
 Krishnadeva Rayar is  Jalaluddin Muhammed Akbar - (1556 - 1605)
known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’  Nuruddin Muhammed Jahangir (1605 - 1627)
Krishnadeva Rayar
39 5
 Shahabuddin Muhammed Shah Jahan (1628 -  Babur said ‘I dont like India and Indians’.
1658)  Babur was the first Mughal ruler to keep in hand
 Muhiyuddin Muhammed Aurangazeb Alamgir the Kohinur Diamond.
(1658 - 1707)  Babur was a contemporary of Krishnadeva Raya
of Vijaya Nagara Empire.
Babur
 Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was Humayun
the fifth descendant of Timur  Humayun was born in 1507 in Kabul as the son of
on Father’s side and the four- Babur and Mahim Sulthana.
teenth descendant of
 He became the Mughal Em-
Chengizkhan on mothers side.
peror on 29 December 1530 at
 Babur was born in Farghana in the age of 23.
Turkey on 14 Feb. 1483 as the
 He divided the empire among
som of Umer Sheik Mirza ad Babur
Qulik Nigarkhanum. his brothers - Askari, Hindal
and Kamran.
 Babur’s father Umershiek Mirza was the grand
son of Amir Timur and the ruler of Farghana.  The word ‘Humayun’ means Humayun
 Babur became the ruler of Samarkhand at the Age ‘fortunate’ But Human is con-
of 11. sidered as the most unfortunate Mughal ruler.
 He captured Kabul in 1504.  Human was an accomplished mathematician and
 Then Babur attacked India 5 times for want of astronomer.
wealth.  In 1539 by the Battle of Chausa, Humayun was
 Babur’s first Attack of India was in 1519 Bhera defeated for the first time by Shershah Suri.
was the first place captured by Babur.  In the next year (1540) Shershah completely de-
 In 1524 Daulatkhan, Ibrahim Lodhi’s brother in- feated Humayun in the battle of Kanauj and
vited Babur to India. founded the Sur dynasty.
 On 21 April 1526 Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi,  After the lapse of 15 years Humayun re-captured
the last Lodhi Sulthan in the First Battle of the Empire by defeating the last Sur ruler
Panipat. Sikhandar Shah Suri by the battle of Sirhindh in
 On 16 March 1527 he defeated Rana Sangha of 1555, July.
Mewar, in the Battle of Khanwa.  After the restoration Humayun ruled for only six
 The Rajputs in 1528 under Medini Raj of Malwa months.
fought against Babur in the Battle of Chanderi,  The period from 1540 to 1555 is known as the
but were defeated. period of temporary eclipse of the Mughal.
 In 1529 the Afghans under Muhammed Lodhi  Humayun died by an accidental fall from the
fought against Babur in the Battle of Ghaghra straicase of his Library ‘Shermandal’ at the
but were defeated. Puranakwila in Delhi on 24 January 1556.
 In 1530 December 26, Babur died and was cre-  The Purnakwila was constructed by Humayun but
mated at Kabul. its construction was completed by Shershah.
 Babur was the first to use Artillery in India.  Humayun’s biography Humayun Namah was writ-
 His memoirs or autobiography ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi ten by Humayun’s sister Gulbadan Begum. The
or Baburnamah was written in Turkish language, language used to write this biography was a mix-
Babur’s mothertongue. ture of Turkish and Persian.
39 6
 In 1533 Humayun built the city of Dinpana (world  In 1575 Akbar constructed a prayer house in
refuge) in Delhi. Fathepur Sikri known as Ibadatkhana.
 Humayun’s tomb is situated in Delhi (first build-  In 1579 he issued the Infallibility Decree by which
ing in India having double domes) he made himself the supreme head in religious
matters.
 Humayun tomb is known as predecessor of
Tajmahal, because Taj was modelled after this,  In 1580 the first Jesuit missionaries arrived at the
also known as a dormitory of the house of Timur. court of Akbar.
Mirak Mirza Ghias is its architect.  In 1585 Ralph Fitch the first English man to reach
India, reached Akbar’s court.
Akbar the Great  Ralph Fitch is known as pioneer English man or
torch bearer Englishman.
 Father - Humayun
 In 1582 Akbar founded a new religion for univer-
 Mother - Hamida Bhanu Begum sal peace and monotheism known as ‘Din Ilahi’
 Step mother - Magam Anaga means Divine Faith.
 Guardian - Bairam Khan  In 1583 he started a new Calendar called Ilahi
 First Guardian - Munim Khan Calendar.
 Akbar was born at Amarkot in  In 1576 Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap of
Akbar
Sindh in 23 Nov. 1542. Mewar in the battle of Haldighat. Haldighat is a
mountain pass in the Aravally hills in Rajasthan.
 He came to the throne on February 14, 1556 at the
age of 14 at Kalanur.  The Portuguese introduced tobacco for the first
time in India in the court of Akbar in 1604.
 Hemu the Hindu Prime Minister of Muhammed
Adilshah of Bihar occupied Agra and accepted  Akbar was the Mughal Emperor when the En-
the title Maharaja Vikramaditya. glish East India Company was being founded in
 Akbar killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Paniput 1600 December 31.
in 1556 November 2.  Akbar died in 1605.
 Akbar became an independent ruler at the age of  His tomb is situated at Sikhandra near Agra.
18 in 1560, after dismissing Bairamkhan.  Akbar was an illiterate person, but he was a pa-
 Later he married Bairam Khans widow Salima tron of men of eminence. He maintained a Scho-
Begum. lastic Assembly in his court. They included the
 In 1561 he defeated the musician Sulthan of following personalities.
Malwa - Baz Bahadur.  Abul Fazal : Akbar’s court historian who wrote
 In 1562 Akbar married Joda Bhai, the daughter of Akbar’s biographical works Ain-i-Akbari and
Raja Bharmal of Amber Akbar Namah..
 In 1564, he abolished the religious tax Jaziya.  Abul Faizi : Persian poet and brother of Abul
Jaziya was impossed for the first time by Firozshah Fazal. He translated Mahabharata into Persian in
Tughlaq. name ‘Razam Namah’ and Bhaskaracharya’s
 In 1572 he captured Gujarat and in memory of that mathematical work Leelavati into Persian.
he built a new capital city Fathepur sikri (city of  Mian Tansen : His original name was Ram Thanu
Victory) near Agra. Pande. He was the court Musician of Akbar. He
 The early name of Fathepur Sikri was city of Sikri. composed a Raga, Rajdarbari in honour of Akbar.
 Buland Darwaza is the gate way of Fathepur Sikri,  Birbal : His real name was Mahesh Das. He is the
built by Akbar. court jester of Akbar.
39 7
 Raja Todarmal : RajaTodarmal was Akbar’s fi-  In 1609, Jahangir received William Hawkins, an
nance or revenue minister. He formulated Akbar’s envoy of King James I of England, who reached
revenue system Zabti and Dashala systems. Raja India to obtain trade concession.
Todermal also translated Bhagavatapurana into
 In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of
Persian.
Jahangir as the first ambassador of James I of
 Maharaja Mansing : Akbar’s military commander. England in the court of Jahangir. As a result of
 Badauni : a historian who translated Ramayana his efforts first English factory was established
into Persian - Tarjuma -1-Ramayan. at Surat in Gujarat.
 Tulasidas : Hindi poet who  Period of Jahangir is considered as the Golden
wrote Ramacharitamanas.
Age of Mughal Painting. Jahangir himself was a
 Akbar’s military system was painter. Ustad Mansur and Abul Hassan were fa-
known as Mansabdari system, mous painters in the court of Jahangir.
which included Ranks from 10
- 7000  Jahangir built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens in
Srinagar.
 Akbar was also responsible
for the introduction Persian as  Jahangir suspended a chain of Justice known as
the official language of Tulasidas Zndiri Adal infront of his court.
Mughals.  Anarkali was Jahangair’s lover. Mughal-i-Asam
 He divided the Mughal Empire into 12 Subahs directed by K. Asif is a famous film which tells
(provinces) for the administrative conveniences. the love story of Jahangir and Anarkali.
 Akbar was also the first ruler to organise Hajj.  Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzukh -i-
Pilgrimage at the government expense. The Port Jahangiri in Persian language.
Cambay in Gujarat is known as the ‘Gate way to
Mecca from Mughal India’.  Jahangir died in 1627 and was cremated at
Shahdhara in Lahore.
 Akbar was an accomplished Sitar player.
 Mughal - Rajput friendly relation began during Shah Jahan
the period of Akbar.
 Shah Jahan was born on 5th January 1592 at
Jahangir Lahore.
 His mother was Jagat Gosain
 Early name of Jahangir was Salim. Akbar called
and his childhood name was
him Sheika Baba. Khurram.
 Jahangir came to the throne in
 He married Arjumand Benu
1605. Begum, daughter of Asaf Khan,
 Jahangir was the son of Akbar brother of Noor Jahan. She later Shah Jahan
and Jodabai. came to be known as Mumtaz
 He married Mehrunnisa, an Mahal which means beloved of the Palace.
Afghan widow in 1611 Later he  Shahjahan destroyed the Portuguese settlements
Jahangir
gave her the titles, Noor Mahal at Hoogly.
(light of the palace) Noor Jahan (light of the world)  Shah Jahan’s period is considered as the Golden
and Padusha Begum. Age of Mughal Architecture and Shah Jahan is
 In 1606 Jahangir executed fifth Sikh Guru Guru known as the Prince of Builders.
Arjun Dev, because he helped Jahangir’s son
 In 1631 he started the construction of Tajmahal
Prince Khusru to rebel against him.
in memory of his wife and completed in 1653. It is
39 8
situated on the banks of Yamuna river in Uttar  The famous Peacock Throne was built by Shah
Pradesh. Utad Iza a Turkish/ Persian was its ar- Jahan. It was abducted from here by Nadirsha in
chitect. British administrator Furgurson called it 1739 during his Indian invasion (Persian con-
‘a love in marble’. Now Sulphur Dioxide, emitted queror). Now it is kept at the London Tower Mu-
by oil refinaries in Madhura after mixing with mois- seum, Britain.
ture in the atmosphere forms Sulphuric Acid and  French travellers Bernier and Tavernier and Ital-
damages the marble of Tajmahal. ian traveller Manucci visited India during
 In 1638 Shah Jahan built his new capital Shah ShahJahan’s period.
Jahanabad in Delhi and shifted the capital from
Agra to there. Aurangazeb
 In 1639 he started the construction of Red fort in  Aurangazeb imprisoned his father and made him-
Delhi on the model of Agrafort built by Akbar. Its self the Padushah in 1658. But his actual corona-
construction was completed in 1648. The Diwan- tion was conducted in 1659.
i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas and the Moti Masjid are situ-  Alamgir was the name
ated inside the Red fort. The Mothi Masjid in adopted by Aurangazeb when
Agra was constructed by ShahJahan.
he became the Padusha.
 The INA Trial in 1945 was conducted at the Red  Aurangazeb is known as
Fort.
‘Zinda Pir’ or living saint be-
 The Gateway of Redfort is the Lahore Gate. It is cause of his simple life.
here at the Lahore Gate that the Prime Minister of
 He banned music and dance. Aurangazeb
India hoists the National Flag and addresses the
 He ousted all the artists from
nation on the independence day.
his court. At the same time he was an accom-
 In 1656 ShahJahan constructed the Juma Masjid plished Veena player.
in Delhi. It is the biggest masjid in India. First
 Aurangazeb was the last great Mughal Emperor.
masjid in India was constructed at Kodungallur
in Kerala (Cheraman Palli) in 644 AD by Malik Ibn  In 1675 he executed 9th Sikh Guru Guru Tej
Dinar. Behadur because of his reluctance to accept Is-
lam.
 Shah Jahan’s period is known as the Golden Age
of Mughal Empire.  Teg Behadur was executed at the Chandni Chauk.
 The Portuguese introduced European painting in  In 1679 Aurangzeb constructed the tomb of his
India during the reign of Shah Jahan only wife Rubiad Daurani at Aurangabad in
Maharashtra. It is known as Bibi ka Makabara. It
 In 1658 Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son is otherwise known as Mini Tajmahal as it was
Aurangazeb and he died in 1666, after eight years. the blind imitation of Tajmahal. In the same year
His daughter Jahan Ara was also kept in prison he reimpossed Jasya upon all the non Muslims,
along with him at the Agra fort. which was earlier abolished by Akbar.
 Shah Jahan’s son Dhara Shukoe was a famous  Aurangazeb called Shivaji a ‘mountain rat’ and
scholar. He translated Bhagavat Gita and Sixty gave him the title Raja because of his guerilla tac-
Upanishads into Persian. He also wrote a book tics.
titled Mujm-ul-Behrain (Mingling of the Oceans)  In 1660 he entrusted Shaisthakhan to defeat
He also translated Atharva Veda into Persian. Shivaji.
 ShahJahan was a famous Lyricist. He wrote Lyr-  Later in 1665 the treaty of Purandar was signed
ics in Hindi. between Maharaja Jaisingh of Amber and Shivaji
Jaisingh was deputed by Aurangazeb.
39 9
 The Mughal Rajput relation became worse dur-  His father was Hassan Khan
ing the period of Aurangazeb.  His family came to India from Afghanistan.
 Aurangazeb was the only Mughal Emperor who
 He entered the service of Baharkhan Lohani of
was not a drunkard.
Behar from whom received the title of Sherkhan,
 Aurangazeb is considered as religiously fanatic. for killing a lion single handed.
He was also a temple breaker. He persecuted the
Hindus and imposed prohibition against the free  Later he became a member of the Mughal court of
exercise of Holi and Divali. Babur.
 Aurangazeb died in 1707 February 20,at  In 1539 by the battle of Chausa, Sherkhan de-
Ahmednagar. Aurangazeb’s tomb is situated at feated Humayun for the first time and assumed
Daulatabad in Maharashtra. the name Shershah.
 Later in 1540 he completely defeated Humayun in
Later Mughals in the battle of Kanauj and founded the Sur dy-
 Bahadurshah I came to the throne after the death nasty.
of Aurangazeb. His real name was Muassam.  While directing the operations of his artillery at
 In 1739 Nadirshah Quli the Persian conqueror Kalanjar against the ruler of Bundelkhand Raja
attacked India during the period of the Mughal Kirat Singh, Shershah was seriously wounded by
Emperor Muhammed Shah or Rustan Khan a sudden fire from his own artillery and died on
(1719-1748) and took away ShahJahan’s famous May 22, 1545.
Peacock Throne and Kohinoor Diamond.  Shershah constructed the Grand Trunk Road from
 Ahmedshah’s (1748 -1754) period saw the mighty Sohargaon to Attock (Calcutta to Amritsar)
invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan.  He introduced the National Highway concept for
 Akbar Shah II (1806 - 1837) conferred the title the first time in India.
‘‘Raja’’ upon Ram Mohan Roy.  Now the Grand Trunk Road is known as Shershah
 Bahadurshah II (837-1862) was Suri Marg. Its part from Delhi to Amritsar is
the last Mughal emperor. On known as National Highway -1.
17th May 1857 Bahadurshah II  Grand Trunk Road is also known a ‘Long Walk’.
was declared the independent  He was the first ruler to introduce Silver Rupiya
Emperor of India by the Muti- (one rupiya was equal to 64 dams) and gold coin
neers. He was surrendered to Ashrafi.
LtW.S.R. Hodson at Humayun’s Bahadurshah II
 He built the Purana Qila in Delhi (its Construc-
Tomb in Delhi. In 1859 he was
tion was started by Humayun) and his own
deported to Rangoon in December where he ex-
Mousoleum (Tomb) at Sasaram in Bihar.
pired on Nov. 7, 1862. The Tomb of Bahadurshah
II is in Pwin Manah, the capital of Myanmar.  He also constructed the Khooni Darwaza (blood
stained gate) the gate way of Firozshah Kotla in
 Bahadurshah II was also a famous Urdu Poet.
Delhi.
 Bahadurshah II was also known as Bahadurshah
 Hindi poet Malik Muhammed Jayasi completed
Zafar Zafar means gifted poet.
his Padmavat, during his reign.
Shershah Suri  His Revenue system was excellent and hence
Akbar’s administrative reforms were modelled af-
 Shershah’s original name was Farid. ter him. He is regarded as the forerunner of Akbar.
 He was born in Hissar Firosa.  Shershah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
40 0
 The last Sur ruler was Sikkandar Shah Sur. Who  Balaji Vishwanath (1712 - 1720) Baji Rao (1720 -
was defeated by Humayun in 1555 by the battle 40) Balaji BajiRao I (1740 - 61) and Madhav Rao I
of Sirhindh. (1761 - 1772) were the Peshwas who ruled
Maharashtra.
The Marathas  Baji Rao popularised the idea of Hindu
Padpadshahi or Hindu Empire.
 The first great leader of the Marathas was  Balaji Baji Rao’s period witnessed the Third Battle
Chatrapathi Shivaji. of Panipat in 1761. In this battle Ahmed Shah
 The Marathas became prominent in the later half Abdali of Afghanistan defeated the Marathas.
of the 17th century.  Madhava Rao was the last great Peshwa.
 Shivaji belonged to the Bhonsle clan of the  Last Peshwa was Baji Rao II.
Marathas.  Madhava Rao’s period witnessed the disintegra-
 Shaji Bhonsle and Jiga Bai were the Parents of tion of the Maratha power and the formation of in-
dependent kingdoms - Holkarofindor, Bhonsle of
Shivaji.
Nagpur, Sindhya of Gwalior and Gaekwad of Baroda.
 He was born in 1627 February  Shivaji’s Council of Ministers was known as
19 at the fort of Shivner near Ashtapradhan. They were Peshwa, Pandit Rao,
Junnar. Sumant, Sachiva, Senapathi, Amatya, Mantri and
 His father was a military com- Nyayadhyaksha.
mander under the Nizam Shahi  Peshwa was the Maratha Chief Minister.
rulers of Ahmedanagar and  Chaudh and Sardesh Mukhi were two special laxes
Shivaji
later of Bijapur. collected by the Marathas.
 Shivaji’s tutor was Dadaji Kondadev.  The first Maratha war (1775 -82) Swai Madhav
Rao Vs Raghunath Rao with English support.
 Shivaji received the help of Malavi tribe to cap-
 Second Maratha war 1803 - 05.
ture the territories of Bijapur Sulthan.
 Third Maratha war 1816 - 19.
 Torna was the first place captured by Shivaji in
1646.  The last great Soldier and statesman of Maratha
was Nana Phadavnis (1800)
 Shivaji came to conflict with the Mughals for the
 The Maratha script was called Modiscript.
first time in 1657, during the period of Shah Jahan.
 Peshwaship was abolished in 1818
 In 1659 Bijapur Sulthan Ali Adilshah sent Afzal
 Baji Rao was the ablest of the Peshwas.
Khan to kill Shivaji. But he killed Afsal Khan.
 Shivaji did not allow women in his military camp.
 In 1660 Aurangazeb deputed his viceroy of
Deccan, Shaisthakhan to kill Shivaji.  The Marathas were equipped with an efficient
naval system under Shivaji.
 1665, Shivaji signed the treaty of Purandar with
Raja Jai Singh of Ambher, who was deputed by
Aurangazeb.
Sikhism
 In 1666 Shivaji visited Aurangazeb in his court at  ‘Sikh’ is a sanskrit word which means ‘desciple’
Agra. But he and his son Sambaji were impris-  Sikh religion was founded by
oned by Aurangazeb in the Jaipur Bhavan. GuruNanak.
 On 16th June 1674 Shivaji crowned himself an  Guru Nanak was born was born
independent Hindu king became the Chatrapathi at Talwandi in Lahore, belonged
and assumed the title ‘Haidavadhasmodharak’. to the Khatri Caste (Mercantile
 Shivaji died in 1680 at the age of 53. Community)
 Shahu became the Chatrapathi in 1708 and his  Nanak called his creed as
Gurumat or Guru’s wisdom. GuruNanak
period witnessed the rise of Peshwaship.
40 1
 GuruNanak was born in 1469 and died in 1538.  Kartarpur Dabir is the root form of Guru Grandh
 He was the first Guru of the Sikhs. Sahib.
 Nanak preached only in Punjabi.  Govind Singh proclaimed the Grandh Sahib as
 Nanak nominated Guru Angad as his successor. the eternal Guru.
 Guru Angad introduced Gurumukhi Script. He Renjith Singh (1780 - 1836)
also compiled Guru Nanak’s biography Janam
Sakis.  Renjith Singh became the ruler of Punjab in 1799.
 Langar or free community dining was also intro-  He assumed the title Maharaja
duced by Guru Angad. in 1801.
 Third Sikh Guru was Amar Das. He started the  The 1809 the British and Renjith
Manji system ie, branches for the propagation of Singh made the Treaty of
Sikhs. He made Guruship hereditory. Amritsar during the period of
 Guru Ramdas was the fourth Sikh Guru. He Lord Minto
founded the city of Amritsar. The place for the  In 1809 Shah Shuja the grand- Renjith Singh
city was donated by Akbar. son of Ahmedshah Abdali pre-
 Under the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, sented the Kohinoor diamond to Ranjith Singh.
Sikhism became an organised religion. He com-
 Later Punjab was annexed to the British territo-
piled the ‘Adi Grandh’ the sacred book of the
ries by Lord Dalhousie in 1849. Sir John Lawrence
Sikhs. He built a temple at Amritsar , (later the
became the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab.
Golden Temple) Har Mandir Sahib. He helped
Jahangir’s son Prince Khusru to rebel against the  The Sikhs fought two wars against the English
Emperor So he was executed by Jahangir at Lahore First Anglo-Sikh War (1845- 1846) and the Sec-
in 1606 AD. ond Anglo-Sikh war (1848 - 1849)
 The sixth Guru Hargovind, created a Sikh army
and turned against Shah Jahan. He founded a The Bhakti Movement
palace opposite to Harmandir Sahib known as  Love and devotion to one personal God is the
‘Akaltakt’. He also adopted the title Sacha basic concept of Bhakti.
Padusha, which means true ruler. (the title was
not adopted by Teg Bahadur)  The Alvars or Vaishanava saints and Nayanars
or Saivite, saints became the promoters of Bhakti
 Seventh Guru was Har Rai. He was succeeded movement in South India.
by Guru Harkishan. Har Kishan became the Guru
 Ramanuja, a Vaishana saint of 12th century AD,
at the age of five, hence he is the youngest Sikh
was born at Sriperumbathur and founded philoso-
Guru.
phy of Vishistadvaita or qualified monism.
 The 10th and the last Guru, Govind Singh formed
the Khalsa or the Sikh brotherhood. Sikh Guru
 He introduced ‘Panchkakar’ of Sikhism -ie Kesh Guru Nanak .............................. 1469-1538
(long hair) Kanga (Comb) Kripan (Sword), Kachha Guru Angad ........................... 1538 - 1552
(Underwear) and Kara (Iron bangk) Guru Amardas ........................ 1552 - 1574
 He introduced baptism and wanted every Sikh to Guru Ramdas .......................... 1574 - 1581
bear community surname ‘Singh’ or lion. Guru Arjundev ....................... 1581 - 1606
Guru Hargovind ...................... 1606 - 1645
 His aim was the establishment of a Sikh State af-
Guru Har Rai ........................... 1645 - 1661
ter overthrowing the Mughals. In 1708 he was
Guru Har Kishan ....................... 1661-1664
killed by an Afghan.
Guru Teg Bahadur ..................... 1664-1675
 ‘Vichithra Natak’ is the autobiography of Guru
Guru Govind Singh ................. 1675 - 1708
Govind Singh.
40 2
 The leader of Bhakti movement or Hindu revival-  Sufism declined in the 17th Century.
ism was Sankaracharya. His philosophy was
Advaita or pure monism. He wrote Commentary Famous Personalities in Medieval
on Brahmasutra and Upanishad. He founded four
matts- Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri and Badrinath.
India
 Vallabhacharya promoted the philosophy of  Al Masudi - An Arabian traveller who came to
Pushtimarga. He was the founder of Sudhadvaita. India in 10th century AD.
 The North India the Bakti movement was pro-  Al Beruni - He came to India with Muhammed
moted by two sects of thought - the Saguna and Ghazni, his book, Tahrik-ul-Hindh.
Nirguna schools.
 Abbas Khan Shervani : He was a historian of
 Ramanand, born at Prayag preached
Vaishnavaism. He was a followers of Ramanuja. Shershahs time. He wrote Tarikh-1-Shershahi.
 Kabir (1398 -1458) a nirguna was born near  Abul Fazal : He was a a great scholar poet Histo-
Benaras. His followers started the ‘Kabirpanthis’. rian in the court of Akbar. He wrote Akbarnamah
 Tulasi Dasa (1532 - 1623) a worshipper of Rama and Ain-i- Akbari.
compossed Ramcharithamanasa in Hindi. His  Bhaktiyar Khilji : Commander of Muhammed
other works are Kavitavali and Gitavali. Ghori who conquered Bengal and crushed the
 Mirabai (1498 - 1509) a Rajaput princess hailed Sena dynasty.
from the Sisodiya dynasty of Chittoor was a devo-
tee of Lord Krishna. Her lyrics were written in  Bhar Mal : He was the Rajput ruler of Amber. His
Brijbhasha and in Rajasthani. daughter Jodabai was married to Akbar. Akbars
 Jnanadeva, Namadeva, Eknatha Tukaram and commanders Bhangavandas and Mansingh were
Samarth Ram Das were the leading Maratha his son and grandson respectively.
saints of Bhakti movement.  Chathaniya : He popularised ‘Bhakti’ in Bengal.
 Jnanadeva founded the Maharashtra Dharma. His He was worshipper of Krishna.
famous work ‘Jnaneswari’ is a commendarel on
 Chand Bibi : She was the daughter of Nizam Shai
Bhagavatgita.
ruler of Ahmed Nagar and was married to the Adil
 Ekanath promoted the custom of singing
Shahi ruler of Bijapur. As a widow she fought
Kirthana and he composed ‘abhangas’ or typical
poems. with Mughals to save her dynasty.
 Tukaram a contemporary of Shivaji was the pro-  Bairam Khan : He helped Akbar to defeat Hemu.
moter of Maratha nationalism.  Firadusi : famous poet in the court of Muhammed
 Samarth Ramdas, the spiritual guide of Shivaji, Ghazni He wrote Shah Namah (The book of kings).
wrote ‘Dasabhodha’. He is known as Indian Homer or Persian Homer.
 Ibn Batuta : He was an African (Morocco) who
Sufism
visited the court of Muhammed bin Tughlaq and
 Mythical movement of the Muslims was known wrote the book ‘Rihala’.
as Suficism.
 Hasan Gangu - founder of Bahmani dynasty un-
 Sufi movement first came to India in the wake of der the name Alauddin Bahamanshah.
Muhammed Ghazni’s invasion in the 11th cen-
 Jai Chandra - He was the ruler of Kanauj, be-
tury.
longed to the Gahawala dynasty. He was defeated
 Sufi orders are called Silsilahs.
in 1194 by Muhammed Ghori in the battle of
 Chishti Silsilah was founded by Khawaja Chandwar.
Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmir.
40 3
 Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti : He was a sufi saint Albuquerque.
of 12th century who started the Chishtia sect at  Vasco-da-Gama arrived for the second time in 1502
Ajmir. and for the third chance in 1524. He died at Fort
Cochin and was cremated at the St. Frnacis
 Islam Shah : Second Sur ruler, son of Shersha He Church there. Later his remains were brought back
codified the law and introduced an impartial sys- to Portugal.
tem of Justice.  Don Francisco de’Almedia was the first Portu-
 Lalitaditya of Karkota dynasty : He ruled over guese governor in the East. His policy was called
Kashmir from 724 to 760. The famous Martand ‘‘the bluewater policy’’ which aimed at the
establishement of strong navy.
Mandir temple was built by him.
 In 1507 the Portuguese arrived at Madras. The
 Malik Kafur : He was an army commander of city finally got its name from their leader Madra.
Alauddin Khilji - who conquered south India for  The greatest Portuguese governor to the East was
him. He was converted to Islam from Hinduism. Albuquerque. He was the real founder of the Por-
 Muhamed Gawan : He was a minister to the tuguese authority in India.
Bahmani rulers.  Albuquerque tried to abolish Sati.
 His policy mixed colony system was to encour-
 Malik Amber : He was a Syrian slave who could age intermarriage between the Portuguese and
became the Prime Minister of Ahmed Nagar. He Indians.
administered the State very well fought against  They Portuguese religious policy was
the Mughals and Marathas. Lantinisation of Kerala.
 Mirza Ghias Beg : He was the father of Nur Jahan  The conflict for the establishment of Latin rite
and received the title Etmatuddaula. His tomb is and syrian rite led to the Coonan Cross Oath in-
cident in 1653.
in Agra.
 The Portuguese introduced agricultural products
 Murshid Quli Khan : He was an independent such a cashew, coconut, custardapple, pineapple
ruler of Bengal, who founded the city of etc in India.
Murshidabad.  They introduced Tobacco in the court of Akbar
 Rana Kumbha : He was a Rajput ruler of 15th in 1604.
century He built a kirti Stambh at Chittar.  Portuguese authority in Indian seas remained upto
1595.
 The Portuguese started the first press in India at
MODERN INDIA 
Goa in 1556.
The first Portuguese fort in India was constructed
at Cochin.
Advent of the Europeans  Portuguese captured Goa from the Bijapur Sulthan
 A new Sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope in 1510.
(Southern tip of South Africa) by Vasco da Gama
in 1498 AD marked the beginning of European The Dutch
period in Indian History.
 In 20 March 1602 the United East India Company
 He first arrived at Kapad near Kozhikode in Kerala.
of the Netherlands was formed. The Name of the
 Saint Gabriel was the name of the ship in which
Dutch Company was Vereenidge Oostindische
Vasco-da-Gama landed at Kappad, the port of
Companie (VOC)
Zamorine of Calicut.
 The most famous Portuguese men from the point  The Dutch set up their first factory at
of view of India Vasco da Gama, Almeida and Masulipattanam in 1605.
40 4
 In 1663 the Dutch captured Cochin.  The second Carnatic war was from 1748 to 1754.
 In 1741 Marthandavarma, the Travancore ruler  Robert Clive was the Governor of the English
defeated the Dutch in the Battle of Kolachal. during the Carnatic wars.
 The final Collapse of the Dutch came with their  The Gregorian Calendar came to be used through-
out the British dominion in 1752.
defeat by the English in the Battle of Bedara in
1759.  The Second Carnatic war ended with the treaty of
Pondicherry in 1754.
The English and the French  The Third Carnatic war was from 1758 to 1763.
 At the Battle of Wandiwash Eyre Coot defeated
 The English East India Company was formed by
French general Lally in 1760.
a group of Merchants known as ‘The Merchant
Adventurers’ in 1599.  With the treaty of Paris in 1763 peace was settled
between the French and English.
 Early Name of the company was John Company.
 The battle of Plassey was fought in the year 1757
 English East India Company was formally estab-
lished on 31st December 1600 by a Charter issued June 13.
by Queen Elizabeth of the Tudor dynasty.  In 1756 Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal, at-
 Hector, the first ship of the English East India tacked Calcutta and captured it. 146 British pris-
company reached Surat on 24 August 1606. oners including their com-
 In 1612 the Company became a joint stock commander John Zepheria Holwell
pany. and four women were locked
 Sir Thomas Roe, first ambassador of James I of in a small room. 123 of them
England landed at Surat and met Jahangir in 1613 died inside due to suffication.
and the first English factor, was established at This incident is known a
Surat. Black-hole tragedy.
 The company acquired Bombay from Charles II  Battle of Plassey was fought Siraj-ud-daula
on lease which he got as dowry from Portugal. between Robert Clive and
 The designation of ‘Chief Justice’ was introduced Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.
in India by the English in 1678.
 Siraj-ud-daula was defeated in the battle.
 Madras became the first presidency chartered as
municipal corporation with Mayor’s court 1687.  Mir Zafar was made the Nawab of Bengal after
the battle of Plassey.
 Job Charnock founded the city of Calcutta.
 After the battle of Plassey Robert Clive became
 Colbert the minister of Louis XIV created the
compangnile des Indes Orientales in 1664. the first Governor of Bengal.
 Francis Carton set up the first French factory at  The Construction of fort William of Calcutta was
Surat in 1668. started by Lord Clive.
 The First French Governor of Ponicherry was  In 1764 the European Bengal Regiment mutinied
Francois Martin. which was followed by the First Indian Sepoy
 The arrival of Dupleix as French Governor in In- Mutiny against the British.
dia in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo- French  The combined forces of Mirkassim, Emperor of
Conflict. Delhi and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh were
 The first Carnatic war between the French and defeated in the Battle of Buxar on October 23
the English for supremacy in South India occured 1764.
in 1742. It ended in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapple.  Robert Clive introduced official postal system in
India in 1766.
40 5
 Robert Clive introduced ‘Dual government’ in  The third Anglo Maratha war was from 1817-
Bengal. 1818. Thus by the end of third Maratha war the
Maratha power disappeared and the English cre-
Conquest of Mysore ated the State of Sathara.
 Haider Ali was the son of Fatheh Muhammed.He
was born in 1722.
Subsidiary Alliance system and other
 In 1766 he became the ruler of Mysore after the Policies
death of Mysore Raja Krishna Wodeyar.  Subsidiary Alliance System was used by
 First Mysore war between Haider Ali and the En- Wellesley to bring Indian States within the orbit
glish started in 1767 and ended in 1769. of British political power.
 First Anglo-Mysore war ended with the defeat of  First Indian ruler to join the Subsidiary Alliance
English and the treaty of Madras. System was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
 Second Mysore war was from 1780 to 1784.
 Lord Wellesley is consdiered as the ‘Akbar of
 Haider Ali died in 1782 and Tipu Sulthan became English East India Company’ by Marshman.
the Mysore ruler.
 Permanent Revenue Settlement was introduced
 The second Mysore war ended by the treaty of
in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and districts of Benaras
Mangalore in 1784.
and northern districts of Madras by Lord
 Second Mysore war was fought during the pe- Cornwallis in 1793. It was planned by Johnshore.
riod of Warren Hastings.
 Ryotwari System was introduced in Bombay,
 Third Mysore war started in 1790 and ended in
Madras and Assam. This system was similar to
1792.
Akbar’s revenue policy Zabti system.
 The third war ended by the treaty of
Seringapatnam on March 19th1792.  Mahalwari System was introduced in Awad re-
gion, Punjab, NWFP and parts of Central India.
 Fourth Anglo Mysore war was in 1799.
 Fourth Mysore war was fought during the period Executors of British Policies
of Governor general wellesley.
 In this battle Tipu was killed in 1799 at  Warren Hastings : (1772-85) He introduced quin-
Srerangapatanam by Col. Arthur Wellesley. quennial settlement of land revenue in 1772.
 Tipu’s Capital was Srerangapatanam.  He codified the Hindu and Muslim laws.
 Tipu is known as Mysore Tiger.  He founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with
 Fathul Mujahiddin is the book written by Tippu the help of William Jones in 1784.
which describes about Rockets.  The trial of Maharaja Nandakumar (1775) and his
Judicial Murder was during the period of Warren
Maratha Wars Hastings.
 First Anglo Maratha war (1775-82) It ended by  He abolished the Dual Government in Bengal in
the treaty of Salbai. 1772.
 Second Anglo-Maratha War was from 1803 to  After his return to England he was impeached
1805. there in 1785.
 The treaty of Bassein was signed between the  By the Regulating Act 1775 of appointed him
last Peshwa Baji RaoII and the English in 1802. the first Governor General.
 The second Maratha War was ended by the treaty  First Anglo - Maratha war took place during his
of Rajghat, 1806. period.
40 6
 In 1780 James Augustus Hickey started a weekly  Mahalwari System of land revenue was intro-
paper called Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General duced in North West Province by James Thomson.
Advertiser during the period of Warren Hastings.
 Warren Hastings established a Muhammedan Lord William Bentinck (1828- 35)
Madrasa in Calcutta.  First Governor General of India by the govern-
ment of India Act of 1833.
Lord Cornwallis (1786 - 93)  Known as benevolent Governor General.
 He introduced Permanent settlement in 1793.  Banned the practice of Sati in 1829. Suppressed
 The Police system was introduced in India. Tughi in 1830.
 Cornwallis Code was introduced. It was based  Banned female infanticide.
on the separation of powers.  Created the province of Agra in 1834.
 Made English to be the court language in higher
Lord Wellesley (1793 - 1798)
court but Persian continued in Lower courts.
 Described himself as Bengali Tiger.  Appointed Macaulay as president of the commit-
 He created the Madras presidency. tee of public instruction, Mecaulays Minutes was
 Introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance. submitted in 1835.
 The first state to sign the Subsidiary Alliance sys-
tem was Hyderabad in 1798. Then Mysore,
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 - 36)
Tanjore, Awadh, Peshwar, Bhonsle, Sindhia, Jodh-  Abolished restriction on press
pur, Jaipur, Mecheri, Bundi, Bharatpur and Berar  He is called the ‘‘Liberator of Press’’
signed the subsidiary treaty.
 First Afghan war was started during the Gover-
 Lord Wellesley fought the second Maratha war. nor Generalship of Lord Auckland.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote the Tuhfat-ul-  Slavery was abolished by Governor general Lord
Muwahiddin (gift to the Monotheists) during his Ellenborough.
period.
Lord Dalhousie (1849 - 56)
Lord Minto (1807-1813)
 Introduced the policy of ‘Doctrine of Lapse’
 Signed the treaty of Amritsar in 1809 between  Indian states annexed through the Doctrine of
Ranjith Singh of Punjab and the English. Lapse were Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur
(1849) Baghatpur (1850), Udaipur (1852) Jhansi
Lord Hastings (1813-23) (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
 He was made Marques of Hastings due to his  Introduced the Woods Despatch known as the
success in the Gorkhar war or the Anglo Nepalis Magnacarta of English Education in India pre-
war. pared by Charles Wood in 1854.
 He abolished the Peshwaship and annexed his  Boosted up the development of Railways and laid
the first Railway line in 1853 from Bombay to
territories to the Bombay presidency after the third
Thane and Second from Calcutta to Raniganj.
Anglo-Maratha war (1818)
 Gave a great impetus to Post and Telegraph. Tele-
 Introduced the Ryotwari System in Madras presi- graphic lines were laid - first line from Calcutta to
dency by Governor Thomas Munroe in 1820 un- Agra.
der the governor generalship of Hastings.
 Shimla was made summer Capital and Army Head
Quarters.
40 7
 Hindu Marriage Act was passed in 1856.  The Mughal Emperor Akbarshah II gave Ram
 In 1853 started recruitment of the Covenanted Civil Mohan the title ‘Raja’.
Service by competitive examination.  After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy
 A Post Office Act was passed in 1854. Postage Brahmasamaj was divided into several sects.
stamps were issued for the first time.  Adi Brahmasamaj lead by Devendra Nath Tagore
 In 1855 the Santhal Uprising took place and Bharatiya Brahmasamaj led by Keshav
 Abolished the title of the Nawab of Carnatic. Chandra Sen were started in 1866.
 Sadharana Brahma Samaj was started by
Socio - Religious Reform Movements Anandmohan Bose in 1878.
Rammohan Roy (1772 - 1883) and Brahmo Samaj  Devendra Nath Tagore was the founder of
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy is Tatvabodhinisabha in Calcutta in 1839.
known as the father of Mod-  Keshav Chandrasen started a paper called Indian
ern India, ‘Herald of New Mirror in 1861.
Age’, ‘Bridge between Past  Brahmasamaj reached outside Bengal under
and Future. ‘First Modern Keshav Chandra Sen.
Man in India’ Father of In-
dian Renaissance, Pathfinder  Keshav Chandra Sen was the first Indian who
of his Century etc. Raja Ram Mohan Roy attempted to reform the society on an all India
 Believed in monotheism and opposed idol wor- basis.
ship.  Surendra Nath Banerjee was the first Indian to
 Established the ‘Atmiya Sabha’ in Calcutta in 1815 took up his political activity on an all India basis.
inorder to propagate monotheism and to fight  ‘Precepts to Jesus’ is a book written by Rajaram
against the evil customs and practices in Hindu- Mohan Roy.
ism.
 Thuhafath ul - muvahiddin or Gift to Monothe-
 He got legitimisation to his views from ists is also a work of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Upanishads.
 In 1821 he started a paper called Samvat Kaumudi. Prarthana Samaj
 In 1822 he started Mirat-ul-Akbar, which was the
 Founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram
first journal in Persian.
Pandurang (not by MG Ranade) as an offshoot
 In the same year Rammohan and Dwarakanath
of the Brahmasamaj.
Tagore jointly started a newspaper called
Bangadatta.  It was later joined by M.G. Ranade and R.G.
Bhandarkar.
 In 1825 he started the Vedanta College at Calcutta.
 In 1828, August he founded the BrahmaSabha Arya samaj
Later in 1845 the name Brahmasamaj was given
 It was founded by Swami
to it by Devendranath Tagore. Dayanand Saraswathi in
 Against the Brahmasabha orthodox Hindus lead 1875.
by Raja Radhakant Deb started Dharmasabha.  He considered Vedas as
 In 1829 December 4 Sati was abolished by gover- eternal and infalliable and
nor general William Bentinck. said ‘Go back to Vedas’
 Dayanand Saraswati (1824
 In 1831 he went to England to argue the case of
- 1883) was a Sanyasi from Swami Dayanand
Akbar II before the Board of Control.
Gujarat. Saraswathi i
40 8
 He was the first to teach an aggressive, reformed  He started two papers - the monthly Prabudha
and militant Hinduism. Barat in English and Udbodhana a Bengali fort-
 Dayanand, was known in his early life as Mul nightly.
Shankar.  He is called the‘patriot saint of India’.
 He founded the Arya Samaj at Bombay in 1575.  He was also described as a ‘‘Cyclonic Hindu’’.
 He is known as Luther of Hinduism.  In 1898 Sister Nivedita, (Margaret Elizebth Noble)
 He was the first to use the terms - Swarajya an Irish lady was initiated to brahmacharya by
Swabhasha and Swadharma. Vivekananda.
 He was the first to consider Hindi as a National
Theosophical Society
Language.
 He started the Suddhi Movement to re-convert to  The Theosophical Society was founded by Ma-
Hinduism those who were converted to other re- dame Blavatsky and Col. H.S.Olcott in Newyork
ligions. in 1875.
 His book Satyartha Prakash is a commentary on  In 1882 it shifted its head quarters to Adayar near
Vedas. Madras.
 He started Dayanand Anglo Vedic College in 1866.  Its philosophy was inspired by the Hindu
Upanishads.
 Aryaprakash was the news paper started by
Dayanand Saraswati.  Dr.Annie Basant came to India in 1893, was its
notable President.
Ramakrishna Mission  In 1898 she started the Central Hindu School at
Benaras, it later became Benaras Hindu Univer-
 Shri Ramakrishna Paramhamsa (1834 - 1886)
sity under Madan Mohan Malavya (1916).
was born in Kumarpukur village in the Hoogly
village of Bengal.  She was the first woman to become the president
of INC in 1917.
 His early name was Shuddirama Gadhadhar
Chatterjee.  She started the Home Rule League with the Co-
operation of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916 with
 He was a priest in the Dakshineswar Kali temple.
Dadabhai Naoroji as its President.
So he is called the Saint of Dakshineswar.
 The most famous disciple of Young Bengal Movement
Ramakrishna was
Vivekananda (1861 - 1903).  Started by Henry Vivian Derozio, teacher in the
Calcutta Hindu College.
 Vivekananda was born in a
Kayastha family of Calcutta.  His followers were known as the Derozians They
 He attended the Parliament attacked the old traditions and decadant customs.
of Reigions at Chicago in  In 1828 he started the Academic Association.
1893, September 11. Vivekananda
 He was invited to the Congress of the History of Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
Religions at Paris in 1900.  Reformer from Maharashtra he advocated the
 He founded the Ramakrishana Mission on Ist May power of human reason.
1897.  He founded the Deccan Education Society at
 1899 the Matha or the centre of the mission was Poona in 1884 with Tilak, V.K. Chiplunkar and
shifted to Belur. N M Joshi.
40 9
Jyotiba Phule  He founded the Rajmundri Social Reform Asso-
ciation in 1878 with the principal objective of pro-
 Belonging to the low caste of Mali from moting widow remarriage.
Maharashtra, struggled against upper caste domi-
nation and Brahamincal supremacy through his Muslim Reform Movements
Sathyashodhak Samaj founded in 1873.
Aligarh Movement
 He wrote Ghulam-giri in 1872 exposing the con-
ditions of the backward castes.  This movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan (1817 - 98)
 He pioneered the Widow Remarriage Movement
in Maharashtra and worked for the education of  Sir Syed’s journal Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq advocated a
women. rational approach towards religion.
 He founded the Muhammadan Literarary Soci-
Deva Samaj ety at Calcutta in 1863.
 It was started in 1887 by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri  In 1875 he founded the Aligarh Muhammadan
at Lahore. Anglo-Oriental College, (later Aligarh Muslim
University)
 The religious text of this Samaj was Deva Shastra
and the teaching Devadharma.  Altaf Hussain Hali, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, Nawab
Mutin Ul Mulk, Chirag Ali etc were the prominent
NM Joshi leader of Aligarh Movement.
 In 1866 Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Muslim
 Initially a member of Ghoklale’s Servants of India Educational Conference.
Society.
 He founded the Social Service League at Bombay Ahmadia Movement
in 1911.
 Founded by Mirza Ahmad at Quadiani in Punjab.
 He also founded the All India Trade Union Con-
gress in 1920 at Bombay.
Sikh Reform Movements
 He left AITUC in 1929 and started the Indian
Trades Union Federation.  In 1873 the Singh Sabha Movement was founded
at Amritsar.
HN Kunzru  The Akali Movement was also started for Sikh
reform
 He founded the Seva Samiti at Allahabad in 1914
with the objective of organising social service  Kuka Movement was started with the aim of Sikh
during the natural calamities and promoting edu- reform and restoration of Sikh sovereignty in
cation sanitation, physical culture etc. Punjab by driving the British away.
 Kuka movement was founded by Bagat
Shri Ram Bajpal Jawaharmal, popularly known as Sian Sahib in
the 19th century.
 Founded the Seva Samiti Boys Scouts Associa-
tion in 1914 at Bombay on the lines of world wide  Kukas recognised Guru Govind Singh as the only
Baden Powell organisation, which at that time true Guru of the Sikhs.
banned Indians from Joining it.
Some other Reformers
Veerasalingam Pantulu  Prof. D.K. Karve who took the cause of widow
 Most prominent social reformer of South India in remarriage started the Indian Women University
the second half of the 19th Century. at Bombay in 1916.
41 0
 B.M. Malabari started a Crusade against child  The revolt of 1857 ended in failure but it promoted
marriage and his efforts were crowned by the en- the spirit of Nationalism and Patriotism.
actment of the Age consent Act. 1891.  The 19th Native Infantry
 Ahrar Movement was founded in 1910 under the at Berhampur which re-
leadership of Maulana Mohamed Ali. fused to use the greased
Cartridge and the enfield
The Revolt of 1857 rifle, started mutiny in Feb-
 The Great Mutiny of 1857 took place during the ruary 26, 1857.
period of Lord Canning.  The first shot was fired on
 The Centres and Leaders of the Revolt March 29 by Mangal
Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal Pandey (of Ballia, UP) of Mangal Pandey
Kanpur - Nana Saheb the 14th Bengal Infantry at
Delhi - General Bhaktkhan Barrakpore of Bengal.
Bihar - Kunwar Singh  Mangal Pandey was hanged to death on 29 March
Jhansi - Rani Lekshmi Bai 1857.
Faridabad - Maulavi Ahmmadulla  May 10, 1857 witnessed the real mutiny at Meerut
then in Delhi on 11th May.
Bareili - Khan Bahadur
 The first British to loose
his life was Col.Finnis Meerut.
Major Tribal Movements  Bahadurshah II surren-
Tribe Area Year dered to Lt. W.S.R. Hodson on Sep-
Chuars W.Bengal 1768 - 1832 tember 21, 1957 at Humayun’s Tomb
Bhils Khandesh 1818 - 1848 – Sevaram in Delhi.
Hos Chotanagpur 1820-1832  The capture of Delhi and
the proclamation of Bahadurshah as
Kolis Sahyadri hillis 1824 - 48
the Emperor of Hindustan gave a
Kharies Khasi hils 1829 - 32 – Tirut Singh and Barmanik positive political meaning to the re-
Singh Phos Assam 1830 - 39 volt.
Kols Chotanagpur 1831 - 32 – Budho Bagat  The immediate cause for
Kayar Andhra Pradesh 1840 - 1924 – Alluri Sitaram Raju the 1857 revolt was the introduction
Kachnagar Assam 1882 – Sambudhan of the greased Catridges.
Ahom Assam 1828 - 33 – Gomdhar Konovar  Educated middle class

section of Indian population did not
Khonds Orissa 1846 - 1914 Chattre Bisayi
support the revolt fo 1857.
Santhals Rajmahal Hills 1855 - 56 Sidhu and Kanhu
 As a result of the revolt
Naikadas Gujarat 1858 - 68 Rup Singh Jogia Bhagat of 1857 the then Governor General
Mundas Chotanagpur 1899 - 1900 Birsa Munda Lord Canning was appointed as the
Bhils South Rajasthan 1933 Govind Guru Viceroy of India.
Oraons Chotanagpur 1914 - 1915 Jatra Bhagat  On November 1, 1858 a
proclamation was made by the
Kukis Manipur 1917 - 19 Rani Gaidinlue
Queen to the people of India in
Rampa Andhra Pradesh 1916 – Alluri Sitaram Raju eighteeen languages.
41 1
 ‘‘The best and the bravest mili-  The name Congress was suggested to the
tary leader of the rebels’’ sir organisation by DadaBai Naoroji.
Hugh Ross said this about Rani  Dadabai Naoroji founded the East Indian Asso-
of Jhansi. ciation in 1866.
 The original name of Rani of  A.O. Hume was the General Secretary of INC till
Jhansi was Mani Karnika. 1892.
 The administration by Indian Jhansi Rani  The Second Session of the INC met at Calcutta in
civil service officers started as December 1886, under the presidentship of
a result of the Queen’s proclamation. Dadabhai Naoroji. Here the National Conference
 The revolt was completely crusted in 1858. merged itself with the INC.
 Benjamin Disraeli described the revolt as a ‘‘Na-  The second session was attended by 436 del-
tional Rising’’. egates and there were 2000 delegates in 1889.
 V.D. Savarkar in his book ‘‘First war of Inde-  The period from 1885 to 1905 is known as the
pendence’’ called it ‘‘The First War of Indepen- Moderate Phase of Indian National Congress.
dence’’. Prominent leaders of this phase were Dadabhai
 ‘‘Eighteen Fifty Seven’’ is a book written by Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pheroz Shah Mehta,
Surendra Nath Sen. Surendranath Banerjee, Gopalakrishna Gokhale
etc.
The Great Indian National Movement  ‘‘We do not ask favours, we only want justice’’,
these were the words Dadabhai Naroji.
 The most important events during Lord Duferin’s
Period (1884-1888) were the third Anglo Burmese  Dadabhai Noaroji is the author of the book ‘‘Pov-
War (1885-86) and the establishment of the first erty and UnBritish Rule in India’’ which con-
All India organisation, the Indian National Con- tains the famous ‘‘drain theory’’.
gress.  The British committee of INC was founded in 1889.
 The INC was founded in December 28, 1885 at the  Aurobindo Ghosh called INC a ‘‘begging insti-
Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. tute’’
 72 delegates participated in the first session of
 Bibin Chandra Pal viewed ‘‘INC playing with
the INC.
bubble’’.
 It was founded by A.O. Hume a retired Civil Ser-
vant.  Tilak, the father of Indian unrest said ‘‘INC should
distinguish between begging and claiming
 W.C. Banerjee was the first president of INC.
right’’ Tilak said ‘‘Rights are not begged they
 The Indian Association of S.N. Banerjee and are claimed’’.
Anand Mohan Bose, organised an All Indian Na-
tional Conference in 1883  The congress sessions lasts only for three days
December. They had a year.
given a call for another  Dadabhai Naoroji is known as ‘‘The Grand Old
conference in 1885. Man of India’’. He was the first Indian to become
 The term ‘congress’ was a member of the House of Commons on the Lib-
desired from the history eral Partys ticket. He became the president of INC
of The United States of thrice, in 1886, 1893 and 1906. He founded ‘Gyan
America. Prakash Mandali’ and Bombay Association in
 ‘Congress’ means as- 1852. He is also known as father of Indian Eco-
sembly of the people. DadaBai Naoroji nomics and Politics.
41 2
 Badruddin Tyabji was the first Indian barrister at the ‘Socrates of Maharahstra’. M.G. Ranade was
Bombay High Court. He was the first Muslim the political guru of Gokhale.
president of INC. He became the third president  Gokhale is considered as the political guru of
of INC in Madras session in 1887. Gandhiji.
 W.C. Banerjee founded the Bombay chronicle in  Sarojini Naidu was the first
1913 and the ‘Moderate school’. Indian woman to become the
 S.N. Banerjee founded the Indian Association in president of Indian National
1876. He was the first President of Indian National Congress (1925 Kanpur ses-
Liberal Federation (1918). sion)
 Gopalakrishna Gokhale founded the ‘Servants  Nellin Sengupta became the
of India Society in 1905. third woman President of INC,
 K.T. Telang became the first ‘‘Hardworking sec- 1933 at the Calcutta Session. Sarojini Naidu
retary’’ of INC. in 1906.
 Jawaharlal Nehru observed the Early Congress  The word Swaraj was first used in the Calcutta
to be ‘‘an English knowing upper class affair’’. session in1906.
 George Yule was the first foreigner to become
 First Joint session of Congress and Muslim
the President of INC. (1888, Allahabad)
League was held at Lucknow 1916.
 Gopala Krishna Gokhale was populary known as
EARLY ASSOCIATIONS
Year.. Organisation Founder Place
1838 ... Landholders society ............................. Dwaraknath Tagore .................................. Calcutta
1839 ... British India Society.............................. William Adams ......................................... London
1851 ... British India Association ....................... Devendranath Tagore ............................... Calcutta
1862 ... London India Committee ....................... C.P. Mudaliar ............................................ London
1866 ... East India Association .......................... Dadabhai Naoroji ...................................... London
1867 ... National Indian Association .................. Mary Carpenter ........................................ London
1872 ... Indian Society ...................................... Anand Mohan Bose ................................. London
1876 ... Indian Association ............................... Anand Mohan Bose andS.N. Banerjee ...... Calcutta
1883 ... Indian National Society ......................... Shishir Chandra Bose ............................... Calcutta
1884 ... Indian National Conference ................... S M Banerjee ............................................ Calcutta
1885 ... Bombay Presidency Association ........... Mehta and Telang .................................... Bombay
1888 ... United India Patriotic Association ......... Sir Syed Ahmed Khan ............................... Aligarh
1905 ... Servants of India Society ...................... G.K. Gokhale ............................................ Bombay
1920 ... Indian Trade Union Congress ............... NM Joshi (founder) .................................. Lucknow
Lala Lajpat Rai (President)
1924 ... All India Communist Party..................... Satyabhakta ............................................. Kanpur
1928 ... Khudai Khidmatgar ............................... Abdul Gaffar Khan ................................... Peshwar
1936 ... All India Kisan Sabha ........................... Sahajananda and N.J. Ranga ..................... Lucknow
1940 ... Radical Democratic Party....................... M.N. Roy ................................................. Calcutta
41 3
 First session held in a village was 1937 session to takepart in election of 1937.
held at Fazipur.  1938 session of Congress was held in a village
 Only session presided over by Gandhi - Belgaum Haripura.
(1924)  In the Ramagarh session (1904) decision was
 Complete independence was demanded for the taken on Individual Satyagraha.
first time (1929) at Lahore.  While Britishers tried to use Congress as a safety
 For the first time National Song was sung in the valve, Indian leaders tried to use it as a lightning
Calcutta session (1896) of INC ie Vande Mataram. conductor.
 During the fourth session of INC (1888, Allahabad)  During the Tripura session (1939) Subash Chandra
emphasise was given on the formation of its con- Bose defeated Pattabhi Sitaramayya (Gandhi’s
stitution. candidate in presidential election) but later re-
signed and Rajendra Prasad became the presi-
 During the Nagpur session 1891, the word Na-
dent.
tional was added to congress.
 During Calcutta session (1928) first All India
 During the Poona session (1895) representives Youth Congress was established.
for the second time discussed on the formation
 During the Delhi session (1918) along with S.N.
of its Constitution. Banerjee many liberals resigned and Rajendra
 In the Lucknow session of the Congress (1916) Prasad became its president.
the two factions of congress (extremists and mod-  Aurobindo published New Lamps For Old. It was
erates) reunited. the first systematic critic of the Moderates.
 During the special session of the congress in  The radical wing of the INC that emerged at the
Calcutta (1920) Gandhi proposed to start Non-co end of the 19th century is referred to as the Ex-
operation Movement. Instead of Constitutional tremist Group.
self-government congress declared Swaraj Party  The main leaders of the Extremist Group were Lala
in 1922. Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, B.C. Pal and
 During the Delhi session (1923) Indian National Aurobindo Ghosh.
Congress decided to establish All India Khadi  Tilak asserted Swaraj is my birthright and I shall
Board. have it.
 During the Guwahati session of INC (1926) wear-  Tilak started two newspapers the Mahratha in
ing Khadi was made cumpulsory to its workers. English and the Kesari in Marathi. He started
 During the Madras session (1908) its constitu- Sivaji festival to stimulate nationalism.
tion was formed.  Lord Curzon Partitioned Bengal on 20th July 1905
 In Madras session of the INC (1927) proposals as a part of the ‘Divide and Rule Policy’.
for independence and to boycott Simon Com-  Rabindra Nath Tagore composed ‘Amer Sonar
mission were passed Bengla’ as a part of ante
 During the Karachi session (1931) Fundamental partition movement,
Rights and Economic Policy proposals were which later became the
passed. National Anthem of
 During its 1932 and 1933 Sessions Government Bangladesh.
had declared INC an illegal organisation.  Boycott of British prod-
 During the Lucknow session (1936) Nehru ex- ucts was first sug-
plained for the first time. gested by Krishna
Kumar Mitra in
 During Faizpur session (1937) Congress decided Rabindra Nath Tagore
Sanjivani.
41 4
 The Swadeshi Movement was started in 1905.  Muhammed Iqbal, who presided over the
 ‘Charka’ (spinning wheel) came to typify the Allahabad session of the League in 1930 gave
popular concern for country’s economic self suf- the idea of Separate Muslim State in North West
ficiency. India. Hence Iqbal is known as the father of the
 Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded by idea of Pakistan. But the name ‘Pakistan’ was
Ashwini Dutt was the largest Volunteer body to framed by Rahmat Ali.
support Swadeshi Movement.
 Mohammed Ali Jinnah gave his famous Two Na-
 First real labour union - The Printers Union was
tion Theory in March 1940, at the Lahore session
formed on October 1905.
of the Muslim League.
 Vande Mataram Movement was started by
Chandra Pal in Madras  Sarojini Naidu called Jinnah the Prophet of Hindu-
 Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharine Muslim Unity.
Sabha to propagate Swadeshi Movement.  Later Jinhah became the first Governor General of
 Savarkar founded ‘Mitra mela’. Pakistan. He is also known as the father of Paki-
 Chakravarthi Vijiaraghavacharya was the first stan.
Indian leader to undergo imprisonment in 1882.
He was an extremist leader. He was the first In- Surat Split (1907)
dian to draft a Swaraj constitution for India which
was presented at the Madras session in 1927.  The clash between the Moderates and Extrem-
 First congress leader to suffer severe terms of ists culminated in a split which occurred at Surat
imprisonment for the sake of the country was Bal in 1907.
Gangadhar Tilak.
 Dr. Rash Bihari Bose was the INC President dur-
 Tilak wrote ‘Gita Rahasya’.
ing the Surat Split.
 Bipin Chandrapal started an English weekly New
India.  After the Surat Split the congress remained un-
der the control of the Moderates.
 Bipin Chandrapal founded Bande Mataram in 1906
(an organization)  The Moderates did not approve the boycott of
 Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as Sher-e- foreign goods but the Extenmists favoured it. The
Punjab (Lion of Punjab). He founded and edited Moderates continued to have faith in the good
‘‘The Punjabee’’, ‘The Vante Mataram’ and the intensions of the British government. They
English weekly ‘‘The people’’. wanted self government in gradual stages, while
 The Bengali daily Yugandar was started by the Extremists wanted complete autonomy at the
Aurobindo Gosh. He also started weeklies earliest.
‘Karma Yogin’ and ‘Dharma’.
Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909
The Formation of the Muslim League
 The Minto Morley Reforms for the first time tried
(1906)
to introduce communal representation (for
 All India Muslim League was founded under the muslims) and a popular element in the govt.
Leadership of Aga Khan to divert the Muslims
 The real purpose of the reforms of 1909 was to
from the National Political Movement. On Decem-
confuse the Moderate nationalists and to check
ber 30th Nawab Salimulla Khan of Dhaka became
the growth of unity among Indians.
its first President.
41 5
Home Rule Movement (1916) Jalianwala Bagh Massacre - April 13,
 Home Rule Movement was started by Annie 1919
Besant and Tilak in 1916.  In 1919, Rowlatt Act, which authorised the gov-
 Self government for India in British Empire and ernment to detain any person without trial was
work for national education, social and political passed.
reform etc were the aims of Home Rule League.  The Act was passed during the period of Lord
 Annie Besnat was the first woman president of Chelmsford.
INC (1917, Calcutta Session)  The official name of the Rowlatt Act was the An-
 Annie Besant set up the newspapers -New India, archical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (1919).
Common Weal and Young India (1916).  Sir Sydney Rowlatt was the president of the com-
 Home Rule Movement marks the beginning for mittee to make proposals for the Act.
the attainment of Swaraj.  C.Sankaran Nair was the only Indian official
 The Montague declaration of 1917 was the great- member who supported the bill, while all the 22
est achievement of the Home Rule League. elected Indian members in the Imperial Legisla-
 The Lucknow session of the Indian National Con- tive Council opposed the bill.
gress in 1916 marked the re union of the Moder-  Gandhiji set up ‘Rowlatt Committee’ to protest
ates and Extremists together at Lucknow in 1916. this act.
 The Lucknow pact was executed between the  The protest against this ‘Black Act’ was the
congress and Muslim League in 1916. strongest in Punjab where it led to the Massacre
at ‘Jalianwala Bagh’ Amritsar on April 13, 1919. It
Montegue - Chelmsford Reforms 1919 was on a Baishaki day. The British Officer Gen-
 It is also known as the Government of India Act eral Dyer ordered his troops to open fire at un-
of 1919. armed gathering, who were gathered there to pro-
test against the arrest of their popular leaders
 In 1918, Edwin Montague, the Secretary of State Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.
and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy produced their
 On this occasion Tagore renounced his Knight-
scheme of constitutional reforms which led to the
hood in protest.
enactment of the Government of India Act of
 Michael O’Dyer Governor of the Punjab prov-
1919.
ince supported the incident and on March 15,
 The Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged Martial law was declared.
and the majority of their members were to be  Gandhiji renounced the ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ medal
elected. The provincial government were given given to him for his work during the Boer War.
more powers under the system of dyarchy.
 Hunter Committee was appointed to enquire into
 Indian National Congress in a special session at the Jallianwallah Massacre (1920)
Bombay in August 1918 criticised the reform as  Hunter Commissions report was described by
‘disappointing and unsatisfactory’. Gandhiji as a ‘white wash’.
 The Montague Chelmsford reforms introduced  Sardar Udham Singh, who took the name Ram
dyarchy in the provinces. Muhammed Singh, Sonak Murdered Dyer in En-
 Provincial subjects were divided into ‘Reversed gland as a revenge to the Massacre.
subjects’ and ‘‘Transferred Subjects’’.  The English House of Lords presented a jewelled
sword to General in which was inscribed ‘‘sav-
 Central legislature was made bicameral by this
iour of the Punjab’’.
reform.
41 6
Events/Acts/Reforms .............. Viceroy/Governor Generals Provincial Autonomy (1937) ......... Lord Linlithgow
Cripps Mission (1942) .................... Lord Linthgow
Permanent Settlement (1793).......... Lord Cornwallis
Subsidiary Alliance (1798) .............. Lord Wellesley Quit India Movement ................... Lord Linlithgow
Cabinet Mission (1946) ...................... Lord Wavell
Abolition of Sati (1829) ....... Lord William Bentinck
INA Trial (1945) ................................. Lord Wavell
Introduction of Civil service .......... Lord Cornwallis
Indian Independence Act 1947) ....... Lord Mountbatten
Doctrine of Lapse ......................... Lord Dalhousie
Partition of India (1947) ............ Lord Mountbatten
Railways started in India ............... Lord Dalhousie
Post and Telegraph ....................... Lord Dalhousie Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)
English Education in India .. Lord William Bentinck
 Non Co-operation Movement was started with
Vernacular Press Act (1878) ................. Lord Lytton
the aim of the annulment of the Rowlatt Act, and
Arms Act (1878) ................................. Lord Lytton correcting the ‘Punjab wrong’ changing the
Local Self Government (1882) ............ Lord Rippon ‘Khilafat wrong’ as well as moving towards the
Ryotwari System ................................ Lord Munro cherished goal of ‘swaraj’.
Partition of Bengal (1905) ................... Lord Curzon  It was the first mass based political movement
Rowlatt Act (1914) ...................... Lord Chelmsford under Gandhiji.
Simon Commission (1928) ... Lord William Bentinck  The movement was launched as per the resolu-
Sepoy Mutiny (1857) ....................... Lord Canning tion of Calcutta session and ratified in Nagpur
session in December 1920.
Queens Proclamation (1858) ............. Lord Canning
 The main emphasise of the movement was on
Factory Act (1881) .............................. Lord Ripon
boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and ad-
Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1881)Lord Canning
vocacy of the use of Charka.
Indian councils Act/Minto -Morley Reforms (1909)
 The whole movement was called off on 11th Feb-
....................................................... Lord Minto II
ruary 1922 at Gandhi’s insistence following the
Partition of Bengal revoked (1911) Lord Hardinge II news of burning alive of 22 English plicemen by
Transfer Capital to Delhi (1911) ... Lord Hardinge II the angry peasants at ChauriChaura (Chauri
Dyarchy in province (1919) ......... Lord Chelmsford Chaura Incident) in Gorakhpur district of Up on
Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919) .. Lord Chelmsford 5th February 1922.
Non co-operation ....................... Lord Chelmsford  The Non Cooperation movement converted the
Poorna Swaraj resolution (Lahore 1929) . Lord Irwin national movement into a mass movement . It
strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity.
Frist Round Table Conference (1930) ..... Lord Irwin
Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931) ....................... Lord Irwin Khilafat Movement (1919)
Communal Award (1932) .............. Lord Wellington
 The main object of the Khilafat Movement was to
Poona Pact (1932) ........................ Lord Wellington force the British Government to change its atti-
2nd Round Table Conference(1931) .... Lord Wellington tude towards Turkey and restore the Turkish
3rd Round Table Conference (1932) ..... Lord Wellington Sulthan (Khalifa) to his former position.
Separate Electorates (1932) .......... Lord Wellington  A Khilafat committee was formed under the
Government of India Act (1935) .... Lord Wellington leadersip of Ali brothers Maulana Azad, Hakim
Ajmal khan, and Hasrat Mohani.
41 7
 The Khilafat Movement lost its relevance due to Some Commissions
the reforms of Mustafa Kamal Pasha in Turkey.
 Amini Commission on Land Revenue and Famine
Pasha abolished Khilafat and made Turkey a secu-
(1878)
lar state.
 Fraser Commission on Agriculture (1902)
 On 1 June 1920 the Khilafat Committee at
 Hunter Commission on Punjab Disturbance (1919)
Allahabad unanimously accepted Gandhi’s sug-
gestion of non co-operation and asked him to Books and Authors
lead the Movement. Vande Mataram ..................... Aurobindo Ghosh
New Lamps for Old ............... Aurobindo Ghosh
Indian Working Class Bhavani Mandir .................... Aurobindo Ghosh
Hind Swaraj ........................... Mahatma Gandhi
 First organised strike by any section of the work-
Gora ................................ Rabindranath Tagore
ing class was the Signaler’s Strike in May 1899
Ghare Baiyare .................. Rabindranath Tagore
in the ‘Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) Railway’.
Gitanjali ........................... Rabindranath Tagore
 AITUC was formed in 1920 with Lala Lajpat Rai as Discovery of India ............................ J.L. Nehru
its first President and Dewan Chaman Lal as its Essays in Indian Economics .......... M.G. Ranade
General Secretary. Arctic Home of the Aryans ................ B.G. Tilak
 Indian National Congress at its Gaya session of Geeta Rahasya ................................... B.G. Tilak
1922 welcomed the formation of AITUC. Poverty and Un-British Rule in IndiaDada Bhai Naoroji
 Government appointed the Royal Commission on We ........................................... M.S. Golwalkar
Labour in 1929. Durgesh Nandini .... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Bang Darshan ......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Simon Commission Anand Math .......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
 In November 1927, the British Government ap- India in Transition ............................ M.N. Roy
pointed the Indian Statutory Commission, popu- Economic History of British India ....... R.C. Dutt
larly known as Simon Commission, to go it to the The Indian Struggle ...... Subhash Chandra Bose
question of further constitution reform. Indian Musalmans ................................. Hunter
 The Congress passed a resolution to boycott the Gana Devta ....... Tarashankar Bandhopadhyaya
Simon Commission at its Madras session 1927. Philosophy of the Bomb..... Bhagavati Charan Vohra
 The day Simon landed at Mumbai ; 3 February Why Socialism ................ Jayaprakash Narayan
1928 all the major cities and towns observed a Gandhi Versus Lenin ....................... S.A. Dange
complete hartal. Problem of the East ....................... Lord Curzon
 The Madras session 1927 was presided over by Neel Darpam ...................... Deen Bandu Mithra
Dr. Ansari. India Today ........................................ R.P. Dutt
 On the arrival of the Commission in Mumbai in India Wins Freedom ............ Abdul Kalam Azad
1928, it met with the slogan ‘‘Go back Simon’’. Indian Unrest .......................... Valentine Chirol
 There were Seven members in the Simon Com- Prachya Aur Paschchatya .... Swami Vivekanand
mission. but no Indian. Gau Karunanidhi .................... Swami Dyayanda
 Lala Lajpat Rai was severely wounded in a po- Letters from Russia ............ Rabindranth Tagore
lice Lathi charge and died while protesting against Wither India ...................................... J.L.Nehru
the Commission. Soviet Asia ...................................... J.L. Nehru
 To avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Pather Debi ................... Avanindranath Tagore
Singh shot dead General Saunders. History of Hindu Chemistry .................. P.C. Rai
Peasantry of Bengal ........................... R.C. Dutt
41 8
 Rowlatt Commission on Sedition (1919)  Its early name was Congress Khilafat Swaraj
 Butler Commission on Indian States (1927) Party.
 Sapru Commission on Unemployment (1935)  C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru were the frist presi-
 Whitley Commission on Labour (1939) dent and Secretary respectively of the Swaraj
 Floud Commission on Tenancy in Bengal (1940) Party.
 C.R. Das gave the slogan ‘Enter the Council’
Peasant Movements  Swaraj Party was formed at Allahabad.
Indigo Revolt - 1860  The 1924 when Gandhi came out of Jail he sup-
 The revolt was directed against the British Plant- ported the programme of Swaraj Party.
ers who behaved like Feudal Lords in their estates.
 The revolt began after Hemachandrakar deputy Trade Union Movement in India
Magistrate, published on 17 August, 1859 a proc-  First Textile Mill : Bombay (1853)
lamation to policmen that they should interefere
with the rights of the peasants to saw whatever  First Jute Mill at Rishra in Bengal (1855)
they preferred.  First Factory Act was passed in 1881.
 It began at Govindpur village in Nadia and was  The Second Factory Act was passed in 1891.
led by Digambar Bishwas and Bishnu Bishwas.  First Industrial Commission was appointed in
 Din Bandu Mitra’s novel Neel Darpan protrayed 1875.
this struggle.
 The first real labour union was formed in October
 An Indigo Commission was also appointed in 1860.
1901 in Calcutta called the Printers Union.
Pabna Revolt (Bengal)  The Madras Labour Union was the first
organisation with regular membership and was
 In may 1874 an Agrarian League was formed in started by G. Ramanujalu Naidu, G. Challapathi
Pabna. Main leader was Ishan Chandra Roy. The and was presided over by B.P. Wadia in 1918.
revolt was against increased rent.
 The All India Trade Union Congress was founded
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) in 1920. The Indian National Congress President
of the year was elected as its President.
 The peasants in this region were forced to culti-  The Trade Union Act of 1926 organised trade
vate indigo at the prices decided by the British.
unions as legal Associations.
This system was known as Tinkathia system.
 The Jamshedpur Labour Association was
 Gandhiji’s first Satyagraha in India was the
Champaran in 1917. founded by S.N. Haldar and Byomkesh
Chakravarthy in 1920.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)  In 1929, All India Trade Union Federation was
formed under the leadership of NM Joshi.
 Chiefly directed against the government.
 It was started by Madan Mohan Malavya later  The Congress Socialist Party was founded in
taken up by Gandhiji in 1918. 1934.
 Kanpur Labour Enquiry Committee was founded
Swaraj Party (1923) under the chairmanship of Rajendra Prasad.
 C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from con-  In 1944 national leaders lead by Sardar Patel
gress on 31 December 1922 and founded the organised the Indian National Trade Union Con-
Swaraj Party on 1st January 1923. gress.
41 9
Civil Disobedience movement -1930 Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading
to rioting where the Hindu Gahrwal Rifles refused
 In 1930, Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience to fire on Muslim rioters.
Movement.  Darshana Salt Works (21 may) Satyagraha led
 In 1929 INC adopted ‘Poorna Swaraj’ (complete by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Manilal
independence) as its goal at the Lahore session Gandhi.
of the congress under the Presidentship of Nehru.
It also decided for launching a Civil Disobedi-
ence Campaign. Governors Generals of India
1772-1785 ............................. Warren Hastings
 At midnight on 31 December 1929, Jawaharlal 1786 - 1793 ............................. Lord Cornwallis
Nehru unfurled the newly adopted Tricolour Flag 1793 - 1798 ................................. Sir Joh Shore
of freedom on the bank of river Ravi. 1798 - 1805 .............................. Lord Wellesley
 26 January 1930 was fixed as the first indepen- 1807- 1813 .................................... Lord Minto
dent day. 1813 -1823 ................................ Lord Hastings
1823 - 1828 ................................ Lord Amherst
 The Civil Disobedience Movement was started 1828 - 1835 .................... Lord William Bentinck
by Gandhiji with his famous Dandi March 1835 - 1842 ....................... Baron Ellenborough
 He started his Salt Satyagraha or the Dandi 1842 - 1844 .................. William Wilberfore Bird
March on the morning of 12 March 1930 with a 1844 - 1848 ............................... Lord Hardinge
1848 - 1856 .............................. Lord Dalhousie
band of 78 volunteers. It was 385km (240 miles)
1856 - 1858 ................................ Lord Canning
Journey from Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad
to Dandi on the West Coast. On April 5, at 6 in the Viceroys of British India
morning Gandhiji and his volunteers picked up 1858 - 1862 ................................ Lord Canning
Salt lying on the sea-shore. (Sarojini Naidu, at 1862 - 1863 .............................. 8th Earl Elgin I.
this hailed Gandhiji as ‘‘Law breaker’’) 1863 .................................... Sir Robert Napier
 In Tamil Nadu C. Rajagopalachari led a Salt 1863 - 1864 .................... Sir William T. Dension
March from Trichirapalli to Vedaranyam on the 1864 - 1869 ................................. Earl of Mayo
Tanjore Coast. He was arrested on 30 April, 1930. 1872 - .................................. Sir John Strachey
1872 - 1876 ........................ Baron North Brook
 In Malabar K. Kelappan, the hero of the Vaikkom 1876 - 1880 ................................... Lord Lytton
Satyagraha, walked from Calicut to Payyannur to 1880-1884 ..................................... Lord Ripon
break the Salt law. 1884 -1888 ................................. Lord Dufferin
 Gandhiji was arrested on May 5, 1930. After his 1888-1894 ............................. Lord Lansdowne
arrest his place was taken by Abbas Tyabji and 1894 -1899 .................................. Lord Elgin II
1899 - 1905 .................................. Lord Curzon
after the arrest of Abbas leadership passed on to
1905 - 1910 ................................. Lord Minto II
Sarojini Naidu. 1910 - 1916 ............................ Lord Hardinge II
 Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy called the decision 1916 - 1921 ............................ Lord Chelmsford
of Gandhi as a ‘Kindergarten stage’ of revolu- 1921 -1926 ................................. Lord Reading
tion. 1926-1931 ...................................... Lord Irwin
1931 -1936 ............................ Lord Wellington
 Irwin called Gandhi’s breaking of salt law as a
1936 -1942 ............................. Lord Linlithgow
‘Storm in a tea cup’ 1942-1947 .................................... Lord Wavell
 ‘Salt suddenly became a mysterious word, a word 1947 (March 13 - August 14) ..........................
of power’’ These words were spoken by Nehru ................................. Lord Louis Mounbatten
on the occassion of Salt Satyagraha. Governors - Generals of Indian Union
 On 18, April 1930 Chittagong Armoury was raided 1947 (August 15)
by Surya sen. 1948 (June 20) ........... Lord Louis Mountbatten
1950 Jan. 25 ....................... C. Rajagopalachari
 On 23 April 1930, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s
42 0
 One notable feature of the Civil Disobedience pressed classes was abolished.
Movement of Gandhiji was wide participation of  Harijan upliftment now became Gandhiji’s main
women. concern. He started an All India Anti-Untouch-
ability League in September 1932 and the weekly
Round Table Conferences Harijan in January 1933. The January 8, 1933 was
 The British government organised the First Round observed as ‘‘Temple Entry Day’’.
Table Conference at London to discuss the Simon  Only Indian to participate all the three Round Table
Commission Report. conference was B.R. Ambedkar.
 The first Round Table Conference was from 12
Nov. 1930 to 19 January 1931. Socialists
 British Prime Minister Ramsay Mac Donald pre-
 It was above all Jawaharlal Nehru who imported a
sided over the First Round Table Conference.
socialist vision to the national movement.
 The first Round Table Conference was attended
by Tej Bahadur Supru B.R. Ambedkar, Muhammed  At the Lahore session in 1929 Nehru introduced
Shafi, M.A. Jinnah etc. Gandhiji did not partici- this idea.
pate in it.  The Congress Socialist Party was founded in
 As a result of the Gandhi Irwin pact (1931) Con- October 1934 at Bombay under the leadership of
gress decided to stop the Civil Disobedience Jaya Prakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev
Movement. and Minoo Masani
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5th March 1931.  The CSP supported the Quit India Movement.
 The Second Round Table Conference started in
 Socialist ideas led to the emergence of Commu-
London on 7 September 1931. It was attended by
107 Indians including Gandhiji. nist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress So-
 The Second Round Table Conference was a fail- cialist party.
ure. So the Civil Disobedience movement was re-  Towards the end of 1920 M.N. Roy and other In-
started on 3rd January 1932. dian emigres at Tashkant formed a communist
 Sarojini Naidu participated in the Second Round party of India. In India on 1st September, 1924
Table Conference. Satyabhakta in a press note announced the for-
 The Communal Award was announced on Au-
Famous Conspiracy Cases
gust 16, 1932 by British Prime Minister Ramsay
Mac Donald. Case Date Accused
 By the Communal Award minority communities Nasik 1909-10 Vinayak Savarkar

were given Separate Communal Electroates. Conspiracy
 The Communal Award was opposed by Gandhiji Alipore 1908 Aurobindo Ghosh
and he decided to go on fast unto death. Hawrah case 1910 Jatin Mukharjee
 The Third and the last Round Table Conference Dacca Case 1910 Pulin Das
was held between Nov. 17 and December 24, 1932. Delhi case 1915 Amirchand, Awad
 The Third Round Table Conference agreed upon Bihari and Bal Mukund
certain broad principles for the future constitu- Lahore case 1929 - 30 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru
tional set up: Which were published later as ‘white and Sukhdev
paper’ (March 1933) Banaras case 1915 - 16 Sachindranath Sanyal
 The Poona Pact was signed on 25 September 1932 Kakori case 1925 Rama Prasad Bismil and
at Bombay. By this the separate electorate for de- Ashfaq
42 1
mation of the Communist Party of India with him- dia into the Second World War.
self as the Secretary.
 In December 1928 the All India Worker and Peas-
August offer (1940)
ants Party came into existence.  The famous proclamation made by Lord
 The government declared CPI illegal in 1934. Linlithgow on 8 August 1940 is known a August
Offer.
Revolutionary Terrorism  This ensured to give dominion status and free-
dom to frame constitution based on representa-
 Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee and tive nature.
Sachindranath Sanyal founded the Hindustan
Republican Associations (HRA) in 1924, whose Cripps Mission 1942
object was to establish a Federal Republic.
 The mission under Stafford Cripps (the Lord Privy
 On 9 August 1925 ten revolutionaries robbed the Seal and a member of the British War Cabinet) ar-
8-Downtrain at Kakori, near Lucknow. This is rived in India on March 22, 1942 to find out a politi-
known as Kakori Conspiracy. cal formula for transfer of power to Indians.
 HRA became Hindustan Socialist Republican  The main proposals of the mission was to grant
Association in 1928. Dominion status to India at the end of the Sec-
 Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw bomb on the ond World War and setting up of an interim gov-
Central Legislative Assembly against the passage ernment to administer the country in all matters
of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes except defence.
Bill.  The Congress and the League rejected the offer
 Chittagong Armoury Raid was planned by Gandhiji called the cripps offer ‘‘a Post Dated
Suryasen and his associates on 18 April 1930. Cheque on a Crashing Bank’’.
 In March 1929, a group of 31 labour leaders were
tried in Meerat Conspiracy Case. Quit India Movement (1942)
 Provisional Government of Free India was set up
 The failure of the Cripps Mission was the major
at Kabul in 1915 by Mahendrapratap and
Barkatulla. reason for the beginning of Quit India Movement.
 Death of Jitin Das, a revolutionary in jail on the  The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay
64th day of a hunger strike was in 1929. on August 8, 1942 passed the famous Quit India
resolution.
 Execution of Bhagatsingh Sukh Dev and RajGuru
by the British was on March 23, 1931.  The Movement began on 9 August 1942.
 Death of Chandrasekhar Azad in 1931 in an en-  On the occasion of the Quit India Movement
counter with police at Allahabad. Gandhiji gave his famous call of ‘Do or Die’.
 The term Quit India was coined by an American
Government of India Act (1935) Journalist while interviewing Gandhiji.
 ‘‘Quit India’’, ‘‘Bharat Chodo’’ ‘Do or Die’ these
 The government of India Act 1935 proposed a
were the powerful slogans of Quit India move-
government based on Federal System.
ment.
 It ensured complete autonomy
 Muslim League new slogan during the Movement
 First general election as per the Act of 1935 was was ‘‘Divide and Quit’’.
held in 1937, Congress got the majority.
 C. Rajagopalachari evolved, in 1944, a formula
 But all the Congress Ministers resigned in 1939 called the CR Formula to end the struggle be-
as a protest against Britains decision to drag In-
tween the Congress and Muslim League.
42 2
 Lord Wavell, the then Governor General offered  Communal riots broke out in Naokhali from No-
the famous Wavellplan in 1945 at Shimla. vember 7, 1946 to March 2, 1947 Gandhiji toured
in these 49 villages.
Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946)  December 3 - 6, 1946 The British Prime Minister
Clement Atlee summoned Jawaharlal Nehru,
 On 18thFebruary 1946 1,100 naval ratings of the
Baldev Singh, MuhammedAli Jinnah and Liaqat
Signal School of HMIS Talwar (ship) in Bombay Ali Khan for an extraordinary conference at 10
went on strike against racial discrimination regard- Dawning Street London.
ing pay and food.  Constituent Assembly: The constituent Assem-
 BC Dutt was arrested for writing ‘Quit India’ on bly started its session on December 9, 1946 in the
HMIS Talwar. Library of the Council Chamber without the par-
 Both Congress and Muslim league did not help ticipation of the League.
the mutineers.  Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of
the Constituent Assembly.
Cabinet Mission (1946)
Mountbatten Plan (1947)
 The British Government headed by Attlee of the
Labour Party, appointed a Cabinet Mission con-  Mountbatten arrived in India on March 22, 1947.
sisting of Pethic Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and  Mountbatten became the last Viceroy of India,
A.V. Alexander. the last Governor General of India and first gov-
ernor general of free India.
 Cabinet Mission proposed a federal government
for the whole of India.  Mountbatten proposed a plan to divide India.
 Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held  Clement Atlee announced the plan in the House
under the Cabinet Mission Plan, in 1946. of Commons on 2 June 1947, hence it came to be
known as 3rd June Plan.
 Cabinet Mission arrived in India in 1946 March
 Work of the demarcation of the boundaries was
23.
done by Radcliff . Hence the line is known as
 The Mission was headed by Lord Pethwick Radcliff line.
Lawrence.  The 3rd June Plan was given effect by the In-
 It provided an interim government during the time dian Independence Act 1947.
of Lord Wavell  The dominion of Pakistan was inaugurated in
 It also provided for the establishment of a Karachi on 14th August 1947. India became free
Constitutent Assembly to frame a constitution on 15th 1947.
 On 2 September 1946 an Interim Government Integration of States
headed by Nehru came to power.
 The integration of Princely States was done by
 It was a 12 member Ministry.Three members were
Sardar Patel with the assistance of V.P. Menon.
Muslims.
 By August 1947, all the 554 States, with the ex-
 Liakqat Ali Khan was the Finance Minister in the ception only of Hyderabad, Kashmir and Junagarh
Interim Government. acceded to the union.
 The Muslim League proclaimed ‘Direct Action  On 26th October the Maharaja of Kashmir,
Day’ on 16 August 1946 with battle cry of Harisingh signed the ‘‘Instrument of Accession’’
Pakisthan’, ‘Larke Langa Pakistan’. and Sheik Abdulla is known as ‘Lion of Kash-
 The Muslim League proclaimed September 2, 1946 mir’.
as a ‘Day of Mourning’.  The Nizam of Hyderabad signed the agreement
42 3
to join the Indian Union through police action in who was supported by Gandhiji.
1948.  He resigned the Presidentship of INC in April 1939
and founded All India Forward Block and the
Indian National Army (INA) Kisan Sabha.
 The idea of Indian National Army was first con-  But in January 1941, he escaped out of India and
ceived by Mohan Singh at Malaya, an officer in reached Berlin (Germany) from where he arrived
British Indian Army. in Singapore in 1943.
 The first division of INA was formed in Septem-  Bose was popularly known as the ‘Netaji’
ber 1942 with Japanese help.  He was reportedly killed in an air cash over Taipei,
 Subash Chandra Bose began to associate with Taiwan on August 18, 1945.
INA by July 1943. The command was handed over  A.N. Mukherjee Commission enquired about the
by Rash Bihari Bose mysterious disappearance of Subash Chandra
 To the Indians Subash Chandra Bose said ‘you Bose.
give me blood I will give you freedom’..
The Viceroys of India
 Subash Chandra Bose set up two INA headquar-
ters at Rangoon and Singapore. Lord Canning (1856 - 62)
 The women’s regiment called the ‘Rani Jhansi’  Revolt of 1857.
regiment was under Captain Lekshmi Segal.
 Queen Victoria’s Proclamation and passing of the
 He was the first to address Gandhiji as the ‘Fa- Indian Act of 1858.
ther of the nation’’ in his appeal on the ‘Azad
 Withdrawal of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ in 1859,
Hind Radio’ Singapore.
which was passed by Lord Dalhousie.
 In may 1944 INA captured Mowdok and hoisted
 Foundation of the Universities of Calcutta,
the tri-colour flag on Indian soil.
Bombay and Madras in 1857.
 The Japanese government handed over the
Andaman and Nickobar island to him which were  Indigo Revolt in Bengal in 1859-60.
renamed ‘Shaheed and Swaraj’ islands respec-  White Mutiny by the European troops of East
tively. India Company in 1859.
 The INA troops surrendered before the British  Bahadurshah II was sent to Rangoon
army in 1945.
 Enactment of Indian Penalcode.
 The British Government of India charged INA
soldiers of waging war against the king. The tri-  Indian Councils Act of 1861.
als were held in the Red Fort in Delhi.  Enactment of Indian Code of Criminal Procedure.
 The first three accused were capt. P.K. Sehgal ,
Capt. Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon. Lord Elgin (1862 - 63)
 Subash Chandra Bose was born at Cuttack in
 Supressed the Wahabi Movement
Orissa.
 He appeared for the Indian Civil Service in 1920 Sir John Lawrence (1864 - 69)
and passed with merit, but resigned before com-
pleting his probation in April 1921, he joined the  Famine commission was constituted.
Congress and plunged into the national move-  Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Af-
ment. ghanistan called policy of masterly inactivity.
 He was unanimously elected President at the
 Set up highcourts in Calcutta Bombay and Ma-
Haripura Congress session in 1938 and was re-
elected for the second term at the Tripuri ses- dras (1865).
sion in 1939, defeating Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya,
42 4
Lord Mayo (1869-72) Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
 Wahabi and Kuka movements were active.  Creation of a new province called the North West
Frontier Province.
 Mayo was murdered
 Appointment of Universities Commission in 1902
Lord Lytton (1876-80) under Sir Thoma Releigh and passing of Indian
Universities Act 1904.
 Passing of the Royal Titles Act of 1876 and the
 Partition of Bengal
assumption of the title empress of India (Qaiser-i-
hind) by Queen Victoria. Lord Hardinge (1910-1916)
 Holding of Delhi Durbar in 1877.
 Coronation durbar in 1911 at Delhi in honour of
 Passing of the Vernacular Press Act of 1878. George V
 Passing of the Arms Act of 1878.  A separate state of Bihar and Orissa was created
 Lowering of maximum age from 21 years to 19 in 1911.
years for the Civil Services Examination, an at-  India’s capital was decided to shift to Delhi in
tempt to prevent Indians from entering Civil Ser- 1911 and shifted in 1912.
vices.  Kamagata Maru incident.
 1916, Saddler committee on Univerisities ap-
 Appointment of first Famine Commission under
pointed.
Sir Richard Strachy.
 Tilak founded Home Rule League.
 Started Statutory Civil Service.
 Second Anglo Afghan war in 1878. Lord Chelmsford (1916 - 21)
Lord Ripon (1880-84)  Foundation of women’s university at Poona.
 Hunter Commission on Jalianwala Bagh Massa-
 Passing of the first Factory Act in 1881 for the
cre.
welfare of child labour.
 Chamber of Princes established in 1921.
 Repeal of Vernacular Press Act in 1882.
 Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant.
 Foundation of the Local Self Government (1882)
 Third Afghan war started.
 Holding of the first decennial and regular census
 Aligarh Muslim University was founded in 1920.
in 1881 which put the total population at 254 mil-
lion. Lord Reading (1921-26)
 Appointment of an Education Commission under
 Foundation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh
Sir William Hunter in 1882.
by K.B. Hedgewar at Nagpur in 1925.
 The Ilbert bill controversy.
 Beginning of Indianisation of the officers cadre
 Famine code of 1883. of the Indian Army.
Lord Dufferin (1884 - 88)  Railway Budget was separated from General Bud-
get in 1921.
 Foundation of Indian National Congress
 Hilton Young Committee on currency was ap-
 Third Anglo Burmese war pointed in 1926.
 Commented on the Congress being a microscopic  Viswa Bharati University started by Rabindra
minority. Nath Tagore.
42 5
 Train Robbery at Kakori. Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)
Lord Irwin (1926-31)  His plan to make India free on August 15 1947 is
also known as June 3rd Plan.
 Popularly known as Christian Viceroy.
 First Governor General of free India
 Simon Commission arrives in Bombay.
 Meerut conspiracy case. Rajagopalachari (1948-50)
 Gandhi started his Dandi March.  First Indian Governor General.
 Chitagong Armoury Raid.
 First Round Table Conference. Father of Our Nation
 Gandhi-Irwin pact.  Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, called Mahatma,
is the father of our nation.
Lord Willington (1931-36)  He was born on 2 October 1869 at Porbandar in
 Communal Award in 1932 by Ramsay Mac Gujarat as the son of Diwan Karamchand and his
fourth wife ‘Putilibai’.
Donald.
 In 1883, at the age of 14, he married Kasthurba
 Third Round Table Conference in 1932.
Later he went to England to study law.
 White Paper on Political reforms in India was pub-  In 1893 he went to South Africa to practice law.
lished in 1933.
 After his studies in England Gandhiji began his
 Burma was separated from British Empire in 1935. practice as a lawyer in Bombay and Rajcot.
 He was subjected to racial discrimination and
Lord Linlithgow (1936-43) organised Natal Indian Congress in 1894. There
 August Offer by the Viceroy in which he declared he started a weekly, Indian opinion 1904.
dominion status as the ultimate goal of British  Gandhiji experimented the weapon Satyagraha for
policy in India. the first time in South Africa in September 1906 to
protest against the Asiatic Ordinance issued
 In 1940 individual Civil Disobedience Movement
was started. against the Indians in Transval
 Gandhiji’s first imprisonment was in 1908 at
 1942 Cripps Mission came.
Johannesberg in South Africa.
 Congress starts Quit India Movement.
 In 1899 during the Boer war Gandhiji organised
Lord Wavell (1943-47) Indian Ambulance Corps for the British.
 Gandhiji was humiliated and ousted from Peter
 Wavell Plan, Shimla conference Congress repre-
Marits Burg Railway Station in South Africa.
sented by Maulana Azad
 Gandhiji became a Brahmachari in 1906.
 RIN Mutiny (1946)
 Gandhiji started Tolstoy Farm South Africa in
 Interim Government was formed (September 2,
1910.
1946)
 Gandhiji started the Foenix Settlement in Durban.
 Prime Minister of Britain Clement Atlee an-
nounced to give independence to India by June  Gandhian Era in Indian politics is from 1915 -1948.
1948.  He returned to India on 9th January 1915, leaving
 Cabinet Mission 1946. South Africa for ever. January 9 is observed as
‘Pravasi Bharatiya Divas’ to commemorate this.
 16th August 1946, Muslim League begins ‘Di-
rect Action day’.
42 6
 Gandhiji’s first Satyagraha in India was for the  Gandhiji called Subhah Chandra Bose
right of Indigo workers in Champaran in 1917. the‘Palriots’, Patriot
 Gandhiji’s first fast was in 1918 in connection with  Winston Churchil called Gandhiji a ‘‘Half naked
the strike of mill workers in Ahmedabad. Seditious Fakir.
 He started the Satyagrahasrama on the banks of  The name ‘Gurudev’ was given to Tagore by
Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad in 1917. Gandhiji
 In 1918 he started two weeklies - Young India in  Tagore called Gandhiji ‘Mahatma’.
English and Navjeevan in Gujarati.  ‘Wardha’ scheme of education was the basic edu-
 Gandhiji abandoned his title Kaiser -i-Hind in pro- cation policy formulated by Gandhiji.
test against Jallianwalabagh Massacre (1919)
 In 1940 Gandhiji started Individual Satyagraha and
 Gandhijis first National Movement was organised selected Vinoba Bhave and Nehru for that.
against the Rowlat Act in 1919.
 In 1942 August 9 Gandhiji started the Quit India
 Gandhiji launched the Non-Co-operation Move-
Movement and gave the call ‘Do or Die’.
ment on August 1, 1920 which caused the violent
incident at Chauri Chaura in UP. This incident  Gandhiji called the Cripps Mission (1942) ‘‘a post-
initiated Gandhiji to suspend the movement in dated cheque on a drowning bank’’.
1922.  Gandhiji was assassinated by Nadhuram Vinayak
 Gandhiji renounced worldly pleasures and be- Godse on 30 January 1948 at the Birla house in
came a symbol of halfnaked villager in 1920. Delhi. He died at 5 : 17 pm.
 The only Congress session presided over by ‘He Ram, He Ram’ was his last words.
Gandhiji was the one which held at Belgaum in
1924.  Godse used an Italian Beritta Pistol to shoot at
Gandhiji.
 Gandhiji started his historic Dandi March on 12
March 1930 related to the Salt Satyagraha.  Gandhiyum Godseyum is a book written by N.K.
 Gandhiji partcipated in the Second Round Table Krishnavarier.
Conference in London in 1931 August.  ‘Mem Nadhuram Godse Bolthai’ is a play written
 With the aim of eradicating untouchability by Pradeep Dalvi to humiliate Gandhi.
Gandhiji founded the All India Harijan Samaj in  After the assassination, The R.S.S was banned in
1932. 1948 February 4.
 Gandhiji started his journey for Harijan upliftment  Narayan Dathathrya Apte was hanged to death
from the Wardha Ashram in Maharashtra. along with Godse on the Gandhi Assassination
 Gandhiji called low class people as ‘Harijan’ case.
which means ‘sons of God’.  French Novelist who wrote the biography of
 He started the weekly Harijan in 1933. Gandhiji was Romain Rolland.
 Gandhi-Irwin pact was signed on 5 march 1931.  Medalim Slaiduin a British woman became a fol-
 Gandhiji was associated with the Vaikom and lower Gandhi and came to be known as Meera
Ben.
Guruvayur Sathyagraha in Kerala.
 The original autobiography of Gandhiji written in
 Gandhiji called the Temple Entry Proclamation a
wonder of the Modern Age. Gujarathi language was ‘Sathya na Karogo’.
 Pattabhi Sitaramayya Gandhiji’s candidate for the  Liberty or Death written by Patrick French deals
Presidentship of INC was defeated by Subash with antogonism in Gandhis life.
Chandra Bose.  Gandhiji called his hanging clock my little dicta-
tor.
42 7
 ‘Ente Gurunathan’ poem written by Vallathol  ‘‘Swaraj for me means freedom for the meanest of
Narayana Menon speaks about Gandhiji. our countrymen’’ - Gandhiji
 ‘That’s my mother’ Gandhiji said these words  ‘‘The light has gone out of our lives and there is
about Bhagavatgita. darkness everywhere’’ Nehru on the death of
Gandhiji.
 Gandhiji’s political guru was Gopalakrishna
Gokhale.  ‘‘Non-violence is the law of our species as vio-
lence is the law of the brute’’ Gandhiji
 Gandhi’s prisoner is a book written by Uma
 ‘‘Indian culture is neither Hindu, Islam, nor any
Dupfeli Mistri , daughter of Gandhis son, Manilal.
other wholly. It is a fusion of all’ - Gandhiji
 Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas and Devdas were
 ‘‘Non Co-operation with evil is as much a duty
Gandhijis four sons. as co-operation with good’’ - Gandhiji
 ‘I follow Mahatma’ is a book written by  ‘‘My only hope lies in prayer and answer to
K.M.Munshi. prayer’’ - Gandhiji
 ‘Unto This Last’ of John Ruskin greately influ-
enced Gandhiji Rabindnranath Tagore
 R.K. Narayan wrote ‘Waiting for the Mahatma’.  Rabindranath Tagore was born at Calcutta in
 ‘A week with Gandhi, ‘Gandhi and Stalin and Life West Bengal as the son of Maharshi
of Mahatma Gandhi are the books written by Devendranath Tagore and Sarda Devi. One of
Fischer. Rabindranath’s brothers, Satyendranth Tagore
 Gandhiji grandson Thushar Gandhi led the sec- was the first Indian to get selcted for the ICS in
ond Dandi March from Marh 12 - April 17, 2005 1864.
on the 75th anniversary of Dandi March.  In 1901 Tagore established a school at Shanti
 Gandhiji’s autobiography ‘‘My Experiments with Niketan which finally developed into the world
Truth’ was written in 1922 while he was in Jail. It famous University of ViswaBharati in 1921.
describes his life from 1869 to 1921.  In 1913,Tagore’s Gitanjali was selected for the
 It was translated into English by Mahadev Desai. Nobel prize for Literature.
 Leon Tolstoy is considered as the spiritual guru  In 1912 Tagore Published Jana Gana Mana (Now
of Gandhiji. India’s National Anthem)
 One of the great dreams of Gandhiji was the es-  The National anthem is composed in the Raga,
tablishment of Grama Swaraj. He said ‘‘India lives ‘Sankarabharanam’
in villages’’. He started Sewagram Ashram on  The English translation of the national anthem is
30 April 1936. ‘‘The morning song of India’’.
 Gandhiji said ‘‘Non violence is not one form it is  National anthem was first sung at the Calcutta
the only form of direct action’’. session of INC (1911)
 Gandhiji once sarcastically (humorously) called  India accepted it as our national anthem on 24
jail ‘‘His Majesty’s Hotel’’. January 1950.
 ''Generations to come it may scarce believe that  ‘Bharat Vidhata’ was the first name of National
such a one as this ever in flesh and blood walked anthem.
upon this earth'', Einstein said about Gandhiji.  National anthem was first published in the book
 ‘‘Truth and Non-violence are my Gods’’ Gandhiji ‘Tatvabodhini’.
 Untouchability is a crime against God and Man-  Tagore also wrote the national anthem of
kind Gandhiji. Bangladesh ‘ Amar Sonar Bengla’.
42 8
 In 1915, Tagore was awarded Knighthood by the  Nehru started a newspaper called ‘National Her-
British Monarch George V, but he surrendered it ald’.
in 1919 as a protest against the Jalianwallabagh  Nehru headed the interim ministry formed in 1946
Massacre. September.
 Gandhiji called Tagore ‘Gurudev’.  He became the first Prime Minister of India after
independence in 1947.
 For Tagore, the great objective of education was
‘to know man and to make oneself known to  Nehru has the largest term as India’s Prime Min-
man’’. ister.
 Important works of Nehru are ‘Glimpses of World
 ‘Jeevan Smriti’ is the autobiography of Tagore.
History’,‘The Unity of India’, ‘The Discovery of
 ‘Gora’, ‘Raja and Rani’ ‘Rajarishi’, ‘Kabooliwala’ India’ ‘Bunch of Old letters’.
etc are the famous novels of Tagore.  ‘‘An Autobiography’’ is the autobiography of
 ‘Purabhi’, ‘The cycle of the spring’ ‘The evening Nehru.
song’ ‘The morning song’ etc are the other fa-  ‘‘.......... At the stroke of the mid night hour, when
mous works of Tagore. the world sleeps, India will awake to life and free-
dom........... these are the words of Nehru.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)  Nehru’s main contribution to the evolution of
 Jawaharlal Nehru was the son of Motilal Nehru Indias foreign policy was the acceptance of non-
and Swarupa Rani. allignment.
 Non-alignment meant taking independent deci-
 ‘Jawahar’ means Jewel.
sions on international issues with a sense of neu-
 He was born in 1886 November 14. trality.
 Vijayalekshmi Pandit and Krishna Harthising  Nehru visited China in 1954, both the countries
were the sisters of Nehru. signed the Panch Sheel.
 Nehru became a member of Theosophical Soci-  ‘I want the cultures of all lands to be brought to
ety at the age of 13. my house as freely as possible’ He said
 He went to London in 1905 and joined the Haro  The expression ‘‘Tryst with destiny’ was first used
Public School, Then Trinity College in Cambridge by Jawaharlal Nehru on the Occasion of India
and finally at the Inner Temple. attaining freedom.
 There will be no freedom in this country or in the
 He returned India in 1912 and started practice at
world so long as a single human being is unfree.
the Alahabad High Court.
Jawaharlal Nehru.
 Nehru attended the Bankipore Congress Session  It is not so much the existence of a nation that
in 1912. counts but what the nation that counts but what
 He met Gandhi in 1916 at the Lucknow session. the nation does during various periods of exist-
 Nehru became the General Secretary of INC in ence Nehru.
1923.  Nehru was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1955.
 Nehru became the president of INC for the first  Nehru got placed in Indial Postal Stamp in 1964.
time 1929. Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed  India government began to distribute Interna-
at this session (Lahore). tional Award for International understanding in
 Nehru became the President of INC for the larg- 1965 U Thant got it for the first time.
est number of times Lahore (1929), Lucknow  First woman to get the award was Mother Theresa
(1935), Faizpur (1936), New Delhi (1951), (1969)
Hyderabad (1953) and Kalyan (1954).  Nehru died on 27 may 1964 at the age of 75.
42 9
Famous Statements  Swami Vivekananda ‘‘For our own motherland a
junction of the two great system Hinduism and
 Lord Dufferin : Congres was a microscopic mi- Islam is the only hope.
nority.  Swami Vivekananda ‘‘We are just don’t touchists
 Lord Curzon : Congress was ‘tottering to its Our religion is our kitchen our god is the cooking
fall’ and one of his greatest ambition in India was and our religion is don’t touch me, I am holy. If
‘‘to assist it (congress) a peaceful demise’. this goes on for a century, everyone of us will be
 Charles Napier: ‘We have no right to seize Sind, in a lunatic asylum.
yet we shall do so and a very advantageous, use-  Aurobindo Ghosh : - ‘‘Political freedom is the
ful humane piece of rascality it will be ’’. life breath of a nation’’.
 Thomas Roe : ‘‘I know these people are best  Tilak : ‘‘Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.
treated with the sword in one hand and the  Gandhiji on the eve of Dandi March ‘‘Sedition
caducean in the other.’’ has become my religion’’.
 Nabin Chandra Sen : ‘‘The battle of Plassey was  Ram Krishna Paramahamsa ‘‘ God is of no use
followed by a night of eternal gloom for India’’. to the hungry belly’
 John Sullivan : ‘Our system acts very much like a  Swami Vivekananda ‘‘Christianitywins its prosperity
sponge drawing up all the good things from the by cutting the throats of its fellowmen.
banks of the Ganges and Squeezing them down
on the banks Thames’
 Tipu Sultan - ‘Better to die like a Soldier, than
INDIA AFTER
to live a miserable dependent on the infidels in
the list of their pensioned Rajas and nobles. INDEPENDENCE
 Peter the Great of Russia ‘‘Bear in mind that the
commerce of India is the commerce of the world’’. India - Pak Wars
 Cornwallis ‘‘Every native of Hindustan is cor-  The major cause of the India - Pak wars was the
rupt’’.
Kashmir problem.
 William Bentinck : ‘‘The misery hardly find a par-
 On September 1, 1965 Pakistan started attack on
allel in history of commerce, the bones of the cot-
ton weavers were bleaching the plains of India’’. the border and invaded Chhamb and Dewa re-
gions.
 Rani of Jhansi - ‘‘With our own hands we shall
not let our Azadshahi burry’’.  On September 11, UN Secretary General U-Thant
 J.L. Nehru : ‘‘British power became the guard- reached to talk on cease fire.
ian and upholder of many and evil custom and  After the battle, Tashkent agreement was signed
practice which it other wise condemned.’’ under the mediation of Russia.
 Cornwallis : ‘‘One third of Bengal has been trans-  Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Sastri and
formed into a jungle inhabitated only by wild Pakistan President Ayub Khan signed the agree-
beats’’ ment.
 A.O. Hume - ‘‘A safety valve for the escape of  On December 2 The Border Security Force was
great and growing forces generate by our ac- formed.
tion was urgently needed’’.  Lal Bahadur Sastri died at Tashkent on 11 Janu-
 Dada Bhai Naroji : Regarding law and orders ary 1966.
‘‘pray strike on the back but dont strike on the  The deplomacy of Sastri was the major source
belly’’. behind India’s victory in the 1965 Indo-Pak war.
 Dufferin : Branded the national leaders as ‘‘Dis-  The Second Indo-Pak war was in 1971. After the
loyal Babus’ ‘‘Seditious Brahmins’ and ‘‘Violent war Bangladesh became an independent country.
Villains’.
43 0
 The agreement signed after the 1971 war was the Liberation of Pondicherry and Goa
Simla Agreement.
 Simla Agreement was signed by Indian Prime  Goa was in the hands of Portuguese from 1510
Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistan Prime Minis- AD onwards.
ter Sulfiker Ali Bhuto in 1972.  The Liberation Army captured Dadra, Nagarhaveli
 The Kargil war in 1999 was against the terrorist on 22 July 1954.
usurpation into Kashmir from Pakistan.  Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated from the Por-
 Kargil military operation of India was known as tuguese in 1964.
‘Operation Vijay’.  Pondicherry was under the French
 Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee con-  Since 1946 there were freedom struggle in
ducted the famous Lahore Bus Journey in 1999 Pondicherry.
February.  The legal hand over of Pondicherry was in 1962.
 The Kargil war officially ended on 26 July 1999.  Malayalam speaking Mahi, Telegu speaking
 Boundary line between India and Pakistan is yanam and Tamil speaking Karakkal are the parts
Radcliff line. of Pondicherry.
 The Lahore declaration was signed between A.B.  Pondicherry’s new name is Puthussery.
Vajpayee and Nawaz Sherif.
 Military operation conducted by India on Paki- Nuclear Experiments in India
stan 1948 was known as Operation Sojila.  Nuclear researches in India were lead by Homi J.
 The operation in which Indian army captured Bhaba.
Siachin was known as Operation Meghdoot.
 Council for Scientific Industrial Research Insti-
 India and Pakistan signed the Indus River Water
tute was formed in 1942.
Agreement in 1960.
 Indias first Nuclear Experiment was on 18th May
Indo-China War 1974.
 First Nuclear Experiment of India was code named
 Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chau Enlai as ‘‘Buddha Smiles’. It was during the period of
established bilateral friendly relation signing the
Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister.
Panchsheel in 1954.
 It was conducted at the Pokhran Desert in
 But giving asylium to the Dalai Lama of Tibet
Rajasthan.
(1954) provocated China.
 Uranium was used in the process.
 China attacked India by crossing the Mac Mohan
line on September 8, 1962.  It was lead by Dr. H.N. Setna and Dr. Raja
 On October 19 Chinese made a massive attack. Ramanna.
 On October 26 Government declared Emergency  Second Nuclear experiment was in 1998.
and Defence of India Ordinance.  It was code named a ‘Operation Shakti’ or ‘Bud-
 Keeping view of the Chinese aggression the Gold dha Smiles again’’.
Bond Scheme was declared.  Pokhran is in the Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan.
 In November 1962 the National Defence Council  Second experiment was conducted during the term
was set up. of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
 On Nov. 10, the Chinese declared a Unilateral with-
drawal. Ante Sikh Riots
 In 2005 China removed Sikkhim from Chinese map  In 1984, General K. Sundarji, Commander-in-chief
and accepted it Indias part. with the army besieged the Golden Temple in
 In 2006, Two countries agreed to open the Nathula Operation Blue Star on June 5.90 soldiers and
pass (Sikkim) after a lapse of four decades. 712 Sikh extremists including Bhindranwale.
43 1
 The operation was done by 15th Cavalry Regi- Demolition of Babri Masjid
ment of Indian Army.
 On 6th December 1992, the B.J.P. and VHP
 As a sequel to the Operation Blue Star. Indira Gandhi
organised a huge rally of over 20,000 volunteers
was gunned down and killed by her own security
at the site of Babri Masjid. The BJP Chief Minis-
guards, Sub Inspector Beant Singh and Constable
ter of Uttar Pradesh, Kalyan Singh assured to the
Satwant Singh on October 31, morning.
Supreme court that the mosque would be pro-
 In the Ante Sikh riots more than 3000 sikhs died. tected. But the mosque was hammered down.
 Congress president Sonia Gandhi officially  The Central Government banned VHP, RSS,
apologised the Community in 1998. BajrangDal and Jamaat -e-Islami. The Kalyan
 Justice Ranganath Mishra Commission ap- Singh government was dismissed.
pointed in 1985 submitted the report in 1986.  Babri Masjid was constructed by Babar’s gover-
 Kapur Mithal Committee (1987) Jane Banerjee nor Mir Sakhi at Ayodhya (U.P).
Committee Potti Rosha Committee (1990) Jane  Narasimha Rao was the Prime Minister when the
Agarwal Committee (1990) Dhillan Committee Babary Masjid was demolished.
(1985), Narula Committee (1993), Nanavati Com-
 Ayodhya 6th December, 1992 is a book written
mission (2004) etc enquired about the incident.
by NarasimhaRao,published Posthumously.
43 2
1. Ancient History- Sources of History
History: Written evidences available
Prehistory: No written evidence; Archeological evidences available, stone age
Proto-history: Written evidences available; but could not be deciphered
Sources:
1. Literature 4. Coins
2. Archaeological Evidence 5. Accounts of the Foreigners
3. Inscriptions
1. Literature
Literature Religious
1. Vedas (4)
2. Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
Indian Upanishadas
3. Jain, Buddhist literature
Secular
1. Epics, plays, Biographies
2. Puranas
Greeks
1. Megasthenese
2. Deimachus
Foreign 3. Deonisius
Chinese
1. Fa-Hein
2. Hiuen Tsang
3. I-tsing
INDIAN LITERATURE:
Rig Veda: Prayers of God

Sam Veda: Songs, 1st book of music,
Yajur Veda: Ritual processes
Atharva Veda: not written by Aryans; book on magic
Brahmans: Explanations of Vedas
Aranyaks: Forest books,
Upanishads: Metaphysical;
Puranas: Stories of kings
Epics: Ramayana, Mahabharata
Plays: by Kalidas etc.
FOREIGN ITERATURE:
Author Book Subject

Magasthenes(G) Indica Valuable information on Admin and
socio-economic conditions of Mauryas
Ptolemy(G) Geography of India Geographical treatise on India in 2nd
Century AD
Pliny(G) Naturakus Historia Accounts trade relations between Rome
and India in 1st Century AD
Anonymous(G) Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Records personal voyage of Indian coasts
in 80 A.D.
Fa-Hien(C) Record of the Buddhist Records the Gupta Empire in the 5th
Countries (Fo-Kuoki) Century AD
Hiuen Tsang(C) Buddhist Records of the Describes the social, economic and
Western World (Si-Yu-Ki) religious conditions of India in the 5th
and 7th Century AD. (Harshvardhan)
I-tsing(C) A record of the Buddhists Studies the Gupta period under Sri
religion as practiced in India Gupta in the 7th Century AD.
and Malay Archipelago.
Hwuili(C) Life of Hiuen Tsang Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.
Other:
 Visakha Datta: Mudra Rakshas; Gupta period, Chanakya-Chandragupta story
 Dipavamsa n Mahavamsa: Buddhist books written in Sri Lanka, Ashoka spread
 Divyavadan: Tibetan Buddhist book, Ashoka spread
2. Archaeological evidences:
 Tools: Time period, Technology
 Remains of Flora & Fauna: Food habits, Animals known
 Coins: Economy, metallurgy, kings, area ruled
 Remains of settlements: Civilization, social inequalities
3. Inscriptions: 4. Monuments:
 Extent of empire  Building material
 Administrative system  Technology
 Laws related to land  Architecture
 Time period 
 Language & Script
2. Ancient History- Pre Historic Period

PREHISTORY:
Pre-history
Neolithic / New Stone

Paleolithic/old stone age Age
(5,00,000-10,000BC) (6000-1000BC)
 Pleistocene Period, Mesolithic/ Settled life, agri, animal
 Quartzite man, Microlithic/ domestication, polished
 Larger stone tools Later Stone Age tools, pottery, villages
 Bori in MH, 5 lakh year old (10,000-4000BC) (mehergarh-6000BC-1st
 Fishing started, village)
 Small stone tools
DdPeople:
Paleolithic Age
 Earliest Paleolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering.
 The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate.
 Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc.
 The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the
rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.
# Facts to Remember
 The Paleolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period.
 Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Paleolithic stone in India in 1863.
 The Paleolithic research in India got a boost only with the coming of Yale Cambridge
expedition in 1935 led by Deterra and Patterson.
 The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Paleolithic man in
India is also called "Quartzite Man"
Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC)
 It was the transitional between Paleolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characteristic tools
are microliths all made of stone.
 The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering.
 Earliest domestication of animals has also been witnessed from MP and Rajasthan.
Neolithic Age / New Stone Age (6,000-1,000 BC)
The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865.
 Animal domestication
 Agricultural practice
 Grind and Polished stone tools and
 Pottery manufacture
Pre Historic Findings
 Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock Shelters (MH)
 Nevasa - Evidence of cotton
 Atranjikheda - Textile printing
 Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane
 Inamgaon - Statue of mother Goddess (MH)
 Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture, settled life (Baluchistan)
 Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice
 Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal (Raj)
 Chirand - Serpant cult (Bihar)
 Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling (J&K)
3. Ancient History- Indus Valley Civilizations
Name:
 First site excavated – Harappa (Dayaram Sahni - 1921)
 Because most of its settlements are found in the valley of Indus river
Geographical Area:
 Flourished between 2500-1500BC
 But 2200-1800BC was its mature period
 It covered the present Pakistan & north western part of India
Manda (JnK)
Sutkagendor Geographic Alamgirpur

extent (Meerat)
Daimabad
(MH)
Features:
 Urban civilization  Ruled by traders
 Foreign trade  Barter system
 Craft specialization  3500BC-2500BC: developed
 Planned cities  2500BC-1800BC: matured
 Literate  1800BC-1500BC: decline
 Boustrophedon n pictographic script, around 400 alphabets
Features of Urban civilization:
 Planned cities  Use of burnt bricks
 Uniformity in the planning of cities  Presence of industries
 Big buildings  Internal & external trade
 Covered drainage system
Decline of Indus Valley
Theorists Reasons of decline
Gorden Childe, Stuart Piggot External Aggression
H.T. Lambrick Unstable river system
K.U.R. Kenedy Natural calamity
Orell Stein and A.N. Ghosh Climate change
R. Mprtimer Wheeler Aryan invasion
Robert Raikes Earthquake
Sood and Aggarwal Dryness of river
Walter Fairservis Ecological imbalance
Economy:
 Harappans practiced barter system
 Produced wheat, barley, peas, jowar, ragi, etc.
 Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated.
 The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the
northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture
and those of the Persian and Gulf and Mesopotamia
Political Life
 There is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans.
 Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than with conquests,
and Harappa was possibly ruled by the class of merchants.
Religion:
 The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a
yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four
animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and two
deer appear at his feet
 The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms
to please fertility Goddess.
 There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone
symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been
discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
 The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and
Harappa.
 Indus people worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
 They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Sites Year Excavators Region/River Features
Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Montgomery district of 1. City followed grid planning
Sahni Punjab (Now in Pak) on 2. Row of six granaries
the left bank of Ravi 3. Only place having evidences of
coffin burial
4. Evidence of fractional burial and
coffin burial
5. Cemetery-H of alien people.
Mohenjo 1922 R.D.Banarjee Larkana district in Sind 1. City followed grid planning
daro on the right bank of 2. A large granary and Great Bath,
Indus(Now in Pak) a college
3. Human skeletons showing
invasion and massacre.
4. Evidence of Horse come from
Superficial level.
5. A piece of woven cotton along
with spindle whorls and needles
6. Town was flooded more then
seven times.
Chanhu- 1931 N. Gopal Situtated in Sind on the 1. The city has no citadal
daro Majumdar, bank of Indus 2. Famous for bead makers shop
Mackey 3. A small pot, possibly an inkpot
4. Foot prints of a dog chasing a cat
5. Three different cultural layers,
Indus, Jhukar and Jhangar
Kali 1953 A. Ghosh Situated in Rajasthan on 1. Shows both Pre Harappan and
bangan the Bank of Ghaggar Harappan phase
2. Evidence of furrowed land
3. Evidence of seven fire altars and
camel bones
4. Many houses had their own well
5. Kalibangan = black bangles
6. Evidence of wooden furrow
Dhola 1985- R.S. Bisht Situated in Gujarat in 1. Seven cultural stages
vira 90 Rann of Kutch 2. Largest site
3. Three party of city
4. Unique water management
Lothal 1953 S.R. Rao Situated in Gujarat on 1. A titled floor which bears
Bhogava river near Gulf intersecting design of circles
of Cambay 2. Remains of rice husk
3. Evidence of horse from a
terracotta figurine
4. A ship designed on a seal
5. Beads & trade ports
6. An instrument for measuring
angles, pointing to modern day
compass
4. Ancient History- Vedic Age

1500 – 600 BC
Aryans came from:
Tibet: Dayanand Saraswati
Arctic region: B. G. Tilak
Max Muller: Central Asia
 This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600
BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which
suggests that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.
 Zenda Avesta (Persian)
 The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.
 The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate.
 The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to
as the Brahmavarta) Indus +5 + Ghaggar
 The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called
Dasas or Dasyus
 The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period
(1500 BC to 1000 BC)
 The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the Later Vedic Period and this region
came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC)
 The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses
along with them.
Tribal Polity
 The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana
 However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies
 Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the
oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.
 The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in
nature and less exclusive than Sabha.
 Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.
 A few non-monarchical states (ganas) are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.
Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda
Rig Vedic Name New Name
Gomati Gomal
Krumi Kurram
Kubha Kabul
Suvastu Swat
Sindhu Indus
Drishadvari Ghaggar /Chitang
Satudri Satluj
Vipas Beas
Parushni Ravi
Asikni Chenab
Vitasta Jhelum
Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period
Tribal Organization:
 Kinship was the basis of social structure.
 People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana.
 Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis.
 The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda.
 It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by term griha.
Status of Women:
 The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices
survived.
 We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda.
 The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education,
studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns.
 Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.
Varna System:
 Varna was the term used for colour and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the
indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion.
 The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and
sudras.
 Gradually, the tribal society was divided into 3 groups-warriors, priests and the people.
 The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period.
 In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was
not very sharp.
Occupation:
 Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary
occupation.
 The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse
played the most significant role in their life.
 The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is
mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation.
 The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions
such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the
potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts.
 The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.
Metals Known to Rig Vedic People

Gold - Hiranya
Iron- Shyama
Copper- Ayas
Early Vedic Religion

 Did not believe in idol worship
 Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God
 Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories -Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial
 Indra, Agni, Varuna were important Gods
 Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, Aditi were female deities. They were not given the same
position as male Gods.
 People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare of Praja & Pashu
 Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an
important part of the worship.
Rig Vedic Gods
Indra:
 He was the most important divinity.
 He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons.
 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda.
 He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names:
Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandara, Varitrahan and Maghayam
Agni:
 He was the second important divinity.
 He was intermediary between Gods and men.
 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.
Varuna:
 He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order.
 He personified water.
Soma:
 He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.
Yama:
 He was the guardian of the world of dead.
Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organization:
 In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti
continued to hold the ground, but their character changed.
 Women were no longer permitted to sit in the Sabha, and it was now dominated by
nobles and Brahmanas.
 The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful.
 Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term Rashtra, which indicates
territory, first appears in this period.
 The King performed the Rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme
power to him. He performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an
area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the Vajapeya or the
chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.
 During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer was called Sangrihitri.
 Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were
mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war; the king had to
eat along with his people from the same plate
Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period
Purohita Chief Priest, also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa

Senani Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
Gramani Head of the village
Kulapati Head of the family
Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha Revenue collector
Sangrahitri Treasurer
Mahishi Chief Queen
Suta Charioteer and court minstrel
Occupation:
 The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater
scale than earlier sugarcane.
 Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property.
 Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley.
 Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and
Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known.
 New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters,
weavers, leather workers, jewelers, dyers and potters.
 Trade was also boosted.
Social Organization:
 The later Vedic society came to be divided into 4 varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas
or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each Varna was assigned with its duty.
 All the 3 higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice
born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread
according to the Vedic mantras.
 The fourth Varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with it began the
imposition of disabilities on the shudras.
Gotra System:
 The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times.
 Literally, it means the cow-pen or place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept.
 The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new
relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people.
 People began to practice gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons
belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.
Ashrama System:
 Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times.
 In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas:
o Brahmachari or student,
o Grihastha or householder,
o Vanaprastha or partial retirement and
o Sanyasa or complete retirement from the world.
 But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not
been well-established in Later Vedic times.
 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.
Religion in Later Vedic Period:
 The two outstanding Rig Vedic Gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance.
 On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later
Vedic pantheon.
 Rudra, the God of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to
be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.
 In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of
idolatry.
 Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn),
Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati
(River deity). Same
 The mode of worship changed considerably.
 Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the
gods.
 Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic
character.
 The guests were known as the Goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who
officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.
Early Vedic Later Vedic (Iron in use)
1500-1000BC 1000-500BC
Rigveda Sama, Yajur, Atharva veda
Iron not used Iron used
Nomads, cow Settled
Pastoral, horse, cow Agri,
Tribal Rajya, king
Worship-natural forces, no idol, Prajapati, Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh, idol, sacrifice
Indra, Agni, Varun, Mantra
Colour distinction, no untouchables Caste system, untouchability, gotra, 4 Ashrams
Tribe=jana=vis New sects(Buddhism, Jainism, ajivika)
Sapta sindhu region, brahmavarta Indo-Gangetic region, Aryavarta
Women attended sabha n Vidhata, Vidhata discontinued, sabha n Samiti continued, no
women
Rajan Raja, Rashtra, Rajasuya, ashvamedha, vajapeya
Bali Tax
Gold- hiranya, copper-Ayas,
iron-shyama Ayas
Family=kula=griha
Practice of levirate n widow
remarriage
6.Ancient History – Mahajanpadas

 2nd urbanization
 In the later Vedic period, the tribal organizations changed its identity and gradually shifted
to the territorial identity, and the areas of settlements were now regarded as janapadas or
states.
 In transition from tribe to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe
but retained the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes.
 These states consisted of either a single tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc.
 Each janapada tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.
The 16 Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapada Capitals Locations

Gandhara Taxila Covering the region between Kabul and
Rawalpindi in North Western Province.
Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around Punch area in Kashmir
Asmaka Potana Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on
the bank of River Godavari
Vatsa Kaushambi Covering districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur
Avanti Ujjain Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of MP
Surasena Mathura Located in the Mathura region at the junction of
the Uttarapath & Dakshinapath
Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern Budelkhand area
Maila Kushinara, Pawa Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in
eastern Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into
Maghada Kingdom
Kurus Hastinapur/Indraprastha Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to
the west of River Yamuna
Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and
Jaipur in Rajasthan
Vajjis Vaishali Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar.
It was the seat of united republic of eight smaller
kingdoms of which Lichhavis, Janatriks and
Videhas were also members.
Anga Champa Covering the modern districts of Munger and
Bhagalpur in Bihar. The Kingdoms were later
merged by Bindusara into Magadha.
Kashi Banaras Located in and around present day Varanasi in
UttarPradesh.
Kosala Shravasti Covering the present districts of Faizabad,
Gonda, Bahraich, etc.
Magadga Girivraja/Rajgriha Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and
parts of Shahabad.
Panchala Ahichhatra (W.Panchala), Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central
Kampilya (S. Panchala) Doab in Uttar Pradesh.
6. Ancient History - Rise of Magadha
Before Mauryas, Magadha was ruled by 3 main dynasties:
1. Haryankas
2. Shisunagas
3. Nandas
4. Mauryas
The Haryankas:
Between the 6th and the 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the most
powerful Mahajanapada.
Bimbisara: (542-493 BC)
 He strengthened his position by marriage alliances. He took three wives.
 Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige
and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha westward and northward.
 The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time.
It was surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all
sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.
Ajatasatru: (492-460 BC)
 Ajatasatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself. Throughout his reign, he
pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.
Udayin: (460-444 BC)
 His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and
Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan kingdom.
Sisunagas:
 Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the capital
to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti
with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between
Magadha and Avanti.
The Nandas:
 The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers
of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time,
did not dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadha power by the
conquering Kalinga from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy.
 All this took place in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to the ekarat, the
sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.
Haryankas
1. Bimbisara(542-493BC)
 Marrage alliances
 Earliest capital of Magadha: Girivraj (Rajgir)
2. Ajatashatru(492-460BC)
 Killed his father, aggressive expansion
3. Udayin(460-444BC)
 Killed father, Built fort on confluence of Ganga n Son at Patna
Sisunagas:
 Elected by the people (1st king)
 Temporarily shifted capital to Vaishali
 Destruction of Avanti (100 years old struggle), capital Ujjain
Nanda:
 Most powerful Magadha dynasty
 1st non-kshatriya rulers
 Alexander invasion, use of elephants
 Mahapadma Nanda (Title: Ekarat)
 Unorthodox character, Buddhism etc easily spread
Causes for the rise of Magadha:
 Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic
locations.
 Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with
effective weapons.
 The alluvial soil of the Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for
agriculture produces.
 Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princess could
levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
 Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.
 Unorthodox character of Magadhan society
 Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers.
 Ambitious rulers and their policies.
7. Ancient History- Mauryas

( 322 - 185 BC)
Sources of information about Mauryas

Literary sources
1. Kautilya’s ‘Arthasastra’
2. Megasthenese’s ‘Indica’
3. Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’: although it was written during Gupta Period, it
describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance to overthrow Nandas.
4. Puranas
5. Buddhist text Jatakas portrays a general picture of socio-economic conditions of
Mauryan Period.
6. Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa describe the part played by Ashoka
in spread in Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
7. Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his efforts to
spread Buddhism
Archaeological Sources
1. Punch mark coins
2. Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya
3. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
4. Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions: There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Cave
inscriptions located at several places in the Indian sub-continent.
Ashokan Edicts
 Edicts were written on rocks & pillars
 All pillar edicts are carved out of Chunar hills and from there they were dispatched
at different places.
 The inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. In North
western region they are written in Prakrit language & Khroshti and Aramaic script.
 In Afghanistan they are written in Aramaic script and Greek language.
 At Sabhazgarhi and Manshera the script is Khroshti
 At Kandhar, the edicts found are bilingual.
Major rock edicts: various principles of dhamma
Minor rock edicts: personal history of Ashoka & summary of his dhamma
Pillar edicts: appendix to rock edits
Contents of Major Rock Edict
1. Prohibition of animal sacrifices & festive gatherings.
2. Measures of social welfare, medical mission sent everywhere.
3. Respect to Brahamanas.
4. Courtesy to relatives, elders, consideration for animals.
5. Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras & their duties.
6. Need for efficient organization of administration (orders to Dhamma Mahamatras).
7. Need for tolerance among all religious sects. “All sects dwell in peace”.
8. System of Dhamma-yatras.
9. Attack on meaningless ceremonies & rituals.
10. Conquest through Dhamma instead of war.
11. Explanation of Dhamma-policy.
12. Appeal for tolerance among all religious sects.
13. Kalinga war, mention five contemporary Hellenic (Greek) kings.
14. Inspiration to spend religious life.
15. 1st separate Rock edict at Dhauli talks about “All subjects are my children”
Origin of the Mauryas
 Buddhist text describe them as Kshatriyas,
 According to Jaina texts Mauryas were neither of higher nor of lower origin
 The Puranas and Bhramanic literature describe them as Shudras.
 ‘Mudrakshasa’ of Vishakhadatta uses the terms like Vrishal or Kulhina
 Justin describes Chandragupta only as a man of humble origin.
 The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (150 AD) has some indirect evidence,
which suggest that the Mauryas may have been of Vaishya origin.
Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 B.C.)
 Chandragupta dethroned the last Nanda ruler Dhananand, he first captured the region of
North West
 Apianus tells us that in 305 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus Nikator at the
bank of river Indus, who surrendered a vast territory including Aria (herat), Arachosia
(Kandhar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) & Paropanisade (Kabul), in return for 500 elephants.
 After the treaty with Selecus Nikator, the boundary of empire reached up-to Hindukush.
 Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by
Selecus Nikator.
 Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelgola
(Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation.
 Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of Northern India was united.
Bindusara: (298 –273 B.C.)
 Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara.
 He is known by different names like Madrasar, Simhasena and Amitrochates
 King of Syria Antiochus I sent his ambassador Diamakus to the court of Bindusara.
Antiochus I asked for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. Wine and figs were sent but
sophists were not.
 Bindusara patronized Ajivika sect.
Ashoka:
The names of Ashoka from different sources are as:
 Ashoka --------------------------------------Maski minor rock edict.
 Devanampriyas Ashoka Rajas ----------Gurjara minor rock edict
 Piyadassi Raja ---------------------------- Barabar cave inscription
 Piyadassi ---------------------------------- Kandhar major rock edict
 Ashoka Maurya -------------------------- Rudradaman’s Junagarh rock edict
 According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers and
spared Tissa, the youngest one.
 This war of succession accounts for interregnum of four years (273-269 BC), and only after
securing his position on the throne, Ashoka had himself formally crowned in 269 BC.
 Radhagupta a minister of Bindusara helped him in fratricidal struggle and capture throne
 The queens of Ashoka were Assandhimitta, Kaurvaki and Padmavati. Devi was his first love
but she never got the status of queen.
 Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the
sub-continent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.
 Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in 9th years of his coronation. The King was
moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in
favor of policy of cultural conquest.
Ashokan Dhamma
 Ashoka’s Dhamma was different from Buddhism.
 Dhamma propagated the tenets of tolerance as well as moral and ethical conducts.
 Its broad objective was to preserve the social order as with the expansion of Mauryan
Empire the population had become heterogeneous, diverse and multi-racial.
 It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist
monks and show mercy to slaves and servants.
 He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven).
Later Mauryas (232 – 185 B.C.)
 The Mauryan dynasty lasted for about 137 years.
 The three Mauryan rulers ruled for 90 years and later Mauryas for only 47 years
 Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts-
Western and Eastern.
 The Western part came to be ruled by Kunala and then by Samprati for a short while.
 Eastern part came to be ruled by Dasaratha.
 The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 185 BC by his commander-in-
chief, Pushyamitra Sunga, who established his own Sunga dynasty.
Mauryan administration
 The Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy with king as fountainhead of
all the powers. However, he was assisted by the council of ministers i.e. mantri parishad.
 According to Kautilya / Chanakya, there are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory):
1. Raja (the king) 5. Kosha (the treasure)
2. Amatya (the secretaries) 6. Sena (Army)
3. Janapada (territory) 7. Mitra (Friend)
4. Durg (fort)
 State during this period actively took part, as well as regulates the trade and commerce.
 The officers were paid salary in cash.
Local and Municipal Administration
 The provinces were divided into districts which were known as Vish or Ahara
 The three officials mentioned in Ashokan edicts i.e. Yukta, Rajjuka and Pradeshika were
associated with the district administration
 The Gramika was the head of village
 Nagaraka was the chief officer responsible for the law and order in the city.
 The municipal administration of the cities was excellent during Mauryan period.
 Megasthenese gives an account of the committee system of administering the
municipalities in the cities. There were 6 committees of five members each.
The functions of these six committees were:
1. Industrial Arts 4. Trade & Commerce
2. Entertainment of Foreigners 5. Public sale of manufactured goods
3. Registration of Births & Deaths 6. Collection of taxes on the articles sold
Economy:
 State took active participation in economy
 Shudras were involved in agriculture for the first time
 Crown land was called Sita
 There were provisions for irrigation by the state
 The normal taxation rate was one sixth of the produce
 The weight and measures were regulated by the states
 Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale & they were collected at gate.
 The state enjoyed monopoly in mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.
 Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.) copper plate inscription & Mahasthana (Bogara
district, Bangladesh) inscription deal with the relief measures to be adopted during a famine.
Army:
 The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was maintenance of a huge army.
 Kautilya permitted all the four varnas to serve in the army
 According to Pliny, Mauryas maintained an army of six lakh soldiers.
 Mauryans also maintained a Navy.
8. Ancient History- Jainism
Causes for the emergence of new religions:
 Complications and ritualism in Hinduism
 Vedic religion had become complex and degenerated into superstitions, dogmas and rituals.
 The sacrifices prescribed by the Vedas became complicated.
 The Vedic mantras were complicated and went beyond the understanding of common man.
 The supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest. They no longer led pure and holy life.
 All the sacred Vedic texts were written in Sanskrit which was the language of the elite and
not the masses.
 The masses could connect with the new sects as Mahavira and Buddha spoke to them in
their language
Jainism:
 It is generally believed that the founder of Jainism was Mahavira. It is now recognized
that Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara.
 The sacred books of Jain tell us that their first Tirthankara was Rishab, the founder of
Jainism. Rishab was followed by 23 Tirthankaras. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat
Purana describe Rishab as an incarnation of Narayana.
 His 4 main teachings were :
i. Not to injure life
ii. Not to tell a lie
iii. Not to steal
iv. Not to possess property
Varadhmana Mahavira:
 Mahavira was born in village Kundagrama in district Muzzaffarpur in a Kshatriya
family in 540BC.
 He was a prince and related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha.
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter called Priyadarsana.
 He became ascetic after the death of his parents.
 For 12 years he practiced extreme mortification.
 During this period he fully subdued his sense. In the 13th year he reached Nirvana under
a Sal tree becoming a Jina and a Kevlin an omniscient at Jhrimbikagrama.
 Fom the remaining 30 years Mahavira moved from one place to another and preached his
religion.
 At the age of 72 he attained Kaivalya (death) at Pavapuri near Patna in 468 BC.
Doctrines of Jainism
 Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines of Parsava and codified the
unsystematic mass of beliefs into an organized and rigid religion.
 He rejected the authority of Vedas and the Vedic rituals.
 He did not believe in the existence of God.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of soul.
Attainment of Nirvana or Moksha was the most important human desire.
It could be attained through Triratnas:
1. Right faith (Samyak Vishwas)
2. Right knowledge (Samyak Jnan)
3. Right conduct (Samyak Karma)
Teachings of Jainism; Jainism taught five doctrines-
1. Non-injury
2. Non-lying
3. Non-stealing
4. Non-possession
5. Observe continence
 It is said that only the 5th doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other four being taken
over by him from previous teachers.
 The Jaina philosophy shows a close affinity to Hindu Samkhya philosophy.
 They ignore the idea of God and accept that the world is full of sorrows and believe in the
theory of karma and transmigration of souls.
Sects of Jainism
Although Parsavanath, the predecessor of Mahavira had asked his follower to cover the upper
and lower portions of their body, Mahavira asked them to discard clothes completely. There
were two sects:
Swetambaras (white clad):
They wore white dress. They were more liberal and supporters of change.
Digambaras (Sky-clad):
They kept themselves naked. They were orthodox and rigid.
Spread of Jainism
 In order to spread the Sects of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order of his followers
which admitted both men and women.
 Since Jainism did not clearly mark itself out from the brahmanical religion it failed to
attract the masses.
 Despite this Jainism gradually spread into south and west India where the brahmanical
religion was weak.
 Chandragupta Maurya spread Jainism in Karnataka.
 Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the 4th century BC and in the 2nd century BC it
enjoyed the patronage of King Kharvela.
 In the south Jainism was patronised by royal dynasties such as Gangas, Kadambas,
Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.
Jain Councils:
 1st council was held at Pataliputra by Sthalabahuin the beginning of the 3rd cent BC
and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.
 2nd Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi
Kshamasramana and resulted in final re-compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
Contribution of Jainism to Indian culture
 Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of Varna order and the
ritualistic Vedic religion.
 The Jain philosophy has certainly enriched Indian thought. The five vows ahimsa, satya,
asateya, aparigraha and brahmacharya are relevant even today.
 The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language and its
literature.
 The Jainas built Bhikshu grihas or cave dwellings for the residence of their monks.
 Innumerable manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were
painted with gold dust.
 These have given rise to a new school of painting known as the Western Indian School.
9. Ancient History- Buddhism
Gautam Buddha:
 Founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC at Lumbini in Kapilvastu in the Sakya
Kshatriya clan.
 Father Suddodhana was the king of Kapilvastu
 Mother Mahamaya was a princess of Kosala dynasty
 Mahaprajapati Gautami was the step mother of Gautama
 He was married to Yasodhara (Princess of Kolli dynasty) from whom he had a son Rahul
 At the age of 29, he renounced home, this was his Mahabhinishkramana (great going forth)
and became a wandering ascetic.
 His first teacher was Alara Kalama. Another teacher was Udraka Ramputra.
 At the age of 35 under a pepal tree at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river Niranjana
(modern name Falgu) attained Nirvana (enlightenment) after 49 days of continuous
meditation
 Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (Deer park) to his five disciples, this is known
as Dharmachakra Pravartana (Turning of the wheel of law)
 Ananda and Upali were his famous disciples
 Sujata was the farmer’s daughter who gave him rice milk at Bodha Gaya
 He died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagar. This is known as Mahaparinirvana
 Eight great places associated with Buddhism are Lumbini, Sarnath, Sravasti, Rajgriha,
Bodh Gaya, Kushinagar, Sankisa and Vaishali. Patliputra is not associated with Buddha
 Ashoka, the greatest patron of Buddhism, he called 3rd Buddhist council & sent mission
comprises of his son Mahendra & his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
 Palas of Bengal & Bihar were last great patrons of Buddhism
Events associated with Buddha’s life
Great Events of Buddha’s Life Symbols

Janma (Birth) Lotus
Mahabhnishkramana (Renunciation) Horse
Nirvana (Enlightenment) Bodhi tree
Drarmachakra pravartana (First Sermon) Wheel
Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa
Buddhist Architecture
(i) Stupa – Relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved.
(ii) Chaitya – Prayer hall
(iii) Vihara – Residence of monks and ascetics
Doctrine of Buddhism
Four Noble Truths
1. This world is full of sufferings
2. Desire is the root cause of sufferings
3. The cessation of sufferings is attainable
4. The cessation of sufferings can be attained by following the “Eight Fold Path”
Eight Fold Path:
1. Right faith 5. Right living
2. Right resolve 6. Right effort
3. Right speech 7. Right thought
4. Right action 8. Right concentration
 The ultimate aim of life is to attain nirvana, the eternal state of peace and bliss,
which means liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
 The world is momentary
 The interesting fact about Buddhist philosophy is that while it believes in cycle of
birth and death it does not believe in the concept of soul.
 “The Middle Path” of Buddhism states that man should avoid both extremes
Triratna i.e. Three Jewels of Buddhism are
i. Buddha
ii. Dharma
iii. Sangha
Buddhist literature:
Milindapanho (i.e. Questions of Milinda): A dialogue between Milinda (identical with
Indo Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist saint Nagasena is the only text in Sanskrit.
Pali Texts
1. Tripitaka: Pitaka literally means ‘basket’ and it was called so, because the original texts
were written on palm-leaves and kept in baskets. Tripatika refers to three commentaries,
these are as:
 Sutta Pitaka – It contain the sayings of Buddha.
 Vinay Pitaka – It contain the monastic code, the most important is Patimoksha
 Abhidamma Pitaka – It consists of the religious and metaphysical discourses of
Buddha
2. Dipavamsha & Mahavamsha – The great chronicles of Sri Lanka.
3. Visshudhimagga by Buddhagosha
Buddhist councils
First Council
The first Buddhist council was held at Rajgriha in 483 B.C. under the patronage of
Ajatshatru. It took place just after the death of Lord Buddha. The compilation of Sutta
Pitak and Vinay Pitak took place during this council.
Second Council
It took place after 100 years of the death of Lord Buddha i.e. 383 in B.C. It took place in
Vaishali under the patronage of king Kalashoka, it was presided by Sabakami. The
schism took place in this council on the issue of rules and discipline. As a result two
groups, Mahasanghika and Therivadi (Sthavirvadin) were formed.
Third Council
It took place in Patliputra under the patronage of Ashoka. It was presided by
Mogliputta Tisa. It is also known as the council of Therivadins. “Katthavattu” was
added to the Abhidhama Patika during this council. However, none of the Ashokan
inscription gives us the information about the council.
Fourth Council
It was held in Kundalgrama in Kashmir. The president of the council was Vasumitra
and the vice president was Ashvagosha. Mahavibhasha, the doctrine of Sravastivadin was
written in Sanskrit in copper plate and enclosed in the stone boxes.
During this council the two sects of Buddhism i.e. Hinayana and Mahayana were formed
officially
Sects of Buddhism
The three sects of Buddhism are Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayan
Hinayana:
 Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.
 They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
 Followers of this do not believe in idol-worship and historicity of Buddha.
 This sect treats Lord Buddha as a teacher and not as the God.
 The literature of this sect is mainly in Pali.
 It is known as ‘Southern Buddhist Religion’, because it prevailed in the South of India,
e.g. Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Syam (Thailand), Java etc.
 There were two sub sects of Hinayana i.e. Vaibhasika and Sautantrika.
Mahayana:
 Its followers believed in the historicity of Buddha.
 They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha & Bodhisatva
 This sect believes in idol-worship.
 This sect treated Buddha as God
 The literature of this sect is compiled in Sanskrit language.
 It is known as ‘Northern Buddhist Religion’, because it prevailed in the North of India,
e.g. China, Korea, Japan, etc.
 There were two sub sects of Mahayana
1. Madhyamika or Shunyavada: Founded by Nagarjuna
2. Yogachar or Vijananavada: Founded by Maitreyanath and his disciple Asanga.
Vajrayana:
 Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power
i.e. Vajra.
 The sect developed in Tibet
 The sect believe in worship of female deities
 The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.
 It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.
10. Ancient History- Post Mauryan

Post Mauryan Period
After the decline of Mauryas, the regional kingdoms were formed.
Unlike Mauryas none of these regional kingdoms could extend their political authority over the
large area equivalent to that of Mauryan Empire. Thus with the downfall of Mauryas their
great empire witnessed rise of multiple regional kingdoms.
The important regional kingdoms:
 Sunga dynasty (185 – 73 BC)
 Kanva dynasty (73 – 28 BC)
 Satvahana dynasty (60 BC – 225 AD)
 Chedi dynasty
 Indo-Greeks:
 Parthians (1st cent BC – 1st cent AD)
 Sakas
 Kushanas (1st cent AD – 3rd cent AD)
Sunga dynasty: (185–73 B.C.)
 Sunga Dynasty was established by Pushymitra Sunga, a Brahmin Commander-in-Chief
of last Mauryan ruler named Brihadratha in 185 BC.
 The capital of Sungas was Videsa in modern Madhya Pradesh.
 Pushyamitra didn’t adopt any royal title and ruled with the name of Senani
 He performed two horse sacrifices (Ashvamedha) and one of these was performed by
Panini, the great grammarian.
 During the reign of Sungas, there was a revival of Brahmanical influence. The Bhagavata
religion became important.
 The great Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut (in M.P.) was built during the reign of Sungas.
 The fine gateway railing which surrounds the Sanchi stupa, built by Ashoka, was
constructed during the Sunga period.
 Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the hero of Kalidasa’s drama
‘Malvikagnimitra’.
 The Greek king Antialcidas-I sent his ambassador named Herodotus to the court of
Sungas. Herodotus constructed a pillar “Garudadhwaja” in the honor of God Vasudeva
 After Agnimitra, a series of weak rulers such as Vasumitra, Vajramitra, Bhagabhadra,
Devabhuti, followed, leading the decline of the dynasty.
Kanva Dynasty: (73 to 28 B.C.)
 In 73 BC, Devabhuti, the last ruler of the Sunga dynasty, was murdered by his minister
Vasudeva, who usurped the throne and founded the Kanva dynasty,
 The dynasty was confined to Magadha only
 The period of Kanva rule came to an end in28 BC when their kingdom was annexed by
Satavahanas.
Satavahana Dynasty: (60 B.C. to 225 A.D.)
 Successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and Central India were the Satvahanas.
 Their capital was Pratishtana or Paithan while Bhrauch was a most important port city.
 The early Satvahana kings appeared not in Andhra but in Maharashtra but most of their
early inscriptions have been found in Andhra.
 Simuka (60 BC – 37 BC) was the founder of the Satvahana dynasty. He was immediate
successor of Ashoka in this region
 Satakarni I, raise the power and prestige of the dynasty by conquests.
 He performed Vedic sacrifices.
 Hala, its 17th ruler, was the author of ‘Gathasaptasati’ or, Sattasai in Prakrit. The text
contains the love lures.
 Satavahanas were finally succeeded by the Vakataka dynasty in Maharashtra and
Ishuvaku dynasty in Andhra Pradesh
 Satavahanas started the practice of donating land with fiscal and administrative rights to
Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, which eventually weakened their authority and resulted
in the rise of feudalism in the later period.
 The earliest inscriptional evidence of land grant in India belongs to 1 st century BC was
during the reign of Satavahanas
 The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit.
 The Satavahanas issued their coins in lead (mainly), copper and bronze.
Chedi Dynasty
 After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty emerged in the Kalinga region, i.e. modern Odisha
 The capital city of this dynasty was Sisupalgarh
 The important ruler of this dynasty was Kharwela.
 Kharvela patronized Jainism and the Hatigumpha inscription gives a reference of his
victories.
The Indo-Greek kings
 Indo-Greeks (Bacterian Greeks) were the first foreign rulers of North-Western India in
the Post-Maurya period.
 The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165 BC – 145 BC), also known as
Milinda.
 His capital was Sialkot
 He is mentioned in the famous Buddhist text Milind-Panaho.
 He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena or Nagarjuna.
 The Indo-Greek kings introduced the regular coinage in India in large number
 The last Indo-Greek king was Hesatrius.
The Sakas:
 The Sakas, also known as Scythians, replaced the Indo-Greeks in India.
 The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman (130 AD -150 AD). He is famous
not only for his military conquests but also for his public works
 He repaired the famous Sudarsan lake of the Mauryan period and gave patronage to
Sanskrit language
 The Junagarh inscription in Gujarat is attributed to Rudradaman is first ever inscription
written in Sanskrit
 In about 58 BC a king of Ujjain, Vikramaditya – is supposed to have fought effectively
against the Sakas. An era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from 58 B.C.
The Parthians: (1st Century BC – 1st Century AD)
 Originally the Parthians (Pahlavas) lived in Iran
 They replaced the Sakas in North-Western India, but controlled an area much smaller
than the Sakas.
 Famous Parthian king was Gondaphernes in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have
come to India from Israel for the propagation of Christianity.
The Kushans (1st to 3rd Century A.D.)
 The Kushans were one of the five Yeu-chi clans of Central Asia.
 They replaced the Parthians in North-Western India and then expanded to the lower
Indus basin and the upper and middle Gangetic basin.
 The Kushans controlled famous silk route starting from China, passing through their
empire on to Iran & Western Asia.
 The dynasty was founded by Kadphises I or Kujul Kadhphises.
 The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale.
 The second king was Kadphises II or Vema Kadphises was the first king who issued the
gold coins.
 The most famous Kushan ruler was Kanishka (78 AD – 101 AD), also known as
‘Second Ashoka’.
 He started an era in 78 AD which is now known as the Saka era and is used officially by
the Government of India.
 The empire of Kanshika was spread over a large area in the portion of five countries i.e.
Russia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and India.
 His capital was Peshawar
 Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism. In his reign 4th Buddhist council
was held in Kundalavana, Kashmir where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of
Buddhism were finalized.
 Kanishka patronized various scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashvagosha, Vasumitra, Parsava,
& Charaka.
 Large size headless statue of Kanishka is found at Mathura
 The last great Kushan ruler was Vasudeva I.
# The three schools associated with sculpture were:
1. Amaravati School (150 BC – 400 AD) –-- Satvahanas
2. Gandhar School (50 BC – 5th Cent AD) – Saka- Kushans
3. Mathura School (150 AD – 300 AD) – ---Saka-Kushans.
 Sunga dynasty ruled from Videsha in Madhya Pradesh
 In 46-47 AD Hippalus, a greek sailor, discovered the monsoon sea-route to India from
West Asia. This gave fillip to the trade with India
11 Ancient History- Guptas
The Age of Guptas:
After the decline of Mauryas, it was Gupta dynasty in Magadha which was able to carve a large
empire. Although the empire was smaller as compared to the Mauryan Empire, yet it consisted
of a greater part of Northern India.
Sources of information
Literary sources:
Various literary sources which provide information about the Guptas are as:
 Nitisar by Kamandaka (belonging to the period of Chandragupta I)
 Devichandraguptam by Vishakadutta
 Mrichachakathika by Sudraka
 Kathasagarsarita by Somdev
 Sawpanwasavdatta by Bhasa
Archeological sources:
Various archeological sources that provide the information about the Guptan age are as follows:
 Allahabad pillar of Samudragupta
 Paharpur copper plates of Buddhagupta
 Poona copper plate of Prabhavatigupta
 The coins belonging to the Gupta period
Political history
 The founder of the dynasty was Sri Gupta. He used the simple title of Maharaja.
 Gupta was succeeded by his son Ghatotkach, who is also styled Maharaja.
Chandragupta – I
 He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja.
 He started the Gupta era i.e. 320 A.D.
 He strengthened his kingdom by matrimonial alliance with the powerful family of
Lichchhavis who were the rulers of Mithila. His marriage to Lichchhvi princess
Kumaradevi, brought an enormous power, resources and prestige. He took advantage of
the situation and occupied the whole of fertile Gangetic Valley.
 After marriage he issued special type of coins called “Chandragupta I-kumaradevi type”.
 Chandragupa I was able to establish his authority over Magadha, Prayaga & Saketa.
Samudragupta (335 – 380 A.D.)
 Samudragupta was the greatest king of Gupta dynasty.
 He took the title Licchichividhutra as his mother was Licchichivi princess
 The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the Prayaga Prasasti
/Allahabad pillar inscription, composed by his court poet Harisena.
 He is also described as a monarch with sharp intellect and polished poetry skills, for this
he is described as Kaviraj
 According to Prayaga Prasasti, he was a great conqueror.
 In the Gangetic Valley & Central India, Samudragupta annexed the territories of the
defeated monarchs, but in South India he remained content with victories alone- he did
not annex the territories of the conquered rulers.
 Smudragupta’s military campaigns justify description of him as the ‘Napoleon of India’
by V.A. Smith.
 Samudragupta was a Vaishnavite.
 According to a Chinese writer, Meghavarna, king of Sri Lanka, sent an embassy to
Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh
Gaya, which was granted.
 Titles: Kaviraja i.e. king of poets (Prayaga Prasasti), Param Bhagavat (Nalanda copper
plate), Ashvamedha-parakrama i.e. whose might was demonstrated by the horse-sacrifice
(coin), Vikram i.e. prowess (coin), Sarva-raj-ochcheta i.e. up rooter of all kings (coin) etc.
 Note: only Gupta ruler whose title was Sarva-raj-ochechhetta.
 Original types of Gold Coins (Dinars): Garud type, Dhanurdhari i.e. Archer type, Axe
type, Ashvamedha type, Vyaghrahanana i.e. Tiger killing types, Veenavadan i.e. lute
playing type.
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya): (380-414 A.D.)
 According to ‘Devi Chandragupta’ (Vishakhadatta), Samudragupta was succeeded by
Ramgupta. It seems Ramgupta ruled for a very short period. He was ‘the only Gupta
ruler to issue copper coins’.
 Chandragupta II extended the limits of empire by matrimonial alliances (with the Nagas
& Vakatakas) and conquests (Western India).
 He married Kubernaga of Naga dynasty and married his own daughter Prabhavatigupta
with Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
 As a result of the overthrow of Saka rule in Western India, the Gupta Empire was
extended up to Arabian Sea.
 He issued the silver coins in the memory of victory over Sakas. He was the first Gupta
ruler to issue silver coins and adopted the titles Sakari & Vikramaditya.
 Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.
 Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during his regime.
 Mehrauli (near Kutub Minar, Delhi) Iron Pillar inscription says that the king defeated
the confederacy of Vangas and Vahikas (Bulkh).
 Navaratna (i.e. nine gems) of Chandragupta II were:
1. Kalidasa
2. Amarsinh (Amarsinhkosha)
3. Dhanavantri (Navanitakam-medicine text)
4. Varahmihira (Panch Sidhantaka, Vrihatsamhit, VrihatJataka, Laghu lataka)
5. Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on Ashtadhyayi)
6. Ghatakarna
7. Kshapranak
8. Velabhatt
9. Shanku
Kumargupta I: 415-455 AD
 Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I.
 He took the titles like Mahindraditya, Mahendra Sinh, & Ashvamedha Mahendrah
 Kumaragupta was the worshipper of god Kartikeya.
 He founded the Nalanda Mahavihara which developed into a great centre of learning.
 Towards the end of his reign, the Gupta Empire was threatened from the North by the
Huns, which was temporarily checked by his son Skandagupta.
 Pusyamitra invaded Guptan region during the reign of Kumargupta I.
Skandagupta: 455-467 AD
 Skandagupta, the last great ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
 During his reign the Gupta Empire was invaded by the Huns.
 He succeeded in defeating the Huns. Success in repelling the Huns seems to have been
celebrated by the assumption of the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
 The continuous attacks of the Huns weakened the empire and adversely affected its
economy. The gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to this.
 The decline of the empire began soon after his death.
 Titles taken were Vikramaditya and Kramaditya (coins), Param Bhagavat (coins),
Sharkropama (Kahaum Pillar Inscription), Devaraja (Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa) etc.
Administration:
 The Gupta administration was akin to that of Mauryas, however it differ from the latter
in the degree of centralization
 For the first time the post of officers became hereditary
 Unlike the Mauryan period the district and local officials were not appointed by the
centre but at the provincial level.
 Gupta administration was, thus, highly decentralized, and as patrimonial bureaucracy
reached its logical conclusion in hereditary grants it reflected the quasi-feudal character
of the economy.
 It comprised a network of self governing tribes and tributary kingdoms and their chiefs
often served as representatives of imperial powers.
 The Gupta king took exalted titles like the Mahadhiraja, Samrat, Ekadhiraja,
Chakravartin, befitting their large empire and imperial status.
Society:
 The Varna system begins to get modified owing to the proliferation of castes. This was
chiefly due to three factors.
 A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into the Indian society primarily as
Kshatriyas.
 There was a large absorption of tribal people into brahmanical society through land
grants. The assimilated tribes were absorbed into the Shudra Varna.
 Guilds of craftsmen were often transformed into castes as a result of the decline of
trade and of urban centers and the localized character of the crafts.
 The gods were activated by their unions with the respective consorts. Thus, Laxmi get
her association with Vishnu and Parvati got her association with Shiva.
 This was the period of evolution of Vajraynism and Buddhist tantric cults.
 Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism from Gupta period onwards
Economy:
 In the Gupta period land survey is evident from the Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta
and many other inscriptions.
 An officer named Pustapala maintained records of all land transactions in the district.
 The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, but in gold content,
Gupta coins are not as pure as Kushanas.
 The Guptas also issued good number of silver coins for local exchange.
 The Gupta copper coins are very few as compared to Kushanas, which show that use of
money, was not the medium of exchange for the common people.
 The increase in land grants resulted in the oppression of peasants as along with the fiscal
rights the administrative rights were also given to the grantees.
 Gupta period witnessed decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade.
 The trade with South-East Asia got an impetus.
 The ports of the East coast were Tamralipti, Ghantashala and Kandura.
 The ports on the western coast were located at Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay.
 The institution of slavery tended to become weak during this period
Culture:
 During the Gupta period the idol worship came into vogue as a result the practice of free
standing temples started for the first time. Prior to this period the shrines were made in
rock cut structures.
 The Nagara Style (Shikhar style) of architecture evolved during this period. The temples
with shikhar and garbha griha (shrine room) in which the image of the god was placed,
begin during this period.
 The examples of temple during this period are Dasavatara temple of Deogarh (Jhansi
distric, UP), Siva temple of Bhumra (Nagod, MP), Vishnu and Kankali temple (Tigawa,
MP), Parvati temple of Nanchana-Kuthwa (Panna district, MP), Shiva temple of Khoh
(Satna, Panna, MP), Krishna brick temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur, UP), Laxman temple
of Sirpur (Raipur, MP), Vishnu temple and Varah temple of Eran (MP).
 The art of paintings and rock cut caves architecture also reached to the finest level.
 Example of these are rock cut caves at Ajanta, Ellora (in Maharashtra) and Bagh (MP)
 The frescoes of the Ajanta caves are the masterpieces of the paintings of this age.
 The centres of the Gandhar sculptures declined and their places were taken by Benaras,
Patliputra and Mathura.
 For the first time we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods.
 Among the best specimen of the images of Buddha is a seated Buddha image of Sarnath,
which depicts the Buddha preaching the Dhamma.
 Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varah) carved
in relief at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.
Literature:
 Some of the old religious books viz. Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, Matsya Puran,
Ramayan, Mahabharata, Manu Smriti were re-written.
 Narada Smriti, Parashara Smriti, Bhrihaspati Smriti and Katyayana Smriti were written
in this period.
 The six philosophies of Hinduism were compiled during this period. (By the end of the
Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established.)
Darshans Authors Year of Original Theme
Beginning Book
Nyaya Gautama 6th BC Nyaya Sutra It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the
material power Maya, with the help of
God, becomes the universe.
Vaisheshika Kanada 6th BC Vaisheshika It aims is to receive happiness in this life
Sutra and finally ultimate liberation through the
attachment of true knowledge of Divine.
Sankhya Kapila 6th BC Sankhya It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to
Sutra eliminate all kinds of physical and mental
pains and to receive liberation.
Yoga Maharishi 2nd BC Yog Sutra It has 4 chapters and accepts three kinds of
Patanjali evidences for determining the aim of life.
Purva Jaimini 4th BC Purva It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme
Mimansa Mimansa and at the same time, the classification of
Sutra its issues.
Vedanta Maharishi 4th BC Uttara It explains that Brahma Sutra is for that
(Uttara Vyasa Mimansa person who has a real deep desire to know
Mimansa) Sutra God. True liberation could only be
attained by lovingly surrendering to Him.
 Buddhist texts Abhidharma Kosha by Dignaga and Vishudhimagga by Buddhghosa were

written during this period.
 The other important literary works which belong to this period are:
CONCISE NOTES ON INDIAN MEDIAVAL HISTORY
THE NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS - THE RAJPUTS
Medieval period
1. Lies between the 8th and the 18th century A.D

2. The Early Medieval period (8th-12th century A.O.)
3. Later Medieval period (12th-18th century)
4. Rajputs who belonged to the early medieval period
5. The Rajput Period (647A.D- 1200 A.D.)
6. The Ancient Indian history came to an end with the rule of Harsha and Pulakesin II
7. From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly in the hands
of various Rajput dynasties.
The popular theories are
1. They are the descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vamsa) or Lord Krishna (Chandra vamsa)
or the Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni Kula theory),
2. They belong to the ancient Kshatriya families,
3. They are foreigners.
There were nearly 36 Rajput' clans. The major clans were
1. The Pratiharas of Avanti.

2. The Palas of Bengal.
3. The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
4. The Rathors of Kanauj
5. The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar
6. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
7. The Paramaras of Malwa
8. The Senas of Bengal
9. The Solankis of Gujarat.
The Rajputs lacked unity and struggled with one another
They also neglected the frontiers of India and gave way for the Muslims to invade India at a later period.
The Pratiharas 8th-11th Century A.D
1. The Pratiharas were also known as Gurjara

2. They ruled over northern and western India from the 8th to the 11th century A.D.
3. Nagabhatta I (725-740.A.D.) was the founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as his capital.
4. Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II played a vital role in consolidating the empire.
5. Mihirabhoja was the most powerful Pratihara king.
6. During his period, the empire extended from Kashmir to Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar.
7. Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.) son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler.
8. He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal
Pratiharas-A bulwark
• The Pratiharas stood as a bulwark of India's defence against the aggression of the Muslims
from the days of Junaid of Sind (725.A.D.) to that of Mahmud of Ghazni
Decline of the Pratiharas
1. Rajyapala was the last Pratihara king.

2. Vast empire was reduced to Kanauj.
3. The Pratihara power began to decline after Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the kingdom in 1018
A.D.
4. After the decline of the Prathiharas their feudatories Palas, Tomars, Chauhans, Rathors,
Chandellas, Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers.
5. There was complete anarchy in Bengal between 750-760 A.D.
Gopala (765-769.A.D.)
1. Restored order and founded the Pala dynasty.

2. Extended his power over Magadha and the Pala dynasty
3. Ruled over northern and eastern India.
Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.)
1. The son of Gopala, succeeded him.

2. He brought Kanauj, Bengal and Bihar under his control
3. Became the master of Northern India after defeating the Pratiharas.
4. He was a staunch Buddhist and founded several monasteries and the famous Vikramasila
University.
5. He also renovated the Nalanda University
Dharmapala's son Devapala (815-855 A.D.)
1. Succeeded him kept the Pala territories intact

2. Captured Assam and Orissa. His successors were weak.
3. During the reign of (998-1038. A.D.) The Palas became powerful again
4. The Pala dynasty started declining after the death of Mahipala.
5. The last Pala king was Govinda Pala
Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj
1. The Pratiharas of Central India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan
wanted to establish their supremacy over Kanauj and the fertile Gangetic Valley.
2. Their Tripartite struggle lasted nearly 200 years and weakened all of them and enabled the
Turks to overthrow them.
The Tomars of Delhi
1. The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.

2. They rose to power and founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D.
3. In 1043 A.D., Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot.
4. The Tomars became the feudatories of the Chauhans when Delhi was captured by them in
middle of the 1 2th century
The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
1. The Chauhans who were the feudatories of the Pratiharas declared their independence in
the 1101 century at Ajmer.
2. In the early part of the 12th century they captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa
and Delhi from the Tomars.
3. They shifted their capital to Delhi.
4. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Prithvtraj Chauhan
Rathors of Kanauj (1090-1194 A.D.)
1. The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to 1194 A.D.
2. Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
3. He was killed in the battle of Chandwar in 1194A.D. by Muhammad of Ghori.
The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
1. Established themselves in the 9th century.

2. The Chandella Chief Yasovarman had his capital at Mahoba.
3. Kalinjar was their important fort.
4. The Chandellas built a number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho, the most famous
being the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (1050 A.D.)
5. Qutb-ud-din Aibak defeated, Paramal the last Chandella ruler in 1203A.D.
The Guhllas or Slsodlyas of Mewar
1. The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya dynasty with its
capital at Chittor
2. During the period of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar,
3. Ala-ud-din khilji invaded his territory and defeated him in 1307 A.D.
4. The Sisodiya rulers - Rana Sangha and: Maharana Pratap gave a tough fight to the Mughal
rulers of India
The Paramaras of Malwa
1. The Paramaras were also the feudatories of Pratiharas. They asserted their independence in
the 10th century and their capital was at Dhara.
2. Raja Bhoja (1018-1069) was the most famous ruler of this period.
3. He constructed a beautiful lake (More than 250 sq. miles) near Bhopal. He set up a college
at Dhara for the study of Sanskrit Literature.
4. The reign of the Paramaras came to an end with the invasion of Ala-ud-din Khilji
Nature of the Rajputs
1. The Rajputs were great warriors and chivalrous by nature.

2. They believed in protecting the women and the weak.
Religion
1. The Rajputs were staunch followers of Hinduism

2. They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism.
3. During their period that the Bhakti Cult started.
Government
1. The Rajput government was feudal in character.

2. Each kingdom was divided into a large number of Jagirs held by the Jagirdars.
Some of the literary works of this period are
1. Kalhana's Rajatarangin
2. Jayadeva's Gita Govindam
3. Somadeva's Kathasaritasagar
4. Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, wrote Prithviraj Raso in which he
refers to the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan.
5. Bhaskara Charya wrote Siddhanta Shinomani, a book on astronomy
Rajasekhara
1. The court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala

2. His best known works were
3. Karpu ramanjari , Bala and Ramayana
Art and Architecture
1. Mural paintings and Miniature paintings became popular during this period.
2. Khajuraho group of temples,
3. Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar
4. The Sun Temple at Konark
5. The Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu
End of the Rajput Power
1. During the Rajput period there were no strong military power

2. To keep the warring princes in check and to co-ordinate their activities against foreign invasions.
Some popular terms
1.Jauhar: Amass suicide of women in order to escape defilement at the hands of foreign victors.
2.Gita Govindam: 'Song of the cowherd
3.Rajatarangini -'River of Kings',
4.Kathasaritasagara -Ocean of tales
THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN
1. The southern part of India is called the Deccan or the Dakshinapatha

2. The Deccan was separated from Northern India by the Vindhya and Satpura mountains, the
Narmada and Tapti and the dense forests
3. The Deccan was separated from Northern India by the Vindhya and Satpura mountains, the
Narmada and Tapti and the dense forests
4. The medieval period witnessed the rise of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan
5. This period also saw the extension of the Delhi Sultanate namely the Khiljis and the
Tughluqs into South India.
The Chalukyas (6th -12th century A.D.)
1. The Early Western Chalukyas -6th-8th century A.D.

2. The Later Western Chalukyas 10th-12th century A.D.
3. The Eastern Chalukyas-7th-12th century.A.D
Early Western Chalukyas (6th-8thcentury A.D.)
1. The Chalukyas rose to power in Karnataka in the 6th century A.D

2. Their capital was Vatapi, (modern Badami) in the Bijapur district
3. Had a humble beginning under Jayasimha and Ramaraya. Pulakesin-I (543-566.A.D)
Real founder
1. Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.)

2. Greatest ruler of this dynasty
3. He defeated Gangas, Malavas and Gurjaras.
4. He successfully opposed Harsha's attack in the north and defeated him in 637 A.D.
5. In the south he was constantly struggling with the Pallavas.
6. Pulakesin II defeated the Pallava King Mahendravarma I after which he crossed the Cauvery
7. Made friendly alliances with the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
8. Made friendly alliances with the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
9. Pulakesin II lost his life during the war.
10. Vikramaditya-I, Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya-ll were the other important rulers of this dynasty
11. The last of the Chalukya Kings of Badami.
Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (10th -12th century A.D)
• The founder of this dynasty brought the Rashtrakuta rule to an end.

The important rulers
1. Someshwara-ll
2. Vikramaditya-VI
3. Vikramaditya-VI
4. Someswara IV was the last ruler
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (7th -12th century A.D)
1. Vishnu Vardhana, a brother of Pulakesin-ll, was the founder of the Eastern Chalukya Empire of
Vengi.
2. One of their descendants namely Kulothunga Chola (1071-1122 A.D.)
3. He was enthroned as a Chola ruler.
Contributions of the Chalukyas
1. The Chalukya kings were the followers of Hinduism.

2. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin-ll who composed the Aihole Inscription was a Jain
3. Great patrons of architecture
4. Built around 70 Vishnu temples in Aihole.
5. Hence Aihole has been called the 'Cradle of Indian Temple architecture
6. Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal
7. Telugu literature developed during this period.
The Virupaksha temple:
• This temple was built by Lokamahadevi.the queen of Vikramaditya 11.In front of the
Hall of the Priests or Antarala there is a pillared Mandapam or a meeting placefor the
people.
• The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kancheepuram.
The Rashtrakutas (8th -10th century A.D.)
1. The period of the Rashtrakuta ascendancy (753-975A.D.) constitutes perhaps the most
brilliant chapter in the history of the Deccan.
2. The Rashtrakutas were the descendants of the Rathors of the North.
3. Kannada was the mother tongue of the Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakutas (background)
1. Means designated officers-incharge of territorial divisions called Rashtras

2. The members of the family were district officers under the early Chalukyas of Badami.
Dantidurga
1. He occupied Ellora in 742 AD and became a feudatory of Kirtivarman of Badami

2. He captured Maharastra, Gujarat and most of the districts of central and northern Madhya
Pradesh.
3. Rashtrakuta territory extended around Nasik in the Northern Deccan with Malkhed as its capital
4. Dantidurga died in 756 A.D. and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I (756-775 A.D.).
Govinda-ll
• Govinda-ll (775- 780 A.D.), the son of Krishna I invaded the kingdom of Vengi and
entered into alliances with the rulers of Gangavadi, Kanchi, Vengi and Malwa
Dhurva
• Dhurva (780-792 A.D.) who succeeded Govinda-ll, was an able ruler

Govinda-lll
• Govinda-lll (792 -81 4 A.D.) was succeeded by his fourteen year old son Amoghavarsha-
I (814-880 A.D).
Krishna lll
1. Krishna lll (936-968 A.D.) was the next famous ruler. He defeated the Cholas at
Takkolam and captured Tanjore.
2. He went as far as Rameshwaram
Karka-ll
• Karka-ll (972-973.A.D.), the last ruler of the Rashtrakutas was defeated by Tailapa-ll, the
Chalukya ruler of Kalyani.
Contributions
Ellora
1. The Ellora caves were excavated during the reign of the Chalukyas and later by the
Rashtrakuta Kings.
2. Hindu .Buddhist and Jain deities are found in these cave temples.
The Kailasanatha
1. World’s largest temple hewn out of a single blocks of rock and is the most imposing
Krishna-I
2. Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.

3. The Elephanta caves near Mumbai were completed by the Rashtrakutas
Amoghavarsha
1. Great patron of literature.

2. He wrote Marga in the Kannada language
Jinasena (teacher of Amoghavarsha)
1. Wrote Parsavaudaya, a biography of Parsava

The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th -14th Century A.D.)
Vinayaditya
2. Vinayaditya (1006 -1022 A.D.) carved out a petty principality of Mysore and ruled over it
with Sosavir as his capital.
3. Vishnuvardhana was the first distinguished ruler of Vinayaditya's family. He shifted his
capital to Dwarasamudra.
4. He captured Gangavadi from Kulothunga Chola.
5. Gangavadi served as a buffer state between the Chalukyas and the Chola Empire.
Vira Ballala – ll
1. Vira Ballala – ll (1173-1220 A.D.)the next important ruler, he defeated Billama V of Yadava
Dynasty.
2. He arrested the independence of the Hoysalas.
Narasimhan-ll
1. Narasimhan-ll (1220-1235 A.D.) lost the territory between Krishna and Tungabhadra to
Singhana, a Yadava ruler.
2. He defeated Maravarman Sundara Pandya and restored Rajaraja-lll to the Chola throne
and he erected the pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.
Ballala III
1. Ballala III (1291-1342 A.D) was the last great ruler of this dynasty. In 1310A.D. he was
defeated by Malik Kafur.
2. He fell a victim to the Sultans of Madurai in 1342 A.D.
Ballala IV
1. His son Ballala IV continued his struggle with the Muslims. With his death the Hoysala
Kingdom came to end.
Contributions
1. Hoysalas paved the way for the rise of Mysore into a big Kingdom.
2. Great patrons of art, architecture and literature.
3. Hoysalas encouraged Kannada literature.
The Kakatiyas of Warangal (12th -14th Century A.D.)
1. Prola-ll (1110 -1158 A.D.) the Kakatiya ruler captured the territory between the
Krishna and the Godavari from the Chalukyas and ruled over it with Hanumakonda as
his capital.
2. His son Prataparudra-I (1158-1196.A.D.) shifted the capital to Warangal.
3. The next remarkable ruler was Ganapathi (1199-1261. A.D.).
4. He captured territories up to Kanchi from the Cholas.
5. He invaded Kalinga and Western Andhra.
Daughter of Ganapati (Rudrambha) (1261 -1291 .A.D.)
1. She abdicated the throne in favour of her grandson Prataparudhra-ll (1291-1326 A.D.).
2. During his rule Malik Kafur invaded Warangal in 1309 A.D.
3. Prataprudra – ll yielded and paid him an immense booty.
Ulugh Khan
1. Ulugh Khan, the son of Ghiasud-din Tughluq captured Warangal in 1323 A.D. and sent
Prataparudra II to Delhi
2. His successors continued their struggle with the rulers of the Tughluq dynasty
3. Vinayakadeva the last nominal ruler of this dynasty was put to death by Muhammad Shah I
KOHINOOR (the famous diamond belonged to Kakatiyas)
• Which was unearthed in Kollur on the banks of the Krishna River belonged to the Kakatiyas.
Contributions
The Kakatiyas encouraged literature, art and architecture
1. The thousand Pillar temple at Hanumakonda stands as an everlasting contribution

THE YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI (12ÿ -14* Century A.D.)
1. The Yadavas of Devagiri claimed their descent from the epic hero Lord Krishna.
2. They were known as Sevunas because they ruled over Sevuna, the region from Nasik to
Devagiri (Daulatabad).
BhjUama-V (1 1 75-11 90 A.D.)
1. The Yadava ruler took advantage of the declining power of the Later Western Chalukyas of
Kalyani,
2. Defeated Someswara-IV and declared his independence.
3. Came into conflict with Vira Balalla-ll (1173-1220A.D.), a Hoysala ruler. In the battle
of Lakkundi, Bhillama V lost his life.
Jaitrapala
1. Bhillama V was succeeded by his son Jaitrapala (1191-1210 A.D.)

2. He defeated Kalachuris, Gurjaras and Kakatiyas.
3. Jaitrapala was succeeded by his son Singhana (1210-1247A.D.)
Singhana
1. He defeated Mahadeva, a Kakatiya ruler.

2. Singhana was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty.
3. He defeated Vira Ballala-ll the Hoysala ruler and extended his dominion beyond the River
Krishna.
4. He invaded Gujarat many times and annexed Kolhapur which belonged to Silhara dynasty.
5. Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krishna (1247-1260 A. D). He was succeeded by
his brother Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D) who annexed north Konkan and put an end to the
Silhara dynasty.
6. Ramachandra Deva (1271-1 309 A.D.) was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
7. Ala-ud-din-Khilji defeated him and made him as a vassal of the Delhi Sultanate.
Sankara Deva (1309 – 1312 A.D.) the son and successor of Ramachandra Deva
1. Malik Kafur defeated and killed him in 1312 A.D.

2. Harapala, brother-in-law of Sankara Deva raised the flag against the Khiljis.
3. Mubarak, son of Ala-ud-din Khilji defeated and killed Harapala. Thus the Yadava dynasty
came to an end.
The Elephanta Caves

The Elephanta Caves were hewn out of rocks by the Rashtrakuta Kings. They are located on a small island near
Mumbai
The Portuguese named it so as they discovered a huge elephant sculpture here. The temple is dedicated to
Lord Shiva and contains many sculptures of gods and goddesses
Contribution of the Yadavas
Devagiri fort
1. Built during the reign of the Yadavas.

2. It was one of the strongest forts in India
3. The Delhi Sultans later added a Juma Masjid and Chand Minar inside it.
End of the Deccan Kingdoms
1. Further the attacks on them by the Sultans of Delhi ever since the rule of Ala-uddin Khilji
led to their decline
ARAB AND TURKISH INVASIONS
1. Prophet Muhammad was the founder of Islam(570-632 A.D)

2. Islam grew up in the deserts of Arabia.
3. Its first converts were the Arabs.
4. Arab conquest of Sind and Multan 712 A.D.
5. Commercial contacts prevailed between India and Arabia for a long time.
6. The Arabs were attracted by the rich ports of Sind
7. They wanted to extend their political and religious control over it.
8. They were angry with the ruler of Sind who failed to check the pirates who plundered them
Muhammad-bin-Qasim
1. Sent by Al-Hajjajj the Governor of Iraq

2. With the permission of Caliph Walid to conquer Sind
3. He marched against Dahir the ruler of Sind
4. Defeated him in the Battle of Rewar and captured Sind
5. He also captured Multan.

6. He got so much of wealth from Multan that he called Multan – ‘The City of Gold’.
Administrative System
1. Muhammad-bin-Qasim divided Sind and Multan into number of Iqtas or districts

2. Arab military officers were appointed as heads of the Iqtas.

3. Local Hindu officers were allowed to administer the sub¬ divisions of the districts.
4. The Arabs imposed Jizya on non- Muslims.
5. Muhammad-bin-Qasim had an army of 25,000 troops including 6000 Syrian horses,
6000 Camels, 3000 Bactrian Camels
6. An artillery force of 2000 men with five catapults and advanced guards.
End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim
1. Caliph Sulaiman, succeeded Caliph Walid after his death.

2. He was an arch enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq.
3. He dismissed Muharrimad-bin Qasim as he was the son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj.
4. He sent him as a prisoner to Mesopotamia and tortured him to death.
5. Sind and Multan remained as part of the Caliph's empire for more than 150 years.
Effects of Arab Conquest
1. The conquest of Sind sowed the seeds for the coming of Islam into India.
2. The Arabs learnt the art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and
architecture from our land.
3. Indian Philosophy, numerals and astronomy were taken to Europe by the Arabs.
Turkish Invasion
1. The Expansion of Turks into India

2. The Turks got the upper hand over the Caliphs of Baghdad in the 8th and 9th centuries
3. They completed the work begun by the Arabs and extended their dominion beyond Sind and
Multan into India.
Heroic Defence of Women
Rani Bai
The wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defence within the Fort of Rewar.
When their attempt failed they performed Jauhar to save their chastity and escape from the hands of the
invaders.
Indian impact
Brahma Siddhanta
A Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into Arabic. Arabic works mention the names of
Indian scientists like Bhala, Manaka and Sindbad. Dhana was appointed as a chief Medical officer in
a hospital at Baghdad Manaka, a physician cured a serious disease of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.
Mahmud of Ghazni
1. He invaded India in 1000 A.D

2. He was the first Turkish invader
3. Mahmud defeated Jaipala,
4. The ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty
5. Fateh Daud of Multan and Anandpala of Nagarkot
6. He also crushed the Chandelas. The rulers of Mathura, Kanauj and Gwalior.
7. Returned to Ghazrii with enormous wealth
8. Mahmud's important expedition in Hindustan was against the Somnath temple in 1025 A.D.
9. This was situated on the coast of Kathiawar
10. As the ruler of Kathiawar, Raja Bhima Dev, and his followers fled from the place,
Estimate of Mahmud of Ghazni
1. Mahmud of Ghazni was one of the greatest Muslim rulers of Asia.

2. He was a great patron of art and letters and he patronised scholars like Firdausi and Alberuni
End of Ghazni's rule in India
1. By 1186 A.D. the power of the House of Ghazni declined and that of Ghori rose up.
Muhammad of Ghori
2. Muhammad was the third important Muslim invader of Hindustan.

3. He became the ruler of Ghori
His invasions
1. As an ambitious and enterprising ruler

2. Started his attacks on India in 1176 A.D
First Battle of Tarain (1191A.D.)
1. In 1189 A.D. Muhammad of Ghori captured the fortress of Bhatinda and advanced into the
kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan
2. Prithviraj marched against him with a large force and defeated Muhammad of Ghori in the
Battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D
3. Prithviraj also recovered Bhatinda, which was earlier occupied by Mahmud of Ghazni
Second Battle of Tarain (11 92 A.D.)
1. He gave a crushing defeat to the combined forces of the Rajput rulers under Prithviraj at Tarain.
2. Prithviraj was imprisoned and later put to death
3. The Second Battle of Tarain marked the beginning of the Turkish rule in the heart of
Hindustan for the first time in Indian history
4. Muhammad of Ghori appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his commander.

Rajput Uprisings
1. Between 1193 and 1198 A.D. there were many Rajput uprisings
2. Qutb-ud-din Aibak put them down and brought many of their territories under his control
3. Delhi was made the capital of Muhammad of Ghori's territory in India.
Battle of Chandwar (1194 A.D.)
1. Muhammad of Ghori marched against Jaichandra, the greatest Rajput ruler of Kanauj
2. Jaichand was struck in the eye by an arrow and he was killed by Muhammad of Ghori
Conquest of Bengal and Bihar
1. Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, one of the commanders of Muhammad of Ghori

2. Destroyed Vikramasila and Nalanda Universities in 1202-1203A.D
Death of Muhammad of Ghori
1. Muhammad of Ghori went back to Ghazrii in order to check his Central Asian enemies.
2. While he was engaged in evening prayer, he was assassinated on 25th March 1206A.D. by
some Shia rebels and Khokhars
3. Muhammad of Ghori was considered to be the real founder of the Turkish Empire in India
because of his various conquests and annexations of the Rajput territory in North India.
SULTANATE OF DELHI
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Sultanate period.
MAMALUK DYNASTY Qutb-ud-dinAibak (1206-1210A.D.)
1. The rule of Qutb-ud-din Aibak the commander of Muhammad of Ghori marked the
beginning of the Mamaluk rule
2. He assumed sovereign powers on 24th June 1206 A.D.
3. He did not issue coins or read the khutba in his name.
4. He was the founder of the Turkish dominion in India.
5. Mamaluk was the Quranic term for a slave
His immediate task
1. To prevent Ala-ud-din Muhammad, the Shah of Khwarizm from occupying Ghazni and Delhi
2. To prevent the Rajputs from recovering their principalities.
3. To put down Ali Mardan Khan of Bengal, Qubacha and Yalduz.
An Estimate of Qutb – ud - din
1. He built Quwat-ul-lslam mosque at Ajmer

2. Dhai Dinka Jhonpara mosque at Delhi.
3. He started the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi.
4. He also patronized Hassan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir
5. He was called as Lakh Baksh or Giver of Lakhs for his generosity.
Iltutmish (1211 -1236 A.D.)
1. Born in the llbari tribe of Central Asia.

2. As a boy he was sold as a slave to Qutb-ud-dinAibak.
3. Aibak made him as his son-in-law.
4. He killed Aram Shah, the son of Aibak and became king in 1211A.D.
Conquest of Iltutmish
1. Iltutmish was surrounded by enemies on all sides.

2. As Yalduz considered himself to be the successor of Muhammad of Ghori, Iltutmish defeated
him and put him to death.
3. He captured Bhakkar, where Qubacha took shelter. Bengal was also brought under his control.
4. Iltutmish put down the revolt of the Khilji Maliks of Bengal in 1230 A.D.
5. Iltutmish refused to give shelter to Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the Shah of Khwarizm
6. This pleased Chengiz Khan and so he did not invade India.
7. In Rajputana, Iltutmish recaptured Ranthambore and Mandor. He defeated Udai Singh.
8. Iltutmish re-established his authority over Badaun, Kanauj, Benaras and Katchar-the
doab region between the Ganga and the Yamuna
9. Qutb Minar was built in honour of Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Baktiyar kaki who died in
Delhi. The construction started by Aibak was completed by Iltutmish
End of Iltutmish
1. Iltutmish undertook an expedition against Bamiyan

2. He nominated his daughter Raziah as his successor before his death.
Administration
1. Iltutmish set up Iqtas under Iqtadars.

2. The army was maintained by 'A Corps of Forty' or Chahalgan.
3. He was the first Turkish ruler to introduce Arabic coinage.
Estimate
1. He completed the work of Aibak.

2. He built up the Turkish Kingdom in North India.
Coins of iltutmish
1. The silver tanka of Iltutmish weighed 175 mgs and had an Arabic inscription on it.
2. Iltutmish also introduced copper Jital.
Sultana Raziah (1236-1240 A.D.)
1. Raziah was the first woman ruler of Sultanate period.

2. She defeated and killed Firoz Shah who ascended the throne after the death of Iltutmish.
3. She successfully restored the prestige of the Turkish Kingdom in India.
4. Her rule ended in 1240A.D. because of a conspiracy by the Turkish nobles
5. The successors of Raziah were weak and hence Balban rose to power in 1265A.D.
Successors of Raziah
1. Bahram Shah 1240-1242A.D

2. Alaud-din Masid 1242-1246A.D
3. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud 1246 -1264A.D.
.
Balban 1265-1 287A.D.
1. Balban (1265-1 207 A.D.)

2. Balban an llbari Turk became the ruler in 1265A.D.
3. He believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
4. He introduced Poibos- a form of salutation to the king by kissing his feet in the court.
5. According to Lanepoole, "Balban, a slave, water carrier, huntsman, general, statesman and
Sultan-is one of the most striking figures among the notable men in the long line of Kings
of Delhi".
Internal policies
1. Balban curtailed and destroyed the 'Corps of Forty'

2. He introduced a well organised spy system.
3. A separate military department called Diwan-i-arz was established.
4. Many military posts were set up at Bhojapur, Patiali, Kampil and Jalali
Divine right Theory
The ruler was considered as a representative of God on earth.
5. Balban suppressed Tughril Khan,

6. Who declared his independence and recovered Bengal.
7. Balban was a great patron of learning
8. He patronized Amir Khusrau who is called as the 'Parrot of India' and Amir Hasan.
End of Balban
1. He was shocked when his son Mahmud was killed during an encounter with the Mongols.
2. He never recovered from the sorrow and died in 1287A.D.
End of the Mamaluk Dynasty
1. Balban was succeeded by Kaiqubad his grandson who was very incompetent.
2. The nobles made Kayumar, the infant son of Kaiqubad as ruler.
3. Jalal-ud-din Khilji, the commander of Balban became the regent of the infant king.
4. He killed Kaiqubad and Kayumar and became the ruler of Delhi.
KHILJI DYNASTY
Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 A.D.)
1. He followed the policy of peace after he became the ruler.

2. He wanted to rule without bloodshed.
3. Hence, he was called as Clemency Jalal-uddin.
Domestic Policies
1. Jalal-ud-din suppressed a revolt by Malik Chhajju at Kara.

2. He appointed his nephew and son-in law Ala-ud-din Khilji as the Governor of Kara.
Mongol Invasion
1. Jalal-ud-din defeated and arrested the Mongols who tried to advance up to Sunam in 1292 A.D.
End of Jalal-ud-din
1. Jalal-ud-din's policy of peace was not liked by the young Khiljis.

2. Ala-ud-din Khilji the son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din treacherously murdered him
Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.)
Ala-ud-din Khilji ascended the throne in 1296A.D.
Conquests in the North
1. Ala-ud-din Khilji sent a strong army under his generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan
to conquer Gujarat and they succeeded in doing so
2. Ranthambore was captured and its ruler Hamir Deva was killed.
3. Chittor, Malwa, Mandu, Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi, Marwar and Jalor were also captured.
Conquest in the South
1. Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Sultan who invaded South India.
2. He sent his most trustworthy general, Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south.
3. Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava ruler of Devagiri, Prataprudra-ll of Warangal and Vira
Ballala-lll, the Hoysala ruler were defeated
4. He reached as far as Rameswaram and built a mosque there.
NOTES
NOTES ON INDIAN MEDIAVAL HISTORY
5. The kingdoms of the south accepted the over lordship of Ala-uddin khilji and agreed to pay
tribute to him.
The Mongol Invasion
• Ala-ud-din successfully repelled the Mongol invasion more than a dozen times.
Domestic Policies of Ala-ud-din Khilji
1. Ala-ud-din believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.

2. He introduced four ordinances to prevent frequent rebellions.
3. He confiscated religious endowments
4. Free grants of lands
5. Reorganized the spy system,
6. Prohibited social parties and use of wine
7. A permanent standing army was organized by Ala-ud-din.
8. Introduced the system of branding of horses and descriptive roll of individual soldiers to
prevent corruption.
9. The prices of essential commodities were fixed which less than the usual market rates was.
10. Black marketing was strictly prohibited.
11. Revenue was collected in kind and not in cash.
12. Revenue was collected in kind and not in cash.
13. He followed a harsh policy towards the Hindus.
14. Jizya, grazing tax and house tax were imposed on them.
Marketing System
Officers like Diwan-i-riyasat an Shahana-i-mandi
Appointed to regularize the market
All merchants were required to register themselves in the office of the Shahana-i-Mandi and sell their goods at
fixed rates.
An Estimate
1. Ala-ud-din was the first to raise a standing army,

2. He built Alai Darwaza,
3. Fort of Siri and the Palace of a thousand pillars.
End of the Dynasty
1. Ala-ud-din died in 1316A.D

2. Due to weak successors like Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.)
3. Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320A.D.)
4. Finally in 1320 A.D. a group of nobles led by Ghazi Malik, the Governor of Punjab,
5. Invaded Delhi and captured the throne.
6. Ghazi Malik assumed the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq and founded a new line of
rulers at Delhi known as the Tughluq Dynasty.
Tughluq Dynasty
• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughluq dynasty.
Domestic and Foreign Policies
1. Ghiyas-ud-din restored order in his empire. Lot of importance was given to agriculture,
NOTES
irrigation, judicial, police and postal arrangements.
2. From a humble origin he ascended the throne by his ability and hard work in 1320A.D.
3. Warangal, Utkala or Orissa and Bengal were brought under his control
4. He captured and imprisoned the Mongol leaders who invaded North India.
End of his rule
1. While attending a reception for his victories at Bengal the pavilion

2. On which he stood gave way and Ghiyas-ud-din was crushed to death in 1325 A.D.
3. The crown prince Junakhan succeeded him.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1361A.D.)
1. Prince Junakhan took up the title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq in 1325 A.D.

2. He stood for political and administrative unity of India.
3. He captured Warangal in 1327A.D.
Domestic Policies
1. Mohammed-bin-Tughlug raised the taxes in the Doab region to fill up his empty treasury.
2. To avoid heavy taxes the people ran away to the forests.
3. As cultivation was neglected severe famines occurred
4. In order to protect his capital, he transferred his capital from Delhi to Devagiri
5. He ordered both the government officials and the common people to shift to Devagiri.
6. Due to practical difficulties he ordered them to return back to Delhi
7. Copper currency system was introduced by the Sultan.
8. The value of coins fell so low that the Sultan withdrew the copper token currency
9. Mohammed-bin-Tughluq raised an army of 3, 70,000 men in order to conquer Tranoxiana,
Khurasan and Iraq.
10. Mohammed-bin-Tughluq's policy of giving huge presents to Tamashirin, the Mongol leader,
to avoid a Mongol invasion was a great burden on his exchequer.
11. The domestic policies of Mohammed-bin-Tughluq were good but his operative measures
ended in a failure.
12. His character of taking hasty decisions and inoperative policies were responsible for the
decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
Firoz Tughluq (1 351-1 388 A.D.)
• Firoz Tughluq, the son of the younger brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq ascended the
throne in 1351A.D.
Administrative Reforms
1. He cancelled all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughluq.

2. He increased the salary of the revenue officers.
3. Unlawful and unjust cesses were abolished.
4. He excavated many irrigation canals, constructed 50 dams, 150 wells and 100 bridges.
5. He built the towns like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.
6. Firoz prohibited all kinds of mutilations and torture.
7. He imposed Jizya on the Brahmans.
8. An Employment Bureau, Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-kherat) and hospitals (Dar-ul-
shafa) were established.
9. Diwan-i-lstibqaq was established to give financial help to the poor.
Foreign Policy
1. In 1353A.D. and 1359A.D. Firoz besieged Bengal.

NOTES
2. He captured Jainagar and destroyed the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
An Estimate
1. Firoz proved his greatness by

2. His benevolent reforms and contributed to the material prosperity of his people.
3. The Sultan himself wrote his autobiography called Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.
4. He patronized the scholar Zia-ud-din Barani
5. During his period a number of Sanskrit books on medicine, science and arts were
translated into Persian.
6. Kutab- Feroz Shahi was a book which dealt with Physics
LaterTughluqs
1. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah II, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughluq were the
successors of Firoz.
2. They were not very strong and powerful.
3. By the end of the fourteenth century, most of the provinces under them became independent.
4. Punjab and Delhi alone remained in the hands of the Tughluqs.
5. It was during their period that the invasion of Timur took place.
Timur's invasion (1398 A.D.)
1. The ruler of Samarqand, Timur was attracted by the fabulous wealth of Hindustan.
2. He invaded India during the period of Nasir Mahmud Tughluq.
3. Occupied Delhi in 1398 A.D. Timur inflicted untold miseries on the people by
plundering and massacring them
THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 A.D.)
1. Khizr Khan (14 14- 142 1 A.D.) the Governor of Multan took advantage of the chaotic
conditions in India after Timur's invasion occupied the throne of Delhi in 1414 A.D.
2. Khizr Khan, the founder did not assume any royal title.
3. Though he brought Punjab, Dilapur and parts of Surat under his control,
4. He lost Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, Khandesh, Bengal and Deccan.
5. He died in 1421 A.D
6. And was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.)
Mubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.
28
NOTES
1. He suppressed the Khokhars and the local chiefs of the Doab region.
2. For the first time Hindu nobles were appointed in the court of Delhi.
3. He built a city called "Mubarakbad" on the banks of the river Jamuna.
4. Mubarak's nephew, Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 A.D.) succeeded him.
5. He put down the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlol Lodi the Governor of Lahore
6. For the help rendered by Bahlol Lodi he was conferred with the title Khan-iKhanan
7. Muhammad Shah was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Shah (1 445-1457 A.D.).
8. He was a very feeble ruler.
9. Bahlol Lodi the Governor of Lahore occupied Delhi in 1457A.D. and allowed Ala-ud-din
Shah to retire to Badaun where he died in 1478 A.D.
LODI DYNASTY Bahlol Lodi {1451 -1489 A, D.)
1. The Lodi Dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodi.

2. It was the last of the ruling dynasties of the Sultanate period.
3. He was a shrewd politician who clearly realized his limitations.
4. He always took steps to satisfy his nobles.
5. He conquered Mewat, Samthal, Sakit, Etawa and Gwalior. Hediedin 1489A.D.
6. Bahlol Lodi did not take his seat on the throne but sat on the carpet in front of the throne
along with his nobles in order to get their recognition and support.
Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.)
1. Bahlol's son Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.) ascended the throne under the title of Sikandar
Shah.
2. He built the city of Agra which became an important administrative and cultural center of the
Lodi's.
3. He organized an efficient spy system.
4. He improved agriculture and industry.
5. He enjoyed "Shehnai "music. A reputed work on music titled "Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi was
prepared during his reign.
6. He was an orthodox Muslim and put serious restrictions on the Hindus.
End of Lodi Dynasty
1. Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526 A.D.) succeeded Sikandhar Lodi. He was an uncompromising and
intolerant ruler.
2. Ibrahim Lodi humiliated many of his nobles and killed some of them cruely.
3. Dilwar khan Lodi the son of Daulat khan Lodi was treated cruely by Ibrahim Lodi.
4. In order to take revenge on him, Daulat khan Lodi invited Babur the ruler of Kabul
5. Babur accepted his invitation, invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of
Panipat in 1 526 A. D.
Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
1. The Sultanate of Delhi which extended from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D., for a period of about 320
years
2. A Theocratic as well as a Military State.
3. Administration was based on Islamic laws.
NOTES
Ministers to Sultan
1. Wazir : Prime Minister and Finance Minister
2. Diwani-I-Risalt Foreign Affairs Minister.
3. Sadr-us-Suddar
Minister of Islamic Law.
4. Diwan-l-lnsha
Correspondence Minister
5. Diwan-I-Ariz
Defence or War Minister

2. Qazi-ul-quzar Minister of Justice
Central Administration
1. The Sultan was the head of the empire. He enjoyed vast powers.
2. Many officials were also appointed to take care of the administration.
Provincial Administration
1. The empire was divided into several Iqtas.

2. Iqtas were administered by Iqtadars
3. Iqtas were divided into smaller units called Shiqqs, Parganas and the Villages.
4. Important officials of the Pargana were the Amil or Munsif,
Local Administration
1. The village was the smallest unit of administration.

2. Local hereditary officers and the Panchayats in each village carried out the village
administration.
3. The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc.
4. The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration.
Revenue Administration
• Land revenue was the main source of income.

Judicial Administration
1. The Sultan was the highest judicial authority.

2. Qazi-ul-quzar was the Chief Judicial officer.
3. There was a Quazi in every town.
4. Usually severe punishments were given to the criminals.
Military Administration
NOTES
1. The Sultan was the Commander of the army

2. The four divisions of the army were the Royal army, Provincial or Governor's army, Feudal
army and War Time army.
Social life of the Sultanate period
• The important characteristic of the society was the division of people on the basis of their
nationality
• Foreign Muslims, Indian Muslims and Hindus.
Economic conditions of the people
1. The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry

2. Textile industry was the primary industry.
3. Sugar industry, paper industry, metal work, stone cutting, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works
were the other industries of this period.
Textiles
1. Indian textiles were in great demand in foreign countries.

2. Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics.
3. Cotton, woollen and silk of different varieties were produced in large quantities.
4. The clothes were studded with gold, diamonds, pearls, silver and stones
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE DELHI SULTANATE
1. Delhi Sultans had a genius for architecture.

2. There was a blend of Indian and Islamic styles
3. Qutubminar, Quwat-ul-lslam mosque,the tombs of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad and Balban were

built by the Mamaluk rulers.
4. Siri the new town in Delhi
5. Dargah of Hazrat Nizam - ud - din Aulia
6. The Alai Darwaza belonged to Khilji period
7. The rulers of Tughluq period did not give importance to ornamentation.
8. Their buildings were solid and strong
9. The Lodi Garden and Moti Masjid in New Delhi and the tomb of Sikandar Lodi are some
examples of Lodi architecture.
Literature
Great scholars namely
• Alberuni,
• Amir Khusrau
• Zia-ul-Barani
Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic. Urdu language originated during the Sultanate period.
Scholars of sultanate period
1. Alberuni an Arabic and Persian Scholar served under Mahmud of Ghazni

2. He learnt and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.
3. He was impressed by the Upanishadsand BhagavatGita
4. In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind,
5. Referred to the socio-economic conditions of India
6. Amir Khusrau was a great Persian poet
7. He is said to have written four lakh couplets.
NOTES
8. He was a great singer and was given the title 'Parrot of India'.
Impact of Turkish Conquest
1. The Turkish conquest of India had its impact on various fields.

2. It paved the way for a centralized political organization.
3. It restored contacts with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa.
4. A permanent army was established.
5. Trade developed due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency.
6. Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in administration.
Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate
The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq period.
1.
The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of the Sayyid
2.
and Lodi rulers led to the crumbling of the Delhi Sultanate.
3. The first to break free from Delhi in the South were the rulers of the Vijayanagar and
Bahmani Kingdom.
4. Khandesh, Bengal, Sind, Multan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jauripur, Kashmir, Assam and Orissa
also asserted their independence.
5. Further the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. by Babur
ended the Lodi dynasty Brought the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in India.
THE VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANl KINGDOMS
After the reign of Muhammed-BinTughluq. Bengal and Multan were the first to break away from Delhi.
The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1 672 A.D.)
1. Harihara and Bukka served under the Hoysala King Vira Ballala III
2. They founded the city of Vijayanagar on the southern banks of Tungabhadra in 1336 A.D.
3. Their capital was Hampi.
Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties namely
1. Sangama
2. Saluva
3. Tuluva
4. Aravidu.
Harihara I
1. Harihara I became the ruler in 1336 A.D.

2. He captured Mysore and Madurai.
3. He was succeeded by Bukka-I in 1356 A.D.
KRISHNADEVA RAYA (1509-1529 A.D.)
1. Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the Vijayanagar Empire
2. According to Domingo Paes a Portuguese traveller
NOTES
3. "Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be".
CONQUESTS
1. He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D

2. Orissa and Warangal in 1523 A.D.
3. His empire extended from
4. The river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south
5. Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east
Contributions
1. An able administrator.
2. He constructed large tanks and canals for irrigation purposes.
3. He improved the naval power as he understood the importance of overseas trade.
4. He maintained friendly relationship with the Portuguese and Arab traders and increased the
revenue of his government.
5. Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar.
Ashtadiggajas
A group of eight scholars adorned his court. Allasani Peddanna, Nandi
Thimmana, Tenali Rama, Bhattu,Murthy, Puna Vira Bhadra,Dhurjathy, Mallana and Panaji ,Surana.
6. He was a patron of art and architecture.

7. The Vijaya nagar Empire reached its zenith of glory during Krishnadeva Raya's period.
BATTLE OF TALIKOTA (1 565 A.D.)
1. The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak

2. During the rule of Ramaraya,
3. The combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar declared war on Vijayanagar.
4. Ramaraya was defeated. He and his people were mercilessly killed.
5. Vijayanagar was plundered and left in
ruins The Glories of the Vijayanagar Empire
Administration
1. Well organized administrative system.

2. The king was the fountain head of all powers in the state.
3. There was a Council of Ministers to assist the King in the work of administration.
4. The Empire was divided into six Provinces.
5. Each Province was under a Governor called Naik
6. The Provinces were divided into districts which were further divided into smaller
units namely Villages.
7. The administration of the villages through its hereditary officers like accountants, the
weightsmen, watchmen and officers incharge of forced labour.
NOTES
Mahanayakacharya
The Central administration maintained contact with the villages through an officer called Mahanayakacharya.
The Army
1. The army consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephantry.

2. The commander-in-chief was in charge of the army.
Revenue Administration
1. Land revenue was the main source of income

2. The land was carefully surveyed and taxes were collected based on the fertility of the soil.
3. Great attention was paid to agriculture and the construction of dams and canals.
Judicial Administration
1. The king was the supreme judge.

2. Severe punishments were inflicted on the guilty.
3. Fines were collected from those who violated the law.
Position of Women
1. Women occupied a high position and took an active part in political, social and literary
life of the empire
2. They were educated and trained in wrestling
3. In the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in music and fine arts
4. Some of them received education of high order.
5. Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers
Social life
1. The society was well organized.

2. Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent.
3. The kings allowed freedom of religion
Economic conditions
1. Led by their irrigational policies. Numerous industries such as Textiles, mining,

metallurgy and perfumery existed.
2. They had commercial relations with, the islands in the Indian Ocean,
3. The Malay Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia, Portugal
Contribution to Architecture and Literature
1. The Hazara Ramasami temple

2. Vittalaswamy temple
3. The bronze image of Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece
4. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literature were developed.
5. Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas.
6. Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu
7. His Sanskrit works were Usha Parinayam and Jambavathi Kalyanam.
NOTES
Decline of the Empire
1. The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak and incompetent.

2. Taking advantage of their weakness the provincial governors became independent.
3. The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda annexed some areas of Vijayanagar.
THE BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1 526 A.D.)
The Bahmani kingdom was the most powerful Muslim kingdom
Political History
1. The founder of this dynasty was Hasan Gangu Bahmani.

2. He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri.
3. He established the independent Bahmani kingdom in 1347 A.D.
4. His kingdom stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal
5. Included the whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna with its capital at Gulbarga
Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1377.A.D.)

1. The next ruler was an able general and administrator.
2. He defeated Bukka-I the ruler of Vijayanagar and Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal.
Muhammad Shah-ll (1378-1397.A.D.)
1. Ascended the throne in 1378 A.D.

2. He was peace loving and hence he developed friendly relations with his neighbours
3. He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals
Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.)
1. He was a great genera

2. He defeated Deva Raya I, the Vijayanagar ruler.
Ahmad Shah (1422-1435 A.D.)
1. Succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani

2. He was a cruel and merciless ruler
3. He conquered the kingdom of Warangal and changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
4. He died in 1435A.D.
Muhammad Shah-lll (1463-1482 A.D.)
1. He became the Sultan at the age of nine in 1463A.D.

2. Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
3. Under his able guidance the Bahmani kingdom became very powerful
4. Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Sangameshwar, Orissa and Vijayanagar.
NOTES
Muhammad Gawan
He was a very wise scholar and able administrator.
He improved the administration, organized finances, encouraged public education,
Reformed the revenue system, disciplined the army and eleminated corruption.
Muhammad Gawan fell a victim to the jealousy of Deccan Muslims.
He was falsely accused by them and so was persecuted and sentenced to death in 1481 by Muhammad Shah
III.
The Five Muslim Dynasties
Muhammad Shah-lll died in 1482
His successors were weak and the Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five kingdoms namely
1. Bijapur
2. Ahmednagar
3. Bera
4. Golconda
5. Bidar
Administration
The Sultans followed a Feudal type of administration

1. The kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs
2. Each Taraf was under a Governor called Tarafdar or Amir.
Golgumbaz
Golgumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering gallery.
This is so, because when one whispers in one corner, a lingering echo is heard in the opposite corner.
Contribution to Education, Art and Architecture
1. The Bahmani Sultans gave great attention to education. They encouraged Arabic and Persian
learning.
2. Urdu also flourished during this period
3. Numerous mosques, madarasas and libraries were built
4. The Juma masjid at Gulbarga,
5. The Golconda fort
6. The Golgumbaz at Bijapur
7. The Madarasas of Muhammad Gawan
8. Decline of Bahmani Kingdom
9. The constant wars between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers,
NOTES
10. Inefficient and weak successors of Muhammad Shah III
11. Rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles were a few causes for the
downfall of the Bahmani kingdom.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
1. Bhakti movement in medieval India is a different kind. This medieval Bhakti movement was
the direct result of the influence of the spread of Islam in India.
2. The preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of Bhakti reformers like Ramananda,
Kabir and Nana
Sufism
1. Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam.

2. It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the eleventh century.
3. The first Sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore started preaching his ideas
4. Most famous of the Sufi saints of India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in
Ajmer which became the centre of his activities.
5. He had a number of disciples who are called Sufis of the Chishti order
6. Another well-known Sufi saint was Bahauddin Zakariya who came under the influence
of another famous mystic Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
7. His branch of Sufi saints was known as the Sufis of the Suhrawardi Order.
8. Yet another famous Sufi saint was Nizamuddin Auliya who belonged to the Chishti order and
who was a mighty spiritual force.
9. Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realisation of God
10. Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was
tantamount to service to God.
11. In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God
by sense of perception
12. While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct
13. The Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
14. While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals,
15. The Sufis consider love and devotion as the only means of attaining salvation
16. Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers
17. Ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins,
performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions
by ascetic practices.
18. These liberal and unorthodox features of Sufism had a profound influence on medieval Bhakti
saints
Bhakti Movement
1. In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new
orientation to Hinduism.
2. He was born in Kaladi in Kerala
3. His doctrine of Advaita or Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common man.
4. There was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without
attributes) with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes)
5. In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai,
preached Visishtadvaita.
6. According to him God is Sagunabrahman.
7. He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God
8. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism
NOTES
9. The thirteenth century, Madhava
from Kannada region propagated Deviator dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
10. According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality.
11. God, soul, matter are unique in nature.
12. Nimbarkaand Vallabhacharyawere also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telungana
region
13. Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya and he popularized Krishna cult in north India
14. Mirabai was a great devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans.
15. Tulsidaswas a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi
version of Ramayana
16. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak remained great
apostles of the Bhakti cult.
17. They helped the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation through
Bhakti or pure devotion.
18. They helped the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation through
Bhakti or pure devotion.
19. Denounced all forms of idolatry.
Ramananda
1. Ramananda was born at Allahabad.

2. He was originally a follower of Ramanuja.
3. Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.
4. He was the first to employ the vernacular medium to propagate his ideas.
5. He was the first to employ the vernacular medium to propagate his ideas.
6. He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society disregarding
caste
His disciples were:
a) Kabir
b) Raidasa, a cobbler
c) Sena, a barber
d) Sadhana
e) Dhanna, a Jat farmer
f) Naraharai, a goldsmith
g) Pipa, a Rajput prince
Kabir
1. Among the disciples of Ramananda the most famous was Kabir

2. Among the disciples of Ramananda the most famous was Kabir
3. But he was brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession
4. He possessed an inquiring mind and while in Benares learnt much about Hinduism.
5. Kabir’s object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish harmony between the two
sects
6. Urged that to achieve this one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, dishonesty,
hypocrisy and insincerity.
7. He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are called Kabirpanthis
NOTES
Guru Nanak
1. founder of the Sikh religion and a disciple of Kabir

2. He was born in Talwandi near Lahore
3. He denounced caste distinctions and rituals like bathing in holy rivers.
4. His conception of religion was highly practical and sternly ethical.
5. Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world’ was one of his famous sayings.
Chaitanya was another well-known saint and reformer of Bengal who popularised the Krishna cult.
He believed that through love and devotion, song and dance, a devotee can feel the presence of God
Gnanadeva was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the thirteenth century.
It was called Maharashtra dharma.
He wrote a commentary of Bhagavat Gitacalled Gnaneswari.
Namadeva preached the gospel of love. He opposed
Idol worship and priestly domination. He also opposed the
caste System. In the sixteenth century,
Ekanatha opposed caste distinctions and sympathetic towards the lower castes.
Another Bhakti saint of Maharashtra was Tukaram, a contemporary of Sivaji.
Responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism
Importance of the Bhakti Movemen
Bhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such
1.
as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
2. Bhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such
as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
3. The lower classes were raised to a position of great importance.
4. The importance of women in society was also increased because the Bhakti movement
gave equal importance to them.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
Babur (1526-1530)
1. Founder of the Mughal Empire in India.

2. His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad
3. He was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
4. Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana.
5. Took interest in conquering India and launched four expeditions between 1519 and 1523
NOTES
Military Conquests
1. He occupied Lahore easily by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi

2. He proceeded against Delhi where Ibrahim Lodi was the Sultan
3. On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi,
4. Babur’s success was due his cavalry and artillery
5. Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra. Babur proclaimed himself as
“Emperor of Hindustan”
Rana Sangha
1. His subsequent victories over Rana Sangha and the Afghans secured his position as the ruler of India
2. Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior.
3. He marched against Babur and in the Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527
4. Babur won a decisive victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi
In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler Medini Rai.
• In the next year, Babur defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.
• Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty seven
Estimate of Babur
1. Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements

2. He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages.
3. Turki was his mother tongue
4. He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburiin Turki language.
Humayun (1530-1540)
1. Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.

2. Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire
3. Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal
4. Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his
part.
5. Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
6. Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal
7. Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor
8. But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there
9. Sher Khan became powerful in the east
10. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle of Chausa, held in 1539,
11. Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
12. Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
13. Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone in the Battle of Bilgram in 1540
14. This battle was also known as Battle of Kanauj.
15. After losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years
NOTES
Sur Interregnum (1540-1555)
1. The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah,

2. Whose original name was Farid.
3. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar
4. Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.
Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)
1. His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand

2. His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat
Sher Shah’s Administration
1. Although his rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant administrative system.
2. The king was assisted by four important ministers:
3. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir- in charge of Revenue and Finance
4. Diwan-i-Ariz– in charge of Army
5. Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister
6. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications
7. Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars
8. Each sarkarwas divided into several parganas
9. Shiqdar (military officer),
10. Amin (land revenue)
11. Fotedar (treasurer)
12. Karkuns (accountants)
13. There were also many administrative units called iqtas
14. The land revenue administration was well organized under Sher Shah
15. Land survey was carefully done.
16. All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
17. The state’s share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash or crop.
18. Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
19. Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during his regime.
20. Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji
21. Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways.
1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan
NOTES
Estimate of Sher Shah
1. Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions.
2. He employed Hindus in important offices
3. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving.
4. He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces
of Indian architecture.
5. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign
6. After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India
Humayun (1555-1556)
1. When Humayun left India in 1540, he married Hamida Banu Begum on his way to Sind.
2. When they stayed in Amorkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in 1542.
3. Humayun then proceeded to Iran and sought help from its ruler.
4. He later defeated his brothers, Kamran and Askari.
5. In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne
6. After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
7. Although Humayun was not a good General and warrior, he was kind and generous.
8. He also loved painting and wrote poetry in Persian language
Akbar (1556-1605)
1. His position was dangerous because Delhi was seized by the Afghans.
2. In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But
an arrow pierced his eye and he became unconscious.
3. His army fled and the fortune favoured Akbar. The Mughal victory was decisive
4. During the first five years of Akbar’s reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
5. After five years he was removed by Akbar due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca
6. Akbar due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by an Afghan
7. Akbar’s military conquests were extensive
Relations with Rajputs
1. He married the Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal.

2. Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations
3. Many of them rose to the positions of military generals
4. Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by
Akbar
5. One by one, all Rajput states submitted to Akbar
6. But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several defeats.
7. In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated by the Mughal army
led by Man Singh in 1576
8. Following the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbar’s
suzerainty
9. Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined with a broad religious toleration.
10. He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya.
11. The alliance secured to the Mughals the services of the bravest warriors.
12. On the other hand it ensured peace in Rajasthan and a number of Rajputs who joined the
Mughal service rose to important positions
NOTES
Religious Policy
1. Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious policy.
2. Akbar was a pious Muslim. Soon after marrying Jodh Bai of Amber, he abolished the pilgrim tax
3. In 1562, he abolished jiziya
4. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
5. In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new
capital Fatepur Sikri.
6. Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism,
Christianity and Zoroastrianism
7. He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
8. In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his religious powers
9. In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith
10. It believes in one God
11. It contained good points of all religions
12. Its basis was rational.
13. It upholds no dogma.
14. It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions.
15. However, his new faith proved to be a failure
16. It fizzled out after his death
17. It had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith
Land Revenue Administration
1. Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with the help of Raja Todar
Mal.
2. The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
3. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580.
4. The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years
5. The land was also divided into four categories
I. Polaj (cultivated every year)
II. Parauti (once in two years),
III. Chachar (once in three or four years)
IV. Banjar (once in five or more years)
V. Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
Mansabdari System
1. Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration

2. Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab)
3. Lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles
4. Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
5. The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
6. Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
7. Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain
8. Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses
9. All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
Jahangir (1605-1627)
NOTES
1. When Akbar died, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in
1605.
2. Son Khusrau revolted but was defeated and imprisoned.
3. One of his supporters, Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, was beheaded.
Nur Jahan
1. In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
2. Nur Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the
nobles.
3. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married
Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
1. Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar
and other ancestral lands.
2. His Deccan policy was more successful.
3. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it
4. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor
5. Shah Jahan carved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar,
Telungana and Daulatabad
War of Succession
1. The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four
sons
2. Dara Shikoh (crown prince)
3. Shuja (governor of Bengal)
4. Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan)
5. Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat)
6. Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle
7. He entered the Agra fort after defeating Dara
8. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender
9. Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under vigil
10. But he was not ill-treated.
11. Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara
Aurangazeb (1658-1707)
1. Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the Mughal kings

2. He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror.
3. His military campaigns in his first ten years of reign were a great success.
4. He faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign.
5. The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him.
6. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious policy
7. The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar,
8. Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy.
9. When he became the Mughal emperor for the first twenty five years, he concentrated
on the northwest frontier
10. At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the
NOTES
territories of north and south Konkan
11. To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda.
12. He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.
13. Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty.
14. The destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb.
15. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a
direct confrontation between them.
16. According to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.
Religious Policy
1. His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.

2. He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called
Muhtasib.
3. Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned
4. Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court
5. He discontinued the practice of Jarokhadarshan
6. He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers
were also dismissed from service
7. When he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples.
8. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
9. In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
10. The celebration of Muharram was stopped
11. His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith
12. He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.
13. His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into
the enemies of Mughal Empire
14. It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
15. Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
Personality and Character of Aurangazeb
1. In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined

2. He was very simple in food and dress
3. He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies.
4. He did not consume wine.
5. He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages.
6. He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day.
7. He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.
8. He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and antagonized them
9. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore
10. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be a wrong policy.
11. His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
12. His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side.
13. On the other hand it had strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire
Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals
1. The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb. The Mughal court
became the scene of factions among the nobles.
2. The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal
NOTES
Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.
3. The religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its decline.
4. The weak successors and demoralization of the Mughal army also paved the way for it
5. The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
6. The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle in
India.
4. Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.
INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS
Economic and Social Life
1. Many European travellers and traders came to India and their accounts contain a mine of
information about the socio-economic conditions of India.
2. In general, they described the wealth and prosperity of India and also the luxurious
life of the aristocratic classes.
3. They also mentioned the poverty and sufferings of the ordinary people such as peasants and
artisans.
Mughal Nobility
1. The nobles of the Mughal period formed a privileged class. Most of them were foreigners such as
Turks and Afghans
2. The Mughal nobles were paid high salaries but their expenses were also very high
3. Each noble maintained a large number of servants, horses, elephants, etc.
4. While the wealthy people wore silk and cotton clothes, the poor people wore the minimum
cloths.
5. Nikitin observed that the people of Deccan were bare-footed. It might be due to high cost of
leather.
6. Rice, millets and pulses were the staple food of the common people
7. Fish was popular on the coastal region
8. While ghee and oil were cheaper, salt and sugar were more expensive, milk and milk
products were available in plenty
Agriculture
1. An estimate claims that the population of India at the beginning of the seventeenth
century was about 125 million.
2. A large variety of crops such as wheat, rice, gram, barley, pulses were cultivated.
3. Commercial crops such as cotton, indigo, sugarcane and oil-seeds were also cultivated.
4. During the seventeenth century two new crops, namely, tobacco and maize were added
5. But, no new agricultural technique was introduced during this period
6. India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the neighbouring countries
NOTES
Growth of Trade
1. The Indian trading classes were large in numbers and spread throughout the country.
2. Seth, bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders were called banik
3. Another class of traders was known as banjaras, who specialized in carrying bulk goods.
4. The banjaras used to move to long distances with their goods on the back of oxen
5. Bulk goods were also taken through rivers on boats.
6. The Guajarati merchants included the Hindus, Jains and Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals,
Maheshwaris and Agarwals came to be called the Marwaris
7. In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar
were the most important trading communities.
8. Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
9. Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From there, fine textiles and silk were taken
to north India.
10. The major imports into India were certain metals such as tin and copper, war horses and
luxury items such as ivory.
11. The balance of trade was maintained by the import of gold and silver.
12. The growth of foreign trade had resulted in the increased import of gold and silver in the
seventeenth century.
Cultural Development under the Mughals
1. The Mughal period witnessed a significant and widespread development in cultural activity.
2. It was manifest in the sphere of art and architecture, painting, music and literature.
3. Indian traditions were blended with Turko-Iranian culture which was brought into
India by the Mughals.
1. The Mughals were fond of laying gardens with running water.

2. Some of the Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at
Lahore and the Pinjore garden in the Punjab have survived even today.
3. During the reign of Sher Shah, the mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar and the Purana Qila
near Delhi were built.
4. Large scale construction of buildings started with the advent of Akbar
5. He built many forts and the most famous one was the Agra Fort.
6. It was built in red sandstone
7. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad
8. The climax of fort-building reached its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan.
9. The famous Red Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khaswas his
creation
10. Akbar also built a palacecum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory), 36 kilometres
from Agra.
11. Many buildings in Guajarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex.
12. Guajarati style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
13. The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland
Darwaza or the Lofty Gate.
14. The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.
15. Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodh Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with
five storeys. Dur
16. During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of
NOTES
marble.
17. It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
18. Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
19. Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra.
20. It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of semi-precious
stones on the walls. (Pietra dura)
21. This method became more popular during the reign of Shah Jahan.
22. The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal
23. Taj Mahal is considered as jewel of the builder’s art.
24. It contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals.
25. The chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minarets
26. The decorations are kept to the minimum.
27. The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble. The Jama Masjid at Delhi was
built in red stone.
28. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.
Paintings and Music
1. The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in Persia
2. He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
3. Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts
4. He invited a large number of painters from different parts of the country to his court.
5. Both Hindus and Muslims joined in this work.
6. Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akabar’s court artists
7. Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature
form.
8. Art Studio established by Akbar. Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the
main themes of Mughal paintings
9. Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir.
10. He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar,
Govardhan and Ustad Mansur
11. Music had also developed under the Mughals.
12. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
13. Tansen composed many ragas. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music
Language and Literature
1. Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
2. Many historical works were written during this period.
3. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
4. The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi.
5. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his supervision.
6. Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets
7. Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiriwas famous for its style
8. He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah
9. Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of
Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
10. His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language
11. Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Guajarati had also developed
during this period.
12. Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into
NOTES
regional languages.
13. The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the
Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
THE MARATHAS
The Rise of the Marathas
1. Various factors contributed to the rise of Marathas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
2. The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities
among the Marathas.
3. The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics.
4. They built a number of forts on the mountains
5. The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among
them
6. The spiritual leaders like Tukkaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity
7. The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held important
positions in the administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of
Bijapur and Ahmadnagar
8. There were a number of influential Maratha families such as the Mores and Nimbalkers.
9. Credit of establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji
Shivaji (1627-1680)
His Life and Conquest
1. Shivaji was born at Shivner in 1627. His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai.
2. He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
3. After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of his
jagir.
4. He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of Mavala
region.
5. In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the Konkan
region
6. The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji. But Afzal Khan was murdered by
Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal
forces and lost Poona
7. But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s (Mughal governor of
Deccan) military camp at Poona in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan.
8. This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji.
9. He made elaborate preparations and succeeded in besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji
lodged his family and treasure
10. Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665.
11. According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts held by
him.
12. The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to Mughal
Empire.
13. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal service to the Mughals, his minor son
Shambaji was granted a mansab of 5000
14. Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there. But, he managed to escape from
prison and made military preparations for another four years.
NOTES
15. Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670
16. He also captured all his lost territories by his conquests
17. In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi.
18. Then he led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore.
19. After his return from this expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.
Shivaji’s Administration
1. He was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan

2. Peshwa – Finance and general administration. Later he became the prime minister.
3. Sar-i-Naubator Senapati – Military commander, an honorary post
4. Amatya – Accountant General.
5. Waqenavis – Intelligence, posts and household affairs
6. Sachiv – Correspondence.
7. Sumanta – Master of ceremonies.
8. Nyayadish – Justice
9. Panditarao – Charities and religious administration
10. Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on the practices of the Deccan
sultanates.
11. The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
12. Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called kathi.
13. He reduced the powers of the existing deshmuks and kulkarni
14. He appointed his own revenue officials called karkuns.
15. Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected not in the Maratha kingdom but
in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal Empire or Deccan sultanates
16. Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha
raids
17. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands which the Marathas
claimed hereditary rights
18. Shivaji was a man of military genius and his army was well organized
19. The regular army consisted of about 30000 to 40000 cavalry supervised by havaildars.
20. Shivaji also maintained a navy
21. The forts played an important role in the military operations of the Marathas
22. By the end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240 forts
23. Shivaji was really a constructive genius and nation-builder
24. His rise from jagirdar to Chatrapathi was spectacular.
Successors of Shivaji
1. There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji and
Rajaram.
2. Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals
3. Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals
4. . He died at Satara.
5. He was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent
6. The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power
The Peshwas (1713-1818)
1. Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720)

2. Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official and became Peshwa in 1713
NOTES
3. As Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
4. He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the Maratha ruler.
Baji Rao I (1720-1740)
1. Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath

2. He succeeded his father as Peshwa at the age young age of twenty.
3. The Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
4. He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs
5. Under this system, each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be
administered autonomously.
6. As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in
different parts of India.
7. As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in
different parts of India.
8. They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the
Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona
Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)
1. Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen.
2. The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue
3. His nominated successor Ramraja was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at Satara.
4. Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect the Mughal
Empire from internal and external enemies
5. For which the Chauth of the northwest provinces and the total revenue of the Agra and
Ajmer provinces would be collected by the Marathas.
6. Thus when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the Marathas
to protect India.
7. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in
1761.
8. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in
1761.
9. Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the sad end of this battle.
10. This battle gave a death blow to the Maratha power
11. The Marathas emerged a great power in India but they could not succeed in
preventing the establishment of British power in India.
12. The important causes for the downfall were that there was lack of unity among the
Maratha chiefs like Holkar, Scindia and Bhonsle.
NOTES
THE COMING OF EUROPEANS
The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through the Oxus
valley or Syria or Egypt.
But, the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
Ultimately, the British succeeded in establishing their rule India
The Portuguese
1. The Portuguese traveller Vasco da Gama reached the port of Calicut on 17 May
1498 and he was warmly received by Zamorin the ruler of Calicut.
2. The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de Almeida.
3. Later in 1509 Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese territories in India
4. In 1510, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur.
5. Thereafter, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese settlements in India.
6. Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon.
7. He encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women
8. Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.
9. The successors of Albuquerque established Portuguese settlements at Daman, Salsette
and Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on
the east coast.
10. However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century.
11. They lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Diu and Daman in the next century
The Dutch
1. The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602.

2. The merchants of this company came to India and established their settlements at
Masulipattinam, Pulicat, Surat, Karaikal, Nagapattinam, Chinsura and Kasimbazar
3. In the seventeenth century they won over the Portuguese and emerged the most
dominant power in European trade in the East
4. Pulicat was their main centre in India and later it was replaced by Nagapattinam.
5. In the middle of the seventeenth century the English began to emerge as a big colonial
power.
6. The Anglo-Dutch rivalry lasted for about seven decades during which period the
Dutch lost their settlements to the British one by one
The English
1. The English East India Company was established in 1600 and the Charter was
issued by Queen Elizabeth of England.
2. Captain Hawkins arrived at the royal court of Jahangir in 1609 to seek permission to
establish English trading centre at Surat
3. . But it was refused by the Mughal Emperor due to Portuguese pressure.
4. Later in 1612, Jahangir issued a Farman (permission letter) to the English and
they established a trading factory at Surat in 1613.
5. Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I, the king of England to the
Mughal court in 1615.
NOTES
6. He obtained permission from Jahangir to establish English trading factories in different
parts of India.
7. The English established their factories at Agra, Ahmadabad, Baroda and Broach by 1619.
8. The English East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II, the then king of
England.
9. In 1639, Francis Day founded the city of Madras where the Fort St. George was built
10. In 1690, an English factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job Charnock
11. Later it developed into the city of Calcutta where Fort William was built
12. Later, Calcutta became the capital of British India.
13. Thus Bombay, Madras, Calcutta became three presidency towns of the English settlements
in India
The French
1. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 by Colbert, a Minister under Louis
XIV.
2. The first French factory in India was established at Surat by Francis Caron
3. Later, Maracara set up a factory at Masulipattinam.
4. Francois Martin founded Pondicherry in 1673.
The Danes
1. Another important Danish settlement in India was Serampore in Bengal.

2. Serampore was their headquarters in India
3. They failed to strengthen themselves in India and they sold all their settlement in India
to the British in 1845. Anglo-French Rivalry
4. Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline
of the Mughal Empire in their favour and indulged in internal politics.
5. The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal
The Carnatic Wars
1. The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-
Mulk
2. The Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam’s dominion. The ruler of the
Carnatic accepted the suzerainty of the Nizam
3. In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe
4. In that war England and France were in the opposite camps
5. They came into conflict in India also
6. The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and
thus began the First Carnatic War (1746-1748)
7. The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin
8. But the French concluded a treaty with his rival Chanda Sahib
9. The English army crushed a defeat on the French in the Battle of Adyar, near Madras.
10. In the meantime, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end the
Austrian Succession War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end.
11. But the English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India.
12. This had resulted in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754).
13. This had resulted in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754).
14. The troops of these three defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First
Carnatic War, and killed him in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
15. After this victory, Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Arcot.
NOTES
16. Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to Tiruchirappalli. The English sent
troops in support of him.
17. In the meantime, the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot
18. He also inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Kaveripakkam.
19. He also inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Kaveripakkam.
20. Meanwhile Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as the French governor. The war came to
an end by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
21. The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe led to the Third
Carnatic War (1758- 1763).
22. Count de Lally was the commander of the French troops
23. The British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760
24. In the next year, Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops
25. The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in1763
26. The French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam.
27. Thus the Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure. T
The causes for the French failure can be summed up as follows
1. Commercial and naval superiority of the English

2. French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal.
3. English had three important ports – Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only
Pondicherry
4. Difference of opinion between the French Generals
5. England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India
6. Establishment of British Power in Bengal
7. The English ascendancy in Bengal proved to be the basis for the expansion of English rule
in India
8. The conflict between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula and the English led to the
Battle of Plassey held on 23 June 1757
9. Robert Clive, the Commander of the British troops emerged victorious by
defeating the Nawab’s army.
10. The easy English victory was due to the treachery of Mir Jabar, the Commander of
Nawab’s army
11. However, the victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey marked the foundation of
the British rule in India
12. In 1764, the English once again defeated the combined forces of the Nawab of Oudh
13. The Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Buxar
14. The English military superiority was decisively established
15. In 1765, Robert Clive was appointed as the Governor of Bengal
28. The same year, the Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by which the Mughal
Emperor granted the Diwani rights to the English East India Company
NOTES
1. CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION
• A human-made environment which includes all the material and

non- material products of group life that are transmitted from one
generation to the next,
• ‘Cult or cultus’ meaning tilling or cultivating or refining and
worship.
• Three words came from this root ‘Kri;
✓ prakriti’ (basic matter or condition),
✓ ‘Sanskriti’ (refined matter or condition)
✓ ‘vikriti’ (modified or decayed matter or condition),
Now,
‘Civilization’ means having better ‘Culture’ refers to the inner being, a
ways of living and sometimes refinement of head and heart.
making nature bend to fulfill their
needs.
Sources of Culture:
• Many things from our ancestors,
• We continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already
existent,
• Give up some, which we don’t consider useful,
Some treasures of Indian Cultural heritage

• BAUDHAYAN, ARYABHATTA, BHASKARACHARYA in the field of
Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology;
• KANAD and VARAHMIHIR in the field of Physics;
• NAGARJUNA in the field of Chemistry,
• SUSRUTA and CHARAK in the field of Medicines,
• PATANJALI in the field of Yoga,
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE,

• Culture is learned and acquired
• Culture is shared by a group of people
• Culture is cumulative
• Culture change
• Culture is dynamic
• Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns
• Culture is diverse separate but interdependent
• Culture is ideational,
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE

• It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human beings are
creators of culture and, at the same time, culture is what makes us
human.
• As the world is becoming more and more global and we coexist on
a more global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way
of living or that any one is valid.
• The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and
beliefs necessary.
• The best thing we can do is: Get to know other cultures, while also
getting to know our own.
• The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and
Goodness are closely linked
• The values of love, tolerance and peace.
2. INDIAN CULTURE
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE

• The distinctive features with uniqueness,
Continuity
• Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of
continuity can be traced throughout
• The pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different
from that of a HARAPPAN house.
• The worship of Mother Goddess and PASHUPATI
• Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many other traditions continue to be
followed even today.
• It has kept on changing, whereas the basic spirit of our culture
continued.
Change
• Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC
• Religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries
• The thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and
still persists.
Variety and Unity

• Indian culture, over the last three millennia, has successfully, but
quietly, observed the best assimilable parts from other religions
and cultures, from time to time and integrated them into itself.
• People belonging to eight great religions of the world co-exist
here in a harmonious manner.
• The vastness of the country and variation in its physical and
climatic features is an obvious reason for the variety.
• The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the
intermingling among various ethnic groups.
• Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas,
Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India,
settled here and intermixed with the local population.
• India through the ages has shown a remarkable capacity for

assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety and
richness of our culture.
• Exchange of culture within India
✓ Travel from one part of the country to another for trade or
pilgrimage.
✓ Joined together through conquests or by alliance.
✓ Military campaigns too took people from one place to another.
✓ Such contacts have led to the development of commonness in
Indian culture
✓ Another unifying factor is climate: the system of monsoons
✓ Agriculture remains the main occupation
✓ Differences in physical features have affected the food habits,
dress, houses and economic activities
✓ The variety in physical features and climate of India has thus
led to the development of a variety of cultures in different
regions
✓ People started practicing agriculture they settled down.
• This settled life led to community development and growth of
towns, which needed rules and regulations.
✓ SABHAS and SAMITIS
✓ Age of MAHAJANAPADAS
✓ Emperors exercising absolute powers,
✓ The British Empire
✓ Today we are sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic
republic and a uniform system of government prevails over the
length and breadth of the country.
Secular Outlook
• Right to freedom of religion
In the Western context development of secularism meant complete
separation of the church and the state. In India secularism is taken
as a more positive concept to cope with the complex social structure
in the country with a view to protecting the interests of all,
particularly the minorities. But this has become problem too.
Universalism
✓ It has protested against the formation of power blocks in the
world. In fact India became one of the founder members of the
non-aligned movement.
✓ Against racialism and colonialism.
• Committed to the development of other underdeveloped nations.
• The subcontinent of India has been one cultural unit throughout
the ages, cutting across political boundaries.
Materialistic and Spiritualistic

• Known as land of spirituality
• The living expression of the simplicity and profundity of her
people
CULTURAL IDENTITY, RELIGION, REGION AND ETHNICITY

• cultural identities are based on various factors such as religion
and region.
• Regional identities are more real.
People of different religions and jatis may have common regional
cultural traits like language, food, dress, values and also the
worldview.
• Ethnic culture is strong among the tribal groups.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Three significant influences

• Westernization,
✓ Adopted by the aristocracy and members of the civil services.
• Emergent national cultural style
✓ During the struggle for freedom
✓ Contributed to the unity of the country and provided
commonness to culture.
• Popular culture.
✓ Product of mass media
✓ The impact of films
✓ Promoted issues that are of both traditional and public
interest.
Spirituality and value based life style is the core of Indian culture
but it has a scientific temperament too.
3. ANCIENT INDIA
It is important for you to be acquainted with the past to understand

better what is happening in the India of today.
ANCIENT INDIA
• Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found
in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.
2700 BC
• Harappan civilization.
✓ Most of the sites developed on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and
its tributaries.
✓ First known urban culture
✓ Town planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad well-
laid roads
✓ Double storied houses of burnt- bricks each one of which had a
bathroom, a kitchen and a well
✓ Great Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls
✓ Agriculture was the main occupation
✓ Internal and external trade with Mesopotamia
✓ Excellent potters.
✓ Technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying
✓ Bronze sculpture of a dancing girl
✓ Lothal was a dockyard
✓ Important Centre of sea trade
✓ Important town Dhaulavira (Gujarat), Kalibangam (Rajsthan)
✓ Worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature
✓ Knew how to write
✓ Knew the art of spinning and weaving.
✓ First people to cultivate cotton
VEDIC CULTURE
• Spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
• Known as the Aryan culture.
• Four Vedas
✓ Rig Veda,
✓ Sama Veda,
✓ Yajur Veda
✓ Atharva Veda
• Erlier Vedic Period
✓ Represented by the RigVeda
• The later vedic period
✓ All other vedic literature including the Brahmanas, Arnyakas
and Upanishads
• the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas, though
compiled much later, represents this values.
Society and religion

• Women were treated with dignity and honour.
• Later Vedic period, society was divided into four VARNAS
✓ Brahamanas,
✓ Kshatriyas,
✓ Vaishyas
✓ Shudras.
• system of chaturashrama
✓ Brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and disciplined
life in guru’s ashram),
✓ Grihastha (a period of family life),
✓ Vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment)
✓ Sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from
worldly life)
• Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had
access to education and were often free to choose their partners
through swayamvara.
• Change in religious practices during the later Vedic period
• A new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme
position, while Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed
the trinity.
• Religion became extremely ritualistic
Material life and economy

• Pastoral and agricultural people.
• Domesticated animals like cows, horses, sheeps, goats and dogs.
• Food consisting of cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk and
various milk products.
• Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the expansion of
agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains.
• Coins came into circulation.
By sixth century BC, there were some sixteen large territorial states
in North India and upper Deccan known as Mahajanapadas.
Important among them were Anga, Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Kuru,
and Panchala.
POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS
Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism

• The Brahmins had developed a vested interest demanding large
charities at the end of the scarifies. As a result, the sacrifices
became very costly. Moreover, the Brahmins considered
themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant.
This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for
reforms was felt.
• The reforms led by the Kshatriyas and aided by the poorer masses
who could not afford the high cost of sacrifices, resulted in the
emergence of Jainism and Buddhism around sixth century BC.
• Influenced the religious beliefs and several practices of Hinduism.
Jainism
• Founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva,
• The last tirthankara Mahavira developed and gave final shape to
the Jain doctrines.
• Five vows
✓ Not to tell lies;
✓ Not to injure life;
✓ Not to own property;
✓ Not to steal;
✓ To maintain chastity (celibacy).
• Three-fold path of Right belief, Right Conduct and Right
Knowledge.
• Most of followers of Jainism belong to the trading community.
• Sthanakas
Buddhism
• Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC),
• Four Noble Truths.
• Middle path.
• The eightfold path comprises:
✓ Rightunderstanding
✓ Rightthought
✓ Rightspeech
✓ Rightaction
✓ Rightlivelihood
✓ Righteffort
✓ Rightmindfulness
✓ Rightconcentration
• Viharas
• Buddhism was also split in three parts
✓ The hinayana
✓ The mahayana
✓ Vajrayana
• Spread of buddhism
✓ sri lanka,
✓ Myanmar,
✓ Cambodia,
✓ Vietnam,
✓ China,
✓ Japan,
✓ Thailand,
✓ Korea,
✓ Mongolia
✓ Afghanistan.
• Hindu tradition even accepted the Buddha as one of the
incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu.
THE PERSIAN INVASION AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN CULTURE

• The Achaemenid rulers of Persia or Iran took advantage of the
political disunity of this region.
• Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, and his successor
Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh.
• Naval expedition of Skylax encouraged trade and commerce
between Persia and India
• The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was
influenced in some measure by that of the Achaemenid rulers of
Persia
• The Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing. It is
called kharoshthi
THE GREEK (MACEDONIAN) INVASION AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN
CULTURE
• Fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for
supremacy over West Asia. The Achaemenid empire was finally
destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of
Macedon. He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran and then
marched towards India because of her fabulous wealth.
• Alexander’s invasion brought Europe, for the first time, in close
contact with India,
• Chandragupta defeated one of Alexander’s generals, Seleucus
Nikator and brought the whole of north western India upto
Afghanistan under his control.
• Greek art is found in the development of Indian sculpture as well.
• Learnt the art of making well-shaped and beautifully designed
gold and silver coins
• Influence on Indian astrology as well.
• Indian philosophy and religion which filtered into the Roman
empire flowed through the channel opened by Alexander.
ASHOKA THE GREAT: REPRESENTING THE ACME OF INDIAN CULTURE

• His policies of universal peace, non-violence and religious
harmony find no parallel in the monarchs of the world.
• Policies were oriented towards the welfare of his people.
• Importance to respecting brahmins, and servants, obedience to
elders, abstention from killing living beings,
• He states that in honouring of other sects lies the honour of one’s
own sect.
• By giving his empire a common Dhamma, a common language,
and practically one script (Brahmi) he brought further political
unification.
• He sent ambassadors to the Greek kingdoms and the West.
• Thevarna system popularly known as the caste system which had
arisen in thevedic Age now became well established and gradually
became the dominant form of social organization throughout
India.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE: MAURYAN BEGINNINGS

• The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya
Nandangarh (Bihar)
• The bull capital from Rampura - example of Mauryan sculpture.
• The most famous capital is the one at Sarnath, which shows four
lions and the Dharmachakra.
• The language that has been used in nearly all the inscriptions and
Prakrit which appears to have become the lingua franca of the
country and in the Brahmi script the earliest known Indian script.
• The Lomash Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama
caves are examples of rock cut caves architecture.
POST - MAURYAN CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
• the Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were foreigners, they
were slowly absorbed into the local population. Since they were
warriors, the law givers assigned them the status of Kshatriyas.
• Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism.
• 200 BC to about 3rd century A.D.

✓ profound changes took place in the economic and political life
and vital developments in different aspects of cultural life of
our country i.e. religion, art and science as well as technology.
✓ There was a significant advancement in foreign trade both by
land and by sea,
• The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka, who
convened the fourth Buddhist Council to finalise its teachings.
Art and Sculpture

• He also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha.
• Gandhara school of art. This school borrowed features from both
the Greek and Roman art forms.
• Besides the images of Buddha, which were made in large
numbers, statues of Mahavira were also produced.
Deccan and South India

• The Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important position under
the Mauryas.
• They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made roads and
administered their State well. New towns came up and trade was
carried on with far off countries like Persia, Iraq and Combodia.
Kharavela of Kalinga
• Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra.
• Graet administrator as well as a brave warrior.
• He carried out works of piety and public utility, like building
roads and gardens.
South India
• It was the region of the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas who were
constantly at war with each other.
• South of the river Krishna and Tungabhadra
Sources
• Sangam literature.
• Ist century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. called the Sangam
period
Cholas
Karikala was the most important ruler of this kingdom.
Many canals dug so that water from the river Cauvery could be used for
irrigation purposes.
Follower of the Vedic religion.
Credited with many welfare activities.
Pandays
• Founded by a woman king.
Life and Culture
• Simple life.
• Music, dancing and poetry.
• Drums, flutes, pipes, etc. were popular.
Society
• The Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas.
• They soon merged with the Indian society and adopted Indian
names and inter-married.
The Age of Harshvardhana

• An efficient government.
• Subdue the petty warring rulers and bring them under his
domain.
• Harsha’s religious activities
✓ Bana wrote Harsha’s famous biography, Harshcharita as well
as the literary piece Kadambari.
✓ Buddhism and Hindu Religion.
✓ Inclined towards Buddhism.
Kingdoms of the Deccan and the South:

• Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
• Capital city Vatapi
• Trade relations with Arabia, Iran and the Red Sea port to the west,
as well as with South-East Asia.
• Many of the sculptures of the Ellora caves were created at this
time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD
last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth century
A.D. and ends in about the 8th A.D.
• During the Gupta period art became more creative and Hindu
gods and goddesses also came to be portrayed.
• Gupta coins - king on one side on the reverse Lakshmi or Sarswati
• Adequate expression in monuments and sculptures.
• Niches and corners of religious places with statues of gods and
goddesses.
• The most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain are the
numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.
• Bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj
• Famous Ellora Caves.
Architecture
• rock cut caves (Ajanta) and temples, such as the Dashavatara
temple at Deogarh.
Painting
• The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at
Bagh caves (near Gwalior) bear evidence of this.
THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS

• Pallavas were great patrons of art and architecture.
• ‘ratha’ at Mahabalipuram style of temples
• Structural temples like the Kailashanath and Vaikunthperumal
temples at Kanchipuram.
• Temple building activity flourished in India from the 5th century
AD onwards.
• North Indian temples were built in the Nagara style consisted of
the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the
mandap (pillared hall),
• South were built in the Dravida style completed with vimana or
shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram.
• The village panchayat called sahha or ur had extensive powers. It
had control over finances too. This body included several
committees which looked after various aspects of village
administration.
• The Dravida style of temple architecture
• Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwara temple.
• Great achievements in the field of sculpture.
• Sanskrit also became the language of the courts
• Tamil literatures also made great progress.
• The ancient period of Indian history came to an end, India had
developed a culture which was marked by features that have
characterized it ever since.
TRANSFORMATION OF VEDIC BRAHMANISM INTO PURANIC HINDUISM

• By the fourth century AD there came into being a famous
Vaishnava work called ‘Shrimadbhagavad-purana’which taught
devotion to Lord Krishna.
• The Gupta rulers especially provided filling to the Bhagavata Sect
of Hinduism.
• Animals, plants, rivers and mountains were looked upon with
reverence and cities like Banaras and Prayag became places of
pilgrimage
• Idol worship became popular.
• Thus the prominent features of modern Hinduism took shape
during the Gupta period.
NALANDA’S EMERGENCE AS A GREAT CENTRE OF LEARNING

• During Harsha’s reign
• Grammar, logic, epistemology and sciences were taught here.
• Thus university continued to be the centre of intellectual activity
till the twelfth century.
CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA
• Brought to India by Saint Thomas in the first century A.D.
• It was most probably the frequent trade and movement between
India and the west which was responsible for bringing this
disciple of Lord Christ to India.
• A large community of christians known as Syrian Christians
contine to reside in Kerala even today.
• The Christian Church has two major divisions
✓ The Roman Catholic church
✓ The Protestant church.
• The Bible contains two parts
✓ The old Testament
✓ The New Testament.
4. MEDIEVAL INDIA
LIFE OF PEOPLE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
Society
• Four major groups.
✓ The aristocrats,
✓ The priests,
✓ The towns people
✓ The peasants.
• Aristocrats
✓ The sultan and his relatives, nobility and the landholders
✓ The Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers
✓ Concentrated all the wealth as well as the power
✓ The sultan outmatched everyone in this
✓ Coins were issued in his name
✓ Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off their wealth
• The priests
✓ Brahmans in hindus and ulemas in the muslims
✓ Tax-free land for their maintenance
✓ Great influence on the muslim sultans and often influenced
their policies
✓ Interested in worldly affairs.
• The town people
✓ Wealthy merchants, traders and artisans
✓ Nobility, the officers and the soldiers
✓ The administrative and military centers
✓ The sufi and bhakti saints
✓ Important temples and mosques had become pilgrim centers.
✓ The royal karkhanas or workshops
• The peasants
✓ Lived in the villages
✓ Paid huge taxes to the state as land revenue
✓ Very rigid caste system
✓ Intercaste marriages and intercaste dining was totally
prohibited
✓ Exchange of ideas and customs took place.
Like those concerning food, dress, clothing and music, besides many
others
Trade
• Banias, Marwaris and Multanis made trade their special vocation
• The banjaras traded in caravans
• Delhi was the centre for the incoming as well as outgoing goods.
• Rice from the East, sugar from Kanauj, wheat from the Doab and
fine silks from the South.
• Luxury goods like metalware, ivory, jewellery, cotton textiles
• Goods from outside India like East Africa, Arabia and China also
came to Delhi.
• The silver tanka (coin) introduced by Iltutmish
• The system of weights
Religious Condition
• Hinduism was in vogue.
✓ Uperstitious beliefs, rituals and sacrifices
✓ Caste system was very rigid.
• Islam was the opposite of what was in practise among the Hindus.
✓ Equality, brotherhood and oneness of God
✓ No dogmas in Islam.
✓ Simple doctrine and a democratic organisation
• It challenged the social pattern of society
• The emergence of the Bhakti movement and the Sufi movement
RISE OF ISLAM AND SUFISM

• First came to India in the eighth century AD
• Entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and
learned to live together in harmony
• Exchange of ideas and customs.
• Influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners, customs
and intellectual pursuits.
• Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in
Arabia.
• He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the
beginning of the Hijira Era
• Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his
archangel Gabriel.
• The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
✓ Tauhid(belief in Allah)
✓ Namaz(prayers, five times a day)
✓ Roza(fasting in the month of Ramzan)
✓ Zakat(giving of alms)
✓ Haj(pilgrimage to Mecca)
• Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the
Hadith or Hadees.
• There were four pious Caliphs.
• Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of one
God
This became cause of rise of both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements
Rise of Sufism
• Term used for Islamic mysticism
• Liberal in their religious outlook
• Believed in the essential unity of all religions
• Preached spirituality through music and doctrines
• Listened to poetry and music (sama) which were originally in
Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or Hindustani
• Originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India
under the Turkish rule
• Sense of piety, tolerance, sympathy, concept of equality and
friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from lower
classes, to Islam.
• Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya,
Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar
• Establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs.
• Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints)
became the centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas.
• Patronized both by the aristocracy and the common people.
• Organised into religious orders or silsilahs.
• These silsilahs were named after their founders such as Chishti,
Suhrawardi, Qadi. And Naqshbandis.
• Fourteen silsilahs
• Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan)
developed as important centres of Sufism.
• Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas
and yogic postures.
POLITICAL BACKGROUND
• The rulers of Delhi during 1206 to 90 were Mamluk Turks
• Followed by > Khiljis > Tughlaqs > Sayyids > Lodis till 1526.
✓ rule over a territory on behalf of the Khalifa or Caliph,
✓ the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan used to be read in the
khutha, (Friday prayers) by the local Imams.
• In 1526 the Delhi Sultans were replaced by the Mughals
✓ initially ruled from Agra and later from Delhi till 1707.
✓ continued only nominally till 1857 when the dynasty ended
Afghan ruler Sher Shah

• kept Mughal Humayu away from throne for 15 years (1540-55)
• outstanding achievements.
• construction of several roads
the most important being Sarak-i-Azam or Grand Trunk Road
extending from Sonargaon (now in Bangladesh) to Attock (now in
Pakistan) and run through Delhi and Agra a distance of 1500 kos.
• beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper
Mughal emperor Akbar
• Ruled from 1556-1605
• A sincere effort to foster harmony by discouraging racial, religious
and cultural biases
• Develop friendly relations with the hindus
• Entered into matrimonial alliances with the rajput
• The political unification of the country and the establishment of an all
powerful central government with a uniform system of administration
• A great patron of art, architecture and learning.
• Started a faith called din-i-illahi
• Navratna
✓ Mulla do pyaza
✓ Hakin humam
✓ Abdur rahim khan e khanan
✓ Abul tayal
✓ Tansen,
✓ Raja todar mal
✓ Raja man singh
✓ Faizi
✓ Birbal
• Debate on religious issues
Liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors, jahangir
and shah jahan but abandoned by aurangzeb.
Disintegration of the Mughal empire

• Endless wars in different parts of the country (especially in South
India)
• The rise of the Marathas in the south
• The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali
• Unrest amongst the nobility in the court
• The rise of the Sikhs in north- western India
Economically India was still the biggest exporter in the world

and had great wealth, but it was left far behind in the process of
modernisation.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
• Distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture
✓ Dome
✓ Lofty towers or minarets
✓ Arch
✓ The vault
• The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat
Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage.
• The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became
very popular in the days of Shah Jahan
✓ Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra.
• The structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the forts at
Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore
• Mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs came to dominate the
landscape.
Coinage
• Numismatics (the study of coins)
• Major source of information for any period in history.
• Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks give us plenty of
interesting information on this period.
• From the royal titles, the name and place of minting we can find
out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his status.
• Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted at Delhi, Daulatabad and
several other provincial capitals and had at least twenty-five
different varieties.
• Legends found on the coins
The warrior in the cause of God’ and ‘he who obeys the Sultan obeys
the Compassionate’, are a few examples.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Teachings were similar to those of the Sufis
• Popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders
• Villages also flocked to listen
• Belief was in the need to unite with God
• Concept of guru
• Stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship with
God.
• Attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship.
• Disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their
religious gatherings.
• Entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it
comprehensible
• Saints belonged mainly from the lower castes.
• Stressed the need for tolerance among humans and religions.
• Long known in the South.
• Hymns and stories by the Alvars and the Nayannars of the Tamil
devotional cult
Guru Nanak
• Khatri family in the village of Talwandi (Now Nankana)
• Left home for the company of saints and pirs.
• Composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the
‘rabab’, which is a musical instrument
• Emphasised love and devotion for the one and only God
• Denounsed idol worship, pilgrimages, sacrifices and rituals
• Demanded purity of character and conduct
Ramanuja
• From the South
• Taught in the langauge of the common people.
• Disciple was Ramananda who took his Guru’s message to the
northern parts of India.
Ramananda
• Wanted to rid the Hindu religion of its evil customs and practices.
• Born at Allahabad and educated at Varanasi.
• All men were equal in the eyes of God
• Followers
✓ Kabir was a weaver
✓ Sadhana was a butcher
✓ Ravidasa was a cobbler
✓ Sena was a barber.
Kabir
• Criticised the existing social order

• Called for hindu-muslim unity
• The son of a muslim weaver,
• Denounced idol worship
• Emphasised the unity of god.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• From Bengal
• Devotee of Lord Krishna.
• Condemned the caste system
• Emphasised on the equality of all
• Trance singing devotional songs
Mirabai
• Composed and sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
Namadeva
• Marathi Tailor
• Created Poetry
Popularity of the Bhakti Movement

• Important reason
✓ Hallenged the caste system and the superiority of
the brahmanas.
✓ Wanted a religion which could satisfy both their rationality as
well as emotions.
✓ No longer satisfied with the old religion
• In northern india
• Two streams
• 1. Nirguna bhakti
✓ Devotees of a formless god
✓ Kabir and nanak
• 2. Saguna bhakti
✓ Devotees of rama, the son of dasharatha, or krishna, the son of
devaki and vasudeva.
✓ Tulsidas (ramcharita manas)
✓ Surdas (sursagar)
✓ Raskhan, a Muslim poet (devotee of Lord Krishna)
Important feature of bhakti movement

• Oneness of god
• Brotherhood
• Against caste or gender
• Surrender into god
• Intense personal devotion to god
• Chanting the name of god
• Came the guru or spiritual teacher
Person who had realised god and hence was capable of leading
• System of pahul.
• The sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as
a token of his being accepted
• The sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, called
khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom (the saint-
soldier concept).
• Literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc united the
people,
• Stimulated the development of regional languages.
DEVELOPMENT OF FOLK ARTS
Dance
• Several occasions associated with agricultural operations like the
tilling of soil, sowing of saplings, picking of cotton, pulling out the
weeds and many other social functions provided opportunities for
singing and dancing
✓ Advent of rains became occasions for dancing and merry-
making
✓ Special pujas offered in the temples
✓ Sing till late into the night
✓ Peculiar dance form with a local flavour
Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance, Lavani
• The tamasha and the lavani forms of dance drama were developed
in Maharashtra;
• The Pandavanis in central India
• Merasis in northern India
Print Art
• In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis,
shirts and ghagras.
• In Punjab, the girls created beautiful phulkaris.
• In and around Lucknow, came up the chikan work on shirts,
salwars, odhanis and even sarees
Other Types
• The puppeteer, the bard and the mime moved from place to place
• The acrobat and the juggler
• Martial arts were developed
• Wrestling has been popular all over India
PAINTING
• Influenced by Islamic culture
• Humayun brought painters from Persia
✓ Mir Sayid Ali and Abdus Samad who nurtured the tradition of
painting manuscript.
✓ Dastan-e-Amir Hamza,
• Flowering of portrait
• Miniature paintings
• Painters tried to paint the classical ragas, thereby giving form and
colour to such abstract conceptions as music.
• Seasons or baramasa paintings were similarly given artistic forms.
• Mughal school of painting
• Akbar as a liberal ruler extended Hindu painters like Daswant and
Basawan Lal
✓ A fusion of Persian and Indian styles (of painting) during his
period.
• The European influence on Indian painting
• Jahangir, a famous painter
✓ Famous painters like Ustad and Abul Hasan
• Mansur was famous for his miniature painting
• The Rajput and the Pahari schools of painting also received
encouragement.
• The upper classes in society started patronising painters.
• As a result, the havelis (big mansions) of the rich and temples
were profusely embellished
• The Mughal School of painting from the sixteenth to the
eighteenth century gave rise to the Indo-Persian school of
miniature art.
• Signing on the miniatures
• Important works as the Changeznama, Zafarnama and the
Ramayana.
• Aurangzeb stopped patronising music and painting
Music
• Tansen in court of akabar composed new ragas
• These musicians entertained the emperors at different times of
the day and in different seasons with appropriate ragas.
• Synthesis of indo iranian music during the turko-afghan rule in
india
In north
• A distinct school known as the hindustani school of music came
into being and its speciality lay in producing sweet and rapturous
melodies to suit different moods of life.
• The ragas and the raginis were personified accordingly.
• Khayal, thumri and ghazal were also elaborated
In the south
• Carnatic school of music developed.
Indo-Mughal Culture
• The practice of jharokha darshan
• Court practice of sijda
• Concentrated religious and political power
RISE OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES
Urdu
• Originated around Delhi
• Developed as a camp language in the army of Allauddin Khilji
when they were stationed in the Deccan around fourteenth
century AD.
• The states of Bijapur and the Golconda in the Deccan became the
cradles of Urdu literature
• Developed its own grammar and became a distinct language.
• Used by the elite as well
• Amir Khusrau composed poetry in this language
• Beautiful prose, short stories, novels and drama were written in Urdu
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
• In the first half of the ninteenth century Urdu journalism played a very
important role during the struggle for independence.
Nearly all other modern Indian languages like Bengali,

Assamese, Oriya, Khari Boli, Punjabi, gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi,
Kashmiri as well as the four South Indian languages -Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam – came to acquire their
present form and developed during this period.
NEW FAITHS
• Two new religious faiths flourished in India
✓ Sikhism
✓ Zoroastrianism.
Sikhism
• Sikhs believe that God to Guru Nanak revealed their religion,
whose spirit entered the second and the subsequent gurus till the
tenth Guru.
• The students of history and religion think that the seeds for the
birth and growth of this religion were present in the Bhakti
movement, in its nirguna branch.
• Basically believe in a formless God, equality of all mankind, need
of a guru and the pahul tradition.
• The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things.
✓ The Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and
other allied saints.
✓ Standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was
first written.
✓ The site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or the
Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat
from where the dictats for the entire Sikh community are
issued.
• The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which
means “the pure”, in 1699.
• He gives five vows
✓ Keeping of kesh (long hair and a beard),

✓ Kangha (comb),
✓ Kada (a metallic bangle),
✓ Kirpan (a sword)
✓ Kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above the knees)
Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing marks of a
Sikh.
• He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the
guru of the Sikhs and they have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
• Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism
Zoroastrianism
• founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the eighth century BC.

• in the region now known as Persia.
• worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of
Ahura Mazda and Ahura Man.
• ethical doctrine of kindness and charity.
• doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta.
• spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant
religion till the eighth century AD
• when Muslims conquered this region. Most of the Parsis migrated
to different parts of the world. They also came to India and settled
at Navsari in Gujarat,
• Famous Persons
✓ Dadabhai Naoroji
the famous nationalist leader and a Parsi, who exposed the
hollowness of the British claim of civilizing India and not exploiting
it.
✓ Jamshedji Tata
a pioneering Indian industrialist. He established an iron and steel
industry in India in the face of the toughest competition posed by
the British steel mills and yet continued to prosper.
• a large number of public charities
• Zorastrianism is not a proselytising religion and no new entrants
are accepted into its fold under any circumstances.
SOUTH INDIA
Between the ninth and eleventh centuries AD

• Cholas was ruling the Cholamandalam region
• Developed a strong army, besides a powerful navy
• Developed democratic institutions at the village level
• Buddhism and Jainism flourished in this region.
• Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings
The fourteenth century

• Rise of a new state Vijayanagara now called Karnataka.
• To the north of this state across the Tungabhadra river rose a new
Islamic state, called the Bahamani, now known as Andhra
Pradesh.
• In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was popular.
• In Karnataka, Kannada, in Andhra, Telegu and in Kerala, Malyalam
flourished, all having different scripts.
• Originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old
language.
• During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of learning.
• Remains of Vijayanagara found in Hampi
MODERN INDIA
all those who came to India from outside such as the Turks, the
Afghans, and the Mughals made India their home. But the British
colonial rulers always remained foreigners to this land.
they brought profound social, economic and political changes to
suit their interests and in the process left deep imprints on
many aspects of Indian culture.
RISE OF THE WEST AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA

• From 1450 onwards, three important developments had changed
the shape of Europe:
✓ The invention of printing press,
✓ The beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and the
Reformation movements
✓ The discovery of new trade routes
• Great progress in the fields of science, exploration and gunnery
• For trade in India: Portuguese > Dutch > French > British
• For about two centuries India remained under her domination
where her entire human resources were recklessly exploited and
her wealth was drained away for the benefit of the ruling nation
• British domination of India was built upon successive phases.
✓ The first phase consisted of taking hold of the Indian trade.
✓ In the second phase, the British took control of the production
activities in a manner that would suit their export objectives
✓ The third phase was an intensified phase of British Imperialism
and colonial exploitation
• With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe,
✓ Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the foreign
market
✓ 1813, these British manufacturers succeeded in abolishing the
East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India
became an economic colony of industrial England.
✓ Foreign goods were given free entry
✓ Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily
✓ So the trade from India virtually came to a stop
✓ India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a
rich supplier of raw materials by the year 1813 A.D.
✓ Introduced steam ships and railways
✓ Opened a vast market to the British
✓ Facilitated export of Indian raw material abroad
✓ The railways connected the raw material producing areas with
the exporting ports
• The railways played an important role in the national awakening
of the country
• 1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from Calcutta
to Agra and also introduced the postal service in India
INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY: ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

• Agriculture was the main occupation
• Foreign trade was flourishing under the mughals.
✓ India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits from
the persian gulf region;
✓ Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from arabia;
✓ Tea, porcelain and silk came into india from china;
✓ Luxury goods were also brought in from tibet, singapore,
indonesian islands, africa and europe.
✓ Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and
many other things.
✓ India’s cotton textiles were famous all over the world.
• In spite of such a favourable balance of trade, india’s economic

condition could not improve
✓ Because of constant warfare
✓ There were revolts of the sikhs, jats,
✓ Foreign invasions, like nadir shah (1739 a.d.) and ahmad shah
abdali (1761),
• No unity of pattern in the social and cultural life
• Caste rules were to be observed in matters of marriage, diet, inter-
dining as well as in choosing a profession
• Any one found disobeying rules was to be thrown out of the
community.
• In the field of science that india, which was so advanced, had by
now neglected her mathematics and sciences
• Teacher were respected in society during those times
✓ The students were taught reading and writing along with
arithmetic
✓ Not patronised by the state, but by local rulers, members of the
aristocracy and benevolent contributors
Hindu-Muslim Relations
• Friendly relations
• Religious tolerance
• An equal respect
• Difficult to distinguish one from the other.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
• The condition of women
✓ The birth of a girl child was considered to be unfortunate
✓ Married off in their childhood
✓ Polygamy
✓ No right to property or divorce
✓ Perpetual widowhood
✓ Presence was considered inauspicious
✓ Inter-caste marriages were not allowed.
• Muslim Women
✓ Practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of education and rights to
property
SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMERS

• Christian priests came to India
• Started opening schools
• Started the printing press and magazines for disseminating
Christian precepts and literature
• English education was introduced
• Though the purpose of introducing English education was to fulfil
British political and administrative needs, it opened the windows
for Indians to the West
• New ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality and
freedom
• Acted as a cementing force
Ram Mohan Roy

• Harbinger of the modern age in India
• Role in reforming the Hindu society and the reawakening of India
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy cited extensively from the religious texts to
show that this was not true
• Ritual of sati
✓ Took up cudgels against it and ultimately got it banned
• Founded the Brahmo Samaj
✓ Opposed idol worship, polytheism and ritualism.
• Debendra Nath Tagore (1817-1905) succeeded Raja Ram Mohan
Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj
• Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) took over the leadership from
Tagore
• Laid emphasis on individual freedom, national unity, solidarity,
democratization
• Became the first organized vehicle
Prarthana Samaj and Ranade

• By Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1867
• Reforms like inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow
remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed
classes
• According to Ranade, rigidity in religion would not permit success
in social, economic and political spheres
Ramakrishna Paramhansa
• Ramakrishan mission
• By swami vivekananda to regenerate indian society
• Liberty, free thinking and equality
• Promoted the vedanta philosophy
Theosophical Society and Annie Besant

• promoted studies of ancient Indian religions, philosophies and
doctrine
Narayana Guru
• Great saint of South India
• Well versed in Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil
• Decided to work to bring the Nayar and the Ezhava communities
together
• Improve the spiritual as well as the social life of the people of
Kerala
Muslim Reform Movement

• Sir syed ahmad khan
• Modern education
• Denounced purdah, polygamy and easy divorce
• Started the aligarh movement
• Established the muhammadan anglo-oriental college at aligarh
• Centre for spreadng sciences and culture
• Later grew into aligarh muslim university
• It gave them a common langauge— urdu
Unfortunately, in his later years Syed Ahmad Khan encouraged

the Indian Muslims not to join the National Movement. He felt
that they needed education and not politics. In a way he
encouraged the forces of communalism and separatism at this
stage
Social Reform
• Two main objectives
✓ Emancipation of women and giving them equality with men,
✓ Removal of caste rigidities, especially the abolition of
untouchability and the upliftment of the depressed classes
• Emancipation of Women
✓ Attempts have been made by the State and reformers to do
away with the practice of early marriage by legislation
✓ In 1930 the Sharda Act was passed fixing the minimum age for
marriage for boys at 18 and girls at 14
✓ Maharishi Karve was awarded the Bharat Ratna for his great
work in the field
✓ He started schools for girls, as well as working houses for
widows and destitutes
✓ This movement gained momentum and many schools and
colleges were opened for women
Struggle against Caste System
• By the Ramakrishn Mission and the Arya Samaj
• Shuddhi Movement
• Ambedkar opened many schools and colleges for their benefit
• Mahatma Gandhi, on the other hand, championed the cause of
untouchables whom he called Harijans
• He asked for temples to be thrown open to them as well as for
equal treatment to them
• Constitution of Free India has given the legal and constitutional
support to this movement
• Untouchability was declared a punishable offence
Swami Dayanand
• Mastery over the Sanskrit language and the Vedas
• In 1875, he founded the Arya Samaj
• Aim was to propagate the true knowledge of the Vedas
• Opposed untouchability
• Polytheism, avataravada and ritualism
• Slogan was ‘go back to the Vedas’
• The Vedas were printed in India under his patronage
• Most important work was Satyartha Prakasha (The Light of
Truth).
• Followers started a Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School and
College in Lahore
• Now has over 750 institutions under one umbrella.
other equally well-known personalities and organizations like
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Radhakanta Deb, the Theosophical
Society and the Arya Samaj
Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-90)

According to him the only way to improve the lot of the lower castes
and women was through education
• Started the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873
• Aim was to seek social justice
• Elected to the Poona Municipality as a member.
Pandita Rama Bai (1858-1922)

• Travel from place to place, giving discourses on the Puranas
• Scholar and religious speaker
• The pundits of Kolkata also invited her to address the people
• She was drawn to the Prarthana Samaj
• Started Sharda Sadan, a home for widows.
Mahadev Govid Ranade, R.G. Bhadarkar, Dadabhai Naoroji,
Behramji Malbari were other well known personalities, who worked
for social reforms in Western India.
PRESS AND THE GROWTH OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES AND

LITERATURE
• In 1798, lithography was invented
✓ It used the specially prepared surface of a stone for printing a
script, a picture, or drawing
• From about 1820 onwards, hundreds of pamphlets and books
were printed
• As a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, the press had
become a powerful tool for influencing public opinion.
• Printing presses were not costly
✓ Encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in
different Indian languages.
• Enrich our cultural heritage
• Awakening of the Indians.
• Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were
published almost in every language.
• Novels, essays and poems played a significant role in generating
nationalism
✓ Bankim Chandra’s Anandamatha,
✓ Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan,
✓ Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s Bharat Durdasha,
✓ Lakshminath Bezbarua’s works in Assamese,
✓ Subramaniam Bharti’s writing in Tamil
✓ Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu
Role of Newspapers
• Become a powerful and an important instrument for creating,
spreading, influencing and sharpening public opinion
• Helped in promoting a pan-indian consciousness and in giving
important political education to the people of India
• Some important Newspapers
• Bengal
✓ The Hindoo Patriot (English)
✓ The Amrita Bazar Patrika (English)
• Bombay
✓ Maharatha (English),
✓ Kesari (Marathi)
• Madras
✓ The Hindu (English),
✓ Swadeshmitran (Tamil)
• Punjab
✓ The Tribune (English)
✓ Kohinoor, Akhbar Am (Urdu)
INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Major achievement
• Secular and democratic republic
• Parliamentary system of governance
• Integration of the erstwhile princely states
• Economic planning
• Commendable progress in the fields of science and technology.
• Heard with respect in international meetings
• The issue of india becoming a permanent member of the un
security council is similarly gaining wide acceptance today.
Nationalist Movement—The Beginning

• British imperialistic colonialism
✓ Chief cause of India’s backwardness in every sphere
✓ Indians were now coming to realise this truth
✓ Peasants and the workers were the worst vicitims
✓ Industrialists and the capitalists were also not satisfied
• By the 19th century all Indians were united in that, they had all
realised they had a common enemy—the Britishers
• The Britishers did help in bringing about administrative and
economic unification of the country.
✓ Communication systems of railway, telegraph and post
✓ Roads and motor transport
✓ Western thought and education
✓ Modern ideas of democracy, humanism, nationalism and
sovereignty
• Press and literature
✓ Revival of the ancient glory of India

• The intensification of anti-British feelings due to…
✓ The racial arrogance and discrimination on the part of the
British rulers in India,
✓ The agitation of the Britishers against the Ilbert Bill,
✓ Lord Lytton’s anti-India measures and the holding of the lavish
British King’s Durbar in India when many Indians were dying
due to famine
• Indian National Congress, started by A.O. Hume in 1885
✓ It did succeed in creating political awareness and a feeling of
unity.
The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first

fruit of the British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. The
British were happy that they had succeeded in separating the 62
million Muslims from the Hindus. Thus arose the evil monster of
communalism in our country.
The Home Rule Movement
• After first world war, two Home Rule Leagues were set up
✓ One was started by Tilak at Poona
✓ Other by Annie Besant at Madras.
• Aimed at the achievement of Swaraj or self-government
✓ Got definite goal to achieve.
• Avoided violent or revolutionary methods.
• Worked as auxiliary units of the Congress.
1905-1918 Period
• The Era of Extremists
• Criticised the Modertates on these grounds…
✓ Failure to define India’s political goals,
✓ Using mild and ineffective methods
✓ Failure to make the movement a mass movement
• Led by the trio popularly known as - Lal, Bal, Pal
✓ Lala Laj Pat Rai,
✓ Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
✓ Bipin Chandra Pal
• Bankim Chandra, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda
Saraswari and Aurobindo Ghosh inspired the extremist
philosophy
• Curzon’s repressive policies
✓ Divide and Rule became the immediate cause of agitation
• ‘Boycott’ of foreign goods and adoption of ‘Swadeshi’ or
indigeneously produced goods.
• The British government used all kinds of violent repressive
measures to supress it.
1919-1934 Period
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms with the Government of Indian Act,
1919
• The Rowlatt Act
✓ To supress political violence.
• Gandhi
✓ Used the political weapon called Satyagraha
✓ Champaran Satyagraha.
• The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place in Amritsar on April 13,
1919
• The Khilafat Movement started
✓ Aim was to pressurise the government to set right the wrongs
done to the Muslims on the issue of Turkey.
• Khilafat Movement merged with the non co-operation movement
• Boycott of anything British including jobs, courts, schools,
colleges, functions and goods
• Promotion of Swadeshi, removal of untouchability and promotion
of Hindu-Muslim unity
• Revolutionary activities
✓ Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Rajguru, Sukhdev, Bismil,
Ashfaqullah and many others
• Simon Commission
✓ For reviewing the political situation.
✓ No Indian was included
An outline of a constitution for India was drawn as Nehru
Report in 1928
The Lahore Session of the Congress in 1929, the slogan of Purna
Swaraj as the goal was adopted; 26th January, 1930 was celebrated
as independence day.
• Salt Satyagraha
✓ Known as Dandi March, on 6th April, 1930
• Gandhi took up the cause of the ‘Depressed Classes’ and the
‘Untouchables’
✓ The Harijans Sewak Sangh was established.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement
• Round Table conference.
Achievement of Independence
• In 1935, Government of India Act was passed.
✓ Concept of All India Federation
✓ Provincial Autonomy
✓ Only 14 per cent of the population could vote
✓ Separate electroates were provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian
Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans, among others
✓ Discouraged the emergence of national unity,
✓ Encouraged separation and communalism.
• Elections were held in 1937.
✓ Congress Ministers were formed in seven out of the eleven
provinces.
✓ Socialist ideas grew
• The British policy of divide and rule led to communalism.
• They tried to stem the rising nationalism by appeasing the
Muslims and inducing them to ask for privileges as ‘minority
rights’.
✓ As a result the two-nation theory was evolved in 1938 and
clearly spelt out by Jinnah in 1940.
• Dr. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh (RSS).
✓ Aimed at awakening and organising the Hindu people
✓ ‘Shakha’ technique was evolved
• The Cripps Mission, in 1942 offered ‘Dominion Status’ to India at
the end of the war. The Congress rejected the offer.
• The Quit India Movement for complete independence was
launched by Gandhi and the Congress in August, 1942.
• Movement under the leadership of Jai Prakash Narain were also
active
• Subhash Chandra Bose and Rash Behari Bose launched the Indian
Independence League and the Indian National Army (INA), also
called Azad Hind Fauj, at Singapore in 1943.
✓ With the help of the Japanese, the INA reached the Indian
borders and captured Kohima.
✓ Japan was defeated by the British Army.
• After the end of the war, elections were held in India in the
beginning of 1946. The Congress won most of the seats.
• The Cabinet Mission Plan
✓ Disagreement on the Plan between the Congress and the
Muslim League
✓ Viceory invited the Congerss under Nehru to form an Interim
Government.
✓ The Muslim League was furious and it resulted in communal
riots and a lot of bloodshed.
✓ Stuck to their demand for a separate Muslim country—
Pakistan.
• British Prime Minister Attlee announced in February, the Plan for
the transfer of Power by June 1948.
• Lord Moundbatten was sent as Viceroy to India in March to make
arrangements
• The Congress had to accept the partition of India due to many
pressures, especially because of the widespread communal
bloodshed and the uncompromising attitude of the League and
Jinnah.
• India became free on 15th August, 1947 after partition. At the
stroke of midnight (14th-15th August) transfer of power took
place.
CONCISE NOTES ON MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
INDIA UNDER THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY
The English East India Company
The English East India Company was established on 31 December 1600 as per the Royal Charter issued
by the Queen of England, Elizabeth I.
• The Company had sent Captain Hawkins to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in
1608 to secure permission to establish a “factory” (store house of goods) at Surat
• It was turned down initially
• However, in 1613, Jahangir issued the firman permitting the East India Company to establish
its first trading post at Surat.
• Accordingly, the English set up business centres at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach
• In 1639, Francis Day established the city of Madras and constructed the Fort St. George.
• On the west coast, the Company obtained Bombay on lease from their King, Charles II for a
rent of 10 pounds per annum in 1668.
• By the year 1690, Job Charnock, the agent of the East India Company purchased three
villages namely, Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kalikatta, which, in course of time, grew into the
city of Calcutta.
• After the Battle of Plassey in 1757and the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company became a
political power.
• India was under the East India Company’s rule till 1858 when it came under the direct
administration of the British Crown.
• Robert Clive was the first Governor of Fort William under the Company’s rule.
1
WARREN HASTINGS (1772-1785)
In 1772, the Company appointed Warren Hastings as the Governor of Fort William
Reforms of Warren Hastings
1. Abolition of the Dual System

• The East India Company decided to act as Diwan and to undertake the collection of
revenue by its own agents.
• Hence, the Dual System introduced by Robert Clive was abolished
• Warren Hastings reduced the Nawab’s allowance of 32 lakhs of rupees to half that
amount
• He also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal Emperor
• A Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the collection of revenue.
• English Collectors were appointed in each district.
• The treasury was removed from Murshidabad to Calcutta and an Accountant General
was appointed
• Calcutta thus became the capital of Bengal in 1772and shortly after of British India
• The Board of Revenue farmed out the lands by auction for a period of five years instead
of one year in order to find out their real value.
• Yet, the system was a failure. Many zamindars defaulted and the arrears of revenue
accumulated.
2. Reorganisation of the Judicial System

• The judicial system at the time of Warren Hastings’ ascendancy was a store-house of
abuses.
• The Nawab who was hitherto the chief administrator of justice, misused his powers.
• The zamindars who acted as judges at lower levels within their own areas were highly
corrupt and prejudiced
• Each district was provided with a civil court Under the Collector A criminal court under
an Indian Judge
• To hear appeals from the district courts two appellate courts, one for civil cases and
another for criminal cases, were established at Calcutta
• The highest civil court of appeal was called Sadar Diwani Adalat,
2
• Which was to be presided over by the Governor and two judges recruited from among
the members of his council.
• Similarly, the highest appellate criminal court was known as Sadar Nizamat Adalat
• Which was to function under an Indian judge appointed by the Governor-in-Council
• Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided to assist the judges.
• An English translation of it – Code of Hindu Laws – was prepared by Halhed.
3. Trade Regulations and other Reforms
• Warren Hastings abolished the system of dastaks, or free passes and regulated the
internal trade.
• He reduced the number of custom houses and enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent
for Indian and non-Indian goods
• He reduced the number of custom houses and enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent
for Indian and non-Indian goods
• Weavers were given better treatment and facilities were made to improve their
condition.
• He also introduced a uniform system of pre-paid postage system.
• A bank was started in Calcutta.
The Regulating Act of 1773 (Background)
1. The Regulating Act of 1773 opened a new chapter in the constitutional history of the
Company.
2. Previously, the Home government in England consisted of the Court of Directors and the
Court of Proprietors.
3. The Court of Directors were elected annually and practically managed the affairs of the
Company
4. In India, each of the three presidencies was independent and responsible only to the Home
Government.
5. The government of the presidency was conducted by a Governor and a Council
6. The following conditions invited the Parliamentary intervention in the Company’s affairs.
7. The English East India Company became a territorial power when it acquired a wide
dominion in India and also the Diwani rights.
3
8. The disastrous famine which broke out in Bengal in 1770 affected the agriculturists. As a
result, the revenue collection was poor
9. In short, the Company was on the brink of bankruptcy. In 1773, the Company approached
the British government for an immediate loan.
10. Under these circumstances that the Parliament of England resolved to regulate the affairs of
the Company.
11. Lord North, the Prime Minister of England, appointed a select committee to inquire into the
affairs of the Company.
12. The report submitted by the Committee paved the way for the enactment of the Regulating
Act.
Provisions of the Act
1. The term of office of the members of the Court of Directors was extended from one year to
four years. One-fourth of them were to retire every year and the retiring Directors were not
eligible for re-election.
2. The Governor of Bengal was styled the Governor-General of Fort William whose tenure of
office was for a period of five years.
3. The Governor-General in Council was made supreme over the other Presidencies in matters
of war and peace
4. Provision was made in the Act for the establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta
consisting of a Chief Justice and three junior judges. It was to be independent of the
Governor-general in Council.
5. In 1774, the Supreme Court was established by a Royal Charter
6. This Act prevented the servants of the Company including the Governor-General, members
of his council and the judges of the Supreme Court from receiving directly or indirectly any
gifts in kind or cash.
7. The significance of the Regulating Act is that it brought the affairs of the Company under the
control of the Parliament.
8. The greatest merit of this Act is that it put an end to the arbitrary rule of the Company
9. Provided a framework for all future enactments relating to the governing of India.
10. The main defect of the Act was that the Governor-General was made powerless
11. Because the council which was given supreme power often created deadlocks by over-ruling
his decision
12. However, many of these defects were rectified by the Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
4
Expansionist Policy of Warren Hastings
1. Warren Hastings was known for his expansionist policy. His administration witnessed the
Rohilla War,
2. The First Anglo-Maratha War and the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
The Rohilla War (1774)
1. Rohilkand was a small kingdom situated in between Oudh and the Marathas.
2. Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan.
3. He concluded a defensive treaty in 1772 with the Nawab of Oudh fearing an attack by the
Marathas.
4. But no such attack took place. But, the Nawab demanded money.
5. When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the help of the British invaded Rohilkand
6. Warren Hastings, who sent the British troops against Rohilkand was severely criticised for his
policy on Rohilla affair
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)
1. The Marathas were largely remained disunited since the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
2. The internal conflict among the Marathas was best utilized by the British in their
expansionist policy.
3. In 1775, there was a dispute for the post of Peshwa between Madhav Rao and his uncle
Raghunatha Rao.
4. The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in
March 1775.
5. Raghunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later when he was
unwilling to fulfil his promise, the British captured them.
6. This action of the Bombay Government was not approved by Warren Hastings. In 1776,
Warren Hastings sent Colonel Upton to settle the issue
7. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis,
another Maratha leader
8. According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa and the British
retained Salsette along with a heavy war indemnity
9. However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. Warren Hastings also
considered the Treaty of Purandar as a ‘scrap of paper’
5
10. In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of Captain Popham.
He defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of small battles and captured
Gwalior.
11. Later in May 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji
Scindia
12. Accordingly, Salsette and Bassein were given to the British.
13. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa.
14. The Treaty of Salbai established the British influence in Indian politics.
15. It provided the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas
16. The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the
Marathas in recovering their territories from Haider Ali.
17. Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves from the combined opposition of
Indian powers and on the other, succeeded in dividing the Indian powers.
The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
1. The first Anglo-Mysore War took place in 1767-69.

2. Haider Ali emerged victorious against the British and at the end of the War a defensive
treaty was concluded between Haider Ali and the British.
3. After eleven years, the Second Mysore War broke out
The main causes for the second Anglo-Mysore War were:
• The British failed to fulfil the terms of the defensive treaty with Haider when he was attacked
by the Marathas in 1771
• There was an outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of Haider)
during the American War of Independence
• The British captured Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s territories
• Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas against
the British in 1779.
• The War began when the British led their forces through
• Haider’s territory without his permission to capture Guntur in the Northern Sarkars.
• Haider Ali defeated Colonel Baillie and captured Arcot in 1780.
• In the next year, Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, divided the Confederacy.
• He made peace with the Nizam, won the friendship of Bhonsle and came to an
understanding with the Scindia (both Marathas)
6
• Consequently, Haider was isolated without any alliance.
7
• He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo in March 1781.

• In December 1782, Haider died of cancer at the age of sixty and his death was kept secret till
his son Tipu Sultan assumed power.
4. The Second Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore in 1783.
Pitt’s India Act, 1784
1. The Regulating Act proved to be an unsatisfactory document as it failed in its objective

2. In January 1784, Pitt the Younger (who became Prime Minister of England after the General
Elections) introduced the India Bill in the British Parliament.
3. It received royal assent in August 1784. This was the famous Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
Main Provisions
• A Board of Control consisting of six members was created. They were appointed by the
Crown
• The Court of Directors was retained without any alteration in its composition.
• The Act also introduced significant changes in the Indian administration. It reduced the
number of the members of the Governor-General’s Council from four to three including the
Commander-in-Chief.
• The Court of Directors controlled its commercial functions, whereas the Board of Control
maintained its political affairs.
• In fact, the Board represented the King, and the Directors symbolised the Company.
The Impeachment of Warren Hastings
1. The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a rude shock and bitter disappointment for Warren Hastings.
2. His image and reputation were tarnished in England. Therefore, he resigned and left India in
June 1785
3. In 1787, Warren Hastings was impeached in the Parliament by Edmund Burke and the Whigs
for his administrative excess.
4. Burke brought forward 22 charges against him
5. He received pension from the Company and lived till 1818.
Estimate of Warren Hastings
1. He was a gifted personality endowed with ‘strong will, great energy and resourcefulness’.
2. Since he considered Indian culture as a basis for sound Indian administration, he patronised
8
the learning of Indian languages and arts.
9
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)
INTRODUCTION
1. Lord Cornwallis, a warrior-statesman, succeeded Warren Hastings as Governor-General in

1786.
2. He was also a close friend of Prime Minister Pitt and of Dundas, the most influential member
of the Board of Control.
3. It amended Pitt’s India Act in 1786 so as enable him to overrule the decision of the majority
of his council, if necessary.
4. A new tradition of choosing a person from an aristocratic family for the post of Governor-
General was initiated.
Tipu Sultan and the Third Mysore War (1790-92)
1. The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore, exposed English
weaknesses and increased Tipu’s strength
2. His other designs were to wreak vengeance on the Nizam and on the Marathas as they had
betrayed his father during the hour of need
The chief causes for the Third Mysore War were
1. Tipu Sultan strengthened his position by undertaking various internal reforms. This created
worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas
2. Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by sending envoys to
those countries.
3. He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of
Travancore, who was an ally of the British.
4. In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against
Tipu
5. War broke out in May 1790 between the English and Tipu.
6. It was fought in three phases
7. English troops and inflicted heavy losses
8. Cornwallis himself assumed command in December 1790. This was the beginning of the
second phase of the war.
9. Tipu’s brilliant strategies prolonged the war and Cornwallis was forced to retreat
10
10. The third phase of the war began when timely aid from the Marathas with plenty of
provisions
11. Helped him to resume his campaign and marched against Srirangapattinam again.
12. The English forces occupied the hill forts near Srirangapattinam and seized it in February
1792.
Treaty of Srirangapattinam
Terms of the treaty were as follows
(i) Tipu had to give up half his dominions

(ii) He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees and surrender two of his sons as
hostages to the English
(iii) Both sides agreed to release the prisoners of war
(iv) The Treaty of Srirangapattinam is a significant event in the history of South India.
(v) The British secured a large territory on the Malabar Coast
(vi) Tipu had been defeated but not destroyed
Reforms
The internal reforms of Cornwallis can be studied under three main heads.
• Administrative reforms
• Revenue reforms or Permanent Settlement
• Judicial and other reforms
1. Purification of the civil service by the employment of capable and honest public servants.
2. Abolished the vicious system of paying small salaries and allowing enormous perquisites.
3. Persuaded the Directors of the Company to pay handsome salaries to the Company servants
4. They might free themselves from commercial and corrupting activities.
5. Cornwallis inaugurated the policy of making appointments mainly on the basis of merit
6. Laying the foundation of the Indian Civil Service.
7. Abolished a number of surplus posts
8. The separation of the three branches of service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue.
9. The collectors, the king-pins of the administrative system were deprived of their judicial
powers
10. Their work became merely the collection of revenue.
11
Judicial Reforms
1. At the top of the judicial system, the highest civil and criminal courts of appeal, namely
Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were functioning at Calcutta. Both of them
were presided over by the Governor-General and his Council.
2. There were four provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna,
each under three European judges assisted by Indian advisers.
3. District and City courts functioned each under a European judge. Every district was provided
with a court.
4. District Judges were appointed.
5. Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom of the judicial
system.
6. In criminal cases, Muslim law was improved and followed.
7. In civil cases, Hindu and Muslim laws were followed according to the religion of the litigants
8. In suits between Hindus and Muslims, the judge was the deciding authority.
9. Cornwallis was better known as a law giver than as an administrator.
10. Cornwallis prepared a comprehensive code, covering the whole field of administration’,
judicial, police, commercial and fiscal. Based upon the principle of Montesquieu
11. The Separation of Powers”, which was popular in the West in 18th century.
12. In order to curb undue exercise of authority Cornwallis made all officials answerable to the
courts
Police Reforms
1. The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the reorganisation of police

administration.
2. The District Judge controlled the police.
3. Each district was divided into thanas or police circles each of which was about 20 square
miles
4. It was placed under an Indian officer called the daroga who was ably assisted by many
constables.
Other Reforms
1. Cornwallis reformed the Board of Trade which managed the commercial investments of the
Company.
2. With the aid of Charles Grant, he eradicated numerous abuses and corrupt practices.
12
3. Fair treatment was given to weavers and Indian workers.
13
4. He increased the remuneration for honest service.
Estimate of Cornwallis
1. Cornwallis, a blue-blooded aristocrat, was an ardent patriot.

2. He discharged his duties fearlessly, and his life was an embodiment of ‘duty and sacrifice’.
3. He perceived the danger of Tipu’s growing power and curtailed it by boldly discarding the
policy of non-intervention.
4. As an administrator, he consolidated the Company’s position in India and started the
tradition of efficient and pure administration.
5. His administrative and judicial reforms were solid achievements He may be regarded the
parent of the Indian Administrative Service and founder of an efficient and clean system of
administration.
6. Sir John Shore (1793-98) succeeded Cornwallis as Governor General and his administration
was uneventful
14
THE MARQUESS OF WELLESLEY (1798-1805)
1. He was a great imperialist and called himself ‘a Bengal tiger’

2. Wellesley came to India with a determination to launch a forward policy in order to make
‘the British Empire in India’ into ‘the British Empire of India’
3. The system that he adopted to achieve his object is known as the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’
Political Condition of India at the time of Wellesley’s Arrival
1. In the north-western India, the danger of Zaman Shah’s aggression posed a serious threat to
the British power in India.
2. In the north and central India, the Marathas remained a formidable political power.
3. The Nizam of Hyderabad employed the Frenchmen to train his
4. The political unrest in the Karnataka region continued and Tipu Sultan had remained the
uncompromising enemy of the British
5. The policy of neutrality adopted by Sir John Shore, the successor of Cornwallis, created a
kind of political unrest in India and greatly affected the prestige of the English.
6. His non-intervention policy contributed much to the growth of anti-British feelings
7. Further, Napoleon’s move for an Eastern invasion created a fear among English statesmen.
8. Preservation of British prestige and removal of French danger from India were Wellesley’s
twin aims
9. He was also thoroughly convinced that only a strong British power in India could reduce and
control the existing tyranny and corruption in Indian states
The Subsidiary System
1. The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian princes like the Nawab of
Oudh and the Nizam of Hyderabad
2. They received subsidies from the Indian rulers for the maintenance of British troops
3. Which were used for the protection of respective Indian states
Main Features of Subsidiary Alliance
1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had to maintain a
contingent of British troops in his territory.
2. It was commanded by a British officer. The Indian state was called ‘the protected state’ and
the British hereinafter were referred to as ‘the paramount power’.
3. Help its ruler maintain internal peace.
15
4. The protected state should give some money or give part of its territory to the British to
support the subsidiary force.
5. The protected state should cut off its connection with European powers other than the
English and with the French in particular.
6. The state was also forbidden to have any political contact even with other Indian powers
without the permission of the British.
7. The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident at his court and disband his
own army.
8. He should not employ Europeans in his service without the sanction of the paramount
power.
9. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected state.
Benefits to the British
1. Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the masterstrokes of British imperialism.

2. It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the expense of the protected
states.
3. The territories of the Company were free from the ravages of war thereby establishing the
stability of the British power in India
4. Under the system, expansion of British power became easy. Thus Wellesley’s diplomacy
made the British the paramount power in India.
Defects of the Subsidiary System
1. Introduction of anarchy because of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent away by

the Indian princes.
2. The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where the
menace of Pindaris affected the people.
3. Further, the subsidiary system had a demoralizing effect on the princes of the protected
states.
4. Safeguarded against external danger and internal revolt, they neglected their administrative
responsibilities.
5. They preferred to lead easy-going and pleasure seeking lives.
6. As a result misgovernment followed. In course of time, the anarchy and misrule in several
states had resulted in their annexation by the British.
16
7. Thus, the subsidiary system proved to be a preparation for annexation.
17
Enforcement of the Subsidiary System
Hyderabad:
1. Hyderabad was the first state which was brought under Wellesley’s Subsidiary System in
1798.
2. It fixed the amount to be paid annually at Rs.24 lakhs for the subsidiary force.
3. In accordance with the treaty, all the French troops in Hyderabad were disbanded and
replaced by a subsidiary British force.
4. A new treaty was concluded in 1800 by which the Nizam ceded large territories to the
Company and this constitutes the famous Ceded Districts
Oudh
1. The threat of invasion by Zaman Shah of Afghanistan was the pretext for Wellesley to force
the Nawab of Oudh to enter into a subsidiary treaty
2. The Nawab gave the British the rich lands of Rohilkhand, the lower Doab and Gorakhpur for
the maintenance of an increased army which the British stationed in the capital of Oudh.
3. The strength of Nawab’s own army was reduced. For the maintenance of law and order the
British were authorised to frame rules and regulations
4. By this, the British acquired the right to interfere in the internal matters of Oudh.
5. Highhanded action of Wellesley was severely criticized
Tanjore, Surat and the Karnataka
1. Wellesley assumed the administration of Tanjore, Surat and the Karnataka by concluding
treaties with the respective rulers of these states.
2. The Maratha state of Tanjore witnessed a succession dispute
3. In 1799, Wellesley concluded a treaty with Serfoji
4. In accordance with this treaty the British took over the administration of the state and
allowed Serfoji to retain the title of Raja with a pension of 4 lakhs of rupees.
5. The principality of Surat came under British protection as early as 1759.
6. The Nawab of this historic city died in 1799 and his brother succeeded him.
7. The change of succession provided Wellesley an opportunity to take over the administration
of Surat.
8. The Nawab was allowed to retain the title and given a pension of one lakh of rupees.
9. The people of Karnataka had been suffering for a long time by the double government.
18
10. The Nawab, Umadat-ul-Umara was an incompetent ruler noted for his extravagance and
misrule.
11. He died in the middle of 1801 and his son, Ali Hussain became the Nawab. Wellesley asked
him to retire He refused
12. The entire military and civil administration of the Karnataka came under the British
The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
The circumstances which led to the Fourth Mysore War
1. Tipu Sultan wanted to avenge

2. He also aimed at making Mysore a strong state.
3. He took efforts to seek the help of the France, Arabia, Kabul and Turkey.
4. He corresponded with the Revolutionary French Government in July 1798.
5. At Srirangapattinam, a Jacobian Club was started and the flag of the French Republic was
hoisted
6. When Napoleon came to power, Tipu received a friendly letter from Napoleon (who was in
Egypt at that time).
7. Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1790 with the Marathas.
8. Not accepted by the Marathas, they promised to remain neutral.
9. Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam was concluded by the British and as a consequence, the
French force at Hyderabad was disbanded.
10. Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary alliance and wrote letters
requesting the Tipu to dismiss the French,
11. Tipu paid scant attention to Wellesley’s letters and thus the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war
started
12. Although severely wounded, he fought till his capital Srirangapattinam was captured and he
himself was shot dead
Mysore after the War
1. With the fall of Tipu Sultan the kingdom of Mysore fell at the feet of Wellesley.
2. He restored Hindu rule at the central part
3. A five year old boy, Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the dethroned Hindu Raja, was
enthroned at Mysore, which became the capital almost after two hundred years.
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Wellesley and the Marathas
1. Nana Fadnavis provided the leadership to the Marathas

2. His death in 1800 removed the last great Maratha leader.
3. Peshwa Baji Rao II, despite his stately appearance and immense learning, lacked political
wisdom.
4. The infighting among the Maratha leaders proved to be self-destructive.
5. Peshwa Baji Rao II was in great danger, so he fled to Bassein where he signed the Treaty of
Bassein with the British in 180
6. It was a subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was recognized as the head of the Maratha
kingdom.
7. The British troops marched under the command of Arthur Wellesley towards Poona and
restored the Peshwa to his position.
The Second Maratha War (1803-1805)
1. Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghoji Bhonsle took the Treaty of Bassein as an insult to the
national honour of the Marathas.
2. Arthur Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar in August 1803 and defeated the combined forces of
Scindia and Bhonsle at Assaye near Aurangabad.
3. The Treaty of Deogaon was signed between Bhonsle and Wellesley.
4. The former signed the subsidiary treaty which forced him to give up the province of Cuttack
in Orissa
5. Scindia signed a subsidiary treaty with the British. It is known as the Treaty of Surji –
Arjungaon.
Estimate of Wellesley
1. An unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of forward policy,

2. Wellesley was one of the greatest empire-builders that England had ever produced.
3. Wellesley converted the British Empire in India to the British Empire of India
4. He located the weak spots of the Indian powers and applied his political technique (namely
Subsidiary Alliance).
5. He rightly deserves to be called the maker of the erstwhile Madras Presidency and the
creator of the Province of Agra.
6. Sir George Barlow was the next Governor-General for two years (1805-07)
7. The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 took place during his administration.
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8. He was succeeded by Lord Minto (1807-13) who concluded the Treaty of Amritsar with
Ranjit Singh of Punjab in 1809.
9. The Charter Act of 1813 was passed during this period.
21
LORD HASTINGS (1813-1823)
• Lord Hastings became Governor-general in 1813.

• He adopted a vigorous forward policy and waged wars extensively
• Conditions in India when he assumed power posed a serious threat to the British
administration
• There was anarchy in central India.
• The Pindaris plundered the whole region and the Marathas could not control them
• The Peshwa was secretly plotting against the British
War against the Ghurkhas (1814-16)
1. Nepal emerged as a powerful Ghurkha state in 1768.

2. In 1801, the British acquired the districts of Gorakhpur and Basti from the Nawab of Oudh.
3. This move brought the boundary of Nepal to touch the British frontier.
4. The aggressions of the Ghurkhas into the British territories culminated in a war.
5. Amar Singh Thapa, the able General of Nepal Army was forced to surrender
6. In March 1816, the Treaty of Sagauliwas concluded.
7. The Ghurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai region and ceded the areas of Kumaon and
Garhwal to the British.
8. The British now secured the area around Shimla and their north-western borders touched
the Himalayas.
9. The Ghurkhas had to withdraw from Sikkim and they also agreed to keep a British Resident
at Katmandu.
10. It was also agreed that the kingdom of Nepal would not employ any other foreigner in its
services other than the English.
11. The British had also obtained the sites of hill stations like Shimla, Mussoori, Nainital,
Ranikhet and developed them as tourist and health resorts
12. . After this victory in the Ghurkha War Hastings was honoured with English peerage and he
became Marquis of Hastings
Suppression of the Pindaris
1. The first reference about them is during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra.
2. They did not belong to any particular caste or creed.
3. During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen attached to the Maratha army.
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4. They were mostly active in the areas of Rajputana and the Central Provinces and subsisted
on plunder.
5. Their leaders belonged to both the Hindu as well as the Muslim communities
6. Chief amongst them were Wasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim Khan.
7. In 1812, the Pindaris plundered the districts of Mirzapur and Shahabad and in 1815 they
raided the Nizam’s dominions. In 1816,
8. By 1818, the Pindaris were completely suppressed and all their bands disintegrated
9. Karim Khan was given a small estate in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces.
10. By 1824, the menace of the Pindaris came to an end
Downfall of the Maratha Confederacy
1. In reality, the Maratha power had weakened considerably after the Third Battle of Panipat
(1761)
2. The Maratha chiefs fought amongst themselves and their successors were invariably weak
and incapable
3. Peshwa Baji Rao II wanted to become the head of the Maratha Confederacy
4. Wanted freedom from the British control
5. His Chief Minister Tirimbakji encouraged him.
6. On the advice of the Company, the Gaekwar sent his Prime Minister Gangadhar Shastri to
negotiate with the Peshwa.
7. Gangadhar Shastri, was murdered at Nasik in July 1815, at the instance of Triambakji.
8. This caused a lot of anger not only among the Marathas but also among the British
9. The latter asked the Peshwa to handover Triambakji to them.
10. Peshwa handed over his Minister to the British, who lodged him in Thana jail from where he
escaped
11. Consequently, on 13 June 1817, the British Resident Elphinstone forced the Peshwa to sign
the Treaty of Poona
12. Baji Rao gave up his desire to become the supreme head of the Marathas
Third Maratha War (1817-1819)
1. But soon the Peshwa undid this treaty with the British and on 5 November 1817 attacked
the British Residency
2. The Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib also refused to abide by the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had
signed with the British on 17 May 1816.
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3. He fought with the British in the Battle of Sitabaldiin November 1817, but was defeated
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4. The Peshwa now turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21
December 1817 at Baroda.
5. The Peshwa now turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21
December 1817 at Baroda.
Causes of the Defeat of the Marathas
1. The main reasons were

2. Lack of capable leadership
3. Military weakness of the Marathas.
4. The major drawback of the Maratha power was mutual bitterness and lack of cooperation
amongst themselves
5. The Marathas hardly left any positive impact on the conquered territories.
6. The Marathas did not have cordial relations with other princes and Nawabs of India.
7. The Marathas failed to estimate correctly the political and diplomatic strength of the British
Reforms of Hastings
1. He approved the Ryotwari system of land revenue

2. Madras Presidency by Sir Thomas Munroe.
3. In the sphere of judiciary, the Cornwallis Code was improved.
4. The Police system of Bengal was extended to other regions.
5. The importance of Indian Munsiffs had increased during his administration.
6. The separation of judicial and revenue departments was not rigidly followed. Instead, the
District Collector acted as Magistrate.
7. Hastings had also encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by missionaries and
others
8. In 1817, the Hindu College was established at Calcutta by the public for the teaching of
English and western science.
9. Hastings was the Patron of this college. He encouraged the freedom of the Press and
abolished the censorship introduced in 1799.
10. The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpanwas started in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore
missionary.
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Estimate
1. Lord Hastings was an able soldier and a brilliant administrator.

2. His liberal views on education and Press are commendable
3. He suppressed the Pindaris, defeated the Marathas and curbed the power of the Ghurkhas.
4. He was considered the maker of the Bombay Presidency.
5. The completed and consolidated the work of Wellesley.
6. Lord Hastings was succeeded by Lord Amherst (1823-28) who fought the First Anglo-Mysore
War (1824-26)
26
LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835)
• Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor-general in 1828

• He was appointed the Governor of Madras in 1803
• The first Governor-general of British India
• Who acted on the dictum that “the welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps the
primary, duty of the British in India”
Policy towards Indian States
• William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention and non-aggression with Indian states
Mysore
1. In Mysore, Hindu rule under Krishnaraja III was restored by Wellesley.

2. Later, when the young raja assumed full control of the government he proved incompetent.
3. The peasantry of the state suffered from many grievances.
4. The British authorities took over the administration of Mysore State and placed it under the
control of a commissioner.
5. Sir Mark Cubbon was commissioner from 1834 to 1861 and his administration was beneficial
to the people of Mysore.
6. Even today, the famous Cubbon Park in Bangalore city has been named after him to remind
his services to Mysore
Cachar and Jaintia
1. The principality of Cachar lying in the North East Frontier came under the protection of the
British in accordance with the Treaty of Yandaboo concluded at the end of the first Burmese
War.
2. The Raja of this small state was assassinated in 1832 but there was no heir to succeed him.
3. Bentinck annexed this state at the wish of the people
Coorg
1. Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg who treated his people with savage barbarity and
killed all his male relatives.
2. Lord William Bentinck decided to deal with him effectively
3. The Raja was deposed in 1834 and the state was annexed
27
Relations with Ranjit Singh
1. Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian threat to India.
2. Hence, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the ruler of Punjab, Maharajah
Ranjit Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind.
3. His earnest desire was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and
any possible invader.
4. The meeting of Bentinck and Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the bank of the
river Sutlej amidst show and splendor.
5. The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus
Navigation Treaty was concluded between them.
Charter Act of 1833
1. The Regulating Act of 1773 made it compulsory to renew the Company’s Charter after
twenty years.
2. Hence, the Charter Act of 1793 was passed by the Parliament.
3. The Charter Act of 1813 provided one lakh of rupees annually for the promotion of Indian
education.
4. It also extended the Company’s charter for another twenty years.
5. The Charter Act of 1833 was a significant constitutional instrument defining the scope and
authority of the East India Company
6. The liberal and utilitarian philosophy of Bentham was made popular by the provisions of this
Act
Following were the important provisions:
1. The English East India Company ceased to be a commercial agency in India.

2. It would function hereafter as the political agent for the Crown
3. The Governor-General of Fort William was hereafter called ‘the Governor- General of India’.
4. Bentinck was the first Governor-General of India’
5. Law Member was appointed to the Governor-General’s Council.
6. T. B. Macaulay was the first Law Member of the Governor-general-in-Council
7. The Act categorically stated ‘that no native of India, nor any natural born subject of His
Majesty,
8. Should be disabled from holding any place, office, or employment, by reason of his religion,
place of birth, descent or colour”
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9. It was this enactment which laid the foundation for the Indenisation of public services
29
10. After twenty years, the Charter Act of 1853 was passed and it was the last in the series of
Charter Acts
Reforms of Lord William Bentinck
• Covered only a short span of seven years, it saw a period of enduring reforms
• They may be classified as financial, administrative, social and educational.
Financial Reforms
1. When Bentinck assumed the Governor-General ship in 1828, the financial position of the
Company was poor.
2. He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and additional staff were removed
3. In the military department, he abolished the system of double batta.
4. By these financial reforms at the time of his departure, he left the treasury with a surplus of
Rs.1.5 million
1. Bentinck’s administrative reforms speak of his political maturity and wisdom.

2. In the judicial department he abolished the provincial courts of appeal established by
Cornwallis.
3. Introduction of local languages in the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the
place of Persian.
Social Reforms
• The social reforms of William Bentinck made his name immortal in the history of British
India.
• These include the abolition of Sati, the suppression of Thugs and the prevention of female
infanticide.
Abolition of Sati
1. The practice of sati, the age old custom of burning of widows alive on the funeral pyre of
their husbands
2. This inhuman social custom was very common in northern India more particularly in Bengal
3. Bentinck was greatly distressed when he received a report of 800 cases of sati in a single
year and that from Bengal.
30
4. He determined to abolish this practice which he considered an offence against natural

justice.
5. Promulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829 prohibiting the practice of sati.
6. Those who practiced sati were made liable for punishment by law courts as accessories to
the crime
7. The Regulation was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
8. The Regulation was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
Suppression of Thugs
1. They were hereditary robbers. They went about in small groups of fifty to hundred posing as
commercial gangs or pilgrims ‘strangling and robbing peaceful travellers’.
2. They increased in number in central and northern India during the 18th century
3. A campaign was systematically organised by Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs
4. During the course of five years nearly 2000 of them were captured.
5. For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William Sleeman was known as “Thugee
Sleeman”.
Female Infanticide
1. Female infanticide was one of the horrible and heartless deeds committed even by civilized
people.
2. This practice killing female infants was very much prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab,
Malwa and Cutch.
3. He not only prohibited female infanticide but declared them as punishable crime.
Introduction of English Education
1. He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay to make recommendations for the

promotion of education.
2. In his report, Macaulay emphasized the promotion of European literature and science
through English medium to the people of India.
3. This recommendation was wholeheartedly accepted by William Bentinck.
4. The Government Resolution in 1835 made English the official and literary language of India.
5. In the same year, William Bentinck laid foundation of the Calcutta Medical College. Estimate
31
Estimate of William Bentinck
1. Bentinck was a “straightforward, honest, upright, benevolent, sensible man”

2. His social reforms such as abolition of sati and prevention of child sacrifice eradicated age
old evils from Hindu society
3. It is gratifying to note that “Bentinck acted where others had talked”.
4. After William Bentinck, Lord Auckland (1836-42) became Governor-General.
5. The First Afghan War (1836-42) was fought during his administration
6. Due to his failure in Afghanistan he was recalled in 1842.
7. Lord Ellenborough succeeded him and ended the Afghan War.
8. He also annexed the Sindh
9. His successor, Lord Hardinge (1844-48) fought the first Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and
concluded the Treaty of Lahore.
32
LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856)

1. Lord Dalhousie was the youngest Governor-General of India when he assumed charge at the
age of 36 in 1848.
2. He studied in Christ Church, Oxford
3. He became Member of Parliament and enjoyed the confidence of Sir Robert Peel, the Prime
Minister of England.
4. In 1847, he was offered the Governor-General ship of India which he accepted and arrived at
Calcutta in January 1848.
Policy of Annexation
1. Although he used different reasons for annexation, his main objective was to end misrule in
the annexed states, as in the case of the annexation of Oudh.
2. He aimed at providing the beneficent administration to the people of the annexed states
3. His great annexations include the Punjab, Lower Burma, most of the Central Provinces and
Oudh
Annexation of Punjab
1. At the end of the second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab was annexed by Dalhousie.
2. The province was divided into small districts under the control of District Officers who were
called Deputy Commissioners
3. These commissioners with the help of their assistants came into close contact with people.
4. . Revenue and judicial departments were combined to secure concentration of power and
responsibility
5. The laws and procedure were simplified in accordance with the custom of the people.
6. In 1859, Sir John Lawrence became the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab
Second Burmese War and the Annexation of Lower Burma
1. In 1852, commercial disputes in Rangoon prompted new hostilities between the British and
the Burmese
2. After the end of the second Burmese War (1852), Dalhousie annexed Lower Burmawith its
capital at Pegu.
3. Annexation of Lower Burma proved beneficial to Britain.
4. Rangoon, Britain’s most valuable acquisition from the war became one of the biggest ports
in Asia
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Doctrine of Lapse
1. According to the Hindu Law, one can adopt a son in case of no male heir to inherit the
property.
2. The question arose whether a Hindu ruler, holding his state subordinate to the paramount
power, could adopt a son to succeed his kingdom.
3. It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the British Government whether he
could adopt a son to succeed him
4. According to Dalhousie, if such permission was refused by the British, the state would
“lapse” and thereby become part of the British India
5. Dalhousie maintained that there was a difference in principle between the right to inherit
private property and the right to govern.
6. This principle was called the Doctrine of Lapse.
7. The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it was annexed in 1848.
8. Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in 1854
9. As a result of these annexations, a large part of the Central Provinces came under the British
rule.
10. Although the Doctrine of Lapse cannot be regarded as illegal, its application by Dalhousie
was disliked by Indian princes.
11. After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.
Annexation of Oudh
1. The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765
2. Right from Warren Hastings, many Governor-Generals advised the Nawab of Oudh to
improve the administration.
3. . After surveying the situation in Oudh, Dalhousie annexed it in 1856
4. Nawab Wajid Ali was granted a pension of 12 lakhs of rupees per year.
5. The annexed territory came under the control of a Chief Commissioner
6. Dalhousie’s annexation of Oudh, the last one among his annexations, created great political
danger.
7. The annexation offended the Muslim elite
8. More dangerous was the effect on the British army’s Indian troops, many of whom came
from Oudh
9. They had occupied a privileged position before its annexation.
10. Under the British Government they were treated as equals with the rest of the population
34
11. This is a loss of prestige for them. In these various ways, the annexation of Oudh contributed
to the Mutiny of 1857.
Domestic Reforms of Dalhousie
1. The appointment of a Lieutenant-Governor to Bengal enabled Dalhousie concentrate on

administration.
2. His greatest achievement was the moulding of the new provinces into a modern centralized
state.
3. For the newly acquired territories, he introduced the centralized control called “Non-
Regulation System”.
4. Under this system a Commissioner
5. Was appointed for a newly acquired territory.
6. Under military reforms Dalhousie shifted the headquarters of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta
to Meerut.
7. Shimla was made the permanent headquarters of the army.
Railway
1. The introduction railways in India inaugurated a new economic era

2. Three major reasons for the British to take interest in its quick development
3. The first reason was commercial.
4. The second main reason was administrative.
5. The third reason was defence
6. At the time of revolt and disturbance, movement of the forces was much easier through
railways.
7. In 1853, he penned his Railway Minute formulating the future policy of railways in India.
8. He started the “guarantee system” by which the railway companies were guaranteed a
minimum interest of five percent on their investment
9. The government retained the right of buying the railway at the end of the period of contract.
10. The first railway line connecting Bombay with Thane was opened in 1853.
11. Railway lines connecting from Calcutta to the Raniganj coal-fields was opened in 1854
12. From Madras to Arakkonam in 1856
13. His first railway in the world was opened in 1825 in England.
35
Telegraph
1. Similarly, the use of Telegraph brought marvellous changes in communication system.

2. . In 1852, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the Superintendent of Telegraph Department
3. Main cities of the country viz., Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were telegraphically
connected.
4. About 4000 miles long Telegraph lines were laid before the departure of Dalhousie.
5. During the 1857 Revolt, the system of telegraphic communication proved a boon for the
English and the military value of Dalhousie’s creation was much realized at that time.
Postal Reform
1. The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by Lord Dalhousie.
2. A new Post Office Act was passed in 1854
3. Irrespective of the distance over which the letter was sent, a uniform rate of half an anna
per post card was charged throughout India.
4. Postage stamps were introduced for the first time.
Education
1. The educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the “Intellectual
Charter of India”.
2. It provided an outline for the comprehensive scheme of education at primary, secondary
and collegiate levels.
3. Departments of Public Instructions were organized.
4. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were founded in 1857
Public Works Department
1. Before the period of Dalhousie, the job of the Public Works Department was done by the
Military Board.
2. Dalhousie created a separate Public Works Department and allotted more funds for cutting
canals and roads
3. The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in 1854
4. Many bridges were constructed. By modernizing the Public Works
5. Department he laid the foundations of the engineering service in India.
36
Estimate of Dalhousie
1. Dalhousie left India in 1856. The outbreak of Mutiny in the following year led to a severe
criticism of his policy of annexation.
2. He fell ill and died in 1860.
3. There is no doubt that Dalhousie was an able administrator and visionary
4. He was the father of Railways and Telegraphs.
5. He introduced the process of modernization of India. Hence, he is hailed as “the maker of
modern India”
37
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE

BRITISH
British Agrarian Policy
1. Till the 18th century, there was a strong relation between agriculture and cottage industries
in India.
2. The British destroyed handicraft industry
3. The British policies revolved around getting maximum income from land without caring
much about Indian interests of the cultivators.
4. After their advent, the British principally adopted three types of land tenures.
5. Roughly 19 per cent of the total area under the British rule, i.e., Bengal, Bihar, Banaras,
division of the Northern Western Provinces and northern Karnatak, were brought under the
Zamindari System or the Permanent Settlement
6. The second revenue system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced in about 30
per cent of the total area under British rule i.e., in major parts of the North Western
Provinces, Central Provinces and the Punjab with some variations
7. The Ryotwari System covered about 51 per cent of the area under British rule comprising
part of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of British India.
The Permanent Settlement
1. Lord Cornwallis’ most conspicuous administrative measure was the Permanent Land
Revenue Settlement of Bengal
2. Which was extended to the provinces of Bihar and Orissa.
3. Warren Hastings introduced the annual lease system of auctioning the land to the highest
bidder.
4. Cornwallis at the time of his appointment was instructed by the Directors
5. Find a satisfactory and permanent solution to the problems of the land revenue system in
order to protect the interests of both the Company and the cultivators.
6. He decided to abolish the annual lease system
7. Introduce a decennial (Ten years) settlement which was subsequently declared to be
continuous
8. The main features of the Permanent Settlement were as follows
38
9. His zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of land as long as they paid the
revenue to the East India Company regularly
10. The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to the Company was firmly fixed and
would not be raised under any circumstances. In other words the Government of the East
India Company got 89% leaving the rest to the zamindars
11. The ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil
12. This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindars
13. The flagrant defect of this arrangement was that no attempt was made ever either to survey
the lands or to assess their value
14. . The effects of this system both on the zamindars and ryots were disastrous.
15. Many zamindars defaulted on payments.
16. Their property was seized and distress sales were conducted leading to their ruin.
17. The rich zamindars who led luxurious lives left their villages and migrated into towns.
18. They entrusted their rent collection to agents who exacted all kinds of illegal taxes besides
the legal ones from the ryots
19. This had resulted in a great deal of misery amongst the peasants and farmers
20. Therefore Lord Cornwallis’ idea of building a system of benevolent land-lordism failed.
21. Nevertheless, this system proved to be a great boon to the zamindars and to the
government of Bengal.
22. It formed a regular income and stabilised the government of the Company.
23. The zamindars prospered at the cost of the welfare of the tenants
Ryotwari Settlement
1. The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay and Assam.
2. Sir Thomas Munro introduced this system in the Madras Presidency
3. Under this settlement, the peasant was recognised as the proprietor of land.
4. There was no intermediary like a Zamindar between the peasant and the government
5. So long as he paid the revenue in time, the peasant was not evicted from the land
6. Besides, the land revenue was fixed for a period from 20 to 40 years at a time
7. Every peasant was held personally responsible for direct payment of land revenue to the
government.
8. This system also failed.
9. Under this settlement it was certainly not possible to collect revenue in a systematic
manner.
39
Mahalwari Settlement
1. In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab, the Central Provinces and
parts of North Western Provinces.
2. The basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal.
3. As the village lands belonged jointly to the village community, the responsibility of paying
the revenue rested with the entire Mahal or the village community.
4. So the entire land of the village was measured at the time of fixing the revenue.
5. Yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.
British Policy towards Indian Handicrafts
1. The European companies began arriving on the Indian soil from 16th century.
2. As far as the traditional handicraft industry and the production of objects of art were
concerned,
3. India was already far ahead of other countries in the world.
4. The textiles were the most important among the Indian industries.
5. Its cotton, silk and woollen products were sought after all over the world.
6. Particularly, the muslin of Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of Kashmir, and the embroidery
works of Banaras were very famous.
7. Ivory goods, wood works and jewellery were other widely sought after Indian commodities.
8. Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad
9. Chikan of Lucknow, and silk borders of Nagpur had earned a worldwide fame.
10. For their silk products some small towns of Bengal besides, Malda and Murshidabad were
very famous.
11. Similarly, Kashmir, Punjab and western Rajasthan were famous for their woollen garments.
12. Besides textiles, India was also known widely for its shipping, leather and metal industries.
13. Indian fame as an industrial economy rested on cutting and polishing of marble and other
precious stones and carving of ivory and sandalwood.
14. Moradabad and Banaras were famous for brass, copper, bronze utensils.
15. Nasik, Poona, Hyderabad and Tanjore were famous for other metal works
16. Kutch, Sind and Punjab were known for manufacturing arms.
17. Kolhapur, Satara, Gorakhpur, Agra, Chittor and Palaghat had likewise earned a reputation for
their glass industries.
18. The Indian handicraft industry had begun to decline by the beginning of the 18th century
19. There were many reasons for it.
40
20. First, the policies followed by the English East India Company proved to be highly
detrimental to the Indian handicrafts industry.
21. The Indian market was flooded with the cheap finished goods from Britain.
22. It resulted in a steep decline in the sale of Indian products both within and outside of the
country.
23. The Company encouraged the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal while imposing service
restrictions on the sale of its finished products.
24. So, with the disappearance of the traditional dynasties, their nobility also passed into
oblivion.
25. This led to a sharp decline in the demand for traditional luxury goods.
26. Besides, the Industrial revolution led to the invention of new machinery in Europe.
27. Power looms replaced handlooms
28. Finally, the new communication and transport facilities brought about a revolution in public
life.
29. But now conditions were changed with the introduction of railways and steamer services.
30. Concrete roads were laid to connect the country’s agricultural hinterland.
41
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS

Language and Education Policy
1. Although the British had captured Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting
education remained only in Indian hands.
2. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit still continued.
3. In 1781, Warren Hastings established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of
Muslim laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
4. A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British resident, Jonathan Duncan, a
Sanskrit College was established to promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in
Banaras
5. It is apparent from the government and Church records that
6. There were about 80,000 traditional institutions of learning in Bengal alone
7. Which means that there was at least one institution for every four hundred people in that
province
8. Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also demonstrate similar facts
9. There was at least one school in every village of India at that time
10. The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the sphere of education.
11. It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental education and gave importance to western
education and English language.
12. The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend one lakh rupees per annum for the
spread of education in India
13. Consequently, not even a single penny out of the allocated funds could be spent on
education.
14. The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups on the issue of
development of education in India.
15. One group, called the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through
Indian languages.
16. The other group, called the Anglicists, argued the cause of western sciences and literature in
the medium of English language.
17. In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck,
emphasized on the medium of English language in Indian education.
18. In the beginning of 1835, the 10 members of the General Committee of Public Instruction
42
were clearly divided into two equal groups
43
19. Five members including the Chairman of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of
adopting English
20. Other five were in favour of oriental languages
21. The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835 when the Chairman of the committee, Lord
Macaulay announced his famous Minute advocating the Anglicists point of view.
22. Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7 March 1835 which declared that henceforth
23. Government funds would be utilized for the promotion of western literature and science
through the medium of English language
24. In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as a grand plan on education.
25. The establishment of departments of public instructions in five provinces
26. Introduction of the pattern of grants in aid to encourage private participation in the field of
education were recommended.
27. The dispatch also laid emphasis on the establishment of schools for technical education,
teacher and women education.
28. The dispatch recommended the establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras,
29. On the model of the London University
30. Consequently, within the next few years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
1. In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and earning profits from economic
exploitation.
2. They were apprehensive of interfering with the social and religious customs and institutions
of the Indian
3. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme precaution and indifference towards social issues
in India.
4. Reason why they indulged in criticizing the customs and traditions of India
5. Was to generate a feeling of inferiority complex among the Indians.
6. However, in the mid-19th century the social and religious movements, launched in India
7. Attracted the attention of the Company’s administration towards the country’s social evils.
8. The propaganda carried out by the Christian missionaries also stirred the minds of the
educated Indians.
9. There were primarily two areas in which laws were enacted, laws pertaining to women
emancipation and the caste system.
44
Social Laws Concerning Women
1. The condition of women, by the time the British established their rule, was not encouraging.
2. Several evil practices such as the practice of Sati, the Purdah system, child marriage, female
infanticide, bride price and polygamy had made their life quite miserable.
3. There was no social and economic equality between a man and woman.
4. A Hindu woman was not entitled to inherit any property.
5. Female Infanticide
6. It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana, Punjab and the North Western Provinces.
7. Factors such as family pride
8. The fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child
9. The hesitation to bend before the prospective in-laws
10. Therefore, immediately after birth, the female infants were being killed either by feeding
them with opium
11. By strangulating or by purposely neglecting them.
12. Some laws were enacted against this practice in 1795, 1802 and 1804 and then in 1870.
13. This evil practice came to be done away through education and public opinion.
Widow Remarriage
1. There are many historical evidences to suggest that widow remarriage enjoyed social
sanction during ancient period in India.
2. In course of time the practice ceased to prevail increasing the number of widows to lakhs
during the 19th century.
3. Prominent among these reformers were Raja Rammohan Roy and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar.
4. They carried out large scale campaigns in this regard mainly through books, pamphlets and
petitions with scores of signatures.
5. In July 1856, J.P. Grant, a member of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in
support of the widow remarriage,
6. Which was passed on 13 July 1856 and came to be called the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
Child Marriage
1. In November 1870, the Indian Reforms Association was started with the efforts of Kasha
Chandra Sen.
2. A journal called Mahapap Bal Vivah (Child marriage: The Cardinal Sin) was also launched
with the efforts of B.M. Malabari to fight against child marriage.
45
3. In 1846, the minimum marriageable age for a girl was only 10 years
46
4. In 1891, through the enactment of the Age of Consent Act, this was raised to 12 years.
5. In 1930, through the Sharda Act, the minimum age was raised to 14 years
6. After independence, the limit was raised to 18 years in 1978
Purdah System
1. Similarly, voices were raised against the practice of Purdah during the 19th and 20th century
2. The condition of women among the peasantry was relatively better in this respect.
3. Purdah was not so much prevalent in Southern India.
4. Through the large scale participation of women in the national freedom movement
5. The system disappeared without any specific legislative measure taken against it
Struggle against the Caste System and the related Legislation
1. Next to the issue of women emancipation, the caste system became the second most
important issue of social reforms.
2. The Shudras were subjected to all kinds of social discrimination.
3. In the beginning of the 19th century the castes of India had been split into innumerable sub
castes on the basis of birth.
4. In the meantime, a new social consciousness also dawned among the Indians.
5. Mahatma Gandhi made the removal of untouchability a part of his constructive programme.
6. He brought out a paper, The Harijan, and also organised the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
7. Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar dedicated his entire life for the welfare of the downtrodden
8. In Bombay, he formed a Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha in July 1924 for this purpose.
9. Later, he also organised the Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha to fight against caste
oppression.
10. Jyotirao Phulein Western India and Shri Narayana Guru in Kerala respectively established the
Satya Sadhak Samaj
11. Shri Narayana Dharma Partipalana Yogam to include self-esteem among the downtrodden.
12. In the Madras Presidency also the beginning of 20th century witnessed the rise of Self-
respect Movement of Periyar E.V.R.
13. These movements were directed mainly in removing the disabilities suffered by Harijans in
regard to drawing of water from public wells
14. Getting entry into temples and admission into schools.
47
THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857
• The 1857 Revolt sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism, which lay dormant in the
subconscious of the Indian people
• It started the movement which was a continuous struggle against the British rule till 1947
Nature of the Revolt
1. The historical writings of the British scholars underplayed the character of the Revolt of
1857.
2. Sir John Lawrence was of the opinion that the Revolt was purely a military outbreak, and not
a conspiracy to overthrow British rule
3. On the other hand the Revolt of 1857 is hailed by the Indian scholars, especially by Vir
Savarkar as the First War of Indian Independence.
4. Two distinguished Indian historians, R.C. Majumdar and S.N. Sen, have analysed the Revolt
of 1857 in depth.
5. S.N. Sen believes that the 1857 Revolt was part of the struggle for Indian independence
6. R.C. Majumdar maintains that the outbreaks before 1857, whether civil or military
7. Were “a series of isolated incidents” ultimately culminated in the Great Revolt of 1857.
Causes of the Revolt
Political Causes
1. On the contrary, the British rule was disliked by the people at large in any region when it was
newly introduced.
2. Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in those regions like Burma, Assam, Coorg, Sind,
and the Punjab which were unjustly annexed to the British Empire.
3. The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly its practical application by Lord Dalhousie, produced
grave discontent and alarm among the native princes,
Economic Causes
1. The huge drain of wealth, the destruction of its industry and increasing land revenue had
become the common features of the latter half of the eighteenth century.
2. The East India Company, after attaining political power, used it to fund the growth of British
trade and commerce at the cost of Indians.
3. In England the ruin of the old handloom weavers was accompanied by the growth of the
machine industry
48
4. But in India the ruin of the millions of artisans and craftsmen was not accompanied by any
alternative growth of new industrial forms
5. A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable misery for the
Indian peasants.
6. The hard hit were the peasants on the indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar
Social Causes
1. The Englishmen showed an arrogant attitude towards the Indians. Indiscriminate assaults on
Indians by Englishmen became quite common.
2. Also, a general alarm was raised among the Hindus and Muslims by the activities of the
Christian missionaries.
3. The educational institutions established by the missionaries inculcated western education
and culture in the place of oriental learning.
4. The native population felt that were losing their social identity
Military causes
1. Discontent against the British Raj was widely prevalent among the Indian soldiers in the
British army.
2. The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a sense of strong resentment at their
low salary and poor prospects of promotion.
3. The British military officers at times showed least respect to the social values and religious
sentiments of Indian sepoys in the army.
4. Thus, although generally faithful to their masters, the sepoys were provoked to revolt.
5. The Vellore mutiny of 1806, a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such
tendencies on the part of the military authorities.
6. Another important cause of the sepoy’s dissatisfaction was the order that abolished the
foreign allowance or batta when they served in foreign territories.
7. Thus the discontent was widespread and there was an undercurrent before the volcanic
situation of 1857.
The Beginning of the Revolt
1. The 1857 Revolt was sparked off by the episode of the greased cartridges
2. The new Enfield rifle had been introduced for the first time in the Indian army
3. Its cartridges had a greased paper cover
4. Whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle.
49
5. The grease was composed of fat taken from beef and pig
6. The religious feelings of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys were terribly wounded.
7. The sepoys believed that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religious
and cultural identity.
8. Hence they raised the banner of revolt.
9. The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore.
10. Mangal Pandey (a sepoy) refused to use the greased cartridges and single-handedly attacked
and killed his officer.
11. Mangal Pandey was hanged.
12. The regiment to which he belonged was disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished.
13. The British instead of diffusing the explosive situation, paved the way for a mighty crisis by
the above act.
14. At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms
of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased catridges
15. Therefore, on 10 May the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released
their fellow sepoys and headed towards Delhi.
16. General Hewitt, the officer commanding at Meerut was helpless to prevent the army’s
march.
17. The city of Delhi fell into the hands of the rebellious soldiers on 12 May 1857.
18. Lieutenant Willtashby, the officer in charge of Delhi could not prevent the mutineers
19. Soon, the mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal
dynasty as the Emperor of India.
20. Very soon the rebellion spread throughout northern and central India at Lucknow,
Allahabad, Kanpur, Banares, in parts of Bihar, Jhansi and other places
Delhi
1. The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur Shah, but the real control was
exercised by General Bakht Khan
2. In Delhi, Emperor Bahadur Shah II was arrested and deported to Rangoon
3. Where he remained in exile till he died in 1862
Kanpur
1. At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb,

2. The adopted son of Baji Rao II
50
3. The last Peshwa.
51
4. Nana Saheb expelled the English from Kanpur with the help of the sepoys and proclaimed
himself the Peshwa
5. Nana Saheb in his efforts against the British was ably supported by two of his lieutenants.
6. One was Tantia Tope, the other was Azimullah.
7. Sir Hugh Wheeler the commander of the British garrison at Kanpur surrendered on the 27
June 1857.
8. But, soon Kanpur was recaptured by the British commander Sir Colin Campbell.
Lucknow
1. The principal person responsible for the revolt in Lucknow was the Begum of Oudh.
2. With the assistance of the sepoys, the zamindars and peasants
3. The Begum organised
4. An all-out attack on the British
5. Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner tried to defend the British
6. Lawrence was killed in a bomb blast during the fight.
7. The final relief for the British forces in Lucknow came in the form of Sir Colin Campbell, who
suppressed the revolt
Jhansi
1. Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao played a heroic role in this
revolt.
2. Rani Lakshmi Bai was affected by Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse
3. The combined efforts of Rani and Tantia Tope saw the capture of Gwalior.
4. Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope and stormed Jhansi on 3 April 1858.
5. He then captured Gwalior.
6. The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier’s death on 17 June 1858.
7. Tantia Tope was captured and hanged on charges of rebellion and murder in the massacre of
Kanpur
Bihar
1. Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur near Oudh

2. Was the chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar
3. He fought the British in Bihar
4. Kunwar Singh sustained a fatal wound in the battle and died on 27 April 1858 at Jagdishpur.
5. Ultimately the 1857 Revolt came to an end with the victory of the British.
52
6. Viceroy Canning proclaimed peace throughout India.
Causes for the Failure of the Revolt
1. Foremost cause was that the Revolt failed to embrace the whole of India. Different sections
of society such as moneylenders, merchants and modern educated Indians were actually
against the Revolt.
2. The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels.
3. The insurgents lacked a carefully concerted general plan or a strong central organisation to
plan the movements of the army and oversee their strategy.
4. In addition, the British were aided by new scientific inventions such as the telegraph system
and postal communications.
Significance and Effects of the Mutiny
1. The Revolt of 1857 though completely suppressed had shaken the very foundations of
British rule in India,
2. It brought together the disgruntled sections of society to rise against the British rule
3. However, this civilian revolt was not universal but sporadic and inconsistent
4. Another significant aspect of the 1857 Revolt was the Hindu-Muslim unity
5. It brought about fundamental changes in the character of Indian administration
6. Which was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown by the Queen’s
Proclamation of 1 November, 1858
7. At the same time the Governor-General received the new title of Viceroy.
8. Lord Canning had the unique opportunity to become the Governor-General as well as the
first Viceroy according to the Act of 1858.
9. Lord Canning proclaimed the new Government at Allahabad on 1 November 1858 in
accordance with the Queen’s Proclamation.
10. The latter has been called the Magna Carta of the Indian people;
11. It disclaimed any extension of territory, promised religious toleration
12. Guaranteed the rights of Indian princes and pledged equal treatment to her subjects, Indians
and Europeans
13. The year 1857 is a great divide between the two landmarks in Indian history.
14. One was that of British paramountcy in the first half
15. Other is that of the growth of Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth
century.
53
BRITISH INDIA AFTER 1858: LORD LYTTON (1876-1880), LORD

RIPON (1880-1884) AND LORD CURZON (1899-1905)
• After the 1857 Revolt, the responsibility of ruling India was directly assumed by the British
Crown.
• Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India in 1858.
• The Queen’s Proclamation remained the basis of the British policy in India for more than 60
years
• The administrations of Lord Lytton, Lord Ripon and Lord Curzon were important during this
period.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
1. Lord Lytton was an experienced diplomat and a man of striking ability and brilliance.
2. The British Prime Minister, Disraeli appointed him as the Viceroy of India.
Famine Policy
1. The famine of 1876-78 had resulted from the failure of two monsoons
2. It covered an area of two lakh fifty thousand square miles and affected fifty eight million
people.
3. The worst affected areas were Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Bombay, Central India and the
Punjab
4. It took a toll of five million lives in a single year.
5. The outbreak of cholera and fever added to the misery of the suffering population
6. Lytton’s Government failed miserably to tackle the situation.
7. The government’s relief measures seemed to be inadequate.
8. The first Famine Commission (1878-80) under Sir Richard Strachey was appointed and it
made many commendable recommendations.
9. The Famine Code came into existence in 1883.
The Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act (1878)
1. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed

2. This Act empowered a Magistrate to secure an undertaking from the editor
3. Publisher and printer of a vernacular newspaper that nothing would be published against
the English Government.
54
4. The equipment of the press could be seized if the offence was committed.
5. This Act crushed the freedom of the Indian press.
6. In the same year, the Arms Act was passed.
7. This Act prevented the Indians to keep arms without appropriate license.
Other Reforms
1. Lord Lytton introduced uniform salt tax throughout British India.

2. Abolished many import duties and supported the Free Trade policy
3. The system of decentralisation of finance that had begun in the time of Lord Mayo was
continued during the time of Lord Lytton.
4. The provincial governments were empowered with some control over the expenditure of all
provincial matters like land-revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice.
5. Lytton wanted to encourage the provinces in collecting the revenue and thereby strengthen
the financial power and position of the provinces.
6. In 1878, the Statutory Civil Service was established exclusively for Indians but this was
abolished later
Lytton and the Second Afghan War (1878-80)
1. The Afghan policy of the British was based on the assumed threat of Russian invasion of
India
2. The first Afghan War (1838-42) proved to be a disastrous one for the British in India.
3. He was instructed by the home government to follow a forward policy.
4. The Russian attempt to send a mission to Afghanistan was the main cause of the Second
Afghan War.
5. Soon after the outbreak of the war in 1878, the British troops captured the territory
between Kabul and Kandahar
6. The ruler of Afghanistan, Sher Ali fled from his country and died in 1879. His son Yakub Khan
became the ruler and the British concluded the Treaty of Gandamak with him.
7. A British Resident was sent to Kabul but soon he was murdered along with other British
officers by the Afghan rebels.
8. Although the British troops were able to recapture Kabul, the difficulties in holding it
increased due to the activities of the rebels.
9. Suddenly in 1780, Lytton was forced to resign by the new government in England
10. Lytton’s Afghan policy was severely criticised because he was responsible for the murder of
55
the British officers including the Resident in Kabul.
56
11. During his administration, millions died due to famine. The Vernacular Press Act undermined
his credit.
57
Lord Ripon (1880-84)
1. Lord Ripon was a staunch Liberal democrat with faith in self-government.

2. He was appointed as the Viceroy of India by Gladstone, the Liberal Party Prime Minister of
England
3. Ripon was instructed to reverse the Afghan policy of Lytton
4. He was also responsible for the rendition of Mysore to its Hindu ruler
5. Moreover, he repealed the Vernacular Press Act and earned much popularity among Indians.
6. Then, he devoted himself to task of liberalising the Indian administration
7. Introduction of Local Self-Government (1882)
8. Ripon believed that self-government is the highest and noblest principles of politics.
9. Ripon helped the growth of local bodies like the Municipal Committees in towns and the
local boards in taluks and villages.
10. The powers of municipalities were increased.
11. Their chairmen were to be non-officials
12. They were entrusted the care of local amenities, sanitation, drainage and water-supply and
also primary education.
13. District and taluk boards were created. It was insisted that the majority of the members of
these boards should be elected non-officials.
14. The local bodies were given executive powers with financial resources of their own
15. It was perhaps the desire of Ripon that power in India should be gradually transferred to the
educated Indians.
16. He also insisted on the election of local bodies as against selection by the government.
Educational Reforms
1. Lord Ripon was a champion of education of the Indians.

2. Ripon wanted to review the working of the educational system on the basis of the
recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch
3. For further improvement of the system Ripon appointed a Commission in 1882 under the
chairmanship of Sir William Hunter
4. The Commission came to be known as the Hunter Commission.
5. The Commission recommended for the expansion and improvement of the elementary
education of the masses
6. The Commission suggested two channels for the secondary education
58
7. -One was literary education leading up to the Entrance Examination of the university
59
8. The other preparing the students for a vocational career.

9. The Commission noted the poor status of women education.
10. It encouraged the local bodies in the villages and towns to manage the elementary
education.
First Factory Act (1881)
1. Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act of 1881 to improve the service condition of the
factory workers in India.
2. The Act banned the appointment of children below the age of seven in factories.
3. It reduced the working hours for children.
Ilbert Bill Agitation (1884)
1. Lord Ripon wanted to remove two kinds of law that had been prevalent in India
2. According to the system of law, a European could be tried only by a European Judge or a
European Magistrate.
3. The disqualification was unjust and it was sought to cast a needless discredit and dishonour
upon the Indian-born members of the judiciary.
4. C.P. Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this discrimination in judiciary
5. Europeans opposed this Bill strongly
6. They even raised a fund of one lakh fifty thousand rupees and established an organisation
called the Defence Association.
7. They also suggested that it was better to end the English rule in India than to allow the
English to be subjected to the Indian Judges and Magistrates
8. The press in England joined the issue. Hence, Ripon amended the bill to satisfy the English in
India and England
9. The Ilbert Bill controversy helped the cause of Indian nationalism
10. The Ilbert Bill Controversy is a high watermark in the history of Indian National Movement.
11. Ripon was totally disillusioned and heartbroken and he tendered his resignation and left for
England.
12. The immediate result of this awakening of India was the birth of the Indian National
Congress in 1885, the very next year of Ripon’s departure.
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Estimate of Lord Ripon
1. Lord Ripon was the most popular Viceroy that England ever sent to India.
2. The Indians by and large hailed him as “Ripon the Good”, because he was the only Viceroy
who handled the Indian problems with compassion and sympathy
3. His attempt to remove racial distinction in the judiciary, the repeal of the Vernacular Press
Act, the rendition of Mysore and the introduction of the Local-Self Government increased his
popularity among Indians.
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Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
1. Lord Curzon occupies a high place among the rulers of British India like Lord Wellesley and
Lord Dalhousie
2. He was a thorough imperialist
3. In order to make the administration efficient, Lord Curzon overhauled the entire
administrative machinery.
Educational Reforms
1. Curzon took a serious view of the fall in the standard of education and discipline in the
educational institutions.
2. In his view the universities had degenerated into factories for producing political
revolutionaries.
3. To set the educational system in order, he instituted in 1902, a Universities Commission to
go into the entire question of university education in the country
4. Curzon brought in the Indian Universities Act of 1904, which brought all the universities in
India under the control of the government
Police and Military Reforms
1. He instituted a Police Commission in 1902 under the chairmanship of Sir Andrew Frazer.
2. He set up training schools for both the officers and the constables and introduced provincial
police service.
Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
1. The Viceroy brought in a new legislative measure namely the Calcutta Corporation Act in
1899
2. The strength of the elected members was reduced and that of the official members
increased.
3. Curzon gave more representations to the English people as against the Indians in the
Calcutta Corporation.
4. There was strong resentment by the Indian members against Curzon’s anti-people
measures.
Preservation of Archaeological objects
1. Curzon had a passion for preserving the ancient monuments of historical importance in
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India.
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2. No Viceroy in India before or after him took such a keen interest in archaeological objects.
3. He passed a, law called the Ancient Monuments Act, 1904
4. Which made it obligatory on the part of the government and local authorities to preserve
the monuments of archaeological importance and their destruction an offence
Partition of Bengal, 1905
1. The Partition of Bengal into two provinces was effected on 4 July 1905
2. The new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam included the whole of Assam and the Dacca,
Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions of Bengal with headquarters at Dacca.
3. Though Curzon justified his action on administrative lines, partition divided the Hindus and
Muslims in Bengal.
4. This led to the anti-partition agitation all over the country. This had also intensified the
National Movement.
Estimate of Lord Curzon
1. Lord Curzon assumed his office, when he was forty years old
2. All his reform measures were preceded by an expert Commission and its recommendations.
3. He made a serious study of the Indian problems in all their aspects.
4. He lost the popularity by the act of Partition of Bengal
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SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
• In the history of modern India, the socio-religious reforms occupy a significant place
• The spread of liberal ideas of the west provided further stimulus for the emergence of
reform movements.
Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj
1. Raja Rammohan Roy established the Brahmo Samajat Calcutta in 1828 in order to purify
Hinduism and to preach monotheism.
2. He is considered as the first ‘modern man of India’.
3. Born in 1772 in the Hooghly district of Bengal
4. He studied the Bible as well as Hindu and Muslim religious texts
5. He had excellent command over many languages including English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic,
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
6. In 1815, he established the Atmiya Sabha.
7. Later, it was developed into the Brahmo Sabha in August 1828.
8. He preached that there is only one God.
9. He combined the teachings of the Upanishads, the Bible and the Koran in developing unity
among the people of different religions.
10. The work of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (father of
Rabindranath Tagore),
11. Who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj
12. Raj Rammohan Roy is most remembered for helping Lord William Bentinck to declare the
practice of Sati a punishable offence in 1829.
13. He also protested against the child marriage and female infanticide.
14. He felt that the caste system was the greatest hurdle to Indian unity.
15. He favoured inter-caste marriages.
16. He himself adopted a Muslim boy
17. In 1817, he founded the Hindu College (now Presidency College, Calcutta) along with David
Hare, a missionary.
18. Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad Kaumudi
19. Edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-akhbar.
20. He stood for the freedom of the press
21. Rammohan died in Bristol in England in 1833
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Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement
1. Henry Vivian Derozio was the founder of the Young Bengal Movement.
2. He was born in Calcutta in 1809 and taught in the Hindu College, Calcutta.
3. He died of cholera in 1833.
4. His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement the Young Bengal
Movement.
5. They attacked old traditions and decadent customs.
6. They also advocated women’s rights and their education.
7. They founded associations and organized debates against idol worship, casteism and
superstitions
Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and the Arya Samaj
1. The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswathi at Bombay in 1875.
2. Born in Kathiawar in Gujarat, Swami Dayanand (1824-83) was a scholar, a patriot, a social
reformer and a revivalist.
3. He believed the Vedas were the source of true knowledge.
4. His motto was “Back to the Vedas”.
5. He was against idol worship, Child marriage and caste system based on birth.
6. He encouraged intercaste marriages and widow remarriage
7. He started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had converted to other
religions to its fold.
8. He wrote the book Satyartha Prakash which contains his ideas.
9. The Arya Samaj, though founded in Bombay, became very powerful in Punjab and spread its
influence to other parts of India.
10. The first Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School was founded in 1886 at Lahore.
Prarthana Samaj
1. The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang
2. It was an off-shoot of Brahmo Samaj
3. It was a reform movement within Hinduism and concentrated on social reforms like inter-
dining, inter-marriage, widow remarriage and uplift of women and depressed classes.
4. Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
5. Justice Ranade promoted the Deccan Education Society.
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Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission
1. The original name of Swami Vivekanandawas Narendranath Dutta (1863-1902)

2. He became the most famous disciple of Shri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
3. He was born in a prosperous Bengali family of Calcutta and educated in Scottish Church
College.
4. In 1886 Narendranath took the vow of Sanyasa and was given the name, Vivekananda.
5. He preached Vedantic Philosophy
6. Swami Vivekananda participated at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in
September 1893 and raised the prestige of India and Hinduism very high.
7. Vivekananda preached the message of strength and self-reliance.
8. He asked the people to improve the lives of the poor and depressed classes.
9. He founded the Ramakrishna Mission at Belur in Howrah in 1897.
10. It is a social service and charitable society.
11. The objectives of this Mission are providing humanitarian relief and social work through the
establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals and orphanages.
Theosophical Society
1. The Theosophical Society was founded in New York (USA) in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky,
a Russian lady, and Henry Steel Olcott, an American colonel
2. Their main objectives were to form a universal brotherhood of man without any distinction
of race, colour or creed and to promote the study of ancient religions and philosophies.
3. They arrived in India and established their headquarters at Adyar in Madras in 1882.
4. Later in 1893, Mrs Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of the Society
after the death of Olcott.
5. Mrs Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu School along with Madan Mohan Malaviya at
Benaras which later developed into the Banaras Hindu University.
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
1. Pandit Ishwar Chandra was a great educator, humanist and social reformer
2. He was born in 1820 in a village in Midnapur, Bengal.
3. He rose to be the Head Pandit of the Bengali Department of Fort William College.
4. Vidyasagar founded many schools for girls
5. He helped J.D. Bethune to establish the Bethune School.
6. He founded the Metropolitan Institution in Calcutta
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7. He protested against child marriage and favoured widow
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8. Remarriage which was legalised by the Widow Remarriage Act (1856).

9. It was due to his great support for the spread of education that he was given the title of
Vidyasagar.
Jyotiba Phule
1. Jyotiba Phule belonged to a low caste family in Maharashtra

2. He waged a life-long struggle against upper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy.
3. In 1873 he founded the Satyashodak Samaj to fight against the caste system.
4. He pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra and worked for the
education for women.
5. Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first girls’ school at Poona in 1851
Muslim Reform Movements
1. The Muslim reform movements started a little later because they had avoided western
education in the beginning.
2. The first effort was in 1863 when the Muhammad Literary Society was set up in Calcutta
Aligarh Movement
1. The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) for the social and
educational advancement of the Muslims in India
2. In 1866, he started the Mohammadan Educational Conference as a general forum for
spreading liberal ideas among the Muslims.
3. In 1875, he founded a modern school at Aligarh to promote English education among the
Muslims.
4. This had later grown into the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental College and then into the Aligarh
Muslim University.
The Deoband School
1. The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Movement.
2. It was a revivalist movement whose twin objectives were
3. To propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadi
4. To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.
5. The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and
intellectual content to the religious ideas of the school.
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Sikh Reform Movement
1. Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement

2. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar (formless).
3. The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh.
4. His followers wore white clothes and gave up meat eating.
5. The Singh Sabhas started in Lahore and Amritsar in 1870 were aimed at reforming the Sikh
society.
6. They helped to set up the Khalsa College at Amritsar in 1892.
7. They also encouraged Gurmukhi and Punjabi literature.
8. In 1920, the Akalis started a movement to remove the corrupt Mahants (priests) from the
Sikh gurudwaras
9. Later, the Akalis organised themselves into a political party
Parsi Reform Movement
1. The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S.
Bengalee in 1851.
2. The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S.
Bengalee in 1851.
3. Naoroji published a monthly journal, Jagat Mithra
Saint Ramalinga
1. Saint Ramalinga was one of the foremost saints of Tamil Nadu in the nineteenth century.
2. His divine powers came to be recognised at the early age of eleven.
3. In 1865 he founded the Samarasa Suddha Sanmargha Sanghafor the promotion of his ideals
of establishing a casteless society.
4. He composed Tiru Arutpa
5. In 1870 he moved to Mettukuppam, a place three miles away from Vadalur.
6. There he started constructing the Satya Gnana Sabaiin 1872.
7. He introduced the principle that God could be worshipped in the form of Light
Self-Respect Movement and Periyar E.V.R.
1. Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy was a great social reformer. In 1921, during the anti-liquor
campaign he cut down 1000 coconut trees in his own farm.
2. In 1924, he took an active part in the Vaikam Satyagraha
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3. The objective of the Satyagraha was to secure for untouchables the right to use a road near
a temple at Vaikom in Kerala.
4. He started the “Self-Respect Movement”. The aims of the ‘Self -Respect Movement’ were to
uplift the Dravidians and to expose the Brahminical tyrany and deceptive methods by which
they controlled all spheres of Hindu life
5. He denounced the caste system, child marriage and enforced widowhood
6. He himself conducted many marriages without any rituals
7. Such a marriage was known as “SelfRespect Marriage.
8. He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis of the entire Hindu social fabric of
caste
9. He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to propagate his ideals
10. On 27th June 1970 by the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned with the title “Socrates
of South Asia”
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1885-1905)

Factors Promoting the Growth of Nationalism in India
Political Unity
• For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and administratively
under a single power (the British rule).
• It introduced a uniform system of law and government.
Development of Communication and Transport
• The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal services and the construction of roads
and canals facilitated communication among the people.
• All these brought Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the
national movement on an all India basis.
English Language and Western Education
• The English language played an important role in the growth of nationalism in the country.
• The English educated Indians, who led the national movement, developed Indian
nationalism and organised it.
• Western education facilitated the spread of the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and
nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism
The Role of the Press
• The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national consciousness
Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century
• Organisations like the Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical
Society generated a feeling of regard for and pride in the motherland.
Economic Exploitation by the British
• A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic policy pursued by the British
government in India.
• The English systematically ruined the Indian trade and native industries.
Racial Discrimination
• The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion between the British
and the Indians
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Administration of Lytton
• Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India was in the grip
of famine.
• He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian Press.
The Ilbert Bill controversy
• The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between Indian and European judges in courts.
• Ultimately the Bill was modified
The Indian National Congress (1885)
1. Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant in the British Government took the initiative to
form an all-India organization.
2. Thus, the Indian National Congress was founded and its first session was held at Bombay in
1885.
3. W.C. Banerjee was its first president.
4. The second session was held in Calcutta in 1886 and the third in Madras in 1887
5. The history of the Indian National Movement can be studied in three important phases:
6. The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress continued to be loyal to
the British crown.
7. The years 1906-1916 witnessed- Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant nationalism and the
Home Rule Movement.
8. The period from 1917 to1947 is known as the Gandhian era.
Moderate Nationalism
The leading figures during the first phase of the National Movement were
A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee
Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji Feroze
Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale Pandit Madan
Mohan Malaviya, Badruddin Tyabji
Justice Ranade and G.Subramanya Aiyar
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Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian Burke
• He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal.

• He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms.
• He had convened the Indian National Conference (1883) which merged with the Indian
National Congress in l886
• G. Subramanya Aiyar preached nationalism through the Madras Mahajana Sabha
• He also founded the Hindu and Swadesamitran.
• Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man of India.
• He is regarded as India’s unofficial Ambassador in England.
• He was the first Indian to become a Member of the British House of Commons.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale was regarded as the political guru of Gandhi
• In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society to train Indians to dedicate their lives to
the cause of the country
Between 1885 and 1905, the Congress leaders were moderates.
• The Moderates had faith in the British justice and goodwill.
Main Demands of Moderates
1. Expansion and reform of legislative councils.

2. Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS examination
simultaneously in England and in India.
3. Separation of the judiciary from the executive
4. More powers for the local bodies
5. Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords.
6. Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.
7. Reduction of spending on army.
8. Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations
Methods of Moderates
9. They were loyal to the British. They looked to England for inspiration and guidance.
10. The Moderates used petitions, resolutions, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets, memorandum
and delegations to present their demands.
11. They confined their political activities to the educated classes only.
12. Their aim was to attain political rights and self-government stage by stage.
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13. In 1886, Governor General Lord Dufferin gave a tea garden party for the Congress members
in Calcutta.
14. With the increase in Congress demands, the government became unfriendly.
15. It encouraged the Muslims to stay away from the Congress.
16. The only demand of the Congress granted by the British was the expansion of the legislative
councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
Achievements of Moderates
17. The Moderates were able to create a wide national awakening among the people.
18. They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and representative institutions
19. They explained how the British were exploiting Indians.
20. Particularly, Dadabhai Naoroji in his famous book Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India wrote
his Drain Theory.
21. He showed how India’s wealth was going away to England in the form of:
• Salaries
• Savings
• Pensions
• Payments to British troops in India
• Profits of the British companies
22. In fact, the British Government was forced to appoint the Welly Commission, with Dadabhai
as the first Indian as its member, to enquire into the matter.
23. Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social reforms
24. They protested against child marriage and widowhood
25. The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the legislative councils by the
Indian Councils Act of 1892
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1916)

1. The period from 1905 was known as the era of extremism in the Indian National Movement.
2. The extremists or the aggressive nationalists believed that success could be achieved
through bold means
3. The important extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal
and Aurobindo Ghosh.
Causes for the Rise of Extremism
1. The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of the
legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892)
2. The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the suffering of the
masses
3. The economic conditions of the people became worse.
4. The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour of skin
5. The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 in which Japan defeated the European power Russia.
6. This encouraged Indians to fight against the European nation, Britain
7. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord Curzon:
8. He passed the Calcutta Corporation Act, (1899) reducing the Indian control of this local
body.
9. The Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected members in the University bodies. It also
reduced the autonomy of the universities and made them government departments.
10. The Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act reduced the freedoms of all people.
11. His worst measure was the Partition of Bengal (1905).
12. Their main objective was to attain Swaraj or complete independence and not just self-
government.
The methods used by the extremists were:
1. Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government courts, schools and
colleges.
2. Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods
3. Introduction and promotion of national education.
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Leaders of the Extremists
1. The extremists were led by Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipinchandra Pal and
Aurobindo Ghosh
2. Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real founder of the popular anti-British movement in
India.
3. He was known as ‘Lokamanya’. He attacked the British through his weeklies The Mahratta
and the Kesari.
4. He was jailed twice by the British for his nationalist activities and in 1908 deported to
Mandalay for six years.
5. He set up the Home Rule League in 1916 at Poona and declared “Swaraj is my birth-right and
I will have it.”
6. Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the ‘Lion of Punjab’.
7. He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement.
8. He founded the Indian Home Rule League in the US in 1916
9. He was deported to Mandalay on the ground of sedition
10. He received fatal injuries while leading a procession against the Simon Commission and died
on November 17, 1928.
11. Bipin Chandra Pal began his career as a moderate and turned an extremist.
12. Aurobindo Ghosh was another extremist leader and he actively participated in the Swadeshi
Movement.
13. He was also imprisoned. After his release he settled in the French territory of Pondicherry
and concentrated on spiritual activities
Partition of Bengal and the Rise of Extremism
• The partition of Bengal in 1905 provided a spark for the rise of extremism in the Indian
National Movement
Curzon’s real motives were:
1. To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base of Indian
nationalism.
2. To divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
3. To show the enormous power of the British Government in doing whatever it liked.
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The partition came into effect, 16 October 1905
1. The people of Bengal organised protest meetings and observed a day of mourning.
2. The whole political life of Bengal underwent a change.
3. Gandhi wrote that the real awakening in India took place only after the Partition of Bengal.
4. The anti-partition movement culminated into the Swadeshi Movement and spread to other
parts of India
5. The aggressive nationalists forced Dadabhai Naoroji to speak of Swaraj (which was not a
Moderate demand) in the Calcutta Session of Congress in 1906.
6. They adopted the resolutions of Boycott and Swadeshi.
7. The differences led to a split in the Congress at the Surat session in 1907.
8. This is popularly known as the famous Surat Split.
Swadeshi Movement
1. The Swadeshi Movement involved programmes like the boycott of government service,
courts, schools and colleges and of foreign goods,
2. Promotion of Swadeshi goods, Promotion of National Education through the establishment
of national schools and colleges.
3. It was both a political and economic movement
4. In Bengal, even the landlords joined the movement
5. The women and students took to picketing. Students refused using books made of foreign
paper.
Achievements of Extremists
1. They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right

2. They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and broadened the social base of the
National Movement.
3. They were the first to organize an all-India political movement, viz. the Swadeshi Movement.
Formation of the Muslim League (1906)
1. In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim
Educational Conference
2. Taking advantage of this occasion, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of an
organisation to look after the Muslim interests.
3. The All-India Muslim League was finally set up on December 30, 1906.
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The Lucknow Pact (1916)
1. The divided Congress became united

2. An understanding for joint action against the British was reached between the Congress and
the Muslim League and it was called the Lucknow Pact.
3. Marked an important step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
The Home Rule Movement (1916
1. Two Home Rule Leagues were established, one by B.G. Tilak at Poona in April 1916
2. Other by Mrs Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916.
3. The aim of the Movement was to get self-government for India within the British Empire.
4. It believed freedom was the natural right of all nations.
5. The leaders of the Home Movement thought that India’s resources were not being used for
her needs.
6. The Home Rule Movement had brought a new life in the national movement.
7. There was a revival of Swadeshi. Women joined in larger numbers
8. On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in England, made a declaration in the
Parliament of England on British Government’s policy towards future political reforms in
India
9. This August Declaration led to the end of the Home Rule Movement.
Revolutionary Movements
1. In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang up mainly in Bengal,
Maharashtra, Punjab and Madras.
2. The revolutionaries were not satisfied with the methods of both the moderates and
extremists.
3. In Bengal Anusilan Samiti and Jugantar were established.
4. In Maharashtra Savarkar brothers had set up Abhinava Bharat
5. In the Madras Presidency, Bharathmatha Association was started by Nilakanta Bramachari
6. In Punjab Ajit Singh set up a secret society to spread revolutionary ideas among the youth.
7. In London, at India House, Shyamji Krishna Verma gathered young Indian nationalists like
8. Madan Lal Dhingra, Savarkar, V.V.S. Iyer and T.S.S.Rajan.
9. Lala Hardyal set up the ‘Ghadar Party ‘in USA to organise revolutionary activities from
outside India
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THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1917-1947)

1. The third and final phase of the Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] is known as the
Gandhian era.
2. During this period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the National
Movement.
3. His principles of nonviolence and Satyagraha were employed against the British Government
4. Gandhi made the nationalist movement a mass movement
5. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar in Gujarat on 2 October 1869
6. In April 1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in the struggle against apartheid
(Racial discrimination against the Blacks) for twenty years.
7. Finally, he came to India in 1915. Thereafter, he fully involved himself in the Indian National
Movement.
8. Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha against the oppressive European
indigo planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917.
9. In the next year he launched another Satyagraha at Kheda in Gujarat in support of the
peasants who were not able to pay the land tax due to failure of crops.
10. In 1918, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers and
finally the mill owners conceded the just demands of the workers.
11. On the whole, the local movements at Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad brought
Mahatma Gandhi closer to the life of the people and their problems at the grass roots level.
Rowlatt Act (1919)
1. In 1917, a committee was set up under the president ship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into
the militant Nationalist activities
2. Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the Central Legislative Council
3. As per this Act, any person could be arrested on the basis of suspicion.
4. No appeal or petition could be filed against such arrests.
5. This Act was called the Black Act and it was widely opposed.
6. An all-India hartal was organized on 6 April 1919.
7. Meetings were held all over the country.
8. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested near Delhi.
9. Two prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested in
Amritsar.
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Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April, 1919)
1. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on 13 April 1919 and it remained a turning point in
the history of India’s freedom movement
2. In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha
3. Facing a violent situation, the Government of Punjab handed over the administration to the
military authorities under General Dyer.
4. He banned all public meetings and detained the political leaders
5. On 13 th April, the Baisakhi day (harvest festival), a public meeting was organized at the
Jallianwala Bagh (garden)
6. Dyer marched in and without any warning opened fire on the crowd
7. The firing continued for about 10 to 15 minutes and it stopped only after the ammunition
exhausted
8. According to official report 379 people were killed and 1137 wounded in the incident.
9. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood as a protest
10. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle.
Khilafat Movement
1. The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of Turkey in the First World War.
2. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt by the Muslims as a great insult to
them.
3. The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey)
was the religious head of the Muslims all over the world
4. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the
prominent leaders of this movement.
5. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims
together to achieve the country’s independence.
6. The Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by
Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
1. It was approved by the Indian National Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
2. The programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
3. Surrender of titles and honorary positions
4. Resignation of membership from the local bodies.
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5. Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919 Act
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6. Boycott of government functions.

7. Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges.
8. Boycott of foreign goods
9. Establishment of national schools, colleges and private panchayat courts.
10. Popularizing Swadeshi goods and khadi
11. National schools such as the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Bihar Vidyapeeth and the Jamia Millia
Islamia were set up.
12. No leader of the Congress came forward to contest the elections for the Legislatures
13. In 1921, mass demonstrations were held against the Prince of Wales during his tour of India.
14. Most of the households took to weaving cloths with the help of charkhas.
15. But the whole movement was abruptly called off on 11th February 1922 by Gandhi following
the Churi Chaura incident
16. In the Gorakhpur district of U.P. Earlier on 5 th February an angry mob set fire to the police
station at Churi Chaura and twenty two police men were burnt to death
Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement
1. It was the real mass movement with the participation of different sections of Indian society
such as peasants, workers, students, teachers and women.
2. It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of India.
3. It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of the merger of Khilafat
movement.
4. It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardships and make
sacrifices.
Swaraj Party
1. The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a split within Congress in the Gaya
session of the Congress in December 1922.
2. Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das formed a separate group within the Congress
known as the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
3. The Swarajists wanted to contest the council elections and wreck the government from
within
4. The Swaraj Party gained impressive successes.
5. In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the party whereas in
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Bengal the party was headed by C.R. Das.
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6. It demanded the setting up of responsible government in India

7. With the necessary changes in the Government of India Act of 1919.
8. The party could pass important resolutions against the repressive laws of the government.
9. After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, the Swarj Party started weakening.
Simon Commission (1927)
1. The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a lapse of ten years.
2. The review commission was appointed
3. By the British Government two years earlier of its schedule in 1927. It came to be known as
Simon Commission after the name of its chairman, Sir John Simon.
4. All its seven members were Englishmen. As there was no Indian member in it
5. Almost all the political parties including the Congress decided to oppose the Commission.
6. On the fateful day of 3 February 1928 when the Commission reached Bombay, a general
hartal was observed all over the country.
7. Everywhere it was greeted with black flags and the cries of ‘Simon go back’
8. At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon Commission demonstration on 30
October 1928 under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai
9. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in the police lathi charge and he
passed away after one month.
10. The report of the Simon Commission was published in May 1930
11. It was stated that the constitutional experiment with Diarchy was unsuccessful
12. In its place the report recommended the establishment of autonomous government.
13. Simon Commission’s Report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act of
1935.
Nehru Report (1928)
1. In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to
produce a Constitution
2. In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to
produce a Constitution
3. The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which convened an all-party meeting on 28
February 1928
4. A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the future
Constitution of India.
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5. It was headed by Motilal Nehru
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6. The Report published by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru Report.
The Report favoured:
1. Dominion Status as the next immediate step

2. Full responsible government at the centre.
3. Autonomy to the provinces
4. Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces.
5. A bicameral legislature at the centre.
6. Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of the Muslims
7. Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen
Points as Muslim League demand.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
1. In the prevailing atmosphere of restlessness, the annual session of the Congress was held at
Lahore in December 1929.
2. During this session presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru the Congress passed the Poorna
Swaraj resolution
3. Moreover, as the government failed to accept the Nehru Report, the Congress gave a call to
launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
4. The Congress had also observed January 26, 1930 as the Day of Independence.
5. The same date later became the Republic Day when the Indian Constitution was enforced in
1950.
The Dandi March
1. On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began his famous March to Dandi with his chosen 79 followers
to break the salt laws.
2. He reached the coast of Dandi on 5 April 1930 after marching a distance of 200 miles
3. On 6 April formally launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the salt laws.
4. On 9 April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the programme of the movement which included
making of salt in every village in violation of the existing salt laws;
5. Picketing by women before the shops selling liquor, opium and foreign clothes;
6. Spinning clothes by using charkha fighting untouchability;
7. Boycotting of schools and colleges by students and resigning from government jobs by the
people
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8. Soon, the movement spread to all parts of the country. Students, workers, farmers and
women, all participated in this movement with great enthusiasm.
Round Table Conference
The first Round Table Conference
1. Held in November 1930 at London and it was boycotted it by the Congress.

2. In January 1931 in order to create a conducive atmosphere for talks,
3. The government lifted the ban on the Congress Party and released its leaders from prison.
4. On 8 March 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed.
5. As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil-Disobedience Movement and
participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
In September 1931, the Second Round Table Conference was held at London
1. Mahatma Gandhi participated in the Conference but returned to India disappointed

2. As no agreement could be reached on the demand of complete independence and on the
communal question.
3. In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience Movement was resumed
4. The government responded to it by arresting Mahatma
5. Gandhi and Sardar Patel and by reposing the ban on the Congress party
Poona Pact (1932)
1. By 1930, Dr Ambedkar had become a leader of national stature championing the cause of
the depressed people of the country.
2. While presenting a real picture of the condition of these people in the First Round Table
Conference,
3. He had demanded separate electorates for them
4. On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement,
which came to be as the Communal Award.
5. According to this award, the depressed classes were considered as a separate community
and as such provisions were made for separate electorates for them.
6. Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death in
the Yeravada jail on 20 September 1932.
7. Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi
8. This agreement came to be called as the Poona Pact. The British Government also approved
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of it.
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9. Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed
Classes in place of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.
The third Round Table Conference came to an end in 1932
1. The Congress once more did not take part in it

2. Nonetheless, in March 1933, the British Government issued a White Paper
3. Which became the basis for the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935.
The Second World War and National Movement
1. In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935
2. Congress Ministries were formed in seven states of India.
3. On 1 September 1939 the Second World War broke out.
4. The British Government without consulting the people of India involved the country in the
war.
5. As a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the Provinces resigned on 12 December 1939
6. The Muslim League celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day
7. In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
Individual Satyagraha
1. In order to secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British Government made an
announcement on 8 August 1940,
2. The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indians would be set
up to frame the new Constitution.
3. Gandhi was not satisfied with is offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
4. Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature
5. It was left to Mahatma Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis
6. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three
months imprisonment
7. Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months.
8. The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
Cripps Mission (1942)
• In the midst of worsening wartime international situation, the British Government in its
continued effort to secure Indian cooperation
• Sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as Cripps Mission
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The main recommendations of Cripps were:
1. The promise of Dominion Status to India

2. Protection of minorities
3. Setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there would be representatives from the
Princely States along with those of the British Provinces
4. There would be provision for any Province of British India not prepared to accept this
Constitution,
5. Either to retain its present constitutional position or frame a constitution of its own.
Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-dated Cheque”.
6. The Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been conceded
in the proposal
Quit India Movement (1942-1944)
1. The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of India led
Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India
2. Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim government could be formed only after the
British left India and the Hindu-Muslim problem sorted out.
3. The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous
Quit India Resolution.
4. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’
5. On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of the
Congress.
6. Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona
7. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the
Ahmednagar Fort
8. At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta and S.M. Joshi.
9. The role of Jayaprakash Narain in this movement was important.
10. Large number of students also left their schools and colleges to join the movement.
11. The youth of the nation also participated in this movement with patriotism
12. In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail.
13. Quit India Movement was the final attempt for country’s freedom.
14. The British Government ordered for 538 rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons were jailed.
15. At least 7,000 people were killed.
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16. This movement paved the way for India’s freedom. It aroused among Indians the feelings of
bravery, enthusiasm and total sacrifice.
Indian National Army
1. During the course of the Second World War, armed revolutionary activities continued to
take place.
2. The role of Subhas Chandra Bose towards such activities is incomparable.
3. On 2 July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of
‘Dilli Chalo’
4. He was made the President of Indian Independence League and soon became the supreme
commander of the Indian National Army.
5. The names of the INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru
Brigade
6. The women’s wing of the army was named after Rani Lamiae
7. The Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after registering its victory over Kohima.
8. After Japan’s surrender in 1945
9. The INA failed in its efforts. Under such circumstances, Subhas went to Taiwan.
10. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on 18 August 1945 in a plane crash
11. The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi
12. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru fought the case on behalf
of the soldiers
Cabinet Mission (1946)
1. After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime Minister of England
2. On 15 March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-
determination and the framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
3. Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps
and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as the Cabinet Mission.
4. The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the constitutional problem.
5. Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess their separate constitutions
6. The Cabinet Mission also proposed the formation of a Union of India, comprising both the
British India and the Princely States.
7. The Union would remain in charge of only foreign affairs, defence and communications
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leaving the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces
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8. Till a new government was elected

9. Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the plan
10. Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly.
11. The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats.
12. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
13. An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2
September 1946
Mountbatten Plan (1947)
1. On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee announced in the House of Commons the definite
intention of the British Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands
2. Thus, to effect the transference of that power Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten as
Viceroy to India.
3. Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers became India’s Viceroy on 24 March 1947.
4. The partition of India and the creation of Pakistan appeared inevitable to him.
5. After extensive consultation Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of India on 3
June 1947.
6. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the Mountbatten Plan.
Indian Independence Act 1947
1. The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting the
Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947
2. The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from 15 August
1947.
3. The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
4. A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab
and Bengal
5. The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of the two
Dominions,
6. Which will have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.
7. The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and Pakistan
8. On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan came into existence as two
independent states.
9. Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of Independent India
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10. Whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan
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11. The most tragic incident occurred on 30 January 1948, when Mahatma Gandhi - the
father of the nation on his way to a prayer meeting was assassinated by Nathuram
Godse.
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Major Social reform Movements and Social Reformers
Scope of Reforms
They had both religious and socio-economic nature to it. An interconnection between them
were realized which had to be rid of the evils for the nation to progress.
Major social problems lingering at that time was:
1. Emancipation of women from their plight including abolishing of sati, encouraging
women’s education, abolishing child marriages etc.
2. Dismemberment of social evils such as untouchability and caste system,
3. Education needed to be propitiated among the masses for enlightenment and
building the platform for nationalism.
Major Religious issues:
1. Idolatry
2. Polytheism
3. Religious Superstitions
4. Exploitation by priests.
Methods of Reforms
● Reforms from within: It is the general enlightenment of society against societal
regression through debates and organizing marches etc
● Reforms through legislation:
British contributions
● Female infanticide:Laws against the same were passed in 1795 and 1802
● Sati was banned in 1829 under william bentinck
● Widow remarriage act of 1856
● After 1857,the british government stayed out of reforms in social customs of indians
as part of an official policy.However in 1929 they passed The Sharda act which
fixed minimum marriage for males at 18 and females at 14.
The Bengali Renaissance (1771-1941)

A socio-cultural and religious reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth
century in undivided India's Bengal province, although the impact of it spread in the whole of
India. said to have begun with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and continued until the
death of Rabindranath Tagore in 1941.The Renaissance was a revival of the positives of
India's past and appreciation of the impact of the Modern West, as it had emerged since the
Fifteenth-century European Renaissance.Thus, the Bengal Renaissance blended together
the teachings of the Upanishad in order to create public opinion against Hindu superstitions
including Sati, infanticide, polygamy, child marriage, caste-division, inter-caste hatred,
Dowry, untouchability etc influenced by western education.Movements such as Brahmo
Samaj and Young India are synonymous to this.
Reformers in the Renaissance

Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio was born on 18 April 1809 in Kolkata. He was a fiery Indian
teacher and poet and as a lecturer at the Hindu College of Calcutta, he invigorated a large
group of students to think independently. His students came to be known as Derozians. He
encouraged students to read Thomas Paine's Rights of Man and other free-thinking texts
and infused rationalism and patriotism and ,he encouraged questioning the orthodox Hindu
customs. He was there from 1827 until he was expelled from the college by the Hindu
dominated management in 1831. His contributions were:
● He gave a profound intellectual backbone to the youth in the college.
● His ideas had a profound influence on the social movement that came to be known
as the Bengal Renaissance in early 19th century Bengal.
● He also educated on the key social issues such as women upliftment ,abolition of
sati and widow remarriage.
● He also established the ‘Young Bengal’ movement which instilled spirit of free
thought and rationalism.it included members such as Krishna Mohan Banerjee,
Peary Chand Mitra, , Ramgopal Ghosh etc.
● These and many other Derozians later managed forerunners of later organisations
such as the Landholders’ Society,British India Society, and British Indian
Association. Also many of them were involved in Brahmo Samaj.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Roy was born into a Bengali Hindu Brahmin family in Visnagar, Hooghly,
Bengal, May 22, 1772 in Murshidabad district,Bengal. Ram Mohan was sent to
Patna to study Persian and Arabic in a madrasa. After that he went to Benares
(Kashi) for learning the intricacies of Sanskrit and Hindu scripture, including the
Vedas and Upanishads. He learnt English language at the age of 22 years. He
came in contact with Christian missionaries while working as a ‘writer’ with an
appellate court in Murshidabad. This interaction created radical ideas in him.
Ram Mohan viewed education as a medium to implement the social
reforms. So, in 1815, Ram Mohan came to Calcutta and the very next year,
started an English Hindu College by putting his own savings. He is also started a string of
English schools and also, prodded the government to start colleges based on Western
Education.Thus he was a great educationalist. He was also a great exponent of Bengali
language.
Ram Mohan Roy was a staunch supporter of free speech and expression
and fought for the rights of vernacular press. He also brought out a newspaper in Persian
called 'Mirat Ul- Akhbar' (the Mirror of News) and a Bengali weekly called 'Sambad
Kaumudi' (the Moon of Intelligence). In those days, items of news and articles had to be
approved by the government before being published. Ram Mohan protested against this
control by arguing that newspapers should be free and that the truth should not be
suppressed simply because the government did not like it.
Finally in 1828 he found the Brahmo Samaj, who challenged traditional
Hindu culture and superstitions and indicated the lines of progress for Indian society under
British rule which finally led to abolition of sati.He also worked for the emancipation of
women and was also staunch supporter for women’s rights for property inheritance and
also against child marriage.
The title 'Raja' was awarded to him by Mughal emperor Akbar, the second in
1831 when Roy visited England as an ambassador of the King to ensure that Lord
Bentinck's regulation of banning the practice of Sati was not overturned and also for
promoting free trade in Bengal. He died in Britain at Stapleton, Bristol, on 27 September
1833.
For his contributions he often referred to as the "Father of the Bengal
Renaissance" and the “Maker of Modern India".
Brahmo Samaj
It was started at Calcutta on 20 August 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and
Debendranath Tagore as reformation of the prevailing Brahmanism of the time and began
the Bengal Renaissance of the 19th century pioneering all religious, social and educational
advance of the Hindu community in the 19th century. It propagates the worship of
monotheistic god and also discarded idolatry. Its achievements are:
● Abolition of sati due to the pressure put by the samajis on the then governor
general William Bentinck in 1828.
● In all fields of social reform, including abolition of the caste system and of the dowry
system, emancipation of women, and improving the educational system, the Brahmo
Samaj reflected the ideologies of the Bengal Renaissance.
● Special Marriages Act of 1872was enacted to set the minimum age of 14 years for
marriage of girls.
● It also supported social reform movements of people not directly attached to the
Samaj, such as Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar movement which promoted widow
re-marriage and also inter-caste marriage.
● Tattvabodhini Sabha found in 1839 by another Brahmo leader Debendranath
Tagore also worked alongside the brahmo samaj.
● First schism of the samaj occurred in 1866 under Keshub Chandra Sen who started
the Brahmo Samaj for India with the other led by Tagore; the Adi brahmo Samaj.
It was an ideological split with the former reverting away from the hindu components
and accepting the teachings of all religions and the doctrine of “God of Conscience”
;while the latter remain in a more inclusive and Hindu sphere of influence.
● there was again a schism on May, 1878 when a band of Keshub Chandra Sen's
followers left him to start the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj mainly because their
demand for the introduction of a democratic constitution.This group consisted of
eminent nationalists like Ananda Mohan Bose,Sivanath Sastri etc.Thus the Brahmo
Samaj also contributed prominent nationalists leaders who would later form the
backbone of the Moderate Phase of the INC.
Debendranath Tagore and the Brahmo Samaj
Debendranath Tagore was born to the Tagore family in Jorasanko,
popularly known as Jorasanko Thakurbari in North-western Kolkata. As son
of Dwarkanath Tagore, a close friend of Ram Mohan Roy, Debendranath
came early into the influence of Brahmoism through the Brahmo Sabha, a
reformist movement in Hinduism .
● In October 1839, he along with his friends started the Tattwa
Ranjani Sabha which was later renamed to Tattwabodhini Sabha. Its
object was the dissemination of the knowledge of the Upanishads and
promotion of religious enquiry.
● He along with the samaj were instrumental in the movement that led to the abolition
of sati.
● It also had a printing press and Debendranath started publishing the Tattwabodhini
Patrika. This Patrika became the principal organ of the Samaj for propagating its
views ushering in the era of early journalism.
● The Brahmo Sabha was formally absorbed into the Tattwabodhini Sabha in 1842
and renamed as Calcutta Brahmo Samaj.
● n 1848, Debendranath codified the Adi Dharma Doctrine as Brahmo Dharma Beej
(Seed of the Brahmo Dharma). In 1950, he published a book titled Brahmo Dharma
enshrining the fundamental principles. These principles emphasise monotheism,
rationality and reject scriptural infallibility, the necessity of mediation between man
and God, caste distinctions and idolatry.
● Debendranath framed a covenant for the adoption of the Church and to introduce a
regular form of Church service for converting Brahmo Samaj into a spiritual fraternity
and also syncretic.
● He thus inspired many generations of reformers and also invigorated the brahmo
samaj operation leading it to fulfill its aims.
He also inspired his sons into the reform movement; the most famous being
Rabindranath Tagore,
Keshab Chandra Sen

Keshub Chandra Sen was born on 19 November 1838 in kolkata.
His grandfather was Ramkamal Sen (1783–1844), a well known pro-
sathi Hindu activist and lifelong opponent of Ram Mohan Roy. He had
his education from Hindu college. He was involved with the activities of
the British Indian Association in his early life. He joined the Brahmo
Samaj in 1857 and was considered to be youthful entity of the
movement.His activities included:
● During this time in 1860, the Sangat Sabha was established -
which was a society of fellow believers to promote mutual spiritual
intercourse amongst its members. This sabha sowed the seeds of new
Brahmoism in syncretism with tenets of Christianity so as to form a truly universal
religion. Thus he significantly enlarged brahmoism and made it more inclusive.
● He along with the Brahmo Samaj of India, toiled with due diligence on the
upliftment of girls and their education.
● In 1862 Sen helped found the Albert College and were also instrumental in the
launching of the Bethune College for ladies and a number of schools in general.
● He was also spread the goodwill of their philosophy by extensively travelling all over
india especially in the south and also through the paper “dharma tattwa” and the
weekly ”Indian Mirror”.
● He also created a syncretic religious philosophy called the “The New Dispensation”
which promoted a fraternity, love and also chastised the evils that persisted and
enunciated the ideology “God is Conscience” . He also started “Indian Reform
Association”.
● He was also considered close to Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and also incorporated
his ideologies.
Thus he was a social as well as a religious reformer who invoked rationalism and spread
education among the indians especially the Bengalis which laid a groundwork for further
reformers and nationalist.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was born in the Ghatal subdivision of Paschim
Midnapore District, on 26 September 1820.He was an Indian Bengali
polymath and a key figure in the Bengali Renaissance. He received the title
"Vidyasagar" from the Calcutta Sanskrit College(where he graduated), due
to his excellent performance in Sanskrit studies and philosophy. In the year
1839, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar successfully cleared his Law examination.
In 1841, at the age of twenty one years, Ishwar Chandra joined Fort William
College as head of the Sanskrit department and soon became the principal.
He was known to be a very kind hearted man and a humanist He was also known for his
charity and philanthropy as "Daya-r Sagar" or "Karunar Sagar" – ocean of kindness, for
his immense generosity. His contributions are:
1. He was a pioneer in women’s upliftment.
● He along with other reformers started girl’s schools in bombay and Calcutta.
● He also encouraged women to study in colleges and personally saw to this.
● Vidyasagar took the initiative in proposing and pushing the Widow Remarriage Act
XV of 1856 (26 July) in India. He also demonstrated that the system of polygamy
without restriction was not sanctioned by the ancient Hindu Shastras.
● Also instrumental in passing of the Special Marriages Act of 1872.
2.Vidyasagar vigorously promoted the idea that regardless of their caste, both men and
women should receive the best education. His remarkable clarity of vision is instanced by
his brilliant plea for teaching of science, mathematics and the philosophies of John Locke
and David Hume, to replace most of ancient b Hindu philosophy. He also set up the
Sanskrit Press and Depository, a print shop and a bookstore for this purpose.
3. A Bengali Connoisseur.Vidyasagar reconstructed the Bengali alphabet and reformed
Bengali typography into an alphabet and thus modified the Bengali language. Vidyasagar
contributed significantly to Bengali and Sanskrit literature.Vidyasagar's "Barna Porichoy" is
still considered a classic.
4. He also inspired nationalism through his poetry and was closely acquainted with other
reformers such as Prof Madhusudan Dutt, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
Shortly after Vidyasagar's death, Rabindranath Tagore reverently wrote about him: "One
wonders how God, in the process of producing forty million Bengalis, produced a man!"
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
Sri Ramakrishna was born on 18 February 1836 near Kolkata.Ramakrishna was
born in a poor Brahmin Vaishnava family. He became a priest of the Dakshineswar
Kali Temple. He was a revolutionary religious reformer of his time. He found a
different school of thought altogether.
● He successfully managed to synergise the 3 main school of thoughts at the
time- Bhakhti, Vedanta and tantra which was at variance at the time.
● He broke the frontiers of Hinduism, glided through the paths of Islam and
Christianity and revered all the Sikh gurus and thus created a “universal god”.
● He also was a mystic who also spoke openly about sexuality unthinkable in a
conservative society like India.
● His teachings inspired syncretic version of brahmoism and inspired all its leaders
including leaders such as Keshub Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore.
This school gave way to some of his greatest disciples including Swami Vivekananda who
would then take his psalms to the world. It even influenced many great thinkers and
indologists like Romain Rolland and even Max Mueller and enriched their views about indian
philosophical thought.
Swami Vivekananda
Vivekananda was born Narendranath Dutta in Calcutta to
a traditional Bengali Kayastha family on 12 January, 1853. After his
education he became a member of a Freemason lodge and a breakaway
faction of the Brahmo Samaj led by Keshab Chandra Sen and
Debendranath Tagore. In 1885 he became a disciple of Ramakrishna
paramahamsa and took over his activities after his death in 1886. Then
evolved and emerged the reformer, Swami Vivekananda.
● He travelled to different parts of India like Varanasi, Lucknow up to the south to
Kanyakumari spreading the message of Ramakrishna and his teachings.
● He chided casteism and untouchability vehemently during his travails and also
gathering followers.
● He also stood for girl’s education as he and his disciple Sister Nivedita established
in Kolkata.
● He refurbished a dilapidated Baranagar Math to the first Ramakrishna Math.
● He also established the Ramakrishna Mission headquartered at Belur which carries
to this day his treatises and psalms.
● He was the first great philosopher from India who represented and exemplified Indian
philosophy and the Hindu religion before the world at the Parliament of the World's
Religions opened on 11 September 1893 at the Art Institute of Chicago as part of the
World's Columbian Exposition. His famous Chicago speech still imbibed in the
laurels of history and still remains one of India’s greatest moment till death.
Ramakrishna Math and Mission

● established in 1897 By Swami Vivekananda headquartered in Belur near
Kolkata.;The Motto of the organisation is “Atmano Mokshartham Jagad-hitaya Cha”
which means means For one's own salvation, and for the good of the world
● It has become an organisation which forms the core of a worldwide spiritual
movement known as the Ramakrishna Movement or the Vedanta Movement
which has branches here as well as abroad.
● Also referred to as the Ramakrishna Order, the Math is the movement's monastic
organisation. Founded by Ramakrishna in 1886, the Math primarily focuses on
spiritual training and the propagation of the movement's teachings.
● The mission works against the caste system and orthodoxy to spread the message
of harmony and spiritual transformation.
● It also has established a number of educational institutions for spreading education
● It is also involved in the spreading of Indian culture abroad .
● It is also involved in running destitute, old age homes and also involved in disaster
relief.
● Its libraries help spread the knowledge of Hinduism to all.
● The mission activities include:
1. Education
2. Health care
3. Cultural activities
4. Rural upliftment
5. Tribal welfare
6. Youth movement etc
● It after its inception has resulted in a harmonious socio-religious movement and that
of spirituality and is one the largest organisation working in this front; in the country.
Reformers in Central and Western India

Swami Dayananda Saraswathi
● Dayanand Saraswati was born on 12, February, 1824 in Tankara in
Rajkot District Gujarat. He was born Mool Shankar.
● He was a profound scholar of the Vedic lore and Sanskrit language.
● Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship prevalent in Hinduism
at the time, he worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies.
● He also encouraged widow remarriage and opposed child marriage.
● He also was one of the foremost opponent of the caste system and the
Brahmin orthodoxy calling it a fallacy created by vested interests.
● Maharshi Dayanand advocated the doctrine of Karma (Karmasiddhanta in Hinduism)
and Reincarnation (Punarjanma in Hinduism).
● Dayananda Saraswati founded Arya Samaj 10th April, 1875 A.D. in Bombay.
● He was the first to give the call for Swarajya as "India for Indians" – in 1876, later
taken up by Lokmanya Tilak.
● His translations of the Vedas form Vedic Sanskrit to Sanskrit and to Hindu s also his
great contribution.
● He inspired generation of nationalists including Madame Bhikaji Cama, Lala
Hardayal, Madan Lal Dhingra, Ram Prasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Mahadev
Govind Ranade, Swami Shraddhanand, Mahatma Hansraj, Lala Lajpat Rai etc.
● His book Satyarth Prakash also remained inspirational to nationalists during the
freedom movement.
Arya samaj
● Arya samaj preached that god is formless, omnipotent, beneficial; immortal, fearless
and
the maker of-the universe.
● They established a number of Vedic schools across the country to teach the Vedas
to everybody and make it accessible.
● Thus they campaigned against caste system vehemently opposing and to try the
knowledge to all and thus to take away the monopoly of the Brahmins and the Upper
Castes.
● They believed that Vedas are the storehouse of knowledge and religious rites
should be performed through Havans and Yajnas
● Focus on the expansion of education and abolition of illiteracy : A Network of
schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern India to
promote the spread of education.Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Schools System founded
in lahore in 1886 by efforts of Lala Hansraj manages hundreds of institutions today.
● Arya Samajis opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows.
● Shuddhi movement:It focussed on reconversion of hindus who had converted to
other religions back to hinduism.
● They also established their samaj abroad at many places to spread the awareness
Hinduism and to cater to the spiritual needs of Hindus there.
Balshastri Jambhekar
● Born in 1812 at Konkan region in Maharashtra.
● He was the pioneer of intellectual movements here and vehemently opposed to
Brahmin orthodoxy.
● Also opposed the caste system.
● through his marathi newspaper ‘Darpan’ which was the first in the language he
propounded his ideas and also aroused feelings of nationalism.
For he is acknowledged as The Father of Marathi Journalism.
Paramahansa Mandali
● Found in 1849 by Dadoba Pandurang and a group of his friends.
● First ever socio-religious movement in Maharashtra.
● It promoted monotheism and breaking caste rules. Also advocated widow
remarriage and the education of women.
Mahadev Govind Ranade

He was born in 1842 at Nashik district Maharashtra. He
passed his law degree and then was appointed as a judge and then
became a judge at Bombay HC.He was a distinguished Indian scholar,
social reformer and author.
● He was one of the founding members of the Prarthana Samaj
and propounded against prevalent social evils.
● He would also edit a Bombay Anglo-Marathi daily paper,
theInduprakash, founded on his ideology of social and religious reform.
● He educated his wife Ramabai who later became a doctor and also was one of the
founders of Seva Sadan which pioneered women’s rights movements.
● He was also a great educationist and found a number of schools.
● Ranade was a founder of the Social Conference movement, which he supported till
his death, directing his social reform efforts against child marriage, the shaving of
widows' heads, the heavy cost of marriages and other social functions, and the caste
restrictions on traveling abroad, and he strenuously advocated widow remarriage
and female education.
● He was one of the founders of the Widow Marriage Association in 1861.
● He founded the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha which was a socio political body and later
was one of the originators of the Indian National Congress.
● He published books on Indian economics and on Maratha history. He saw the need
for heavy industry for economic progress and believed in Western education as a
vital element to the foundation of an Indian nation.
● He inspired several Congress leaders the most prominent among them being
Gokhale.
Prarthana Samaj
● It was founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867 inspired from the Brahmo
Samaj.
● Prarthana Samaj(ists) were followers of the great religious tradition of the Maratha
Sant Mat like Namdev, Tukaram and also Hindu scriptures.
● They were against caste orthodoxy and priestly domination along with idolatry.
● It inspired great reformers such as R.G Bhandarkar, M.G. Ranade and
Veeresalingam.
Theosophical Society (India)

● Society was introduced to India in 1879 and headquarters was set up at adyar in
1886
● Annie besant and her associates advocated the revival and strengthening of the
ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
● They glorified Indian religious and philosophical traditions and helped Indians to
recover their self-confidence.
● It fought against untouchability and advocated upliftment of women.
● It also gave a much need philosophical and ideological emancipation to the people
through Western thought which incentivised further reformers.
Mahatma Jyotirao Govindrao Phule

● Born in 1827 in Satara, Maharashtra into a poor backward caste family.
● He along with his wife Savitribai Jyotirao Phule were the pioneers of
women's education movement in India
● His ‘satya shodhak samaj’, an association he formed in 1873, fought
untouchability and caste differences vehemently.The samaj:
○ Opposed idolatry and the need for brahmins as priest class
○ Spread rational thinking and rejected the supremacy of vedas
○ Condemned inequality supported through religious books,customs and
rituals.
● Along with Savitribai opened schools for girls,organised widow remarriages and
opened a home for newborn infants to prevent female infanticide.
‘Lokhitawadi’ G.H. Deshmukh

● Gopal Hari Deshmukh wrote strong articles calling for social reform in a weekly
called ‘Prabhakar’ under the penname ‘lokahitawadi’. He also was was involved in
many other weeklies like the Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash etc
● That group of articles has come to be known in Marathi literature as ‘Lokahitawadi
Shatapatre’.
● Opposed caste system,dowry,child marriages,caste system etc and promoted
women's education and widow remarriage.
● He wrote against the evils of the caste system which was strongly prevalent in India
in his times, condemned harmful Hindu religious orthodoxy.He enunciated certain 15
principles for bringing about religious reform in Hindu society.
● Was also one of the founders of the Prarthana Samaj and found its branch in Gujarat
at Vadodara.
Dr. Dhondo Keshav Karve

● Awarded bharat ratna in 1958,he was born in 1858 in maharashtra he
worked for the emancipation of women.
● After the death of his first wife,he chose to marry a widow and started to
working for the education of women
● In 1916 he started a women’s college which grew into SNDT womens
university in 1920.
● In 1936, Karve started the Maharashtra Village Primary Education
Society with the goal of opening primary schools in villages which had no schools
Vitthal Ramji Shinde

● He was born in 1873 in the Bombay State.
● He was a liberal thinker who opposed the prevailing orthodoxy in society
and also the evils plaguing the society.
● He joined the Prarthana Samaj and started propagating their ideas in
Western India.
● He was the champion of the depressed classes and also women among
them.
● He established a night school for the children of all untouchables in
Meethganjapeth, Pune in 1905.
● In 1906, he set up the Depressed Classes Mission in Bombay which worked for
their upliftment.
● He also founded the Somvanshiya Mitra Samaj on March 14, 1907 to abolish the
Devadasi system amongst Mahar and Mang women.
● He succeeded in inducing the Indian National Congress to pass a resolution
chastising untouchability in 1927.
● He even established the Akhil Bhartiya Nirashrit Akhil Bhartiya Nirashrit
Asprushyata Nivarak Sangha, through which he organized an All-India convention
in Mumbai emphasizing on the removal of untouchability, during the years 1918 to
1920. which was supported by the Mahatma himself.
Other major reformers from maharashtra:

● Pandita Ramabai :One of the most notable women reformers,she established many
institutions aimed at education of widows and women in general.These include:
○ Sharada Sadan, an a home cum school institute for widows in Mumbai in
1889
○ Mukti Sadan ,1898 at Kedgaon and later many more such institutes.
○ She also founded the ‘Arya Mahila Samaj at Pune in 1882.
○ She also started a number of missionary schools especially for girls for their
upliftment.
● Gopal Ganesh Agarkar & Vishnushastri Chiplunkar:Cofounders of the famous

Kesari (Marathi) and Maratha (english) newspapers they constantly worked for the
eradication of evils like untouchability.They also worked in the field of
education.Agarkar was one of the founders of the Fergusson college,Pune. He also
found the Deccan Education Society in 1884,
● Jamnalal Bajaj:Founder of the Bajaj industries he vehemently fought untouchability
and worked for entry of harijan into temples.He dedicated his wealth to the upliftment
of the downtrodden.
Bhim Rao Ambedkar

Ambedkar was born in Mhow in Central Provinces to the
backward Mahar caste who were considered untouchables. He after
his education was one the greatest emancipator of the oppressed
dalits in modern India. He along with other leaders imbued measures
such as Article 16 which outlawed untouchability and also other
measures which gave these classes guaranteed constitutional
reservations in education, profession etc.
● While practising law in the Bombay High Court, he tried to uplift
the untouchables in order to educate them.
● In 1920, he began the publication of the weekly
Mooknayak(Leader of the Silent) in Mumbai with the help of Shahu II (1874–1922),
Maharaja of Kolhapur and in it vehemently opposing the untouchability.
● He also convened and attended conferences to voiced his opinion against
untouchability especially in Bombay and Pune.
● His first organised attempt to achieve this was the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha,
which was intended to promote education and socio-economic improvement, as well
as the welfare of "outcastes", at the time referred to as depressed classes.
● By 1927 Ambedkar decided to launch active movements against untouchability. He
began with public movements and marches to open up and share public drinking
water resources, also he began a struggle for the right to enter Hindu temples.
He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to
draw water from the main water tank of the town.
● Perhaps his most important satyagraha march was that to the Kalaram temple to
open up the temple for untouchables.
● Ambedkar through the Poona pact successfully negotiated a permanent political
solution for the depressed classes which ensured them political representation.
● He also formed political movements such as the Independent Labour Party and
also Schedule Caste Federation which contested the polls on their behalf.
● Perhaps a much less talked about contribution was his revitalization of Buddhism
which gained prominence under him.
The Ambedkarites as the Mahars in Maharashtra is called still remains the most
emancipated and progressive of the Schedule Castes due to the efforts of this great man
they lovingly referred to as “Babasaheb”.
South India
TAMILNADU
EV Ramaswami Naicker
● Popularly known as periyar.Started the self respect movement.
● Started a paper named ‘Kudi arasu’ and vehemently opposed caste system and
brahmin supremacy and proclaimed religion and shastras as irrational.
● Strong supporter of women's rights,opposed child marriages and argued in favour of
widow remarriage.
● The movement,initially limited to upper class of non brahmins later turned political
and became dravida kazhagam.
● He also gave the deprived classes political and social ambitions and upliftment.
Andhra Pradesh
Kandukuri Veeresalingam
● He was born in 1848 at Rajamundry.
● He is widely considered as the man who first brought about a renaissance in Telugu
people and Telugu literature,influenced by the ideals of Brahmo Samaj particularly
those of Keshub Chandra Sen.
● He started Vivekavardhini, a monthly journal, to point out and criticize the defects in
the society and started a column exclusively to highlight the plight of women. He also
ran several other journals and wrote reformist articles in them.
● He established in 1874 a girls school at Dhavaleswaram to encourage women's
education and followed up with a number of other schools in Seemandhra.
● He also established an organization called Hitakarini Society and donated all his
property for the social activities to improve the society and support various
organizations set up by him which went on to establish a number widow’s homes
and schools especially in Rajamundry.
● He ridiculed the opponents of women's education in many satires, lampoons and
drama like "Brahma Vivahamand criticized early marriages
● He was also a great critic and writer and in his books like "Abhagyopakhyanamu" he
criticized the persistent orthodoxy and backwardness in the society.
KERALA
Sri Narayana Guru(1856-1928)
● Born in 1856 into a ezhava (a caste considered low) family, he
championed the cause of lower castes in India and led to one of the most
successful reform movements in the country.
● He gave his disciples the motto of “One Jati(Caste) One Religion, One
God for Man”
● SNDP,an organisation he formed in 1903,grew into one of the most
successful ones in the field of social reform
● SNDP today today runs hundreds of educational institutions at all levels from schools
to colleges and has contributed immensely to the upliftment of not only lower castes
but of the kerala society as a whole.
● Sivagiri,an ashram he founded in 1904,holds his tomb and is a place of annual
pilgrimage.
Ayyankali (1863-1941)
● Another leader who was born among lower castes,he formed sadhu
jana paripalana sangam in 1907 for the upliftment of dalits in kerala society.
● He was nominated to the assembly of Travancore, namely, Sri
Moolam Legislative Assembly in 1912 and for 28 years was the voice of dalits
in the assembly.
● Due to the struggles and efforts of SJPS and SNDP by 1914,schools were opened to
dalits and dalit women who did not have the right to cover their nakedness were
given the right to do so.
Vaikom satyagraha,guruvayur Satyagraha and temple entry proclamation

● Vaikom(1924-25):It started as a movement to throw open the roads around vaikom
siva temple to the lower castes.It snow balled onto a major incident after the
congress took it up.
○ EV ramaswamy naicker came with his wife nagamma and joined
satyagrahis.He was imprisoned for his role in satyagraha.
○ Soon Gandhiji came and personally motivated the satyagrahis.He also tried
to persuade the authorities to relent.
○ After trying to brutally suppress the satyagrahis the authorities and the
orthodox relented partially by opening roads on 3 sides of temple to all
castes.
● Guruvayur(1931-32):This was organised to gain entry for all hindus,irrespective of

caste,into the famous temple at guruvayur.Noted for the considerable support it
generated from many learned men of upper caste,the satyagraha could not achieve
its objective and had to be withdrawn prematurely.But it was another step closer to
achieving equality of castes
● Temple entry proclamation(1936):As a result of satyagrahas for temple
entry,pressures from reform organisations like SNDP and due to his own personal
conviction Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma ,the king of erstwhile princely
state of travancore threw open the temples of his dominions to all hindus irrespective
of their caste.The step which was hailed all over the country and earned
commendations from gandhi and other leaders,was the first such of a major princely
state in India.It gave a big boost to the social reform movement in Kerala and
resulted in the gradual erosion of social disablities imposed upon lower castes in the
state.
Muslims
● Mohammedan Literary Society was founded in Calcutta in 1863 by Nawab Abdul
Latif
● Ahmadiyya movement founded by Mirza ghulam ahmad in 1889,can be termed a
reform movement in that it tried to give religious recognition to modern scientific and
religious progress.
Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh movement
● Syed Ahmed khan was born on October 17, 1817 in Delhi
● After the revolt of 1857, he saw the critical role of modern education including english
and science for the empowerment of the poor and backward Muslim community.
● He also promoted the ideals of secularism and cultivated it at the hearts of the youth.
● He was also famous for promoting the puritan ‘Urdu’ language.
● He set up a Scientific Society in Aligarh in 1863 to create a scientific temperament
among the Muslims and the society started The Aligarh Institute Gazette in 1866 to
promote its cause
● In 1875, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School (M. A. O.),
Aligarh.It became a college in 1877 and aligarh muslim university in 1920
● He instituted All India Muslim Educational Conference in 1886
● The Aligarh Movement motivated the Muslims to help open a number of educational
institutions and was the first significant step in the reform of muslim community.
Sikh reform movements

Sikhism was a simple region as envisaged by Guru nanak.But in due course started to
degrade due to accumulation of power and wealth,development of complex rituals etc.thus
reform was necessary
Nirankari movement
● By baba dayal dass(contemporary of Ranjit singh)
● Introduced Anand Karaj which simplified marriage rituals,condemned worship of
graves
● .His son Baba Darbara singh and brother Baba Rattaji took the movement forward
after him.
● Nirankari means formless god because he preached worship of a formless god
instead of human gurus
Namdhari movement (Turned into KUKA revolt)
● Also called Kuka sect.started by bhagat jawahar mahal.Strengthened under baba
ram singh
● Opposed caste system,Infanticide,child marriages and Advocated vegetarianism,use
of white clothes.
● Founding of Namdhari sect is believed to be around 1840.
● Movement later turned fanatic and many butchers were killed by kukas in amritsar
malerkotla etc
● Due to political nature acquired by movement,a serious outbreak of violence against
british occurred and many leaders were blown by cannons in 1872 and ramsingh
was exiled
Singh sabha movement(founded 1873)
● Progressive non political and focused on education of sikhs
● Created schools,colleges (eg:Khalsa college amritsar founded 1892)etc and often
received patronage from british officials.
The Akali movement
● During time of persecution control of Gurdwaras passed to control of udasis who
were initially of high integrity and character.Later some udasis turned controllers of
religious institutions and came to be called mahants and Mahants started enjoying
wealth of temples and jagirs attached to them as their property.
● Aimed at regaining control of shrines.started by the political wing of singh sabha.
● After gaining control of shrine at sialkot,Akalis turned to golden temple and the akal
takht at amritsar. Golden temple was governed by a government appointed 10
member committee lead by a sarbarah.The priests at golden temple did not allow
prayer offerings by lower castes which was against the basic tenets of sikhism.
● Akalis marched to the golden temple and gained control of it and formed a committee
for its management which became the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak
Committee.
● Nankana tragedy: 20 feb 1921,the akalis who marched to Nankana (birth place of
Guru nanak) to take control of shrines there were attacked by the men led by the
mahant of gurdwara janam asthan.130 men were killed.Gandhiji visited nankana and
advised akalis to broaden their movement.
● Toshakhana Key’s affair: The keys of Toshakhana (treasury) of golden temple was
taken away by british deputy commissioner.Akalis joined by congress volunteers
launched a strong agitation and the british were forced to give the keys back.
● Guru ka bagh morcha: 1922,Akalis who collected wood from trees attached to the
gurdwara guru ka bagh were arrested by police who claimed the wood was property
of the mahant of the gurdwara.Agitations started and government arrested over 5000
people.and started cruelly beating them up.This drew criticism and again british
relented by releasing all arrested and leaving the wood free to use for the community
kitchen.
The akali movement came to its end with the passing of gurdwara bill 1925 which gave right
to govern shrines to elected bodies of sikhs.The movement was significant in that it ended
the caste system among sikhs,destroyed the evil authority of mahants and ended immoral
practices that were practiced in gurdwaras.
Parsis
● Rahnumai maz’dayan sabha or religious reform association founded by nauroji
furdoonji,dadabhai naoroji,ss bengali etc in 1851 with support by KR Cama
● Behramji Malabari:a Parsee journalist and writer,he was an advocate of women's
social reform in India and a champion of women's suffrage.
Kharshedji Rustomji Cama

● He was born in 1831 at Bombay.
● He also lifelong advocate of education and also women’s upliftment on the whole
especially among the Parsis.He was a founding director of the Alexandra Native
Girls' English Institution
● Cama supported the major reformist publication Rast Goftar ("Herald of Truth"),
founded in 1851.
● Cama was a member of the Amelioration Society set up in 1855 by Merwanji Framji
Panday, which brought together reformers and conservative Parsis.
● Cama emerged as the leading religious reformer of the period, and founded an
association, the Zartoshti Din ni Khol Karnari Mandali ("Society for Promoting
Research on the Zoroastrian Religion") to promote his views, based on a meeting
with dasturs in 1864.
● His studies in Europe of Avestan and Pahlavi gave him assurance in criticising
scholarly deficiencies of the local priesthood and their orthodoxy.
● Cama worked for the organization of Parsi madressas (madrasas) and also started
teaching their in Pahlavi.
● His treatise Peqambar Asho Zarthosht na Janmara no Eheval, a Life of Zoroaster
based on Avestan sources created a broad understanding among the parsis of their
religion and in a progressive manner.
Organisation year Founders
Sevasadan 1908 BM malabari and DD gidumal

servants of india society 1905 Gopalkrishna gokhale
social service league 1911 NM joshi
Mahar movement BR ambedkar
Nair service society 1914 Mannathu padmanabhan

CONTENTS
POLITICAL HISTORY NOTES–POST INDEPENDENCe ................................................................................ 2
FOREIGN POLICY OF NEHRU ........................................................................................................................ 3
LAL BAHADUR SASHTRI (1964 -1966) .......................................................................................................... 4
INDIRA GANDHI 1966- 1969 ........................................................................................................................... 5
INDIRA GANDHI 1969-1973 ............................................................................................................................ 6
MORARJI DESAI 1977-1979.......................................................................................................................... 7
INDRA GANDHI 1980-1984 .............................................................................................................................8
RAJIV GANDHI 1984-1989 ..............................................................................................................................8
ATAL BIHARI BAJPAYEE 1998-2004 ............................................................................................................. 9
MANMOHAN SINGH 2004-TILL NOW ......................................................................................................... 10
INTEGARTION OF PRINCELY STATES ................................................................................................... 10
Efforts by British (before independence) ....................................................................................................... 10
Reasons for Integration .................................................................................................................................. 10
Princes .............................................................................................................................................................11
Mountbatten's role ..........................................................................................................................................11
Pressure and Diplomacy (Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon) .............................................................................. 12
Process of Integration ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Accession ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Merger ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
Democratisation .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Centralisation and Constitutionalisation ....................................................................................................... 13
Reorganisation ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Post-Integration Issues ................................................................................................................................... 14
Who was responsible for integration ? ........................................................................................................... 15
Critical Perspectives ....................................................................................................................................... 15
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
POLITICAL HISTORY NOTES–POST INDEPENDENCE
➢ JAWAHARLAL NEHRU 1951-1964
Challenges before Nehru- to achieve massive reconstruction of polity and economy,

advancement towards basic objectives of democracy, civil liberties, secularism, a scientific
and international outlook, planning with socialism, to alleviate poverty and unemployment,
land reforms, consolidation of the nation, solutions of language and tribal problem, form a
new electoral policy and independent foreign policy
NOTE-(I am not giving consolidation history as I think it is already sent in previous
competition.)
How he proceeded?
➢ 1951-1952 first general election held on basis of universal adult franchise(21 or + age)
➢ Some critics said a backward country like India can only suited to benevolent dictatorship.
➢ Election held according to directive principles and independent election commission as
also made.
➢ Sukumar Sen was appointed as first chief election commissioner.
➢ People’s response to new political order was tremendous.
➢ Establishment of democratic institution
➢ Press having free play even when it criticized government severely.
➢ Even court was independent when it turned down legislation of agrarian reform.
➢ Both ruling and opposition parties played its role well in parliament.
➢ Nehru put states and centre at cordial terms hence he did not force states to effect land
reform just to keep federalism strong.(only president rule in Kerala in 1959 was exception)
➢ But this tendency somehow harmed to the subjects of health, education, agricultural in
states.
➢ Although Nehru at the same time made centre strong and even it was easy to do this as
ruling part was same in both centre and states.
➢ Nehru kept state’s supremacy over military as he was worried with its coup in Pakistan
France and Germany.(hence low expenditure on it)
➢ Nehru was critic of bureaucracy and ics but gradually he understood the Patel and accepted
the administration system.
➢ This was also a time when evil of corruption started in India.
➢ His major achievement in field of science. First national science laboratory and national
physical laboratory was laid on in 1947.
➢ In 1952 first of five institute of technology was set up on patterned of Massachusetts IT
➢ India was country of the world to recognize importance of nuclear energy in constructing
measures hence set up a ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION in 1948with HOMI J.
BHABHA. Latter on separate deptt. Was laid on.
➢ Asia’s first nuclear reactor was set up in trombay (Bombay)
➢ In 1962 space research started by setting up IDIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR
SPACE RESEARCH AND ROCKET LAUNCHING FACILITY AT THUMBA.
➢ Krishna menon as defence min. initiated defence research.
➢ Under the article 36 of DPSP welfare policy is promoted on socialistic pattern of society.
➢ This phrase was officially accepted by congress session at avadi and latter on adopted in
the objective of third five year plan.
➢ Land reforms, planned economy development, rapid expansion of public sector, labor
legislation, right to form trade union , go on strike, security of employment, provision of
health insurance, distribution of wealth through progressive taxes, expansion of education
etc.
➢ Anti untouchability law in 1955, reservation in education and employment for sc/st’s.
➢ 1951 Hindu code bill in favor of women demands for right. However due to protest from
jansangh and Hindu communal sectors bill was passed in four separate parts in the second
term of Nehru.
➢ Bill introduced monogamy, right of divorce to both men and women, raised the age of
consent and marriage and gave right to maintenance and to inherit family property.
➢ But a uniform civil code could not be enacted (shahbano case)
➢ In 1951 literacy was only 16.6%(6% in rural)
➢ Vast efforts were done b government that increased enrollment in primary secondary
education in both girls and boys.
➢ By 1964 total no of universities were increased from 18 to 54.
➢ But behind the success story major weakness was decline in educational standards
➢ Target of free and compulsory education was shifted from 1961 to 1966 and then to distant
future.
➢ For rural uplift community development and panchayati raj institution program was started
in 1952 and 1959.(much cooperated by U.S. during cold war)
➢ Despite of good results it was suffered with bureaucracy.(hence balwant rai committee in
1957)
➢ On the recommendation from 1959 panchayati raj was adopted as self governance in all
over country trough three level system
➢ But cooperative movement and these programs could not succeed according to expectation
as it ignored the class division of Indian society so major benefits were reached to only
upper class.
FOREIGN POLICY OF NEHRU
Nehru realized that India should speak in her own voice on current situations.
Hence NAM came in row. At the same time India neither joined Bagdad pact, manila treaty,
SEATO, CENTO WHICH JOINED THE COUNTRIES OF WEST AND EAST ASIA TO
THE WESTERN power BLOC.
But NAM was not immoral neutrality it was a freedom to decide what was right or wrong
then take stand in favour of right.
We helped Indonesia from Dutch colonies in 1948 then participated in Afro-Asian
conference.
In 1961 Belgrade conference it supported disarmament and peace
The major aim of our policy was to promote interest of Indian economy hence we
maintained good relation with both U.S. (technology in green revolution) and SOVIET
UNION (largest arm exporter).
Active membership in various UN body IMF WORLD BANK etc and in peacekeeping
force and in commonwealth institution.
LAL BAHADUR SASHTRI (1964 -1966)
➢ After the death of Nehru there were two main contenders for pm post. But shastri made it
with the support of k. kamaraj, the congress president.
➢ Shastri was widely accepted in the party as he was more amenable to their wishes and not
challenge their leadership in the party.
➢ Shastri with his calm character did not make any change in Nehru’s cabinet.(except Indira
Gandhi, minister of information and broadcasting)
Challenges-Problem of official language of Hindi versus English flared up in 1965 nut due to
government incapability it finally solved in 1966. Demand of Punjabi Suba and Goa’s merger
with Maharashtra was allowed to simmer. Our economy was stagnating. Slow rate growth of
industry and b.o.p problem but major one is food shortage.
➢ C.M. of food surplus states denied helping in food crisis situation. Even US suspended to
import due to indo-Pakistan war.
➢ Despite of creating State Food Trading Corporation and statutory rationing, no result came.
However strategy of green revolution was come which fully implemented in Mrs. Gandhi’s
period.
➢ Shastri was criticized for his thin decision power under pressure of cabinet.
➢ But after some time shastri showed his independence as government first criticized the US
bombing of N. VIETNAM
➢ He set his own pm’s secretary L.K. JHA
➢ Real challenge came in 1965 during indo-Pakistan war (Pakistan demanding for Kashmir)
➢ In 1965 followers of Saikh Abdullah and other dissident leaders created a great deal of
unrest there(Pakistan thought it was a right time even it was supported by US and India
was not completely come over after 1962 war)
➢ However once war started BRITEN US cut off arms food and other supplies to both the
countries and china called India as aggressor but soviet union kept supporting India even
in UN.
➢ Under pressure of UN ceasefire was put on. India recovered its pride and self confidence
which was lost in 1962 war.
➢ The good news was that infiltrators did not get support of Kashmiri people. And secularism
was maintained during war (Muslim, Sikh, christens all fought against Pakistan army)
➢ Shastri became national hero.
TASHKENT AGREEMENT- IN 1966 subsequent to the ceasefire agreement and under
the good offices of the Soviet Union Shastri and Pakistan president Ayub Khan met in here
and signed declaration acc to which both sides agreed to withdraw from all occupied areas
and return to their pre-war august positions. In the case of India it meant withdrawing from
strategic Haji Pir pass through which Pakistan infiltrators could come again. Shastri had to
agree this unfavorable terms to avoid war and losing soviet support on Kashmiri issue in
UN and in supply of defence equipment especially MIG planes and heavy tanks.
Shastri got tragic heart attack in Tashkent.
INDIRA GANDHI 1966- 1969
➢ After shastri death there was again Morarji Desai as a pm contender but due to his
unpopularity in party Kaamraj gave support to Mrs. Gandhi thinking that young and
inexperienced women would easy to dominate.
CHALLENGES – Punjab was on boil, Naga issue and Mizo trouble, economy recession
export and industrial growth was declining, failed monsoon in year 1966, drought,
inflation, and famine in E.UP BIHAR, Pakistan-china axis led to sharp rise in military
expenditure, budget deficient growing and endangering of fourth five year plan
➢ Demand of Punjabi Suba and Naga’s for autonomy was accepted then successfully dealt
with drought situation
➢ Under pressure of US (PL 480-import of food grains) and IMF(aid stopped after indo-
Pakistan war) she devalued rupee by 35.6% to increase export(although decision created
criticism)
➢ However decision was not proved to be successful.
➢ She remained silent on Vietnam issue in world politics after being humiliated by US time
to time in matter of its export of wheat.
➢ Her latter signed joint agreement with soviet to end US bombing on Vietnam and not joined
even Asian forum as it was supported by US. Unfortunately she had to run away from US
proposal of its funding of indo-American educational foundation.
➢ She developed links with Egypt and Yugoslavia to strengthen NAM. Even she tried to have
a dialogue with china but not succeed.
➢ She even faced agitation demonstration student strike riots with a new feature of bandh of
city due to increasing disparity.
➢ By taking it full advantage opposition Jan Sangh left parties communist criticized
government.(matter of banning beef eating was put up by Jan Sangh but government stood
firm against it)
➢ Year 1966 saw beginning of downslide of parliament(she was often called a ‘gungi gudia’
by opposition leader Mr. Lohia)
➢ Once after election of 1966 Mrs. Gandhi reassumed as a pm(despite of people
dissatisfaction with the congress they did not have another option till now as opposition
parties did not raise any social agenda. their only aim was to defeat Mrs. Gandhi )
➢ After this first time the role of rich and middle peasant was increased in Indian politics
which hated congress and communist. They controlled the rural vote by their muscle and
money power. They wanted control over land. (In north UP BIHAR PUNJAB parties like
BKD AKALI DAL SSP were formed. However in south communist presence kept rural
landowner tied to congress)
➢ This election also started era of coalition government though CPM did not join this. Even
congress did this in some states. All these started defection in politics.
➢ In spite of all Mrs. Gandhi emerged as central power, she made Mr. Desai a deputy PM
with a mere status.
➢ Year 1969 congress moved towards split. New phase of left over politics stated.
THE NAXALITES-CPM originally was spilt from CPI in 1964 on ground of
revolutionary politics and reformist parliamentary politics. Usually CPM participated in
parliamentary politics and formed coalition government in WB with bangle congress, with
JYOTI BASU, the CPM leader. Soon one section of the party (young cadres inspired by
Chinese method) revolted against party leadership and its reformist attitude. They were
turned out of the party but they started their movement under leadership of CHARU
MAJUMDAR and formed CP-ML in 1969. They launched peasant uprising in Naxalbari
village. Thus they were called Naxalities.
INDIRA GANDHI 1969-1973
CHALLENGES- slowing down of economy growth, domestic saving, rate of investment,

US aid, increasing black money, corruption, unrest among country middle class, emergence
of new action ‘gherao’. The Syndicate members were joined by Mr. Desai. This team did
not allow Mrs. Gandhi to appoint her member in working committee.
➢ She did calm and calculated reaction as she did not want to jeopardize party unity.
➢ Soon in 1967 she adopted 10 point program-social control of banks, nationalization of
general insurance, state trading in import and export trade, ceilings on urban property
and income, curb on business monopolies and concentration of economic power, public
distribution of food grain, rapid implementations of land reforms, provision of house sites
to the rural poor and abolition of princely purse.(although congress was leaned to vague
radicalism but after 1967 election there was tilt to left)
➢ However the old right wing did not accept it but she remained firmed.
➢ She again went against her part for making GIRI as president.
➢ MRTP act 1969 to check concentration of economic power.
➢ By all her efforts she once again initiated a climate of optimism.
➢ Her ‘GARIBI HATAO’ was more powerful than opposition ‘INDIRA HATAO’.
➢ As a result in 1971 election she restored party position
CHALLENGE OF BANGLADESH- there was Punjabi speaking Muslim living in West

Pakistan and Bengali speaking Muslim in East Pakistan. Soon West Pakistan acquired a dominant
position in Pakistan’s army, polity, bureaucracy, economy resulting discrimination in East
Pakistan. Moreover there was absence of political mechanism but gradually they got sense of
power of democracy that gave them majority of seats in Pakistan assembly elections under
leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman of Awami League party. But Pakistan general Yahya Khan
backed Zulfiqar Bhutto of West Pakistan. Hence a West Pakistan army initiated reign of terror.
Rape killing burning of crops was happened. Migration was stared from East Pakistan to Calcutta
and formed Mukti Vahini. Mrs. Gandhi knew that war any action against Pakistan could create
bad image for her in world politics but problem of migrated refugees was increasing burden on
India’s food stock and economy. Even if she took action she had to wait for a right time as military
operation could not be done in monsoon season in East Pakistan and Himalayan passes would help
Chinese aid to Pakistan. And moreover mukti vahini was not well prepared till now even was being
trained by Indian army.
So for next four months she tried to gather a world political support for her. US-CHINA stood
against her in UN but she soon declared indo-soviet peace friendship cooperation treaty for
next 20 years.
On 3 december war was started from pakistan’s side as Mrs. Gandhi wanted. And under leadership
of general J.S. Arora we defeated pakistan and Bangladesh was created and pakistan freed Mr.
rahman who became PM of Bangladesh on 1972.
➢ In year 1972 having left-of-centre agenda initially she did not proceed with further
nationalization
➢ 24th and 25th amendment was done in 1971 (Gorakhnath case)
➢ 1974 pokhran test
J.P. MOVEMENT AND ENERGENCY- by the beginning of 1973 her image started
declining as problem of inflation growth down etc again came in picture
Gujrat and Bihar having unrest due to price hike in 1974. Even president rule was imposed
there then fast of Mr. desai led to dissolve of Gujrat assembly. Bihar movement was led by
j.p. narayan. The famous total revolution and party less government movement was started.
As the movement grew it attracted non left parties students socialist traders middle class
support from all over country. But at the end of 1974 the movement got slow as it could
not be popular among rural and urban class.
On 12 June 1975 justice Sinha of high court convicted Mrs. Gandhi for having indulged in
corrupt campaign practices and declared her election invalid. At the same time janta dal
won in Gujarat assembly election. Now J P and opposition parties made coalition and called
for nationwide one week campaign of mass mobilization and civil disobedience on 29 June.
And thus Mrs. Gandhi posed emergency on 26 June. (Although both J P and Indira did
not choose democratic way)
From mid 1976 people started disillusioned with the emergency. In starting those control
over black marketing was now becoming slowed down and price hike was started. Press
censorship, power of policegiri was increasing. The twenty point agenda was failed and
sanjay Gandhi was becoming popular. And his four points of family planning, pant tress,
clearing sums, don’t take dowry was implemented with cruelty. Congress also adopted
sterilization agenda forcefully.
All these was becoming intolerable for nation hence on 18 january 1977 Mrs. Gandhi
announced election of loksabha and emergency was removed. She got defeated. Janta dal
came in power with Mr. desai as a PM.
MORARJI DESAI 1977-1979
CHALLENGES- economic situations, social justice, administration, communal violence etc

➢ Failed in many challenges except its rural employment program ‘food for work’.
➢ Congress was split in 1978 a) congress (I) and congress (U).
➢ Congress (i) under indra got revival very soon.
➢ She again came in power in 1977. Old jan sangh leaders leaving janta dal form BJP.
INDRA GANDHI 1980-1984
➢ She immediately dissolved nine states assemblies in opposition ruled states.

➢ She succeeded in planning, foreign policies (tilting to US), economic liberalization, and
growth over 4%.
➢ On 31th October 1984 she was assassinated.
RAJIV GANDHI 1984-1989
CHALLENGES- 1984 riots, Bhopal gas tragedy etc
➢ He already showed his capability in 1982 Asian games.

➢ With the support of his friend and advisor on technology mission Mr. Sam Pitroda(set up
C-DOT), he initiated his 6 technology mission and arrival of millennium was set as target
date.
➢ Drinking water mission in all the villages, literacy mission by using television radio,
immunization of pregnant women and children(polio), white revolution, expanding edible
oil production, to bring telephone in every village
➢ His computerization program was even criticized by left.
➢ Local self government was strengthen
➢ Jawahar rozgar yojna for rural poor was initiated(now MGNREGA)
➢ New education policy-NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA
➢ National perspective plan for women-30% reservation in all panchayati raj bodies, dowry
related offences was passed in 1986
➢ First time environment project-clean the river Ganga plan launched, new ministry of
environment and environment clearance was created.
➢ Set up 7 zonal cultural centers in different part of countries to encourage regional culture
➢ Anti defection act 1985 was passed
➢ Concept of lok adalat and consumer protection act was started
➢ Encouragement to programs critical to government
FOREIGN POLICY-
indira had formed 6 nation 5 continents initiative, its first meeting was held in his time.
Disarmament issue was put on his agenda like his ancestors
Supported de-colonialism (Namibia independence), nelson Mandela movement
As US committed to support Pakistan to promote Mujahidin against USSR, he did not tilt
to it
He was after Nehru, visited china. India even refrained from condemning Tiananmen
square massacre of 1989
At the same time Bangladesh was moving in Islamic direction, Nepal was imposing heavy
duties on Indian imports and discounts to Chinese import, Maldives was having coup,
Pakistan was in same tone
Sri Lanka problem was major. As many Tamils were fleeing to tamilnadu. The government
of Sri Lanka launched repression in Jaffna, base of LITTE. TN government was pressuring
on central to take action against this. (Refugee having Tamil as language). Sri Lankan
president Jayavardhane-Rajiv accord 1987 was held according to which Tamils majority
areas were merged into single province in there. Devolution of power would take place.
LITTE would be dissolved and Indian army would aid sri lanka if she is needed but it was
failed as LITTE did not accept it. In the mean time Jayavardhane asked Indian army to
help so situation became messy as LITTE having local support and moreover just then
Premadasa succeeded Jayavardhane and asked Indian army to withdraw. Finally the
LITTE issue caused Rajiv’s death.
India negotiated with Vietnam to withdrawal it from Cambodia.
He promote compact version of G77 as G15
Doubling of defence expenditure, guided missile development program initiated by Mrs.
Gandhi showed results, AGNI PRATHVI NUCLEARED POWER SUBMARINE were
come in picture
Bofors scandal caught his image that caused him loose in election and V.P. Singh came in
power. (But not for long time, then charan singh, p.v. rao, h.d. devgauda all came for short
time.)
ATAL BIHARI BAJPAYEE 1998-2004
CHALLENGES- communal agenda pushed by VHP, RSS, bajrang dal, ayodhya issue Gujarat
issue, THELKA issue scandal , price hike
➢ The largest coalition government 13 party was formed under Bajpayee leadership.
➢ Communal agenda was put on back burner.
➢ Pokhran 2 test in 1998 though US and CHINA much criticized it and banned nuclear
supply to it even India did not sign NPT and CTBT
➢ India developed its defence under super guidance of Mr. Kalam as Pakistan was
developing its long range missile ‘ghuri’ and US military base in Diageo Garcia in Hind
Ocean and Chinese infiltration was increasing.
➢ India successfully won in kargil.
➢ Kandahar incident was also held
➢ Agra summit and Lahore bus sewa program for confidence building measures with
Pakistan was also initiated in this phase although not much succeeded
➢ Indo-US nuclear deal was major mile.
➢ India became partner in SAARC
➢ In LPG era FDI was also pushed in retail.
➢ Foreign policy with central Asia (Iraq and Israel) became improved after look to east policy
under which it opposed Dutch colonialism in Indonesia.
➢ But the decision of pre election could not save NDA in election after its INDIA SHINING
MANMOHAN SINGH 2004-TILL NOW
➢ Congress came in power

➢ POTA was repealed. NAC was set up
➢ Set up a new ministry of minority affairs, a Sacher committee was formed to review
minority section.
➢ Introduced communal violence bill
➢ But a paradigm shift was to right based bill and policies
➢ RTI, NERGA, RTE etc were leap forward.
INTEGARTION OF PRINCELY STATES
• more than 500 princely states at the eve of integration

• varied widely in size and status- smallest Bilbari ( annual revenue of Rs. 8) and largest
Hyderabad (80,000 square miles)
• differing levels of economic and political development
• all were indirectly controlled by the British
EFFORTS BY BRITISH (BEFORE INDEPENDENCE)
• direct annexation and de facto paramountcy (policy of subordinate isolation) - upto

Revolt of 1857
• indirect rule and de jure paramountcy (policy of subordinate union) following GoT
Act, 1858
• Chamber of Princes-1921
• Harcourt Butler Committee (alongside Simon Commission)
• Federal Scheme of GoI Act, 1935
REASONS FOR INTEGRATION

• termination of paramountcy would have left princes technically free to choose to
accede or remain independent, a possibility suggested by Cripps Mission also
• INC wanted to avoid the 'balkanisation' of India and insisted on the incorporation of
the princely states into India in its negotiations with Mountbatten
• development of trade, commerce and communications during the 19th and 20th
centuries had bound the princely states to British India through a complex network of
interests
• Mountbatten was convinced that integration of the princely states into independent
India would to some extent assuage the wounds of Partition
PRINCES
• Bikaner and Jawahar were motivated by ideological and patriotic considerations

• Bhopal, Travancore and Hyderabad planned to remain independent
• some proposed a confederation of states
• many dreamt of a return to the situation in 16th century India of several independent
principalities
• Baroda was the first to join the Constituent Assembly. Bikaner made an appeal which
led to several states of Rajputana too joining
• lack of unity
MOUNTBATTEN'S ROLE
• Lumby and Moore take the view that Mountbatten played a crucial role in ensuring that
the princely states agreed to accede to India
• enormous prestige and legitimacy - relative of the King
• personal friend of many of the rulers like the Nawab of Bhopal
• princes believed his position as Gov-Gen of Indian dominion following independence
would guarantee safeguard of their interests
• assured them of the most favourable terms of accession as possible
• told them that Britain would no longer patronize or protect them
• convinced them that though technically independednt they would be rudderless on their
own
• highlighted the geographic compulsions that meant most of them must choose India
and also religious compulsions (otherwise would be violation of 2 Nation theory)
• dealt with the symbolic and princely courtesies of accession
PRESSURE AND DIPLOMACY (SARDAR PATEL AND V.P. MENON)
• Congress' stated position was that the princely states were not sovereign entities
• While Nehru and Rajaji took aggressive stances(said they would be treated as enemy
states), Patel was more conciliatory in his approach
• policy of carrot and stick
• example of realpolitik
• policy of divide and rule - played princes against one another by winning over support
of some early on which unsettled others
• used democratic tools like plebiscite (in Junagadh)
Carrot
• aroused spirit of nationalism in rulers

• promised protection of their traditional rights (during accession)
• promised autonomy in internal matters and asked only for surrender of defence,
external affairs and communication subjects
• assured the provisions of a new constitution wouldn't apply to them
• offered privy purses, retention of personal property and titles, inducements of
Governorships as 'Rajapramukhs' (during integration)
• emphasized that without integration their economies would collapse resulting in
situation of anarchy Stick
• used threat of popular protest

• encouraged praja mandals to agitate for accession to India - Travancore, Mysore,
Kathiawar, Orissa
• cut off critical supplies and lines of communication to Junagadh
• threat of military action
• use of military occupation - Junagadh
• use of police action - Hyderabad (Operation Polo)
• Kashmir - threat of proxy war- diminished role of Patel - problem still lingers (other
acceeded states - Patel has had a role - no problems since)
PROCESS OF INTEGRATION
ACCESSION
• Instruments of Accession (IoA) - Defence, Foreign Policy, Communications

• produced a rather loose federation, with significant differences in administration and
governance across the various states
MERGER
• Merger Agreements - to merge the smaller states that were not seen by the Government
of India to be viable administrative units either into neighbouring provinces
• Covenants of Merger - convince groups of large states to combine to form a "princely
union” - Eg. PEPSU, Saurashtra, United States of Rajasthan, Travancore-Cochin
• The only princely states which signed neither Covenants of Merger nor Merger
Agreements were Kashmir, Mysore and Hyderabad
• ended the discrete existence of states (except for 3)
DEMOCRATISATION
• special covenant signed by the rajpramukhs of the merged princely unions, binding
them to act as constitutional monarchs
• gave same measure of responsible government to people of erstwhile princely states as
the rest of India
• but these governments still remained insulated from central control save for the 3
subjects specified in IoA
CENTRALISATION AND CONSTITUTIONALISATION
• signed new Instruments of Accession which gave the Government of India the power
to pass laws in respect of all matters that fell within the seventh schedule of GoI
Act,1935
• only exception was Kashmir, whose relationship with India continued to be governed
by the original Instrument of Accession
REORGANISATION
• State Reorganisations Act, 1956
• Rajpramukhs lost their authority, and were replaced as the constitutional heads of state
by Governors appointed by the central government
• privy purse, the exemption from customs duty, and customary dignities survived, but
only till 1971
POST-INTEGRATION ISSUES
1. Colonial Enclaves
• French
o Chandernagore- 1950
o Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahe - 1954 (unofficial) ; 1962
(official)
• Portugese - after negotiation attempts failed despite popular protests, forced
occupation in 1961
2. Remaining princely states

• Nepal - recognised by the British and the Government of India as being
independent
• Bhutan - considered a protectorate outside the international frontier of India -
treaty in 1949 that Bhutan would abide by India's direction in external affairs
• Sikkim
o Treaty in 1950 with Chogyal Rulers
o India had responsibility for defence, external affairs and
communications, and ultimate responsibility for law and order, but
Sikkim was otherwise given full internal autonomy
o 1973 - anti-Chogyal agitation broke out (led by Kazi Dorji of Sikkim
State Congress) - demand for popular elections and democratic
government
o 1975 - the Sikkim Assembly passed a resolution calling for the state to
be fully integrated into India - endorsed by referendum
3. Secessionism
• Kashmir
• Tripura
• Manipur
4. Sub-nationalism
• Telengana
• Vidarbha
WHO WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR INTEGRATION ?

• Sardar Patel - through his wisdom, foresight, diplomacy and intrigue - guiding
hand
• V.P. Menon - Patel's right-hand man, ran all the hard yards slowly chipping
away at the rulers, without which accession wouldn't have been possible
• Bureaucrats - who effected the actual transition by creating the conditions for
social and financial integration
• the faceless masses - through vigorous protests and active praja mandals
o without the threat of mass agitation from below there would have been
no successful integration from above as states wouldnt have ceded so
easily
CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES
• Ian Copland and Ramusack - one of the reasons why the princes consented
to the demise of their states was that they felt abandoned by the British, and saw
themselves as having little other option
• Lumby, in contrast, take the view that the princely states could not have
survived as independent entities after the transfer of power, and that their
demise was inevitable. They therefore view successful integration of all
princely states into India as a triumph for the Government of India and Lord
Mountbatten, and as a tribute to the sagacity of the princes.
• Bipan Chandra – criticizes Mountbatten for overstating his mandate and his
impact on integration. Believes it to be the result of
o Sardar Patel’s leadership

o V.P. Menon’s hard work
o Urges and aspirations of the Indian people
REFERENCES
1. India’s Struggle for Freedom – Bipan Chandra
2. India After Gandhi – Ramachandra Guha
Prominent Themes of the Budget
Governance
Ease of Financial
sector
Living
Aspirational
sp a o a Economic
co o c
Caring Society
India Development
Agriculture, Irrig Industry, Comm Women &

ation and Rural erce and Child, Social
Development Investment Welfare
Wellness, Water Culture and

Infrastructure
and Sanitation Tourism
Education and Environment and

New Economy
Skills Climate Change
GOVERNANCE
STRUCTURAL REFORMS
IBC GST
• Honourable • 20 per cent reduction in turn around time for trucks.
exit through • Benefit to MSMEs through enhanced threshold and
IBC for composition
p limits.
companies. • Savings of about 4 per cent of monthly spending
for an average household.
• In last 2 years, 60 lakh new taxpayers added and
105 crore e-way bills generated
1
DIGITAL REVOLUTION
Shift to DBT Next wave
• During 2018- • Digital Governance.
19, `7 lakh crore • Improve physical quality of life through
t
transferred
f d N ti
Nationall Infrastructure
I f t t Pipeline
Pi li
through DBT. • Disaster Resilience.
• Social Security through Pension and
Insurance penetration.
INCLUSIVE GROWTH
• Governance guided by “Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka
Vishwas” with focus on:
• Preventive Healthcare: Provision of sanitation and water
• Healthcare: Ayushman Bharat
• Clean energy: Ujjawala and Solar Power
• Financial Inclusion,
Inclusion Credit support and Pension
• Affordable Hosuing
• Digital penetration
FINANCIAL SECTOR
• Deposit Insurance Coverage to increase from `1 lakh to `5

Lakh per depositor.
• Eligibility limit for NBFCs for debt recovery under SARFAESI
Act proposed to be reduced to asset size of `100 crore or
loan size of `50 Lakh.
• Proposal to sell balance holding of government in IDBI Bank
Bank.
• Separation of NPS Trust for government employees from
PFRDAI.
• Specified categories of government securities would be opened

for non resident investors
• FPI Limit for corporate bonds to be increased to 15 per cent.
• New debt ETF proposed mainly for government securities.
2
Macroeconomic Indicators
GDP Growth Rate (per cent) CPI and WPI (per cent)
8.5
8 6
7.5
7 4
6.5
6 2
5.5
5 0
4.5
4-15
5-16
6-17
7-18
April-
2018-19
4
er)
-2
Decembe
2014
2015
2016
2017
2019-20(A
-4
CPI-C WPI
9,000
Net FDI CAD/Forex (per cent)
8,000
7,000 35
6,000 30
US $ Million
25
5,000
20
4,000
15
3,000
10
2,000
5
1,000
0
0
Oct-17
Oct-18
Oct-19
Apr-17
Apr-18
Apr-19
Jan-17
Jul-17
Jan-18
Jul-18
Jan-19
Jul-19
-1,000
53 3.5
Trends in Deficits Debt
ent)
nt)
52 3
External Debt (per cen
Central Government Debt (per ce
4.1 4.2 51 2.5

1.1 50
3.9 4.0 2
3.8 49
Percent of GDP
Percent of GDP
0.9 1.5
3.8 48
0.7 0.9 3.5 3.5 3.5 47 1
3.4 3.6
46 0.5
0.5 0.7 0.7 3.4
45 0
0.3 3.2
0 4 0.4
0.4 0 4 0.4
04 0.4
0.1 3.0
Central Government Debt as per cent of GDP
External Debt as per cent of GDP at current

PD FD (RHS) exchange rate
3
Tracking Progress in Numbers
Foreign Exchange Reserves (` crore) Gross Bank Credit (` Crore)
3320000 10000000
3270000 9000000
3220000 8000000
3170000 7000000
3120000 6000000
3070000 5000000
3020000 4000000
2970000 3000000
02-Aug-2019
16-Aug-2019
30-Aug-2019
13-Sep-2019
27-Sep-2019
11--Oct-2019
25--Oct-2019
08-Nov-2019
22-Nov-2019
06-Dec-2019
20-Dec-2019
03--Jan-2020
17--Jan-2020
2000000
1000000
0
Nov.24,Mar.
201730,Nov.23,
2018 Mar.29,
2018 Nov.22,
2019 2019
National Infrastructure Pipeline

Distribution of workers by status in
Employment (per cent) Rural Infrastructure
2011-12 2017-18 Irrigation

Renewable Power
60
Conventional Power
50
40 Railways
30 Urban and Housing
20
Roads
10
0 0 5 10 15 20
Self employed Regular wage/ Casual labour
Salaried Rs. Lakh Crores
India is the 5th largest economy in the world in terms of GDP at current US $ Trillion.
USA CHINA
GERMANY 3.9
21.4
14.1 5.2
JAPAN
2.9
INDIA
All figures in US $
Trillion
4
Budget at a glance
Revenue Expenditure
p ((in ` Capital
p Expenditure
p ( ` crore))
(in
crore)
4,20,000
28,00,000
3,50,000
24,00,000
20,00,000 2,80,000
16,00,000 2,10,000
12,00,000
1,40,000
8,00,000
70,000
4,00,000
0 0
Revenue Receipts (in ` crore) Capital Receipts (in Rs

Rs.
crore)
21,00,000
12,00,000
14,00,000 10,00,000
8 00 000
8,00,000
6,00,000
7,00,000
4,00,000
2,00,000
0 0
5
Budget at a Glance
Non Debt Capital
Rupee Comes From Receipts
6%
Borrowings and
Other Liabilities
20%
Income Tax
17%
Non Tax Revenue

Union Excise 10%
Duties
7%
Customs
4%
Corporation Tax
18%
GST
18%
Centrally
Rupee Goes To Sponsored
Pensions Schemes
6% 9%
Other
Expenditure Subsidies
10% 6%
Defence
8%
Central Sector
Schemes
13%
Interest
Payments
Finance 18%
Commission and
Other Transfers
10%
States' Share of
Taxes and Duties
20%
6
Tax proposals
Concessional corporate tax rate of 15 per cent to new domestic
companies in manufacturing and power sector.
Tax concession for sovereign wealth fund of foreign governments
and other foreign investments.
Tax benefits to Start-ups by way of deduction of 100 per cent of
their profits are enhanced by increasing turnover limit and
period of eligibility.
eligibility
Concessional tax rate for cooperatives proposed.
Turnover threshold for audit of MSMEs increased.
Extension of time limits pertaining to the tax benefits for
affordable housing.
Issuance of Unique Registration Number to all charity institutions
f easy tax
for t compliance.
li
Health cess to be imposed on imports of medical equipment
given these are made significantly in India.
Dividend Distribution Tax removed and classical system

of dividend taxation adopted.
Simplified and New Income Tax Regime as an option to

the old regime
regime.
Income
Bracket (`
lakh) Below 5 5-7.5 7.5-10 10-12.5 12.5-15 Above 15
Tax Rate (per
cent) Exempt 10 15 20 25 30
Simplified GST return shall be implemented from 1st April

2020. Refund process to be fully automated.
7
Agriculture, Irrigation and Rural Development
PM KUSUM to cover 20 lakh farmers for stand alone solar

pumps and
d ffurther
th 15 llakh
kh ffor grid
id connected
t d pumps.
• Viability gap funding for creation of

efficient warehouses on PPP
mode.
• SHG run Vill
SHGs Village storage
t scheme
h
to be launched.
• Integartion of e-NWR with e-NAM.
“Kisan Rail” and “Krishi Udaan” to be • Fish Production

l
launched
h dbby IIndian
di R Railways
il andd target of 200
Ministry of Civil Aviation respectively lakh tonnes by
for a seamless national cold supply 2022-23.
chain for perishables. • Another 45000
acres of aqua
• Elimination
Eli i ti off FMD and dbbrucellosis
ll i culture to be
in cattle and PPR in sheep and supported.
goat by 2025. • Fishery
• Increasing coverage of artificial extention
insemination to 70 per cent. through 3477
• Doubling of milk processing Sagar Mitras
capacity by 2025. and 500 fish
• Agricultural credit target of `15 FPOs.
lakh crore for 2020-21. • Raise fishery
exports to `1
lakh crore by
2024-25.
8
Wellness, Water and Sanitation
• More than 20
20,000
000 empanelled hospitals under
PM Jan Arogya Yojana.
• FIT India movement launched to fight NCDs.
Coverage • “TB Harega Desh Jeetega” campaign

under
Nikshay launched to end TB by 2025
2025.
Poshan
Yojana (`
Lakh) • Viability gap funding proposed for
35 setting up hospitals in the PPP
mode.
• Expansion of Jan Aushadhi Kendra
Scheme to all districts by 2024.
• ODF Plus to sustain ODF behaviour.

• Focus on liquid and grey water
management along with waste
management.
80
70 SBM ((` crore))
60
12294
50
40 9638
30
20
10
0
NFHS-3 NFHS-4
IMR U5MR 2019-20 (RE) 2020-21 (BE)
9
Education and Skills
• About 150 higher educational institutions will start
apprenticeship embedded courses.
• I t
Internship
hi opportunities
t iti tto fresh
f h engineers
i b urban
by b local
l l
bodies.
• Special bridge courses to improve skill sets of those seeking
employment abroad.
Allocation 2020-21 (BE) Study in EQUIP (` crore)

(` crore)
India (crore) 1413
DHRUV 65
Operation Digital
Board
32
0 10 20 30
• Degree level online

2019‐20 2020‐21 2020-21 (BE)
education (RE) (BE)
programmes for
students of deprived
sections of the Programme for Apprenticeship
society. Training (` crore)
• Ind-SAT to be
conducted in Asia 2020-21 (BE)
and Africa under
2019-20 (RE)
Study in India
programme. 166 168 170 172 174 176
New Economy
• Knowledge Translation Clusters for emerging technology sectors
• Scaling up of Technology Clusters harbouring test beds and small
scale manufacturing facilities.
• National Mission on Quantum Technologies and applications with an
outlay of Rs.8000 crore proposed.
10
Industry, Commerce and Investment
• Scheme to encourage manufacturing of mobile
phones, electronic equipment and semi conductor
packaging.
packaging
• National Technical Textiles Mission for a period of 4
years.
• NIRVIK Scheme for higher export credit disbursement

launched.
• S tti up off an Investment
Setting I t t Clearance
Cl Cell
C ll to
t provide
id
end to end facilitation.
• Extension of invoice financing to MSMEs through TReDs.

• A scheme to provide subordinate debt for entrepreneurs of
MSMEs
MSMEs.
• Scheme anchored by EXIM Bank and SIDBI to handhold MSMEs
in exports markets.
CORPORATE TAX RATE CUT

Thailand 20
India 22
Japan 23.2
Bangladesh 25
Indonesia 25
China 25
Sri Lanka 28
Philippines 30
0 10 20 30
11
Infrastructure
• National Logistics Policy to be launched soon
soon.
• Roads: Accelerated development of Highways.
• Railways: Four station redevelopment projects
• 150 passenger trains through PPP mode.
• More Tejas type trains for tourist destinations.
• Port: Corporatizing
p g at least one major
j p port.
• Air: 100 more airports to be developed under
UDAAN.
• Power: Efforts to replace conventional energy

meters by prepaid smart meters.
• Gas Grid: Expand National Gas Grid to 27,000 km
• Infrastructure Financing: `103 lakh crore National

infrastructure Pipeline projects announced.
• An international bullion exchange to be set up at GIFT
City.
Bharat Net (` crore) Accelerated road development

9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 4000 8000
0
2019-20 (RE) 2020-21 (BE) in km
12
Caring Society
Women & Culture and Tourism Environment
child, social • Proposal to establish and Climate
Welfare Indian Institute of Change
• More than 6 Heritage and • Coalition for
lakh conservation. Disaster
anganwadi • 5 archaeological Resilient
workers sites to be developed Infrastructure
equipped as iconic sites. launched in
with smart • A museum on September
phones. Numismatics and 2019.
• A task force Trade to be • Encouragem
to be established ent to states
appointed to • Tribal museum in implementing
recommend Ranchi . plans for
regarding • Maritime museum to cleaner air in
lowering be set up at Lothal. cities above 1
MMR and million.
improving
nutrition
levels.
Tourism promotion
(` crore)
2500
Nutrition related programmes

(` crore)
35600
2020-21 (BE)
2020-21 (BE)
13
Budget Allocation to Major Schemes
PM KISAN Pradhan Mantri Swasthya

Suraksha Yojana
In ` Crore
80000
70000
7000
60000
6000
50000 5000
40000 4000
30000 3000
2000
20000
1000
10000 0
0 2019-20 RE 2020-21 BE
2019-20 RE 2020-21 BE
ICDS
DBT LPG 29000
28000
27000
2020-21 BE
26000
2019-20 RE 25000
24000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
23000
2019-20 2020-21
RE BE
Pradhan Mantri
Awas Yojana
28000
27500 Pradhan Mantri Gram
27000
26500
Sadak Yojana
26000
25500
5500 2020-21 BE
25000
24500 2019-20 RE
24000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
2019-20 RE 2020-21 BE
15
Expenditure of major items
In ` Crore
Rs. 50040 Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
Rs. 67112 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Rs. 72216 Ministry of Railways
Ministry of Road Transport

Rs. 91823
and Highways
Rs. 99312 Ministry of Human Resource

Development
Rs. 122398 Ministry off Rural Development
Ministry of Consumer
Rs. 124535
Affairs, Food and Public
Distribution
Rs. 142762 Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’

Welfare
Rs. 167250 Ministry of Home Affairs
Rs. 471378 Ministry of Defence
14
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Content
Topic Name Page No
Basic concepts 2
State of India’s economy prior to the country’s independence 10

Indian Economy – 1950 ‐ 1990 17
Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation: An Appraisal 28
Poverty 39
Impact of colonial rule 45
Human capital formation in India 50
Human capital formation in India (2) 54
Rural development 58
Employment: Growth, Informaisation and Other issues 63
Growth and changing structure of employment 68
Infrastructure Development 73
Challenges in India’s power sector 78
Comparative Development Strategies 84
Economic growth and development 95
Investment 99
Domestic saving 101
About Us 103
Ad Valoren Tax A tax proportional to the object being taxes

The process of buying a good or asset in one market where
Arbitrage price is low and simultaneously selling it in another market
where prices are higher.
Administered price Price set by a single body usually government
Selling surplus land on machinery of an industrial undertaking
Asset Stripping
to use idle asset into cash.
A legal arrangement to deal with the affairs of individuals

Bankruptcy
unable to pay their debts
Bear Market A stock market in which prices are excepted to fall
The equity shares of large and reputed companies. Such

Blue chip
companies have normally high market reputation
A security with a redemption date over a year later than its
Bond
date of issue.
State of India’s economy prior to
Declaration made by importer to the custom. In situation when the country’s independence
Bill of Sight
the importer wants to inspect the good before paying duties
 The structure of India’s
It is documentary evidence giving details of goods shipped, the present day economy is not just
Bill of Lading ship on which goods are consigned and the name of the of current making; it has its
consigner and the consignee. roots steeped in history
Begger my/thy Used in international trade one country’s benefit is at the loss  Particularly in the period
neighbour policy of other company when India was under British
rule which lasted for almost two
Budget deficit The excess of a government’s total expenditure over its income
centuries before India finally
Bull market A stock market in which prices are expected to rise won its independence on 15
A contract giving the holder the right but not obligation to buy August 1947.
Call option a good or security on some future date at a pre – arranged  The sole purpose of the
price British colonial rule in India was
to reduce the country to being a
It is a feature of a nation’s financial regime that centre’s on the
Capital account feeder economy for Great
ability to conduct transaction of a local financial assets freely
convertibility Britain’s rapidly expanding
and at country determined exchanged rate
modern industrial base.
LOW LEVEL OF ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE
COLONIAL RULE
Counter trade In this trade goods are purchased from the seller only when the 1. India had an independent
policy seller is ready to buy something from purchaser also. economy before the advent of
the British rule.
Capital market refers to stock exchange and other institutions
Capital market 2. Though agriculture was the
where securities are bought and sold
main source of livelihood for
It is portion of total time and demand liability of a bank that is most people.
Cash reserve ratio
to be parked with the central bank 3. The country’s economy
A temporary additional tax whose destination is fixed. Ex. was characterised by various
Cess
Central road cess, Education cess kinds of manufacturing
activities.
A standardized god, which is traded in bulk and whose units are
Commodity 4. India was particularly well
interchangeable
known for its handicraft
Common stock The equity capital of a corporation industries in the fields of cotton
Tax levied on corporate on their profits, distinct from taxation and silk textiles, metal and
Corporate tax
of the incomes of their owners. precious stone works etc.
5. These products enjoyed a
An assessment of the portability that an individual, firm or
Credit Rating worldwide market based on the
country will be able and willing to pay debts.
reputation of the fine quality of
Current Account Also referred as CAD, it refers to an excess over receipts on material used and the high
Deficit current account in a country’s balance of payment standards of craftsmanship seen
A security loan raised by a company usually with fixed interest in all imports from India.
Debenture
and sometimes with a fixed redemption date
Debt Money owned by one person or organisation to another
Ways and means to finance budgetary deficit. This may include

Deficit financing
printing of new money, market borrowing etc.

Deflation A progressive reduction in price level or a reduction in activity
due to lack of effective demand.
Acronym for De – materialized Account. This is required for
Demat
trading on stock market
A situation in which inflation enters into negative domain or
Disinflation
inflation becomes negative
A process by which Government Control in PSUs is reduced.

Disinvestment This is done by selling the Government’s share in the PSU to
private parties or individuals via stock exchange.
The sale of any foreign commodity in a foreign market at a
Dumping price below host country & also at times such quantity that
cannot be explained in the fair competition
Deadweight debt It means a debt incurred to meet current expenditure.
Excise duty Duty levied by the government on the production of goods.

An agency setup by Indian government to promote Indian
Exim Bank trade. The bank assists exports by providing finance or
guaranteeing or insuring private loans to finance them.
Import of goods with intention of exporting them without

Entrepot Trade
rendering them liable for duty.
Improvement of the man machine interface for higher

Ergonomics
efficiency.
Euro Dollar US dollar or right US dollar held by the people outside USA
The portion of income spent on food diminishes with income
Engel’s law
increase.
Acronym for foreign direct investment. The acquisition by

FDI
resident of a country of assets abroad.
Acronym for foreign Exchange Management Act. The act

FEMA replaced Foreign Exchange Regulation Act. It provides legal
framework to manage Foreign Exchange in India.
Acronym for foreign Institutional Investment. It is an investor
FII or an investment fund that is registered in a country outside of
the one in which it is currently investing.
This deficit tells the true position of economy. It is obtained by
Fiscal Deficit
adding total budgetary deficit n and market borrowings.
The process by which notion of federalism could be brought in
financial matters in a federal state. In this case the constituting
Fiscal Federalism
units are provided with a domain to work upon in fiscal
matters.
During inflation income for the govt. from taxes increases by
Fiscal drag
proportion higher than the inflation.
A price index used to assess whether there has been a real rise
or fall in GDP from one year to another. GDP at current prices
GDP deflator
are divided by GDP deflator to obtain in index of GDP at base
year prices.
Giffen Goods A good for which demand falls when its price falls.
Global Innovation It is a global index measuring the level of innovation of a

index country.
Government A bond or security with the banking of state guarantee on the
Bonds/Security repayment of the money.
An indirect tax which would be levied on all goods and services

GST
in India.
Gini Coefficient Area between the Lorentz curve and the line of perfect equality
It is a term used colloquially to indicate signs of economy

Green shoots
recovery during an economic downturn.
An informal transfer system which is considered illegal
Hawala generally. It exists outside of or parallel to traditional banking
financial system.
An Investment fund specializing in taking speculative positions
Hedge fund in markets for shares or currency, which the fund does not
actually possess in expectation that prices will fall.
It is model of growth which is broad based and shared and pro
Inclusive Growth
– poor.
A situation in which prices are on the rise or when money loses

Inflation
its purchasing power.
Inflation Indexed
These are bonds where the principal is indexed to inflation.
Bond
The process by which workers and employers are brought into

Labour Market
contact and wages and conditions of work are decided.
LAF (Liquidity
It is a monetary policy tool which allows banks to borrow
Adjustment
money through repurchase agreements.
Facility)
A curve that shows the relation between tax rate and revenue
Laffer curve
raised
In financial terms anything which could be easily turned into

Liquidity money and at a fairly predictable price. The property of having
liquid assets.
An agreement signed between two entities by which one entity
Memorandum of agrees not to interfere in the working of other entity, on the
Understanding promise that the second entity will give desired results to the
(MoU) first entity. This usually occurs between governments and their
PSUs.
This is the market for very short – term loans for example
Money Market
overnight transaction.
MSF
Under this the RBI allows banks to borrow up to 1% of their
(Marginal standing
time and demand liabilities.
facility)
It is marketing of two or more similar and competing products

Multi brand retail
by the same firm.
Mutual Fund A financial institution which holds shares on behalf of investors.
The total income of residents of a country, measures at factor

National Income
cost after deducting capital consumption.
The purchase or sale of securities by the central bank as a

means of changing interests rates and money supply. If the
central bank buys securities their prices rise, interest rate fall
Open Market
Operation and money supply increases. If the central bank sells securities
their prices fall, interest rate raise and the money supply
decreases.
Organisation and
Examination of office work to make them more efficient.
Method (O & M)
A situation in which a person can be made better off without
Pareto Optimally
making another person worse off.
The national income of a country or region when divided by its
Per Capita Income
population.
It is a fraudulent investment operation that pays returns to its

investors from their own money or the money paid by
Ponzi Scheme
subsequent investors rather than from profit earned by
individual organization running the operation.
It is the difference between current government spending on
Primary Deficit goods and services and total current revenue from all types of
taxes.
The theory that it is possible for the government to bring about

Pump priming permanent recovery from a slump by a temporary injection of
purchasing power of the economy.
It states that exchange rates between currencies are

Purchasing power
determined in the long run by the amount of goods and
parity
services that each can buy.
Importing without intellectual property consideration (Grey
Parallel Import
market)
Method of selling securities privately to a selective group of
Private placement
investors
Real effective It is an index that describes the relative strength of a currency
exchange rate relative to a basket of other currencies.
Regressive tax A tax where the ratio of tax paid to income falls as income rises
It is the rate at which RBI lends money to commercial banks on

Repo rate
short term basis.
It is the rate at which RBI borrows money from commercial

Reserve Repo Rate
banks on short term basis.
Redundance Permanent laying – off surplus workers
According to the Adam smith, it refers to pains and sacrifices of
Real cost
labour.
Sales tax Tax levied on sale of goods.
Acronym for Securities and Exchange Board of India. The body

SEBI was constituted in 1988 and was made a statutory body in
1992. It is the capital market regulator in India.
An indirect tax levied on services obtained from service
Service tax
providers.
Sovereign Debt Debt of the government of an independent country

A demarcated area in a country which for all practical purposes
Special Economic of taxation is considered a foreign territory. The area is mainly
Zone used for production of goods and domestic laws related to
labour and taxation are applicable their in limited manner.
A situation where an economy persistently suffers from both
Stagflation high inflation and high unemployment
Statutory Liquidity It is the amount money which the bank has to keep with itself
Ratio (SLR) at all times in liquid cash.
An attempt by the government to keep the retail price of goods

Subsidy low of compensating the producer of the goods for high cost of
manufacturing.
A temporary additional tax whose destination is to be decided
Surcharge
by the levying authority.
A model of growth in which resources are used in such a

Sustainable growth manner that the stake on these resources of future generations
is not compromised.
Sleeping partner, A person who invests but does not take part in running of the
Dormant partner business.
A short dated government security. These bills bear no normal

Treasury bill
interest, but are promises to pay in 90 days – time.
The concept contends that there is a strong link between a
Twin deficit national economy’s current account balance and its
government budget balance.
Acronym for value added tax; It is a tax on the value addition

VAT
done to a product.
A concept of budgeting which came up in USA in this type of
Zero based budget the schemes and programme are evaluated from start
budgeting or zero base and if they are found to be good these are
included in the budget of next year.

Textile Industry in Bengal

 Muslin is a type of cotton textile which had its origin in Bengal, particularly, places in and around
Dhaka (spelled during the pre‐independence period as Dacca)
 ‘Daccai Muslin’ had gained worldwide fame as an exquisite type of cotton textile
 The finest variety of muslin was called malmal.
 Sometimes, foreign travellers also used to refer to it as malmal shahior malmal khas implying
that it was worn by, or fit for, the royalty.
6. The economic policies pursued by the colonial government in India were concerned more with the protection
and promotion of the economic interests of their home country than with the development of the Indian economy.
7. Such policies brought about a fundamental change in the structure of the Indian economy — transforming the
country into a net supplier of raw materials and consumer of finished industrial products from Britain.
8. The colonial government never made any sincere attempt to estimate India’s national and per capita income.
Individual attempts by some Indians to measure per capita income
1. Some individual attempts which were made to measure such incomes yielded conflicting and inconsistent
results
2. Among the notable estimators — Dadabhai Naoroji, William Digby, Findlay Shirras, V.K.R.V. Rao and R.C. Desai
3. It was Rao whose estimates of the national and per capita incomes during the colonial period were considered
very significant.
4. However, most studies did find that the country’s growth of aggregate real output during the first half of the
twentieth century was less than two per cent with a meagre half per cent growth in per capita output per year.
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
1. India’s economy under the British colonial rule remained fundamentally agrarian
2. About 85 per cent of the country’s population lived mostly in villages and derived livelihood directly or
indirectly from agriculture.
3. Agricultural productivity became incrementally low though, in absolute terms, the sector experienced some
growth due to the expansion of the aggregate area under cultivation.
4. This stagnation in the agricultural sector was caused mainly because of the various systems of land settlement
5. Those were introduced by the colonial government. Particularly, under the zamindari system
6. This was implemented in the then Bengal Presidency comprising parts of India’s present‐day eastern states.
7. The profit accruing out of the agriculture sector went to the zamindars instead of the cultivators
8. The main interest of the zamindars was only to collect rent regardless of the economic condition of the
cultivators
9. This caused immense misery and social tension among the latter.
10. To a very great extent, the terms of the revenue settlement were also responsible for the zamindars adopting
such an attitude;
11. Besides this, low levels of technology, lack of irrigation facilities and negligible use of fertilisers, all added up to
aggravate the plight of the farmers and contributed to the dismal level of agricultural productivity.
12. India’s agricultural production received a further set back due to the country’s partition at the time of
independence.
13. A sizeable portion of the undivided country’s highly irrigated and fertile land went to Pakistan this had an
adverse impact upon India’s output from the agriculture sector.
14. Particularly affected was India’s jute industry since almost the whole of the jute producing area became part of
East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
15. India’s jute goods industry (in which the country had enjoyed a world monopoly so far), thus, suffered heavily
for lack of raw material.
INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
1. India could not develop a sound industrial base under the colonial rule.
2. Even as the country’s world famous handicraft industries declined, no corresponding modern industrial base
was allowed to come up to take pride of place so long enjoyed by the former.
3. The primary motive of the colonial government behind this policy of systematically deindustrialising India was
two‐fold.
4. Second, to turn India into a sprawling market for the finished products of those industries so that their
continued expansion could be ensured to the maximum advantage of their home country — Britain.
5. The decline of the indigenous handicraft industries created not only massive unemployment in India but also a
new demand in the Indian consumer market
6. This was now deprived of the supply of locally made goods.
7. This demand was profitably met by the increasing imports of cheap manufactured goods from Britain.
8. During the second half of the nineteenth century, modern industry began to take root in India
9. Initially, this development was confined to the setting up of cotton and jute textile mills.
10. The jute mills dominated by the foreigners were mainly concentrated in Bengal.
11. The iron and steel industries began coming up in the beginning of the twentieth century.
12. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) were incorporated in 1907.
13. A few other industries in the fields of sugar, cement, paper etc. came up after the Second World War.
14. There was hardly any capital goods industry to help promote further industrialisation in India.
15. Capital goods industry means industries which can produce machine tools which are, in turn, used for
producing articles for current consumption.
16. The growth rate of the new industrial sector and its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
remained very small.
17. Significant drawback of the new industrial sector was the very limited area of operation of the public sector.
18. This sector remained confined only to the railways, power generation, communications, ports and some other
departmental undertakings.
FOREIGN TRADE
1. India has been an important trading nation since ancient times.
2. Restrictive policies of commodity production, trade and tariff pursued by the colonial government adversely
affected the structure, composition and volume of India’s foreign trade.
3. India became an
4. Exporter of primary products such as raw silk, cotton, wool, sugar, indigo, jute etc.
5. An importer of finished consumer goods like cotton, silk and woollen clothes and capital goods like light
machinery produced in the factories of Britain.
6. Britain maintained a monopoly control over India’s exports and imports.
7. The opening of the Suez Canal further intensified British control over India’s foreign trade
8. The most important characteristic of India’s foreign trade throughout the colonial period was the generation of
a large export surplus.
9. But this surplus came at a huge cost to the country’s economy.
10. Several essential commodities—food grains, clothes kerosene etc. — became conspicuous by their acute
scarcity in the domestic market.
11. This export surplus did not result in any flow of gold or silver into India.
12. This was used to make payments for the expenses incurred by an office set up by the colonial government
invisible items, all of which led to the drain of Indian wealth.
DEMOGRAPHIC CONDITION
1. Though suffering from certain limitations, it revealed the unevenness in India’s population growth.
2. Every ten years such census operations were carried out.
3. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition.
4. The second stage of transition began after 1921.
5. However, neither the total population of India nor the rate of population growth at this stage was very high.
6. The overall literacy level was less than 16 per cent.
7. Out of this, the female literacy level was at a negligible low of about seven per cent.
8. Public health facilities were either unavailable to large chunks of population or, when available, were highly
inadequate.
9. Water and air‐borne diseases were rampant and took a huge toll on life.
10. Particularly, the infant mortality rate was quite alarming—about 218 per thousand in contrast to the present
infant mortality rate of 63 per thousand.
11. Life expectancy was also very low— 32 years in contrast to the present 63 years.
12. In the absence of reliable data, it is difficult to specify the extent of poverty at that time.
OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE
1. The occupational structure of India, i.e., distribution of working persons across different industries and sectors
showed little sign of change.
2. The agricultural sector accounted for the largest share of workforce
3. While the manufacturing and the services sectors accounted for only 10 and 15‐20 per cent respectively.
4. Parts of the then Madras Presidency (comprising areas of the present‐day states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka), Maharashtra and West Bengal witnessed a decline in the dependence of the
workforce on the agricultural sector
5. However, there had been an increase in the share of workforce in agriculture during the same time in states
such as Orissa, Rajasthan and Punjab.
6. Under the colonial regime, basic infrastructure such as railways, ports, water transport, posts and telegraphs
did develop.
7. The real motive behind this development was not to provide basic amenities to the people but to sub serve
various colonial interests.
8. Roads constructed in India prior to the advent of the British rule were not fit for modern transport.
9. The roads that were built primarily served the purposes of mobilising the army within India and drawing out
raw materials from the countryside to the nearest railway station or the port
10. There always remained an acute shortage of all weather roads to reach out to the rural areas during the rainy
season.
11. People mostly living in these areas suffered grievously during natural calamities and famines.
12. The British introduced the railways in India in 1850 and it is considered as one of their most important
contributions.
13. The railways affected the structure of the Indian economy in two important ways.
14. On the one hand it enabled people to undertake long distance travel and thereby break geographical and
cultural barriers
15. On the other hand, it fostered commercialisation of Indian agriculture which adversely affected the
comparative self sufficiency of the village economies in India.
16. The volume of India’s export trade undoubtedly expanded but its benefits rarely accrued to the Indian people.
17. The inland waterways, at times, also proved uneconomical as in the case of the Coast Canal on the Orissa coast.
18. The introduction of the expensive system of electric telegraph in India, similarly, served the purpose of
maintaining law and order.
19. The postal services, on the other hand, despite serving a useful public purpose, remained all through
inadequate.
We may conclude that
1. By the time India won its independence the impact of the two‐century long British colonial rule was already
showing on all aspects of the Indian economy.
2. The agricultural sector was already saddled with surplus labour and extremely low productivity.
3. Foreign trade was oriented to feed the Industrial Revolution in Britain.
4. Infrastructure facilities, including the famed railway network, needed upgradation, expansion and public
orientation.
5. Prevalence of rampant poverty and unemployment required welfare orientation of public economic policy.
6. In a nutshell, the social and economic challenges before the country were enormous.
Indian Economy – 1950 ‐ 1990

Introduction
1. With independent our leaders were concerned for a system which would promote the welfare of all rather
than a few.
2. Socialism appealed to Jawaharlal Nehru the most, he was not in favour of the kind of socialism established in
the former Soviet Union
3. Where all the means of production, i.e., all the factories and farms in the country, were owned by the
government. There was no private property.
4. It is not possible in a democracy like India for the government to change the ownership pattern of land and
other properties of its citizens in the way that it was done in the former Soviet Union.
5. Nehru, and many other leaders and thinkers of the newly independent India, sought an alternative to the
extreme versions of capitalism and socialism.
6. Sympathising with the socialist outlook, they found the answer in an economic system which, in their view,
combined the best features of socialism without its drawbacks.
7. In this view, India would be a ‘socialist’ society with a strong public sector but also with private property and
democracy.
8. The government would ‘plan’ economy with the private sector being encouraged to be part of the plan effort.
9. The ‘Industrial Policy Resolution’ of 1948 and the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution reflected this
outlook.
10. In 1950, the Planning Commission was set up with the Prime Minister as its Chairperson. The era of five year
plans had begun.
THE GOALS OF FIVE YEAR PLANS

1. The goals of the five year plans are: growth, modernisation, self‐reliance andequity.
2. This does not mean that all the plans have given equal importance to all these goals
Growth
1. It refers to increase in the country’s capacity to produce the output of goods and services within the country.
2. It implies either a larger stock of productive capital, or a larger size of supporting services like transport and
banking, or an increase in the efficiency of productive capital and services.
3. A good indicator of economic growth, in the language of economics, is steady increase in the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP).
4. The GDP is the market value of all the goods and services produced in the country during a year.
5. The GDP of a country is derived from the different sectors of the economy namely the agricultural sector, the
industrial sector and the service sector.
6. The contribution made by each of these sectors makes up the structural composition of the economy.
Modernisation
1. To increase the production of goods and services the producers have to adopt new technology.
2. Modernisation does not refer only to the use of new technology but also to changes in social outlook
3. A modern society makes use of the talents of women in the work place — in banks, factories, schools etc. —
and such a society will be more civilised and prosperous.
Self‐reliance
1. A nation can promote economic growth and modernisation by using its own resources or by using resources
imported from other nations.
2. The first seven five year plans gave importance to self‐reliance
3. This policy was considered a necessity in order to reduce our dependence on foreign countries, especially for
food.
4. It was feared that dependence on imported food supplies, foreign technology and foreign capital may make
India’s sovereignty vulnerable to foreign interference in our policies.
Equity
1. A country can have high growth; the most modern technology developed in the country itself, and also has
most of its people living in poverty.
2. It is important to ensure that the benefits of economic prosperity reach the poor sections as well instead of
being enjoyed only by the rich.
3. In addition to growth, modernisation and self‐reliance, equity is also important
4. The first seven five year plans, covering the period 1950‐1990, attempted to attain these four goals.
AGRICULTURE
1. During the colonial rule there was neither growth nor equity in the agricultural sector.
2. The policy makers of independent India had to address these issues which they did through land reforms
3. Promoting the use of ‘miracle seeds’ which ushered in a revolution in Indian agriculture.
Land Reforms
1. At the time of independence, the land tenure system was characterised by intermediaries
2. They merely collected rent from the actual tillers of the soil without contributing towards improvements on
the farm.
3. The low productivity of the agricultural sector forced India to import food from the United States of America
(U.S.A.).
4. Equity in agriculture called for land reforms which primarily refer to change in the ownership of landholdings.
5. Just a year after independence, steps were taken to abolish intermediaries and to make the tillers the owners
of land.
6. The idea behind this move was that ownership of land would give incentives to the tillers to invest in making
improvements provided sufficient capital was made available to them.
Land ceiling
1. This means fixing the maximum size of land which could be owned by an individual.
2. The purpose of land ceiling was to reduce the concentration of land ownership in a few hands.
3. The abolition of intermediaries meant that some 200 lakh tenants came into direct contact with the
government.
4. They were thus freed from being exploited by the zamindars
5. The ownership conferred on tenants gave them the incentive to increase output and this contributed to
growth in agriculture.
6. However, the goal of equity was not fully served by abolition of intermediaries.
7. There were cases where tenants were evicted and the landowners claimed to be self cultivators (the actual
tillers), claiming ownership of the land.
8. Even when the tillers got ownership of land, the poorest of the agricultural labourers (such as sharecroppers
and landless labourers) did not benefit from land reforms.
9. The land ceiling legislation also faced hurdles. The big landlords challenged the legislation in the courts
10. They used this delay to register their lands in the name of close relatives, thereby escaping from the legislation.
11. Land reforms were successful in Kerala and West Bengal because these states had governments committed to
the policy of land to the tiller.
12. Unfortunately other states did not have the same level of commitment and vast inequality in landholding
continues to this day.
The Green Revolution
1. At independence, about 75 per cent of the country’s population was dependent on agriculture.
2. Productivity in the agricultural sector was very low because of the use of old technology and the absence of
required infrastructure for the vast majority of farmers.
3. India’s agriculture vitally depends on the monsoon
4. The stagnation in agriculture during the colonial rule was permanently broken by the green revolution.
5. This refers to the large increase in production of food grains resulting from the use of high yielding variety
(HYV) seeds especially for wheat and rice.
6. The use of these seeds required the use of fertiliser and pesticide in the correct quantities as well as regular
supply of water.
7. The farmers who could benefit from HYV seeds required reliable irrigation facilities as well as the financial
resources to purchase fertiliser and pesticide.
8. In the first phase of the green revolution (approximately mid 1960s up to mid 1970s), the use of HYV seeds was
restricted to the more affluent states such as Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
9. The use of HYV seeds primarily benefited the wheat growing regions only.
10. In the second phase of the green revolution (mid‐1970s to mid‐1980s), the HYV technology spread to a larger
number of states and benefited more variety of crops.
Benefits & drawbacks
1. The spread of green revolution technology enabled India to achieve self‐sufficiency in food grains
2. The portion of agricultural produce which is sold in the market by the farmers is called marketed surplus.
3. Famous economist C.H. Hanumantha Rao, a good proportion of the rice and wheat produced during the green
revolution period (available as marketed surplus) was sold by the farmers in the market.
4. As a result, the price of food grains declined relative to other items of consumption.
5. The low‐income groups, who spend a large percentage of their income on food, benefited from this decline in
relative prices.
6. The green revolution enabled the government to procure sufficient amount of food grains to build a stock
which could be used in times of food shortage
7. While the nation had immensely benefited from the green revolution, the technology involved was not free
from risks.
8. Such risk was the possibility that it would increase the disparities between small and big farmers
9. Only the big farmers could afford the required inputs, thereby reaping most of the benefits of the green
revolution.
10. The HYV crops were also more prone to attack by pests and the small farmers who adopted this technology
could lose everything in a pest attack.
11. These fears did not come true because of the steps taken by the government.
12. The government provided loans at a low interest rate to small farmers and subsidised fertilisers so that small
farmers could also have access to the needed inputs.
13. Since the small farmers could obtain the required inputs, the output on small farms equalled the output on
large farms in the course of time.
14. The green revolution benefited the small as well as rich farmers.
15. The risk of the small farmers being ruined when pests attack their crops was considerably reduced by the
services rendered by research institutes established by the government.
16. The green revolution would have favoured the rich farmers only if the state did not play an extensive role in
ensuring that the small farmer also gains from the new technology.
The Debate over Subsidies
1. The economic justification of subsidies in agriculture is, at present, a hotly debated question.
2. It is generally agreed that it was necessary to use subsidies to provide an incentive for adoption of the new
HYV technology by farmers in general and small farmers in particular.
3. Any new technology will be looked upon as being risky by farmers.
4. Subsidies were, therefore, needed to encourage farmers to test the new technology
5. Some economists believe that once the technology is found profitable and is widely adopted, subsidies should
be phased out since their purpose has been served.
6. Subsidies are meant to benefit the farmers but a substantial amount of fertiliser subsidy also benefits the
fertiliser industry
7. Among farmers, the subsidy largely benefits the farmers in the more prosperous regions.
8. Therefore, it is argued that there is no case for continuing with fertiliser subsidies, it does not benefit the
target group and it is a huge burden on the government’s finances
9. On the other hand, some believe that the government should continue with agricultural subsidies because
farming in India continues to be a risky business.
10. Most farmers are very poor and they will not be able to afford the required inputs without subsidies.
11. Eliminating subsidies will increase the inequality between rich and poor farmers and violate the goal of equity.
12. These experts argue that if subsidies are largely benefiting the fertiliser industry and big farmers, the correct
policy is not to abolish subsidies but to take steps to ensure that only the poor farmers enjoy the benefits.
Over reliance of workforce on agriculture sector

1. By the late 1960s, Indian agricultural productivity had increased sufficiently to enable the country to be self‐
sufficient in food grains.
2. This is an achievement to be proud of. On the negative side, some 65 per cent of the country’s population
continued to be employed in agriculture even as late as 1990.
3. A nation becomes more prosperous, the proportion of GDP contributed by agriculture as well as the
proportion of population working in the sector declines considerably.
4. In India, between 1950 and 1990, the proportion of GDP contributed by agriculture declined significantly but
not the population depending on it (67.5 per cent in 1950 to 64.9 per cent by 1990).
5. The answer is that the industrial sector and the service sector did not absorb the people working in the
agricultural sector.
6. Many economists call this an important failure of our policies followed during 1950‐1990.
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
1. Industry provides employment which is more stable than the employment in agriculture
2. It promotes modernisation and overall prosperity.
3. It is for this reason that the five year plans place a lot of emphasis on industrial development.
4. There were two well managed iron and steel firms — one in Jamshedpur and the other in Kolkata
Market and State in Indian Industrial Development
1. At the time of independence, Indian industrialists did not have the capital to undertake investment in
industrial ventures required for the development of our economy.
2. Nor was the market big enough to encourage industrialists to undertake major projects even if they had the
capital to do so.
3. It is principally for these reasons that the state had to play an extensive role in promoting the industrial sector.
4. The decision to develop the Indian economy on socialist lines led to the policy of the state controlling the
commanding heights of the economy, as the Second Five Year plan put it.
5. This meant that the state would have complete control of those industries that were vital for the economy.
6. The policies of the private sector would have to be complimentary to those of the public sector, with the public
sector leading the way.
Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 (IPR 1956)

1. The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 was adopted.
2. This resolution formed the basis of the Second Five Year Plan. The plan which tried to build the basis for a
socialist pattern of society.
3. This resolution classified industries into three categories, the first categorycomprised industries which would
be exclusively owned by the state.
4. The second category consisted of industries in which the private sector could supplement the efforts of the
state sector, with the state taking the sole responsibility for starting new units
5. The third category consisted of the remaining industries which were to be in the private sector
6. Although there was a category of industries left to the private sector, the sector was kept under state control
through a system of licenses.
7. No new industry was allowed unless a license was obtained from the government.This policy was used for
promoting industry in backward regions;
8. It was easier to obtain a license if the industrial unit was established in an economically backward area.
9. In addition, such units were given certain concessions such as tax benefits and electricity at a lower tariff. The
purpose of this policy was to promote regional equality.
10. License to expand production was given only if the government was convinced that the economy required the
larger quantity of goods.
Small‐scale Industry
1. In 1955, the Village and Small‐scale Industries Committee, also called the Karve Committee, noted the
possibility of using small‐scale industries for promoting rural development.
2. A ‘small‐scale industry’ is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit.
3. This limit has changed over a period of time. In 1950 a small‐scale industrial unit was one which invested a
maximum of rupees five lakh at present the maximum investment allowed is rupees one crore.
4. It was believed that small‐scale industries are more ‘labour intensive’ i.e., they use more labour than the large‐
scale industries and, therefore, generate more employment.
5. But these industries cannot compete with the big industrial firms; it is obvious that development of small‐scale
industry requires them to be shielded from the large firms.
6. The production of a number of products was reserved for the small‐scale industry
7. The criterion of reservation being the ability of these units to manufacture the goods.
8. They were also given concessions such as lower excise duty and bank loans at lower interest rates.
TRADEPOLICY: IMPORT SUBSTITUTION
1. In the first seven plans, trade was characterised by what is commonly called an inward looking trade strategy.
Technically, this strategy is called import substitution.
2. This policy aimed at replacing or substituting imports with domestic production instead of importing vehicles
made in a foreign country, industries would be encouraged to produce them in India itself.
3. In this policy the government protected the domestic industries from foreign competition
4. Protection from imports took two forms ‐ tariffs and quotas.
Tariffs
Tariffs are a tax on imported goods; they make imported goods more expensive and discourage their use. Quotas specify
the quantity of goods.
Quotas
Quotas specify the quantity of goods which can be imported.
5. The effect of tariffs and quotas is that they restrict imports and, therefore, protect the domestic firms from
foreign competition.
6. The policy of protection is based on the notion that industries of developing countries are not in a position to
compete against the goods produced by more developed economies.
7. It is assumed that if the domestic industries are protected they will learn to compete in the course of time.
8. Our planners also feared the possibility of foreign exchange being spent on import of luxury goods if no
restrictions were placed on imports.
Effect of Policies on Industrial Development

1. The achievements of India’s industrial sector during the first seven plans are impressive indeed.
2. The proportion of GDP contributed by the industrial sector increased in the period from 11.8 per cent in 1950‐
51 t o 24.6 per cent in 1990‐91.
3. The rise in the industry’s share of GDP is an important indicator of development.
4. The six per cent annual growth rate of the industrial sector during the period is commendable.
5. No longer was Indian industry restricted largely to cotton textiles and jute.
6. The industrial sector became well diversified by 1990, largely due to the public sector.
7. The promotion of small‐scale industries gave opportunities to those people who did not have the capital to
start large firms to get into business.
8. Protection from foreign competition enabled the development of indigenous industries in the areas of
electronics and automobile sectors.
Drawbacks
1. In spite of the contribution made by the public sector to the growth of the Indian economy, some economists
are critical of the performance of many public sector enterprises.
2. Many public sector firms incurred huge losses but continued to function because it is very difficult, almost
impossible, to close a government undertaking even if it is a drain on the nation’s limited resources.
3. This has led some scholars to argue that the state should get out of areas which the private sector can manage
and the government may concentrate its resources on important services which the private sector cannot provide.
Misuse of policy by private players
1. The need to obtain a license to start an industry was misused by industrial houses
2. A big industrialist would get a license not for starting a new firm but to prevent competitors from starting new
firms.
3. The excessive regulation of what came to be called the permit license raj prevented certain firms from
becoming more efficient.
4. More time was spent by industrialists in trying to obtain a license or lobby with the concerned ministries rather
than on thinking about how to improve their products.
5. The protection from foreign competition is also being criticised on the ground that it continued even after it
proved to do more harm than good.
6. The Indian consumers had to purchase whatever the Indian producers produced.
7. The producers were aware that they had a captive market so they had no incentive to improve the quality of
their goods.
8. Competition from imports forces our producers to be more efficient.
9. Scholars point out that the public sector is not meant for earning profits but to promote the welfare of the
nation.
10. The public sector firms, on this view, should be evaluated on the basis of the extent to which they contribute to
the welfare of people and not on the profits they earn.
11. Regarding protection, some economists hold that we should protect our producers from foreign competition as
long as the rich nations continue to do so.
12. Owing to all these conflicts, economists called for a change in our policy. This, along with other problems, led
the government to introduce a new economic policy in 1991.
CONCLUSION
1. Our industries became far more diversified compared to the situation at independence.
2. India became self‐ sufficient in food production thanks to the green revolution.
3. Land reforms resulted in abolition of the hated zamindari system.
4. Many economists became dissatisfied with the performance of many public sector enterprises.
5. Excessive government regulation prevented growth of entrepreneurship.
6. In the name of self‐reliance, our producers were protected against foreign competition and this did not give
them the incentive to improve the quality of goods that they produced.
7. Our policies were ‘inward oriented’ and so we failed to develop a strong export sector.
8. The need for reform of economic policy was widely felt in the context of changing global economic scenario
the new economic policy was initiated in 1991 to make our economy more efficient.
LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION AND GLOBALISATION: AN APPRAISAL

Introduction and Background
1. Since independence, India followed the mixed economy framework by combining the advantages of the
market economic system with those of the planned economic system.
2. Over the years, this policy resulted in the establishment of a variety of rules and laws which were aimed at
controlling and regulating the economy.
3. Instead it ended up in hampering the process of growth and development.
4. In 1991, India met with an economic crisis relating to its external debt, the government was not able to make
repayments on its borrowings from abroad.
5. Foreign exchange reserves, which we generally maintain to import petrol and other important items, dropped
to levels that were not sufficient for even a fortnight.
6. All these led the government to introduce a new set of policy measures which changed the direction of our
developmental strategies.
Advent of crisis
1. The origin of the financial crisis can be traced from the inefficient management of the Indian economy in the
1980s.
2. The government generates funds from various sources such as taxation, running of public sector enterprises
etc.
3. When expenditure is more than income, the government borrows to finance the deficit from banks and also
from people within the country and from international financial institutions.
4. When we import goods like petroleum, we pay in dollars which we earn from our exports.
5. Even though the revenues were very low, the government had to overshoot its revenue to meet problems like
unemployment, poverty and population explosion.
6. The government was not able to generate sufficiently from internal sources such as taxation.
7. The government was spending a large share of its income on areas which do not provide immediate returns
such as the social sector and defence.
8. The income from public sector undertakings was also not very high to meet the growing expenditure.
9. Our foreign exchange, borrowed from other countries and international financial institutions, was spent on
meeting consumption needs.
10. Neither was an attempt made to reduce such profligate spending nor sufficient attention was given to boost
exports to pay for the growing imports.
11. In the late 1980s, government expenditure began to exceed its revenue by such large margins that it became
unsustainable.
Declination of foreign exchange reserve & assistance from financial institution
1. Prices of many essential goods rose sharply. Imports grew at a very high rate without matching growth of
exports.
2. Foreign exchange reserves declined to a level that was not adequate to finance imports for more than two
weeks.
3. There was also not sufficient foreign exchange to pay the interest that needs to be paid to international
lenders.
4. India approached the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) popularly known as
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) it received $7 billion as loan to manage the crisis.
Condition led by financial institution and beginning of NEP
1. These international agencies expected India to liberalise and open up the economy by removing restrictions on
the private sector.
2. Reduce the role of the government in many areas and remove trade restrictions.
3. India agreed to the conditionality of World Bank and IMF and announced the New Economic Policy (NEP). The
NEP consisted of wide ranging economic reforms.
4. The thrust of the policies was towards creating a more competitive environment in the economy and removing
the barriers to entry and growth of firms.
Measures taken under NEP
It can broadly be classified into two groups:
i. The stabilisation measures
ii. The structural reform measures
1. Stabilisation measures are short‐term measures, intended to correct some of the weaknesses that have
developed in the balance of payments and to bring inflation under control.
2. This means that there was a need to maintain sufficient foreign exchange reserves and keep the rising prices
under control.
3. Structural reform policies are long‐term measures, aimed at improving the efficiency of the economy and
increasing its international competitiveness by removing the rigidities in various segments of the Indian economy.
4. Government initiated a variety of policies which fall under three heads viz., liberalisation, privatisation and
globalisation.
5. The first two are policy strategies and the last one is the outcome of these strategies.
LIBERALISATION
1. Liberalisation was introduced to put an end to these restrictions and open up various sectors of the economy.
2. A few liberalisation measures were introduced in 1980s in areas of industrial licensing, export‐import policy,
technology upgradation, fiscal policy and foreign investment; reform policies initiated in 1991 were more
comprehensive.
3. Some important areas such as the industrial sector, financial sector, tax reforms, foreign exchange markets and
trade and investment sectors which received greater attention in and after 1991.
Deregulation of Industrial Sector
In India, regulatory mechanism regulatory mechanisms were enforced in various ways
i. Industrial licensing under which every entrepreneur had to get permission from
government officials to start a firm, close a firm or to decide the amount of goods that could be produced
ii. Private sector was not allowed in many industries
iii. Some goods could be produced only in small scale industries
iv. Controls on price fixation and distribution of selected industrial products.
1. The reform policies introduced in and after 1991 removed many of these restrictions.
2. The only industries which are now reserved for the public sector are defence equipments, atomic energy
generation and railway transport.
3. Many goods produced by small scale industries have now been dereserved, in many industries; the market has
been allowed to determine the prices.
Financial Sector Reforms

1. The financial sector in India is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
2. The RBI decides the amount of money that the banks can keep with themselves, fixes interest rates, nature of
lending to various sectors etc.
3. One of the major aims of financial sector reforms is to reduce the role of RBI from regulator to facilitator of
financial sector.
4. The reform policies led to the establishment of private sector banks, Indian as well as foreign.
5. Foreign investment limit in banks was raised to around 50 per cent.
6. Those banks which fulfil certain conditions have been given freedom to set up new branches without the
approval of the RBI and rationalise their existing branch networks.
7. Certain aspects have been retained with the RBI to safeguard the interests of the account‐holders and the
nation.
8. Foreign Institutional Investors (FII) such as merchant bankers, mutual funds and pension funds are now
allowed to invest in Indian financial markets.
Tax Reforms
1. Tax reforms are concerned with the reforms in government’s taxation and public expenditure policies which
are collectively known as its fiscal policy.
2. There are two types of taxes: direct and indirect
3. Since 1991, there has been a continuous reduction in the taxes on individual incomes as it was felt that high
rates of income tax were an important reason for tax evasion.
4. It is now widely accepted that moderate rates of income tax encourage savings and voluntary disclosure of
income.
5. The rate of corporation tax, which was very high earlier, has been gradually reduced.
6. In order to encourage better compliance on the part of taxpayers many procedures have been simplified and
the rates also substantially lowered.
Foreign Exchange Reforms
1. The first important reform in the external sector was made in the foreign exchange market.
2. In 1991, as an immediate measure to resolve the balance of payments crisis, the rupee was devalued against
foreign currencies.
3. This led to an increase in the inflow of foreign exchange.
4. It also set the tone to free the determination of rupee value in the foreign exchange market from government
control.
5. Now markets determine exchange rates based on the demand and supply of foreign exchange
6. Trade and Investment Policy Reforms.
7. Liberalisation of trade and investment regime was initiated to increase international competitiveness of
industrial production and also foreign investments and technology into the economy.
8. The aim was also to promote the efficiency of the local industries and the adoption of modern technologies.
9. In order to protect domestic industries, India was following a regime ofquantitative restrictions on imports.
10. This was encouraged through tight control over imports and by keeping the tariffs very high
11. These policies reduced efficiency and competitiveness which led to slow growth of the manufacturing sector.
The trade policy reforms aimed at
(i) Dismantling of quantitative restrictions on imports and exports
(ii) Reduction of tariff rates
(iii) Removal of licensing procedures for imports.
1. Import licensing was abolished except in case of hazardous and environmentally sensitive industries
2. Quantitative restrictions on imports of manufactured consumer goods and agricultural products were also fully
removed from April 2001.
3. Export duties have been removed to increase the competitive position of Indian goods in the international
markets.
PRIVATISATION
It implies shedding of the ownership or management of a government owned enterprise.
Government companies can be converted into private companies in two ways
(i) By withdrawal of the government from ownership and management of public sector
companies
(ii) By outright sale of public sector companies.
1. Privatisation of the public sector undertakings by selling off part of the equity of PSUs to the public is known as
disinvestment.
2. The purpose of the sale, according to the government, was mainly to improve financial discipline and facilitate
modernisation.
3. It was also envisaged that private capital and managerial capabilities could be effectively utilised to improve
the performance of the PSUs.
4. Government envisaged that privatisation could provide strong impetus to the inflow of FDI.
5. The government has also made attempts to improve the efficiency of PSUs by giving them autonomy in taking
managerial decisions.
6. Some PSUs have been granted special status as navaratnas and mini ratnas.
The first set of navaratna companies included
i. Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOC)
ii. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd (HPCL)
iii. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd (ONGC)
iv. Steel Authority of India Ltd (SAIL)
v. Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd (IPCL)
vi. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL)
vii. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC
viii. Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd (VSNL)
ix. Two more PSUs —Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) & Mahanagar Telephone
Nigam Ltd (MTNL) —was also given the same status.
7. Many of these profitable PSUs were originally formed during the 1950s and 1960s when self‐reliance was an
important element of public policy.
8. They were set up with the intention of providing infrastructure and direct employment to the public so that
quality end‐product reaches the masses at a nominal cost and the companies themselves were made accountable to
all stakeholders.
9. They were set up with the intention of providing infrastructure and direct employment to the public so that
quality end‐product reaches the masses at a nominal cost and the companies themselves were made accountable to
all stakeholders.
GLOBALISATION
1. Globalisation is the outcome of the policies of liberalisation and privatisation.
2. Globalisation is generally understood to mean integration of the economy of the country with the world
economy, it is a complex phenomenon.
3. It is an outcome of the set of various policies that are aimed at transforming the world towards greater
interdependence and integration.
4. It involves creation of networks and activities transcending economic, social and geographical boundaries.
5. Globalisation attempts to establish links in such a way that the happenings in India can be influenced by events
happening miles away.
6. It is turning the world into one whole or creating a borderless world.
Outsourcing
1. This is one of the important outcomes of the globalisation process.
2. In outsourcing, a company hires regular service from external sources mostly from other countries, which was
previously provided internally or from within the country (like legal advice, computer service, advertisement,
security — each provided by respective departments of the company).
3. Many of the services such as voice‐based business processes (popularly known as BPO or call centres), record
keeping accountancy, banking services, music recording, film editing, book transcription, clinical advice or even
teaching are being outsourced by companies in developed countries to India.
4. With the help of modern telecommunication links including the Internet, the text, voice and visual data in
respect of these services is digitised and transmitted in real time over continents and national boundaries.
5. Most multinational corporations, and even small companies, are outsourcing their services to India where they
can be availed at a cheaper cost with reasonable degree of skill and accuracy.
6. The low wage rates and availability of skilled manpower in India have made it a destination for global
outsourcing in the post‐reform period.
World Trade Organisation (WTO)

1. The WTO was founded in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff
(GATT).
2. GATT was established in 1948 with 23 countries as the global trade organisation to administer all multilateral
trade agreements by providing equal opportunities to all countries in the international market for trading purposes.
3. WTO is expected to establish a rule based trading regime in which nations cannot place arbitrary restrictions
on trade.
4. The WTO agreements cover trade in goods as well as services to facilitate international trade (bilateral and
multilateral) through removal of tariff as well as non‐tariff barriers and providing greater market access to all
member countries.
5. As an important member of WTO, India has been in the forefront of framing fair global rules, regulations and
safeguards and advocating the interests of the developing world
6. As an important member of WTO, India has been in the forefront of framing fair global rules, regulations and
safeguards and advocating the interests of the developing world
INDIAN ECONOMY DURING REFORMS: ANASSESSMENT
1. The reform process has completed one and a half decades since its introduction
2. In economics, growth of an economy is measured by the Gross Domestic Product
3. There has been an increase in the overall GDP growth in the reform period.
4. During the reform period, the growth of agriculture and industrial sectors has declined whereas the growth of
service sector has gone up.
5. This indicates that the growth is mainly driven by the growth in the service sector.
6. The Tenth Plan (2002‐07) has projected the GDP growth rate at 8 per cent.
7. In order to achieve such a high growth rate, the agriculture, industrial and service sectors have to grow at the
rates of 4, 9.5 and 9.1 percentage points respectively.
8. The foreign investment, which includes foreign direct investment and foreign institutional investment
9. India is seen as a successful exporter of auto parts, engineering goods, IT software and textiles.
10. The reform process has been widely criticised for not being able to address some of the basic problems facing
our economy especially in the areas of employment, agriculture, industry, infrastructure development and fiscal
management.
Growth and Employment
Scholars point out that the reform‐led growth has not generated sufficient employment opportunities in the country.
Reforms in Agriculture
1. Public investment in agriculture sector especially in infrastructure, which includes irrigation, power, roads,
market linkages and research and extension (which played a crucial role in the Green Revolution), has been reduced
in the reform period.
2. The removal of fertiliser subsidy has led to increase in the cost of production, which has severely affected the
small and marginal farmers.
3. Since the commencement of WTO, this sector has been experiencing a number of policy changes such as
reduction in import duties on agricultural products, removal of minimum support price and lifting of quantitative
restrictions on agricultural products
4. These have adversely affected Indian farmers as they now have to face increased international competition.
5. Because of export oriented policy strategies in agriculture, there has been a shift from production for the
domestic market towards production for the export market focusing on cash crops in lieu of production of food
grains.
Reforms in Industry
1. Industrial growth has also recorded a slowdown. This is because of decreasing demand of industrial products
due to various reasons such as cheaper imports, inadequate investment in infrastructure etc.
2. In a globalised world, developing countries are compelled to open up their economies to greater flow of goods
and capital from developed countries and rendering their industries vulnerable to imported goods.
3. Domestic manufacturers are facing competition from imports. The infrastructure facilities, including power
supply, have remained inadequate due to lack of investment.
4. A developing country like India still does not have the access to developed countries’ markets because of high
non‐tariff barriers.
Disinvestment
1. Every year, the government fixes a target for disinvestment of PSUs
2. For instance, in 1991‐92, it was targeted to mobilise Rs 2,500 crore through disinvestment.The government
was able to mobilise Rs 3,040 crore more.
3. In 1998‐99, the target was Rs 5,000 crore whereas the achievement was Rs 5,400 crore.
4. Critics point out that the assets of PSUs have been undervalued and sold to the private sector.This means that
there has been a substantial loss to the government.
5. The proceeds from disinvestment were used to offset the shortage of government revenues rather than using
it for the development of PSUs and building social infrastructure in the country.
Reforms and Fiscal Policies
1. Economic reforms have placed limits on the growth of public expenditure especially in social sectors.
2. The tax reductions in the reform period aimed at yielding larger revenue and to curb tax evasion, have not
resulted in increase in tax revenue for the government
3. Tariff reduction has curtailed the scope for raising revenue through customs duties.
4. To attract foreign investment, tax incentives were provided to foreign investors which further reduced the
scope for raising tax revenues.
5. This has a negative impact on developmental and welfare expenditures.
CONCLUSION
1. The process of globalisation through liberalisation and privatisation policies has produced positive as well as
negative results both for India and other countries.
2. The critics argue that globalisation is a strategy of the developed countries to expand their markets in other
countries.
3. It has compromised the welfare and identity of people belonging to poor countries.
4. Market‐driven globalisation has widened the economic disparities among nations and people.
5. Some studies have stated that the crisis that erupted in the early 1990s was basically an outcome of the deep‐
rooted inequalities in Indian society and the economic reform
6. Policies initiated as a response to the crisis by the government with externally advised policy package, further
aggravated the inequalities.
7. It has increased the income and quality of consumption of only high‐income groups and the growth has been
concentrated only in some select areas in the services sector such as telecommunication, information technology,
finance, entertainment, travel and hospitality services, real estate and trade.
8. It has increased the income and quality of consumption of only high‐income groups and the growth has been
concentrated only in some select areas in the services sector such as telecommunication, information technology,
finance, entertainment, travel and hospitality services, real estate and trade
9. Vital sectors such as agriculture and industry which provide livelihoods to millions of people in the country.
POVERTY
1. The pattern of development that the successive five year plans envisaged laid emphasis on the upliftment of
the poorest of the poor (Antyodaya).
2. While addressing the Constituent Assembly in 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru had said
3. “This achievement (Independence) is but a step, an opening of opportunity, to the great triumphs and
achievements that await us… the ending of poverty and ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity.”
4. Poverty is not only a challenge for India, as more than one fifth of the world’s poor live in India alone
5. Poverty is a situation that people want to escape. So poverty is a call to action
Identifying the poor
1. Many do not get to have even two meals a day. Starvation and hunger are the key features of the poorest
households.
2. The poor lack basic literacy and skills and hence have very limited economic opportunities.
3. They borrow from money lenders who charge high rates of interest that lead them into chronic indebtedness.
4. They are not able to negotiate their legal wages from employers and are exploited.
5. A large section of poor people do not even have access to safe drinking water.
6. There is evidence of extreme gender inequality in the participation of gainful employment, education and in
decision‐making within the family.
7. Scholars identify the poor on the basis of their occupation and ownership of assets.
8. The urban poor are largely the overflow of the rural poor who had migrated to urban areas in search of
alternative employment and livelihood.
9. The urban poor are largely the overflow of the rural poor who had migrated to urban areas in search of
alternative employment and livelihood
10. The government needs to be able to identify who the poor are and to help the poor out of their situation.
11. There is need to develop a scale to measure poverty, and the factors that make up the criteria for this
measurement or mechanism need to be carefully chosen.
First person in pre – independent India to discuss the concept of poverty line
1. Dadabhai Naoroji was the first to discuss the concept of a Poverty Line. He took example from prisoners in jail.
2. Only adults stay in jail whereas, in an actual society, there are children too.
3. For this adjustment, he assumed that one‐third population consisted of children and half of them consumed
very little while the other half consumed half of the adult diet.
4. For this adjustment, he assumed that one‐third population consisted of children and half of them consumed
very little while the other half consumed half of the adult diet.
5. He arrived at the factor of three‐fourths; (1/6)(Nil) + (1/6)(Half) + (2/3)(Full) = (3/4) (Full).
Identifying poor in post – independent India
1. In post‐independent India, there have been several attempts to work out a mechanism to identify the number
of poor in the country.
2. In 1962, the Planning Commission formed a Study Group.
3. In 1979, another body called the ‘Task Force on Projections of Minimum Needs and Effective Consumption
Demand’ was formed.
4. In 1989, an ‘Expert Group’ was constituted for the same purpose.
5. Many individual economists have also attempted to develop such a mechanism.
Types of poor
For the purpose of defining poverty it can be classified into
a) The poor
b) The non‐poor
c) The absolutely poor
d) The very poor
There are various kinds of non‐poor
a) The middle class
b) The rich
c) The very rich
d) The absolutely rich

Categorising Poverty
a) Usually poor
b) Chronic poor
c) Churning poor
d) Occasionally poor
e) Transient poor ‐ who are rich most of the time but may sometimes have a patch of bad luck
f) Never poor
g) Non‐poor
Ways of measuring poverty

1. There are many ways of measuring poverty.
2. Economists determine it by the monetary value (per capita expenditure) of the minimum calorie intake that
was estimated at 2,400 calories for a rural person and2,100 for a person in the urban area.
3. The government uses Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) as proxy for income of households to identify
the poor.
4. This mechanism takes consumption expenditure on food and a few select items as proxy for income.
Limitation of this method
1. This mechanism is helpful in identifying the poor as a group to be taken care of by the government.
2. There are many factors, other than income and assets which are associated with poverty like the accessibility
to basic education.
3. The mechanism for determining the Poverty Line also does not take into consideration social factors that
trigger and perpetuate poverty.
What should be measured?

1. The aim of poverty alleviation schemes should be to improve human lives by expanding the range of things
that a person could be and could do.
2. Development is about removing the obstacles to the things that a person can do in life, such as illiteracy, ill
health, lack of access to resources, or lack of civil and political freedoms.
3. Economist point out that the way the data are collected, items that are included in the consumption basket,
methodology followed to estimate the poverty line and the numbers of poor are manipulated to arrive at the
reduced figures of the number of poor in India.
4. Amartya Sen, noted Nobel Laureate, has developed an index known as Sen Index.
5. There are other tools such as Poverty Gap Index and Squared Poverty Gap.
THE NUMBER OF POOR IN INDIA
The number and percentage of poor in India

1. The number of poor is estimated as the proportion of people below the poverty line, it is known as ‘Head
Count Ratio’.
2. The official data on poverty is made available to the public by the Planning Commission.
3. It is estimated on the basis of consumption expenditure data collected by theNational Sample Survey
Organisation (NSSO).
4. It defines poverty line on the basis of monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE).
5. The Expert Group headed by Professor Suresh D. Tendulkar which submitted its report in December 2009 has
computed the poverty lines at all India level as MPCE of ` 447 for rural areas and ` 579 for urban areas in 2004‐5.
6. The Planning Commission has updated the poverty lines and poverty ratios for the year 2009‐10 as per the
recommendations of the Tendulkar Committee using NSS 66th round (2009‐10) data from the Household Consumer
Expenditure Survey.
7. It has estimated the poverty lines at all India level as an MPCE of `673 for rural areas and `860 for urban
areas in 2009‐10.
8. Based on these cut‐offs, the percentage of people living below the poverty line in the country has declined
from 37.2 per cent in 2004‐5 to 29.8 per cent in 2009‐10.
9. In terms of proportion, in 1973‐74, about 55 per cent of the total population was below the poverty line.
10. In 1973‐74, more than 80 per cent of the poor resided in rural areas.
11. Even in absolute terms, the number of poor people has fallen by 52.4 million during this period.
12. Of this, 48.1 million are rural poor and 4.3 million are urban poor. Thus poverty has declined on an average by
1.5 percentage points per year between 2004‐5 and 2009‐10.
13. The annual average rate of decline during the period 2004‐5 to 2009‐10 is twice the rate of decline during the
period 1993‐4 to 2004‐5.
14. Also poverty, which was prevailing predominantly in rural areas, has shifted to urban areas.
15. The poverty ratio declined continuously for both urban and rural areas.
16. The state level trends in poverty reveals that during 1973‐74, about half the population in most of these large
states was living below the poverty line.
.
Causes for poverty
It is caused by individual circumstances or due to some characteristics for example
(i) Low levels of education and skills
(ii) Infirmity
(iii) Health, sickness
These can be caused as a result of
(i) (ii) Social exclusion
(ii) Unemployment
(iii) Indebtedness
Poverty is also explained by general, economy‐wide problems such as
(i) Low capital formation
(ii) Lack of infrastructure
(iii) Pressure of population
(iv) Lack of social/welfare nets.

Impact of colonial rule

1. The British rule in India is no doubt that there was a substantial negative impact on the Indian
economy and standard of living of the people.
2. There was substantial de‐industrialisation in India under the British rule.
3. India reverted to being an exporter of cotton yarn, not cloth.
4. As over 70 per cent of Indians were engaged in agriculture throughout the British Raj period.
5. The impact on that sector was more important on living standards than anything else.
6. British policies involved sharply raising rural taxes that enabled merchants and moneylenders to
become large landowners.
7. Under the British, India began to export food grains and, as a result, as many as 26 million people
died in famines between 1875 and 1900.
8. The British Raj impoverished millions of people in India.
9. Many died due to famine and hunger. In 1857‐58, anger at the overthrow of many local leaders,
extremely high taxes imposed on peasants, and other resentments boiled over in a revolt against British rule
by the sepoys.
Present day context
10. Even today agriculture is the principal means of livelihood and land is the primary asset of rural
people.
11. Ownership of land is an important determinant of material well‐being and those who own some
land have a better chance to improve their living conditions.
12. Since independence, the government has attempted to redistribute land and has taken land from
those who have large amounts to distribute it to those who do not have any land
13. A large section of the rural poor in India are the small farmers. Land that they have is, in general,
less fertile and dependent on rains.
14. Their survival depends on subsistence crops and sometimes on livestock.
15. Most of the urban poor are either unemployed or intermittently employed as casual labourers.
16. Casual labourers are among the most vulnerable in society as they have no job security, no assets,
limited skills, sparse opportunities and no surplus to sustain them
POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES TOWARDS POVERTY ALLEVIATION

17. The First Five Year Plan (1951‐56), “the urge to bring economic and social change under present
conditions comes from the fact of poverty and inequalities in income, wealth and opportunity”.
18. The Second Five Year Plan (1956‐61) also pointed out that “the benefits of economic development
must accrue more and more to the relatively less privileged classes of society”.
19. In all policy documents, emphasis being laid on poverty alleviation and that various strategies need
to be adopted by the government for the same.
20. It is based on the expectation that the effects of economic growth — rapid increase in gross
domestic product and per capita income — would spread to all sections of society and will trickle down to the
poor sections also.
21. This was the major focus of planning in the 1950s and early 1960s.
Actual Output
22. Population growth has resulted in a very low growth in per capita incomes.
23. The gap between poor and rich has actually widened.
24. Economists state that the benefits of economic growth have not trickled down to the poor.
25. Looking for alternatives to specifically address the poor, this could be achieved through specific
poverty alleviation programmes.
Poverty alleviation programmes

1. One of the noted programmes initiated in the 1970s was Food for Work.
2. The programmes that are being implemented now are based on
3. Expanding self‐employment programmes and wage employment programmes are being considered as the
major ways of addressing poverty.
4. Examples of self‐employment programmes are Rural Employment Generation Programme
5. Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana(PMRY) and Swarna Jayanti hahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY) .
6. The first programme aims at creating self‐employment opportunities in rural areas and small towns.
7. Under this programme, one can get financial assistance in the form of bank loans to set up small industries.
8. The educated unemployed from low‐income families in rural and urban areas can get financial help to set up
any kind of enterprise that generates employment under PMRY
9. SJSRY mainly aims at creating employment opportunities —both self‐employment and wage employment—in
urban areas.
10. Earlier, under self‐employment programmes, financial assistance was given to families or individuals.
11. Since now those who wish to benefit from these programmes are encouraged to form self help groups.
12. Now those who wish to benefit from these programmes are encouraged to form self‐help groups.
13. Later, through banks, the government provides partial financial assistance to SHGs which then decide whom
the loan is to be given to for self‐employment activities.
MGNREGA
1. In August 2005, the Parliament has passed a new Act to provide guaranteed wage employment to every
household whose adult volunteer is to do unskilled manual work for a minimum of 100 days in a year.
2. Under this Act all those among the poor who are ready to work at the minimum wage can report for
work in areas where this programme is implemented.
3. India was among the pioneers in the world to envisage that through public expenditure on social
consumption needs — provision of food grains at subsidised rates, education, health,
4. Programmes under this approach are expected to supplement the consumption of the poor, create
employment opportunities and bring about improvements in health and education.
5. It also mandates 1/3 participation for women.
6. Notified in 2006, in 200 districts, the flagship programme today is implemented in all districts with rural
areas.
7. At national level, with the average wage paid under the MGNREGA increasing from Rs. 65 in 2006‐07 to
Rs 115 in 2011‐ 12.
Extended assistance to poor

1. Even with expanded employment opportunities, the poor will not be able to buy for themselves all the
essential goods and services.
2. They have to be supplemented up to at least certain minimum standards by social consumption and
investment in the form of essential food grains, education, health, nutrition, drinking water, housing,
communications and electricity.
With some schemes like
1. Public Distribution System
2. Integrated Child Development Scheme
3. Midday Meal Scheme
4. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana are also attempts in the same direction.
5. National Social Assistance Programme ‐ Under this programme, elderly people who do not have anyone to
take care of them are given pension to sustain themselves.
6. Poor women who are destitute and widows are also covered under this scheme.
POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES— A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT

1. The percentage of absolute poor in some states is now well below the national average.
2. Despite a variety of approaches, programmes and schemes to alleviate poverty hunger, malnourishment,
illiteracy and lack of basic amenities continue to be a common feature in many parts of India.
3. We can find change in nomenclature, integration or mutations of programmes.
4. None resulted in any radical change in the ownership of assets, process of production and improvement of
basic amenities to the needy.
5. Due to unequal distribution of land and other assets, the benefits from direct poverty alleviation programmes
have been appropriated by the non‐poor.
6. Compared to the magnitude of poverty, the amount of resources these programmes depend mainly on
government and bank officials for their implementation.
7. Most of the officials are ill motivated, inadequately trained, corruption prone and vulnerable to pressure from
a variety of local elites, the resources are inefficiently used and wasted.
8. There is also non‐participation of local level institutions in programme implementation.
9. Studies reveal that high growth alone is not sufficient to reduce poverty.
10. Without the active participation of the poor, successful implementation of any programme is not possible.
11. This is possible through a process of social mobilisation, encouraging poor people to participate and get them
empowered.
12. This will also help create employment opportunities which may lead to increase in levels of income, skill
development, health and literacy
CONCLUSION
1. The objective of all our policies had been stated as promoting rapid and balanced economic development with
equality and social justice
2. Poverty alleviation has always been accepted as one of India’s main challenges by the policy makers, regardless
of which government was in power.
3. There is improvement in terms of per capita income and average standard of living, some progress towards
meeting the basic needs has been made.
4. But when compared to the progress made by many other countries, our performance has not been impressive.
5. The fruits of development have not reached all sections of the population.
6. Some sections of people, some sectors of the economy, and some regions of the country can compete even
with developed countries in terms of social and economic development.
HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION IN INDIA

Role of education in shaping human capital
1. It gives one a better social standing and pride
2. It enables one to make better choices in life
3. It provides knowledge to understand the changes taking place in society
Understanding human capital
1. In the form of competent people who have themselves been educated and trained as professors and other
professionals.
2. We need good human capital to produce other human capital (say, doctors, engineers...)
SOURCES OF HUMAN CAPITAL
1. Investment in education is considered as one of the main sources of human capital.
2. There are several other sources, investments in health, on‐ the job training, migration and information are the
other sources of human capital formation.
3. Spending on education by individuals is similar to spending on capital goods by companies with the objective
of increasing future profits over a period of time.
4. Education, health is also considered as an important input for the development of a nation as much as it is
important for the development of an individual.
5. A sick labourer without access to medical facilities is compelled to abstain from work and there is loss of
productivity. Hence, expenditure on health is an important source of human capital formation.
6. Preventive medicine (vaccination), curative medicine (medical intervention during illness), social medicine
(spread of health literacy) and provision of clean drinking water and good sanitation are the various forms of health
expenditures.
7. Health expenditure directly increases the supply of healthy labour force and is, thus, a source of human capital
formation.
8. Firms spend on giving on‐the job‐training to their workers, the workers may be trained in the firm itself under
the supervision of a skilled worker.
9. The workers may be sent for off‐campus training
10. In both these cases firms incur some expenses. Firms will, thus, insist that the workers should work for a
specific period of time
11. After their on‐the‐job training, during which it can recover the benefits of the enhanced productivity owing to
the training
12. Expenditure regarding on‐the‐job training is a source of human capital formation as the return of such
expenditure in the form of enhanced labour productivity is more than the cost of it.
13. Unemployment is the reason for the rural‐urban migration in India
14. Technically qualified persons, like engineers and doctors, migrate to other countries because of higher salaries
that they may get in such countries
15. Migration in both these cases involves cost of transport, higher cost of living in the migrated places and psychic
costs of living in a strange socio cultural setup.
16. The enhanced earnings in the new place outweigh the costs of migration; hence, expenditure on migration is
also a source of human capital formation.
17. People spend to acquire information relating to the labour market and other markets like education and health.
18. This information is necessary to make decisions regarding investments in human capital as well as for efficient
utilisation of the acquired human capital stock.
Human Capital and Economic Growth

1. We know that the labour skill of an educated person is more than that of an uneducated person the former
generates more income than the latter.
2. Economic growth means the increase in real national income of a country, the contribution of the educated
person to economic growth is more than that of an illiterate person.
3. If a healthy person could provide uninterrupted labour supply for a longer period of time, then health is also an
important factor for economic growth.
4. Thus, both education and health, along with many other factors like on‐the‐job training, job market
information and migration, increase an individual’s income generating capacity.
5. This enhanced productivity of human beings or human capital contributes substantially not only towards
increasing labour productivity but also stimulates innovations and creates ability to absorb new technologies.
6. Education provides knowledge to understand changes in society and scientific advancements thus, facilitate
inventions and innovations.
7. The availability of educated labour force facilitates adaptation to new technologies.
8. Empirical evidence to prove that increase in human capital causes economic growth is rather nebulous
9. This may be because of measurement problems. For example, education measured in terms of years of
schooling, teacher‐pupil ratio and enrolment rates may not reflect the quality of education
10. Health services measured in monetary terms, life expectancy and mortality rates may not reflect the true
health status of the people in a country
11. Using the indicators mentioned above an analysis of improvement in education and health sectors and growth
in real per capita income in both developing and developed countries shows that
12. There is convergence in the measures of human capital but no sign of convergence of per capita real income.
13. The human capital growth in developing countries has been faster but the growth of per capita real income has
not been that fast.
14. Causality between human capital and economic growth flows in either directions.
15. That is, higher income causes building of high level of human capital and vice versa, that is, high level of human
capital causes growth of income.
16. The Seventh Five Year Plan says, “Human resources development (read human capital) has necessarily to be
assigned a key role in any development strategyparticularly in a country with a large population.
17. Trained and educated on sound lines, a large population can itself become an asset in accelerating economic
growth and in ensuring social change in desired directions.
18. It is difficult to establish a relation of cause and effect from the growth of human capital (education and health)
to economic growth.
19. Two independent reports on the Indian economy, in recent times, have identified that India would grow faster
due to its strength in human capital formation.
20. Deutsche Bank, a German bank, in its report on ‘Global Growth Centres’ identified that India will emerge as one
among four major growth centres in the world by the year 2020.
21. It further states, “Our empirical investigation supports the view that human capital is the most important factor
of production in today’s economies
22. Increases in human capital are crucial to achieving increases in GDP.
23. With reference to India it states, “Between 2005 and 2020 we expect a 40 per cent rise in the average years of
education in India, to just above 7 years
24. World Bank, in its report, ‘India and the Knowledge Economy Leveraging Strengths and Opportunities, states
that India should make a transition to the knowledge economy
25. If it uses its knowledge as much as Ireland does (it is judged that Ireland uses its knowledge economy very
effectively), then the per capita income of India will increase from a little over US $1000 in 2002 to US $ 3000 in
2020.
26. It further states that the Indian economy has all the key ingredients for making this transition
27. Such as, a critical mass of skilled workers, a well‐functioning democracy and a diversified science and
technology infrastructure.
28. The two reports point out the fact that further human capital formation in India will move its economy to a
higher growth trajectory
HUMAN CAPITAL AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
1. There is a clear distinction between them; Human capital considers education and health as a means to
increase labour productivity
2. Human development is based on the idea that education and health are integral to human well‐being
3. Because only when people have the ability to read and write and the ability to lead a long and healthy life, they
will be able to make other choices which they value.
4. Human capital treats human beings as a means to an end; the end being the increase in productivity
5. Any investment in education and health is unproductive if it does not enhance output of goods and services.
6. In the human development perspective, human beings are ends in themselves.
7. Human welfare should be increased through investments in education and health even if such investments do
not result in higher labour productivity.
8. Therefore, basic education and basic health are important in themselves, irrespective of their contribution to
labour productivity.
9. In such a view every individual has a right to get basic education and basic health care, that is, every individual
has a right to be literate and lead a healthy life.
HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION IN INDIA

1. India is a federal country with a union government, state governments and local governments (Municipal
Corporations, Municipalities and Village Panchayats).
2. The Constitution of India mentions the functions to be carried out by each level of government.
3. Accordingly, expenditures on both education and health are to be carried out simultaneously by all the three
tiers of the government
4. Education and health care services create both private and social benefits and this is the reason for the
existence of both private and public institutions in the education and health service markets
5. Expenditures on education and health make substantial long‐term impact and they cannot be easily reversed.
6. The role of government in this situation is to ensure that the private providers of these services adhere to the
standards stipulated by the government and charge the correct price.
7. In India, the ministries of education at the union and state level, departments of education and various
organisations like National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT),
8. University Grants Commission (UGC) and All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) regulate the
education sector.
9. The ministries of health at the union and state level, departments of health and various organisations like
Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) regulate the health sector.
10. In a developing country like ours, with a large section of the population living below the poverty line many
cannot afford to access basic education and health care facilities.
11. A substantial section of our people cannot afford to reach super specialty health care and higher education
when basic education and health care is considered as a right of the citizens,
12. Then it is essential that the government should provide education and health services free of cost for the
deserving citizens and those from the socially oppressed classes.
13. Both, the union and state governments, have been stepping up expenditures in the education sector over the
years in order to fulfil the objective of attaining cent per cent literacy and considerably increase the average
educational attainment of Indians.
EDUCATION SECTOR IN INDIA

1. This expenditure by the government is expressed in two ways
a. As a percentage of ‘total government expenditure’
b. As a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
2. The percentage of ‘education expenditure of total government expenditure’ indicates the importance of
education in the scheme of things before the government.
3. The percentage of ‘education expenditure of GDP’ expresses how much of our income is being committed to
the development of education in the country.
4. Elementary education takes a major share of total education expenditure and the share of the higher/tertiary
education (institutions of higher learning like colleges, polytechnics and universities) is the least.
5. Though, on an average, the government spends less on tertiary education, ‘expenditure per student’ in tertiary
education is higher than that of elementary.
6. This does not mean that financial resources should be transferred from tertiary education to elementary
education.
7. As we expand school education, we need more teachers who are trained in the higher educational institutions;
therefore, expenditure on all levels of education should be increased.
8. The per capita education expenditure differs considerably across states from as high as Rs 3,440 in
Lakshadweep to as low as Rs 386 in Bihar.
9. This leads to differences in educational opportunities and attainments across states.
10. More than 40 years ago, the Education Commission (1964–66) had recommended that at least 6 per cent of
GDP be spent on education so as to make a noticeable rate of growth in educational achievements.
11. In December 2002, the Government of India, through the 86th Amendment of the Constitution of India, made
free and compulsory education a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6‐14 years.
12. The Tapas Majumdar Committee, appointed by the Government of India in 1998, estimated an expenditure of
around Rs 1.37 lakh crore over 10 years (1998‐99 to 2006‐07) to bring all Indian children in the age group of 6‐14
years under the purview of school education
13. Compared to this desired level of education expenditure of around 6 per cent of GDP, the current level of a
little over 4 per cent has been quite inadequate.
14. In principle, a goal of 6 per cent needs to be reached—this has been accepted as a must for the coming years
15. In the Union Budget 2000‐05, the Government of India levied a 2 per cent ‘education cess’ on all union taxes.
16. The government estimated to get revenue of Rs 4,000‐5,000 crore and the entire amount was earmarked for
spending on elementary education.
17. In addition to this, the government sanctioned a large outlay for the promotion of higher education and new
loan schemes for students to pursue higher education.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
1. Education for All — Still a Distant Dream
2. Though literacy rates for both — adults as well as youth — have increased, still the absolute number of
illiterates in India is as much as India’s population was at the time of independence.
3. In 1950, when the Constitution of India was passed by the Constituent Assembly, it was noted in the Directives
of the Constitution
4. The government should provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years within
10 years from the commencement of the Constitution
Gender Equity — Better than Before
1. The differences in literacy rates between males and females are narrowing signifying a positive development in
gender equity
2. Still the need to promote education for women in India is imminent for various reasons such as improving
economic independence and social status of women and also because women education makes a favourable impact
on fertility rate and health care of women and children.
3. Therefore, we cannot be complacent about the upward movement in the literacy rates and we have miles to
go in achieving cent per cent adult literacy.
Higher Education — a Few Takers
1. The Indian education pyramid is steep indicating lesser and lesser number of people reaching the higher
education level.
2. Moreover, the level of unemployment among educated youth is the highest.
3. The unemployment rate of educated youth (Secondary Education and above) was 7.1 per cent and
unemployment of people with up to primary education was only 1.2 per cent.
4. Therefore, the government should increase allocation for higher education and also improve the standard of
higher education institutions
CONCLUSION
1. The economic and social benefits of human capital formation and human development are well known.
2. The union and state governments in India have been earmarking substantial financial outlays for development
of education and health sectors.
3. The spread of education and health services across different sectors of society should be ensured so as to
simultaneously attain economic growth and equity.
4. India has a rich stock of scientific and technical manpower in the world.
5. The need of the hour is to better it qualitatively and provide such conditions so that they are utilised in our
own country.
Rural Development
1. We studied how poverty was a major challenge facing India
2. We also came to know that the majority of the poor live in rural areas where they do not have access to the
basic necessities of life.
3. Agriculture is the major source of livelihood in the rural sector.
4. Mahatma Gandhi once said that the real progress of India did not mean simply the growth and expansion of
industrial urban centres but mainly the development of the villages.
5. This idea of village development being at the centre of the overall development of the nation is relevant even
today.
6. More than two‐third of India’s population depends on agriculture that is not productive enough to provide for
them.
7. One‐third of rural India still lives in abject poverty that is the reason why we have to see a developed rural
India if our nation has to realise real progress.
WHAT IS RURAL DEVELOPMENT?
1. Rural development is a comprehensive term. It essentially focuses on action for the development of areas that
are lagging behind in the overall development of the village economy.
2. Some of the areas which are challenging and need fresh initiatives for development in India include
a) Literacy, more specifically, female literacy, education and skill development, health, addressing both
sanitation and public health. Join for More Notes https://t.me/civilservicesbooks
b) Development of the productive resources of each locality
c) Infrastructure development like electricity, irrigation, credit, marketing, transport facilities including
construction of village roads and feeder roads to nearby highways, facilities for agriculture research and
extension, and information dissemination.
1. This means that farming communities have to be provided with various means that help them increase the
productivity of grains, cereals, vegetables and fruits.
2. Giving them better and more affordable access to healthcare, sanitation facilities at workplaces and homes and
education for all would also need to be given top priority for rapid rural development.
3. It was observed in an earlier that population dependent on this sector did not show any significant change.
4. Further, after the initiation of reforms, the growth rate of agriculture sector decelerated to 2.3 per cent per
annum during the 1990s, which was lower than the earlier years.
5. Scholars identify decline in public investment since 1991 as the major reason for this.
6. They also argue that inadequate infrastructure, lack of alternate employment opportunities in the industry or
service sector, increasing casualisation of employment, further impede rural development.
7. The impact of this phenomenon can be seen from the growing distress witnessed among farmers across different
parts of India.
CREDIT AND MARKETING IN RURAL AREAS
1. To realise higher productivity in agriculture and non‐agriculture sectors.
2. As the time gestation between crop sowing and realisation of income after production is quite long farmers
borrow from various sources to meet their initial investment on seeds, fertilisers, implements and other family
expenses of marriage, death, religious ceremonies
3. Farmers borrow from various sources to meet their initial investment on seeds, fertilisers, implements and
other family expenses of marriage, death, religious ceremonies
4. At the time of independence, moneylenders and traders exploited small and marginal farmers and landless
labourers by lending to them on high interest rates and by manipulating the accounts to keep them in a debt‐trap.
5. Later, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NBARD) was set up in 1982 as an apex body to
coordinate the activities of all institutions involved in the rural financing system.
6. The Green Revolution was a harbinger of major changes in the credit system as it led to the diversification of
the portfolio of rural credit towards production‐ oriented lending
7. The institutional structure of rural banking today consists of a set of multiagency institution namely,
commercial banks, regional rural banks (RRBs), cooperatives and land development banks.
8. The major aim of designing this multi‐agency system is to dispense adequate credit at cheaper rates.
9. Recently, Self‐Help Groups (henceforth SHGs) have emerged to fill the gap in the formal credit system because
the formal credit delivery mechanism has not only proven
10. Inadequate but has also not been fully integrated into the overall rural social and community development.
11. Some kind of collateral is required, vast proportion of poor rural households were automatically out of the
credit network.
12. The SHGs promote thrift in small proportions by a minimum contribution from each member.
13. From the pooled money, credit is given to the needy members to be repayable in small instalments at
reasonable interest rates.
14. Such credit provisions are generally referred to as micro‐credit programmes.
15. SHGs have helped in the empowerment of women but the borrowings are mainly confined to consumption
purposes and negligible proportion is borrowed for agricultural purposes
AGRICULTURAL MARKET SYSTEM

1. The mechanism through which these goods reach different places depends on the market channels
2. Agricultural marketing is a process that involves the assembling, storage, processing, transportation,
packaging, grading and distribution of different agricultural commodities across the country.
3. Farmers who did not have the required information on prices prevailing in markets were often forced to sell at

low prices.
4. Even today, more than 10 per cent of goods produced in farms are wasted due to lack of storage? Therefore,
state intervention became necessary to regulate the activities of the private traders.
5. Let us discuss four such measures that were initiated to improve the marketing aspect.
6. The first step was regulation of markets to create orderly and transparent marketing conditions
7. By and large, this policy benefited farmers as well as consumers.
8. Second component is provision of physical infrastructure facilities like roads, railways, warehouses, godowns,
cold storages and processing units.
9. The current infrastructure facilities are quite inadequate to meet the growing demand and need to be
improved.
10. Cooperative marketing, in realising fair prices for farmers’ products, is the third aspect of government initiative.
11. The success of milk cooperatives in transforming the market
12. However cooperatives have received a setback during the recent past due to inadequate coverage of farmer
members.
13. The fourth element is the policy instruments like
a. Assurance of minimum support prices (MSP) for 24 agricultural products
b. Maintenance of buffer stocks of wheat and rice by Food Corporation of India
c. Distribution of food grains and sugar through PDS. These instruments are aimed at protecting the
income of the farmers and providing foodgrains at a subsidised rate to the poor.
14. The quantity of agricultural products, handled by the governmentagencies and consumer cooperatives,
constitutes only 10 per cent while the rest is handled by the private sector
15. Agricultural marketing has come a long way with the intervention of the government in various forms.
16. It has been realised that if farmers directly sell their produce to consumers, it increases their share in the price
paid by the consumers.
Some examples of these channels are
a) Apni Mandi(Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan)
b) Rythu Bazars (vegetable and fruit market in Andhra Pradesh)
c) Rythu Bazars (vegetable and fruit market in Andhra Pradesh)
17. Several national and multinational fast food chains are increasingly entering into contracts/alliances with
farmers to encourage them to cultivate farm products (vegetables, fruits, etc.)
18. Providing them with not only seeds and other inputs but also assured procurement of the produce at pre‐
decided prices.
19. Such arrangements will help in reducing the price risks of farmers and would also expand the markets for farm
products.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANIC FARMING

1. In recent years, awareness of the harmful effect of chemical‐based fertilisers and pesticides on our health is on
a rise
2. Conventional agriculture relies heavily on chemical fertilisers and toxic pesticides etc., which enter the food
supply, penetrate the water sources, harm the livestock, deplete the soil and devastate natural eco‐systems.
3. Efforts in evolving technologies which are eco‐friendly are essential for sustainable development and one such
technology which is eco‐friendly is organic farming.
4. In short, organic agriculture is a whole system of farming that restores, maintains and enhances the ecological
balance.
5. There is an increasing demand for organically grown food to enhance food safety throughout the world
6. Organic agriculture offers a means to substitute costlier agricultural inputs (such as HYV seeds, chemical
fertilisers pesticides etc. Join for More Notes https://t.me/civilservicesbooks
7. With locally produced organic inputs that are cheaper and thereby generate good returns on investment.
8. Organic agriculture also generates incomes through international exports as the demand for organically grown
crops is on a rise.
9. Studies across countries have shown that organically grown food has more nutritional value than chemical
farming thus providing us with healthy foods.
10. Since organic farming requires more labour input than conventional farming, India will find organic farming an
attractive proposition
11. Finally, the produce is pesticide‐free and produced in an environmentally sustainable way
12. Inadequate infrastructure and the problem of marketing the products are major concerns which need to be
addressed apart from an appropriate agriculture policy to promote organic farming.
13. It has been observed that the yields from organic farming are less than modern agricultural farming in the
initial years.
14. Therefore, small and marginal farmers may find it difficult to adapt to large scale production.
15. Organic produce may also have more blemishes and a shorter shelf life than sprayed produce.
16. Moreover choice in production of off‐season crops is quite limited in organic farming.
EMPLOYMENT: GROWTH, INFORMALISATION AND OTHER ISSUES

Why do people work?
1. Work plays an important role in our lives as individuals and as members of society.
2. People work for ‘earning’ a living. Some people get, or have, money by inheriting it, not working for it. This
does not completely satisfy anybody.
3. Being employed in work gives us a sense of self‐worth and enables us to relate ourselves meaningfully with
others.
4. Every working person is actively contributing to national income and hence, the development of the country by
engaging in various economic activities — that is thereal meaning of ‘earning’ a living.
5. Having recognised the importance of work, Mahatma Gandhi insisted upon education and training through a
variety of works including craft.
Employment
1. Employment helps in understanding and planning our human resources.
2. It helps us to analyse the contribution made by different industries and sectors towards national income.
3. It also helps us to address many social issues such as exploitation of marginalised sections of the society, child
labour etc.
WORKERS AND EMPLOYMENT
1. Those who are engaged in economic activities, in whatever capacity — high or low are workers.
2. If some of them temporarily abstain from work due to illness, injury or other physical disability, bad weather,
festivals, social or religious functions, they are also workers.
3. Workers also include all those who help the main workers in these activities.
4. We generally think of only those who are paid by an employer for their work as workers.
5. Those who are self‐employed are also workers. The rural workers constitute about three‐fourth of this 400
million.
6. Men form the majority of workforce in India.
7. About 70 per cent of the workers are men and the rest are women (men and women include child labourers in
respective sexes).
8. Women workers account for one‐third of the rural workforce whereas in urban areas, they are just one‐fifth of
the workforce
9. Women carry out works like cooking, fetching water and fuel wood and participate in farm labour.
10. They are not paid wages in cash or in the form of grains; at times they are not paid at all.
11. For this reason, these women are not categorised as workers. Economists have argued that these women
should also be called workers.
PARTICIPATION OF PEOPLE IN EMPLOYMENT
1. Worker‐population ratio is an indicator which is used for analysing the employment situation in the country.
2. This ratio is useful in knowing the proportion of population that is actively contributing to the production of
goods and services of a country. If the ratio is higher, it means that the engagement of people is greater
3. If the ratio for a country is medium, or low, it means that a very high proportion of its population is not
involved directly in economic activities.
The meaning of the term ‘population’
 Population is defined as the total number of people who reside in a particular locality at a particular
point of time.
Worker‐population ratio
 Divide the total number of workers in India by the population in India and multiply it by 100
Rural & Urban Composition of Work Force
1. For every 100 persons, about 40 (by rounding off 39.5) are workers in India.
2. In urban areas, the proportion is about 34 whereas in rural India, the ratio is about 42.
3. People in rural areas have limited resources to earn a higher income and participate more in the employment
market.
4. Many do not go to schools, colleges and other training institutions.
5. Even if some go, they discontinue in the middle to join the workforce; whereas, in urban areas, a considerable
section is able to study in various educational institutions.
6. For every 100 urban females, only about 14 are engaged in some economic activities.
7. In rural areas, for every 100 rural women about 30 participate in the employment market.
8. Where men are able to earn high incomes, families discourage female members from taking up jobs.
SELF‐EMPLOYED AND HIRED WORKERS

1. It let us to know the quality of employment in a country
2. It also enables us to know the attachment a worker has with his or her job and the authority she or he has over
the enterprise and over other co‐workers.
3. Workers who own and operate an enterprise to earn their livelihood are known as self employed.
4. The construction workers are known as casual wage labourers they account for 33 per cent of India’s
workforce.
5. Such labourers are casually engaged in others’ farms and, in return
6. Workers like the civil engineer working in the construction company account for 15 per cent of India’s
workforce.
An outlook of rural and urban workforce along with their types
1. When a worker is engaged by someone or an enterprise and paid his or her wages on a regular basis, they are
known as regular salaried employees.
2. The status of each one of them is different from another, they are also called differently.
3. Workers who own and operate an enterprise to earn their livelihood are known as self employed. Thus the
shop owner is self‐employed. More than half the workforce in India belongs to this category.
4. The construction workers are known as casual wage labourers; they account for 33 per cent of India’s
workforce. Join for More Notes https://t.me/civilservicesbooks
5. Such labourers are casually engaged in others’ farms and, in return, get remuneration for the work done.
6. Workers like the civil engineer working in the construction company account for about 15 per cent of India’s
workforce.
7. When a worker is engaged by someone or an enterprise and paid his or her wages on a regular basis, they are
known as regular salaried employees.
8. Look at Chart you will notice that self employment is a major source of livelihood for both men and women as
this category accounts for more than 50 per cent of the workforce in both diagrams. Casual wage work is the second
major source for both men and women, more so for the latter (37 per cent).
9. Men are found to be so engaged in greater proportion. They form 18 per cent whereas women form only 8 per
cent.
10. Regular salaried jobs require skills and a higher level of literacy; women might not have been engaged to a
great extent.
11. Casual wage labourers are found more in rural areas than in urban areas.
12. In the latter, both self employed and regular wage salaried jobs are greater.
13. The nature of work in urban areas is different everyone cannot run factories, shops and offices of various types.
Enterprises in urban areas require workers on a regular basis.
EMPLOYMENT IN FIRMS, FACTORIES AND OFFICES
1. In the course of economic development of a country, labour flows from agriculture and other related activities
to industry and services.
2. In this process, workers migrate from rural to urban areas.
3. At a much later stage, the industrial sector begins to lose its share of total employment as the service sector
enters a period of rapid expansion.
4. We divide all economic activities into eight different industrial divisions.
(i) Agriculture
(ii) Mining and Quarrying
(iii) Manufacturing
(iv) Electricity, Gas and Water Supply
(v) Construction
(vi) Trade
(vii) Transport and Storage
(viii) Services
5. All the working persons engaged in these divisions can be clubbed into three major sectors
(a) Primary sector which includes (i) and (ii)
(b) Secondary sector which includes (iii), (iv) and (v)
(c) Service sector which includes divisions (vi), (vii) and (viii)
6. Primary sector is the main source of employment for majority of workers In India. Secondary sector provides
employment to only about 16 per cent of workforce.
7. More than three fourth of the workforce in rural India depends on agriculture and mining and quarrying.
8. Agriculture and mining is not a major source of employment in urban areas where people are mainly engaged
in the service sector.
9. Though both men and women workers are concentrated in the primary sector women workers’ concentration
is very high there.
10. More than three‐fourth of the female workforce is employed in the primary sector whereas only half of males
work in that sector.
11. Men get opportunities in both secondary and service sectors.

GROWTH AND CHANGING STRUCTURE OF EMPLOYMENT

1. Here we will look at two developmental indicators which are growth of employment and GDP.
2. Planned developments have been aimed at expansion of the economy through increase in national product
and employment.
3. In the early stages of planning we find a widening gap between the growth of GDP and employment
4. This means that in the Indian economy, without generating employment, we have been able to produce more
goods and services.
5. Scholars refer to this phenomenon as jobless growth.
6. The growth pattern of employment and GDP and its affect on different sections of workforce.
7. From two indicators we will be able to understand what types of employment are generated in our country.
Employment of people in various industries their status
1. India is an agrarian nation; a major section of population lives in rural areas and is dependent on agriculture as
their main livelihood.
2. Developmental strategies in many countries, including India, have aimed at reducing the proportion of people
depending on agriculture.
3. Distribution of workforce by industrial sectors shows substantial shift from farm work to non‐farm work
4. About 74 per cent of workforce was engaged in primary sector this proportion has declined to 60 per cent
5. Secondary and service sectors are showing promising future for the Indian workforce. The shares of these
sectors have increased
6. The distribution of workforce in different status indicates that people have moved from self employment and
regular salaried employment to casual wage work.
7. Yet self‐employment continues to be the major employment provider.
8. Scholars call this process of moving from self‐employment and regular salaried employment to casual wage
work as casualisation of workforce.
9. This makes the workers highly vulnerable.
INFORMALISATION OF INDIAN WORKFORCE

1. Proportion of casual labourers has been increasing
2. One of the objectives of development planning in India, since India’s independence, has been to provide
decent livelihood to its people.
3. It has been envisaged that the industrialisation strategy would bring surplus workers from agriculture to
industry with better standard of living as in developed countries.
4. Even after years of planned development, three‐fifth of Indian workforce depends on farming as the major
source of livelihood.
5. Over the years, the quality of employment has been deteriorating small section of Indian workforce is getting
regular income.
6. The government, through its labour laws, protects them in various ways.
7. This section of the workforce forms trade unions, bargains with employers for better wages and other social
security measures.
8. We classify workforce into two categories workers in formal and informal sectors, which are also referred to as
organised and unorganised sectors.
9. All the public sector establishments and those private sector establishments which employ 10 hired workers or
more are called formal sector establishments
10. Those who work in such establishments are formal sector workers.
11. All other enterprises and workersJoin
working in those enterprises form the informal sector.
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12. Thus, informal sector includes millions of farmers, agricultural labourers, owners of small enterprises and
people working in those enterprises as also the self‐employed who do not have any hired workers.
13. Those who are working in the formal sector enjoy social security benefits. They earn more than those in the
informal sector.
14. Developmental planning envisaged that as the economy grows, more and more workers would become formal
sector workers and the proportion of workers engaged in the informal sector would dwindle.
15. Since the late 1970s, many developing countries, including India, started paying attention to enterprises and
workers in the informal sector as employment in the formal sector is not growing.
16. Workers and enterprises in the informal sector do not get regular income they do not have any protection or
regulation from the government.
17. Workers are dismissed without any compensation.
18. Technology used in the informal sector enterprises is outdated; they also do not maintain any accounts.
19. Workers of this sector live in slums and are squatters.
20. Of late, owing to the efforts of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the Indian government has
initiated the modernisation of informal sector enterprises and provision of social security measures to informal
sector workers.
UNEMPLOYMENT
1. Some go to employment exchanges and register themselves for vacancies notified through employment
exchanges.
2. NSSO defines unemployment as a situation in which all those who, owing to lack of work, are not working but
either seeks work.
3. Through employment exchanges, intermediaries, friends or relatives or by making applications to prospective
employers or express their willingness or availability for work under the prevailing condition of work and
remunerations.
4. Economists define unemployed person as one who is not able to get employment of even one hour in half a
day.
There are three sources of data on unemployment
 Reports of Census of India
 National Sample Survey Organisation’s Reports of Employment and Unemployment Situation
 Directorate General of Employment and Training Data of Registration with Employment Exchanges
5. They do provide us with the attributes of the unemployed and the variety of unemployment prevailing in our
country.
6. Economists call unemployment prevailing in Indian farms as disguised unemployment.
7. One study conducted in the late 1950s showed about one third of agriculture workers in India as disguisedly
unemployed.
8. Scholars say that in India, people cannot remain completely unemployed for very long because their desperate
economic condition would not allow them to be so.
9. The government has taken many initiatives to generate acceptable employment, ensuring at least minimal
safety and job satisfaction, through various measures.
GOVERNMENT AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION
1. The government passed an Act in Parliament known as the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005.
2. It promises 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to all adult members of rural households who volunteer
to do unskilled manual work.
3. The Union and state governments have played an important role in generating employment or creating
opportunities for employment generation.
4. Their efforts can be broadly categorised direct and indirect.
5. In the first category, as you have seen in the preceding section, government employs people in various
departments for administrative purposes.
6. It also runs industries, hotels and transport companies and hence provides employment directly to workers.
7. When output of goods and services from government enterprises increases, then private enterprises that
supply materials to government enterprises will also raise their output hence increase the number of employment
opportunities in the economy. Join for More Notes https://t.me/civilservicesbooks
8. When a government owned steel company increases its output, it will result in direct increase in employment
in that government company.
9. Simultaneously, private companies, which supply inputs to the government steel company and purchase steel
from it, will also increase their output and thus employment.
10. They are also known as employment generation programmes.
11. All these programmes aim at providing not only employment but also services in areas such as primary health,
primary education.
12. Rural shelter, rural drinking water, nutrition, assistance for people to buy income and employment generating
assets, development of community assets by generating wage employment, construction of houses and sanitation
13. Assistance for constructing houses, laying of rural roads, development of wastelands/degraded lands.
CONCLUSION
1. There has been a change in the structure of workforce in India.
2. New emerging jobs are found mostly in the service sector.
3. The expansion of the service sector and the advent of high technology now frequently permit a highly
competitive existence.
4. For efficient small scale and often individual enterprises or specialist workers side by side with the
multinationals.
5. Outsourcing of work is becoming a common practice.
6. The traditional notion of the modern factory or office, as a result, has been altering in such a manner that for
many the home is becoming the workplace.
7. All of this change has not gone in favour of the individual worker.
8. The nature of employment has become more informal with only limited availability of social security measures
to the workers.
9. Moreover, in the last two decades, there has been rapid growth in the gross domestic product, but without
simultaneous increase in employment opportunities.
10. This has forced the government to take up initiatives in generating employment opportunities particularly in
the rural areas.
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
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1. Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh prosper in agriculture and horticulture. Kerala is popularly known as
‘God’s own country.
2. It has excelled in literacy, health care and sanitation and also attracts tourists in such large number,
Karnataka’s information technology industry attract world attention
3. It is all because these states have better infrastructure in the areas they excel than other states of India.
4. Some have better irrigation facilities. Others have better transportation facilities
5. Cities like Bangalore in Karnataka attract many multinational companies because they provide world‐class
communication facilities
6. All these support structures, which facilitate development of a country, constitute its infrastructure.
7. These services include roads, railways, ports, airports, dams, power stations, oil and gas pipelines,
telecommunication facilities.
8. The country’s educational system including schools and colleges, health system including hospitals, sanitary
system including clean drinking water facilities and the monetary system including banks, insurance and other
financial institutions.
9. Some of these facilities have a direct impact on the working of the system of production while others give
indirect support by building the social sector of the economy.
We divide infrastructure into two categories
a) They are economic and social
b) Infrastructure associated with energy, transportation and communication are included in the economic.
c) Social infrastructure included education; health and housing.
.
RELEVANCE OF INFRASTRUCTURE
1. Infrastructure is the support system on which depends the efficient working of a modern industrial economy.
2. Modern agriculture also has to depend on insurance and banking facilities because of its need to operate on a
very large scale.
3. Infrastructure contributes to economic development of a country, both by increasing the productivity of the
factors of production and improving the quality of life of its people.
4. Inadequate infrastructure can have multiple adverse effects on health.
5. Improvements in water supply and sanitation have a large impact by reducing morbidity (meaning proneness
to fall ill) from major waterborne diseases and reducing the severity of disease when it occurs.
6. In addition to the obvious linkage between water and sanitation and health, the quality of transport and
communication infrastructure can affect access to health care.
7. Air pollution and safety hazards connected to transportation also affect morbidity, particularly in densely
populated areas.
THE STATE OF INFRASTRUCTURE IN INDIA

1. Traditionally, the government has been solely responsible for developing the country’s infrastructure.
2. It was found that the government’s investment in infrastructure was inadequate
3. The private sector by itself and also in joint partnership with the public sector, has started playing a very
important role in infrastructure development.
4. A majority of our people live in rural areas. Despite so much technical progress in the world
5. Rural women are still using bio‐fuels such as crop residues, dung and fuel wood to meet their energy
requirement.
6. They walk long distances to fetch fuel, water and other basic needs.
7. The census 20011 shows that in rural India only 58 per cent households have an electricity connection and 42
per cent still use kerosene.

8. About 85 per cent of the rural households use bio‐fuels for cooking. Tap water availability is limited to only 32
per cent rural households.
9. About 68 per cent of the population drinks water from open sources such as wells, tanks, ponds, lakes, rivers,
canals, etc
10. Another study conducted by the National Sample Survey Organisation noted that by 1996, access to improved
sanitation in rural areas was only six per cent.
11. Though it is widely understood that infrastructure is the foundation of development, India is yet to wake up to
the call. India invests only 5 per cent of its GDP on infrastructure which is far below that of China and Indonesia.
Need to boost infrastructure
1. India will have to boost its infrastructure investment.
2. In any country, as the income rises, the composition of infrastructure requirements changes significantly
3. For low‐income countries, basic infrastructure services like irrigation, transport and power are more
important. As economies mature and most of their basic consumption demands are met.
4. The share of agriculture in the economy shrinks and more service related infrastructure is required.
5. This is why the share of power and telecommunication infrastructure is greater in high‐income countries.
6. Thus, development of infrastructure and economic development go hand in hand.
7. Agriculture depends, to a considerable extent, on the adequate expansion and development of irrigation
facilities.
8. Industrial progress depends on the development of power and electricity generation, transport and
communications.
9. Obviously, if proper attention is not paid to the development of infrastructure, it is likely to act as a severe
constraint on economic development.
Health and Energy

In order to understand infrastructure in India context we need to focus on two areas, they are health and energy.
ENERGY
a) It is used on a large scale in agriculture and related areas like production and transportation of fertilisers,
pesticides and farm equipment.
b) It is required in houses for cooking, household lighting and heating.
Sources of Energy
1. Commercial sources are coal, petroleum and electricity as they are bought and sold.
2. They account for over 50 per cent of all energy sources consumed in India.
3. Non‐commercial sources of energy are firewood, agricultural waste and dried dung.
4. These are non‐commercial as they are found in nature/forests
5. While commercial sources of energy are generally exhaustible (with the exception of hydropower), non‐
commercial sources are generally renewable.
6. More than 60 per cent of Indian households depend on traditional sources of energy for meeting their regular
cooking and heating needs.
7. Both commercial and non‐commercial sources of energy are known as conventional sources of energy.
8. There are three other sources of energy which are commonly termed as non‐conventional sources solar
energy, wind energy and tidal power.
What needs to be done?
1. Being a tropical country, India has almost unlimited potential for producing all three types of energy
2. If some appropriate cost effective technologies that are already available are used. Even cheaper technologies
can be developed
3. At present, commercial energy consumption makes up about 65 percent of the total energy consumed in India.
4. Non‐commercial energy sources consisting of firewood, cow dung and agricultural wastes account for over 30
per cent of the total energy consumption.
5. The critical feature of India’s energy sector, and its linkages to the economy, is the import dependence on
crude and petroleum products
6. This is likely to grow to more than 100 per cent in the near future.
Shift in consumption pattern
1. The transport sector was the largest consumer of commercial energy in 1953‐54.
2. However, there has been continuous fall in the share of the transport sector while the share of the industrial
sector has been increasing
3. The share of oil and gas is highest among all commercial energy consumption.
4. The most visible form of energy, which is often identified with progress in modern civilization, is power,
commonly called electricity.
5. It is one of the most critical components of infrastructure that determines the economic development of a
country.
6. The growth rate of demand for power is generally higher than the GDP growth rate. Power supply needs to
grow around 12 per cent annually.
7. Electricity is a secondary form of energy produced from primary energy resources including coal,
hydrocarbons, hydro energy, nuclear energy, renewable energy etc
8. Primary energy consumption takes into account the direct and indirect consumption of fuels
9. It cannot give a complete picture in respect of the ultimate consumption of energy by consumers.
10. The secondary sources in India consist of coal, oil, electricity and natural gas.
11. Avoid carbon emissions. This has resulted in faster growth of electricity produced from these two sources.
12. It has environmental advantages and is also likely to be economical in the long run. Its energy consumption,
against a global average of 13 per cent.
Some Challenges in the Power Sector
Electricity generated by various power stations is not consumed entirely by ultimate consumers
A part is consumed by power station auxiliaries also, while transmitting power, a portion is lost in transmission. What we
get in our houses, offices and factories is the net availability
Challenges in India’s power sector

1. India’s installed capacity to generate electricity is not sufficient to feed an annual economic growth of 7 per
cent.
2. In order to meet the growing demand for electricity, between 2000 and 2012
3. India needs to add 1,00,000 MW of new capacity whereas, at present, India is able to add only 20,000 MW a
year
4. Even the installed capacity is underutilised because plants are not run properly
5. State Electricity Boards (SEBs), which distribute electricity, incur losses which exceed Rs 500 billion. This is due
to transmission and distribution losses, wrong pricing of electricity and other inefficiencies.
6. Some scholars also say that distribution of electricity to farmers is the main reason for the losses, electricity is
also stolen in different areas which also add to the woes of SEBs, same is the case with foreign investors.
7. There is general public unrest due to high power tariffs and prolonged power cuts in different parts of the
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8. Thermal power plants which are the mainstay of India’s power sector are facing shortage of raw material and
coal supplies.
The way forward
1. Thus, continued economic development and population growth are driving the demand for energy faster than
what India is producing currently
2. More public investment, better research and development efforts, exploration, technological innovation and
use of renewable energy sources can ensure additional supply of electricity.
3. Though the private sector has made some progress, it is necessary to tap this sector to come forward and
produce power on a large scale.
4. One also has to appreciate the efforts made in this regard.
5. India is already making greater reliance on renewable energy resources offers enormous economic, social and
environmental benefits.
HEALTH
1. Health is not only absence of disease but also the ability to realise one’s potential.
2. It is a yardstick of one’s well being. Health is the holistic process related to the overall growth and
development of the nation.
3. It may be difficult to define the health status of a nation in terms of a single set of measures.
4. Scholars assess people’s health by taking into account indicators like infant mortality and maternal mortality
rates, life expectancy and nutrition levels, along with the incidence of communicable and no communicable
diseases.
5. Development of health infrastructure ensures a country of healthy manpower for production of goods and
services.
6. In recent times, scholars argue that people are entitled to health care facilities.
7. It is the responsibility of the government to ensure the right to healthy living.
8. It is also true that mere presence of health infrastructure is not sufficient to have healthy people the same
should be accessible to all the people.
9. Since, the initial stages of planned development, policy‐makers envisaged that no individual should fail to
secure medical care, curative and preventive, because of the inability to pay for it.
State of Health Infrastructure

1. The government has the constitutional obligation to guide and regulate all health related issues such as
medical education, adulteration of food, drugs and poisons, medical profession, vital statistics, mental deficiency
and lunacy.
2. The Union Government evolves broad policies and plans through the Central Council of Health and Family
Welfare.
3. It collects information and renders financial and technical assistance to state governments, union territories
and other bodies for implementation of important health programmes in the country.
4. Over the years, India has built up a vast health infrastructure and manpower at different levels.
5. At the village level, a variety of hospitals have been set up by the government.
6. India also has a large number of hospitals run by voluntary agencies and the private sector.
7. These hospitals are manned by professionals and para‐medical professionals trained in medical, pharmacy and
nursing colleges.
Current scenario
1. Since independence, there has been a significant expansion in the physical provision of health services.
2. Expansion of health infrastructure has resulted in the eradication of smallpox, guinea worms and polio.
3. Private Sector Health Infrastructure the public health sector has not been so successful in delivering the goods.
Private sector has grown by leaps and bounds.
4. More than 70 per cent of the hospitals in India are run by the private sector; they control nearly two‐fifth of
beds available in the hospitals.

5. Nearly 60 per cent of dispensaries are run by the same private sector.
6. They provide healthcare for 80 per cent of outpatients and 46 per cent of in‐patients.
7. In recent times, private sector has been playing a dominant role in medical education and training
8. Medical technology and diagnostics, manufacture and sale of pharmaceuticals, hospital construction and the
provision of medical services.
9. In 2001‐02, there were more than 13 lakh medical enterprises employing 22 lakh people; more than 80 per
cent of them are single person owned, operated by one person occasionally employing a hired worker.
10. Scholars point out that the private sector in India has grown independently without any major regulation
11. Some private practitioners are not even registered doctors and are known as quacks.
12. Since the 1990s, owing to liberalisation measures, many non‐resident Indians and industrial and
pharmaceutical companies have set up state‐of‐the‐art super‐specialty hospitals to attract India’s rich and medical
tourists
13. But since the poor can depend only on government hospitals, the role of government in providing healthcare
remains important.
Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM)

It includes six systems
a) Ayurveda
b) Yoga
c) Unani
d) Siddha
e) Naturopathy
f) Homeopathy (AYUSH)
1. But little has been done to set up a framework to standardise education or to promote research.
2. ISM has huge potential and can solve a large part of our health care problems because they are effective, safe
and inexpensive.
Indicators of Health and Health Infrastructure—A Critical Appraisal

1. Indicators of Health and Health Infrastructure—A Critical Appraisal
2. The health status of a country can be accessed through indicators such as infant mortality and maternal
mortality rates, life expectancy and nutrition levels, along with the incidence of communicable and no
communicable diseases.
3. Scholars argue that there is greater scope for the role of government in the health sector.
4. One study points out that India has about 17 per cent of the world’s population but it bears a frightening 20
per cent of the global burden of diseases (GBD).
5. In India, more than half of GBD is accounted for by communicable diseases such as diarrhoea, malaria and
tuberculosis.
6. Every year around five lakh children die of water‐borne diseases.
7. The danger of AIDS is also looming large. Malnutrition and inadequate supply of vaccines lead to the death of
2.2 million children every year.
8. At present, less than 20 per cent of the population utilises public health facilities.
9. One study has pointed out that only 38 per cent of the PHCs have the required number of doctors and only 30
per cent of the PHCs have sufficient stock of medicines.
10. Though 70 per cent of India’s population lives in rural areas, only one‐fifth of its hospitals are located in rural
areas.
11. Rural India has only about half the number of dispensaries.
12. Out of about 7 lakh beds, roughlyJoin
11forper cent are available in rural areas. Thus, people living in rural areas do
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not have sufficient medical infrastructure.

13. This has led to differences in the health status of people. As far as hospitals are concerned, there are only 0.36
hospitals for every one lakh people in rural areas while urban areas have 3.6.
14. The PHCs located in rural areas do not offer even X‐ray or blood testing facilities which, for a city dweller,
constitutes basic healthcare.
15. States like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are relatively lagging behind in health care
facilities.
16. Villagers have no access to any specialised medical care like paediatrics, gynaecology, anaesthesia and
obstetrics.
17. Even though 165 recognised medical colleges produce 12,000 medical graduates every year the shortage of
doctors in rural areas persists
18. While one‐fifth of these doctor graduates leave the country for better monetary prospects, many others opt for
private hospitals which are mostly located in urban areas.
19. The poorest 20 per cent of Indians living in both urban and rural areas spend 12 per cent of their income on
healthcare the rich spend only 2 per cent.
20. Since government‐run hospitals do not provide sufficient facilities, the poor are driven to private hospitals
which make them indebted forever.
Women’s Health
1. Women constitute about half the total population in India.
2. They suffer many disadvantages as compared to men in the areas of education, participation in economic
activities and health care.
3. The deterioration in the child sex ratio in the country from 945 in 1991 to 927, as revealed by the census of
2001, points to the growing incidence of female foeticide in the country.
4. Close to 3, 00,000 girls under the age of 15 are not only married but have already borne children at least once.
5. More than 50 per cent of married women between the age group of 15 and 49 have anaemia and nutritional
anaemia caused by iron deficiency
6. This has contributed to 19 per cent of maternal deaths. Abortions are also a major cause of maternal morbidity
and mortality in India.
The way forward

1. Health is a vital public good and a basic human right.
2. All citizens can get better health facilities if public health services are decentralised.
3. Success in the long‐term battle against diseases depends on education and efficient health infrastructure.
4. It is, therefore, critical to create awareness on health and hygiene and provide efficient systems.
5. The role of telecom and IT sectors cannot be neglected in this process. The effectiveness of healthcare
programmes also rests on primary healthcare.
6. Private‐public partnership can effectively ensure reliability quality and affordability of both drugs and
Medicare.
7. There is a sharp divide between the urban and rural healthcare in India.
8. If we continue to ignore this deepening divide, we run the risk of destabilising the socio‐ economic fabric of our
country.
9. In order to provide basic healthcare to all, accessibility and affordability need to be integrated in our basic
health infrastructure.
CONCLUSION
1. Infrastructure, both economic and social, is essential for the development of a country.
2. As a support system, it directly influences all economic activities by increasing the productivity of the factors of
production and improving the quality of life.
3. In the last six decades of independence, India has made considerable progress in building infrastructure;
nevertheless, its distribution is uneven.
4. Many parts of rural India are yet to get good roads, telecommunication facilities, electricity, schools and
hospitals.
5. As India moves towards modernisation, the increase in demand for quality infrastrucutre, keeping in view their
environmental impact, will have to be addressed.
6. The reform policies by providing various concessions and incentives, aim at attracting the private sector in
general and foreign investors in particular.
Comparative Development Strategies

1. Nations have been primarily trying to adopt various means which will strengthen their own domestic
economies.
2. To this effect, they are forming regional and global economic groupings such as the SAARC, European Union,
ASEAN, G‐8, G‐20 etc.
3. There is also an increasing eagerness on the parts of various nations to try and understand the developmental
processes pursued by their neighbouring nations
4. It allows them to better comprehend their own strengths and weaknesses vis‐à‐vis their neighbours.
5. In the unfolding process of globalisation, this is particularly considered essential by developing countries.
6. They face competition not only from developed nations but also amongst themselves in the relatively limited
economic space enjoyed by the developing world.
7. In a shared environment an understanding of the other economies in our neighbourhood is also required as all
major common economic activities in the region impinge on overall human development
.
DEVELOPMENTAL PATH—A SNAPSHOT VIEW
1. India, Pakistan and China have many similarities in their developmental strategies
2. All the three nations have started towards their developmental path at the same time
3. While India and Pakistan became independent nations in 1947, People’s Republic of China was established in
1949.
4. Jawaharlal Nehru had said, “These new and revolutionary changes in China and India, even though they differ
in content, symbolise the new spirit of Asia and new vitality which is finding expression in the countries in Asia.”
5. All the three countries had started planning their development strategies in similar ways
6. While India announced its first Five Year Plan for 1951‐56, Pakistan announced its first five year plan, called,
the Medium Term Plan, in 1956.
7. China announced its First Five Year Plan in 1953. Till 1998, Pakistan had eight five year plans whereas China’s
tenth five year period is 2001‐06.
8. India and Pakistan adopted similar strategies such as creating a large public sector and raising public
expenditure on social development.
9. Till the 1980s, all the three countries had similar growth rates and per capita incomes.
10. Where do they stand today in comparison to one another let us trace the historical path of developmental
policies in China and Pakistan.
China
1. After the establishment of People’s Republic of China under one party rule all the critical sectors of the
economy, enterprises and lands owned and operated by individuals were brought under government control.
2. The Great Leap Forward (GLF) campaign initiated in 1958 aimed at industrialising the country on a massive
scale.
3. People were encouraged to set up industries in their backyards. In rural areas, communes were started.
4. Under the Commune system, people collectively cultivated lands.
5. In 1958, there were 26,000 communes covering almost all the farm population.
6. GLF campaign met with many problems. A severe drought caused havoc in China killing about 30 million
people.
7. When Russia had conflicts with China, it withdrew its professionals who had earlier been sent to China to help
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8. In 1965, Mao introduced the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966‐76) under which students and
professionals were sent to work and learn from the countryside.
9. The present‐day fast industrial growth in China can be traced back to the reforms introduced in 1978.
10. China introduced reforms in phases. In the initial phase, reforms were initiated in agriculture, foreign trade and
investment sectors.
11. In agriculture, for instance, commune lands were divided into small plots which were allocated (for use not
ownership) to individual households.
12. They were allowed to keep all income from the land after paying stipulated taxes. In the later phase, reforms
were initiated in the industrial sector.
13. Private sector firms, in general, and township and village enterprises, i.e. those enterprises which were owned
and operated by local collectives were allowed to produce goods.
14. At this stage, enterprises owned by government (known as State Owned Enterprises—SOEs) which we, in India,
call public sector enterprises were made to face competition.
15. The reform process also involved dual pricing. This means fixing the prices in two ways
16. Farmers and industrial units were required to buy and sell fixed quantities of inputs and outputs on the basis of
prices fixed by the government and the rest were purchased and sold at market prices.
17. Over the years, as production increased, the proportion of goods or inputs transacted in the market was also
increased.
18. In order to attract foreign investors, special economic zones were set up.
Pakistan
1. While looking at various economic policies that Pakistan adopted, we will notice many similarities with India.
2. Pakistan also follows the mixed economy model with co‐existence of public and private sectors.
3. In the late 1950s and 1960s, Pakistan introduced a variety of regulated policy framework (for import
substitution industrialisation).
4. The policy combined tariff protection for manufacturing of consumer goods together with direct import
controls on competing imports.
5. The introduction of Green Revolution led to mechanisation and increase in public investment in infrastructure
in select areas which finally led to a rise in the production of food grains.
6. This changed the agrarian structure dramatically. In the 1970s, nationalisation of capital goods industries took
place.
7. Pakistan then shifted its policy orientation in the late 1970s and 1980s when the major thrust areas were
denationalisation and encouragement to private sector.
8. During this period, Pakistan also received financial support from western nations and remittances from
continuously increasing outflow of emigrants to the Middle‐east.
9. This helped the country in stimulating economic growth. The then government also offered incentives to the
private sector.
10. All this created a conducive climate for new investments. In 1988, reforms were initiated in the country.
DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS
1. If we look at the global population, out of every six persons living in this world one is an Indian and another
Chinese.
2. The population of Pakistan is very small and accounts for roughly about one‐tenth of China or India.
3. Though China is the largest nation among the three, its density is the lowest though geographically it occupies
the largest area.
4. Scholars point out the one‐child norm introduced in China in the late 1970s as the major reason for low
population growth.
5. They also state that this measure led to a decline in the sex ratio, the proportion of females per 1000 males.
6. The sex ratio is low and biased against females in all the three countries. Scholars cite son preference
prevailing in all these countries as the reason.

7. In recent times, all the three countries are adopting various measures to improve the situation.
8. One‐child norm and the resultant arrest in the growth of population also have other implications.
9. After a few decades, in China, there will be more elderly people in proportion to young people.
10. This will force China to take steps to provide social security measures with fewer workers. The fertility rate is
also low in China and very high in Pakistan.
11. Urbanisation is high in both Pakistan and China with India.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND SECTORS

1. When many developed countries were finding it difficult to maintain a growth rate of even 5 per cent
2. China was able to maintain near double‐digit growth for more than two decades as can be seen from Table
1. In the 1980s Pakistan was ahead of India; China was having double‐digit growth and India was at the bottom.
2. In the 1990s, there is a marginal decline in India and China’s growth rates whereas Pakistan met with drastic
decline at 3.6 per cent.
3. Scholars hold the reform processes introduced in 1988 in Pakistan and political instability as the reason behind
this trend.
4. It was pointed out in the previous section that China and Pakistan have more proportion of urban people than
India.
5. In China, due to topographic and climatic conditions, the area suitable for cultivation is relatively small — only
about 10 per cent of its total land area.
6. The total cultivable area in China accounts for 40 per cent of the cultivable area in India.
7. Until the 1980s, more than 80 per cent of the people in China were dependent on farming as their sole source
of livelihood.
8. Since then, the government encouraged people to leave their fields and pursue other activities such as
handicrafts, commerce and transport.
9. The proportion of workforce that works in this sector is more in India.
Agriculture

1. In Pakistan, about 49 per cent ofJoin
people work in agriculture whereas in India it is 60 per cent.
2. The sectoral share of output and employment also shows that in all the three economies, the industry and
service sectors have less proportion of workfo
3. The sectoral share of output and employment also shows that in all the three economies, the industry and
service sectors have less proportion of workforce but contribute more in terms of output.
4. In China, manufacturing contributes the highest to GDP
5. In India and Pakistan, it is the service sector which contributes the highest.
6. In both these countries, service sector accounts for more than 50 per cent of GDP.
7. In the normal course of development, countries first shift their employment and output from agriculture to
manufacturing and then to services.
8. The proportion of workforce engaged in manufacturing in India and Pakistan were low at 16 and 18 per cent
respectively.
9. The contribution of industries to GDP is also just equal to or marginally higher than the output from
agriculture.
10. In India and Pakistan, the shift is taking place directly to the service sector.
11. Thus, in both India and Pakistan, the service sector is emerging as a major player of development.
12. It contributes more to GDP and, at the same time emerges as a prospective employer.
13. If we look at the proportion of workforce in the1980s, Pakistan was faster in shifting its workforce to service
sector than India and China.
14. In the 1980s, India, China and Pakistan employed 17, 12 and 27 per cent of its workforce in the service sector
respectively.
15. In the last two decades, the growth of agriculture sector, which employs the largest proportion of workforce in
all the three countries, has declined.
16. In the industrial sector, China has maintained a double‐digit growth rate whereas for India and Pakistan growth
rate has declined.
17. In the case of service sector, India has been able to raise its rate of growth in the 1990s while China and
Pakistan reduced their service sector growth.
18. Thus, China’s growth is mainly contributed by the manufacturing sector and India’s growth by service sector.
19. During this period, Pakistan has shown deceleration in all the three sectors.
INDICATORS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Source; Human Development report, 2005

1. China is moving ahead of India and Pakistan. This is true for many indicators — income indicator such as GDP
per capita, or proportion of population below poverty line or health indicators such as mortality rates, access to
sanitation, literacy, life expectancy or malnourishment.
2. Pakistan is ahead of India in reducing proportion of people below the poverty line and also its performance in
education, sanitation and access to water is better than India.
3. But neither of these two countries has been able to save women from maternal mortality.
4. In China, for one lakh births, only 50 women die whereas in India and Pakistan, more than 500 women die.
5. Surprisingly India and Pakistan are ahead of China in providing improved water sources.
6. For the proportion of people below the international poverty rate of $1 a day, both China and Pakistan are in
similar positions whereas the proportion is almost two times higher for India.
7. These are all extremely important indicators; but these are not sufficient. Along with these, we also need what
may be called ‘liberty indicators’.
8. One such indicator has actually been added as a measure of ‘the extent of democratic participation in social
and political decision‐making’ but it has not been given any extra weight.
9. Some obvious ‘liberty indicators’ like measures of ‘the extent of Constitutional protection given to rights of
citizens
10. ‘The extent of constitutional protection of the Independence of the Judiciary the Rule of Law’ have not even
been introduced so far.
11. Without including these (and perhaps some more) and giving them overriding importance in the list
12. The construction of a human development index may be said to be incomplete and its usefulness limited.
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES — AN APPRAISAL

1. It is common to find developmental strategies of a country as a model to others for lessons and guidance for
their own development.
2. It is particularly evident after the introduction of the reform process in different parts of the world.
3. Though different countries go through their development phases differently let us take the initiation of
reforms as a point of reference.
4. We know that reforms were initiated in China in 1978, Pakistan in 1988 and India in 1991.
China
1. China did not have any compulsion to introduce reforms as dictated by the World Bank and International
Monetary Fund to India and Pakistan.
2. The new leadership at that time in China was not happy with the slow pace of growth and lack of
modernisation in the Chinese economy under the Maoist rule.
3. They felt that Maoist vision of economic development based on decentralisation, self sufficiency and shunning
of foreign technology, goods and capital had failed.
4. Despite extensive land reforms, collectivisation, the Great Leap Forward and other initiatives, the per capita
grain output in 1978 was the same as it was in the mid‐1950s.
5. It was found that establishment of infrastructure in the areas of education and health, land reforms long
existence of decentralised planning.
6. Existence of small enterprises had helped positively in improving the social and income indicators in the post
reform period.
7. Before the introduction of reforms, there had already been massive extension of basic health services in rural
areas.
8. Through the commune system, there was more equitable distribution of food grains.
9. Experts also point out that each reform measure was first implemented at a smaller level and then extended
on a massive scale.
10. The experimentation under decentralised government enabled to assess the economic, social and political
costs of success or failure.
11. When reforms were made in agriculture, as pointed out earlier by handing over plots of land to individuals for
cultivation
12. It brought prosperity to a vast number of poor people. It created conditions for the subsequent phenomenal
growth in rural industries and built up a strong support base for more reforms.
13. Scholars quote many such examples on how reform measures led to rapid growth in China.
Pakistan
1. Scholars argue that in Pakistan the reform process led to worsening of all the economic indicators.
2. Though the data on international poverty line for Pakistan is quite healthy scholars using the official data of
Pakistan indicate rising poverty there.
3. The proportion of poor in 1960s was more than 40 per cent which declined to 25 per cent in 1980s and started
rising again in 1990s.
4. The reasons for the slow‐down of growth and re‐emergence of poverty in Pakistan’s economy, as scholars put
it, are
5. Agricultural growth and food supply situation were based not on an institutionalised process of technical
change but on good harvest.

6. When there was a good harvest, the economy was in good condition, when it was not, the economic indicators
showed stagnation or negative trends
7. You will recall that India had to borrow from the IMF and World Bank to set right its balance of payments crisis
8. Foreign exchange is an essential component for any country and it is important to know how it can be earned.
9. If a country is able to build up its foreign exchange earnings by sustainable export of manufactured goods it
need not worry
10. In Pakistan most foreign exchange earnings came from remittances from Pakistani workers in the Middle‐east
11. The exports of highly volatile agricultural products, there was also growing dependence on foreign loans on the
one hand and increasing difficulty in paying back the loans on the other
12. As stated in the ‘One Year Performance of the (Pakistan) Government’ for the year August 2004–2005.
13. The Pakistan economy has been witnessing GDP growth at about 8 per cent for three consecutive years (2002–
2005).
14. All the three sectors, agriculture, manufacturing and service, have contributed to this trend.
15. Besides facing high rates of inflation and rapid privatisation, the government is increasing the expenditure on
various areas that can reduce poverty.
CONCLUSION
1. India, China and Pakistan have travelled more than five decades of developmental path with varied results.
2. Till the late 1970s, all of them were maintaining the same level of low development.
3. The last three decades have taken these countries to different levels.
4. India, with democratic institutions performed moderately but a majority of its people still depend on
agriculture. Infrastructure is lacking in many parts of the country.
5. It is yet to raise the level of living of more than one‐fourth of its population that lives below the poverty line.
6. Scholars are of the opinion that political instability, over‐dependence on remittances and foreign aid along
with volatile performance of agriculture sector are the reasons for the slowdown of the Pakistan economy.
7. In the recent past, it is hoping to improve the situation by maintaining high rates of GDP growth
8. In China, the lack of political freedom and its implications for human rights are major concerns
9. In the last three decades, it used the ‘market system without losing political commitment succeeded in raising
the level of growth along with alleviation of poverty.
10. Unlike India and Pakistan, which are attempting to privatise their public sector enterprises, China has used the
market mechanism to ‘create additional social and economic opportunities’
11. By retaining collective ownership of land and allowing individuals to cultivate lands, China has ensured social
security in rural areas.
12. Public intervention in providing social infrastructure even prior to reforms has brought about positive results in
human development indicators in China.

Economic growth and development

Meaning of economic growth
1. An increase in the total volume of goods and services produced by a nation is termed as economic growth.
However such an increase must not be one time but must continue over a long time.
2. Any increase in the volume of goods and services due to some sudden occurrence (i.e. one time increase)
cannot be termed as economic growth.
3. Economic growth is increase in total volume of goods and services produced by a nation spread over a long
period of time.
4. The volume of goods and services produced by a nation is expressed in value (money) we must take into
account.
5. The real increase (physical quantity) by eliminating the increase in the value of total output which is due to
increase in prices.
6. For example, suppose the value of total production in a country in 1995 is Rs. 4000/‐ crores and in in 1996 it is
Rs. 5000/‐ crores.
7. This amounts to an increase of 25% over 1995 prices. Suppose prices in 1996 were 25% higher than in 1995.
8. Is the rate of growth in the country in 1996, 25% No, because 25% is the increase in the value of production
and not in volume of production.
9. 25% increase in 1996 is due to increase in prices of goods and services. This means that there was no change in
total production of goods and services.
10. Hence the rate of growth in was zero, in the example we have taken a period of one year to make you
understand the meaning of real increase in total output.
Meaning of economic development

1. Economic development is a wider concept than the concept of economic growth. Development is a concept
which includes not only economic growth but certain other positive change in the other positive changes in other
spheres of life.
2. Economic development means economic growth along with desired changes in the distribution of national
income and other technical and institutional changes.
3. It is also seen whether an increase in the volume of goods and services produced in a country has resulted in
an overall increase in the volume of goods and services produced in a country
4. Has overall increase in the level of living of the people of that country.
5. One must find what has been happening to per capita real income, poverty, unemployment and inequalities o
income in a nation during the period of economic growth.
6. If in a country the volume of goods and services produced increases at a certain rate but its population also
increases by the same or higher rate, then its per capita real income remains same or falls.
7. In this case although total production has increased but average level of living of the people has not improved.

8. Suppose along with the increaseJoin
in per capita real income there is also increase in the inequalities of income, it
means that benefit of economic growth have not been distributed equally.
9. The rich has become richer and the poor poorer, this is not economic development.
10. In this situation there is economic growth because per capita real income has increased, but at the same time it
is not economic development because inequality has increased.
11. To sum up we can say that economic development is nothing but economic growth plus change. The term
change here refers to the qualitative changes in the economy.
12. These are in the form of improvement in the level of living, reduction in inquality, rise in efficiency,
improvement in technique, fast growth of industrial sector, positive change in attitude and so on.
Developed and developing economies

1. Countries are generally categorised into (a) less developed and (b) more developed, the less developed
countries are called underdeveloped or developing countries.
2. More developed countries are developed countries, let us discuss the criteria
Problem in classification
1. Development means economic growth plus qualitative changes in the form of rise in per capita real income,
reduction in inequality, increase in productivity, improvement in technology and so on.
2. We have to apply all these test tests simultaneously, but there are practical problems in applying all these.
3. The major problem is obtaining data, in the absence of data the present practice is to classify countries on the
basis of per capita real income.
4. The World Bank undertakes such an exercise every year and publishes the data in World Development Report
every year.
Classification based on per capita income
1. The World Bank classifies countries into four groups; (a) Low income, (b) Lower middle income, (c) Upper
middle income and (d) High income.
2. Out these the first two groups are termed developing countries, the last two groups are termed developed
countries.
Characteristics of developing countries
1. As stated earlier although no two countries among the developed countries or even among the developing
countries will have similar characteristics.
2. It is still possible to broadly identify some of the most common characteristics of developed and developing
countries.
The common characteristics of developing economies are:
1. Most people of these countries have a very low level of income and consumption
2. A large number of people are below poverty line meaning thereby that they are not able to meet even their
basic requirement of food, clothing and shelter.
3. A large number of people in these countries do not find employment for a large part of the year.
4. The quality of life of the people in these countries is poor. The quality of life depends on literacy level, medical
facilities, hygienic and sanitation facilities, infant mortality rate and life expectancy etc.
5. Agriculture in these countries is the main occupation of the people. The industry and technology is backward.
6. The rate of growth of population in these countries and they are overpopulated.
Characteristics of developed countries
1. In these countries the level of income and consumption is high. In other words, the people of these countries
enjoy vey high standard of living.
2. The quality of life of the people in these countries is batter. The literacy rate is very high. They enjoy much
better medical facilities. Life expectancy is very high. Infant mortality rate is very low.
3. These countries are generally advanced in industry and technology.
4. Most people in these countries are able to meet their needs of food, clothing and shelter.
5. In most of these countries the rate of growth of population is low because the birth rate and death rate both
are low
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1. Among the developing countries some are developing faster than others,each one of these countries have
reached a certain stage of development.
2. They are still far from being categorised as developed countries. For example Republic of Korea and India were
almost at the same stage of development in 1950s.
3. But that country developed much faster than India and is now categorised as a developed country.
Investment
Introduction
1. The growth rate of the economy since 2003‐04 has been strongly correlated with investment rate. The
investment rate averaged 34.5 percent between 2003 – 04 and 2011 – 12 much higher rate than before.
2. The real growth rate in the economy averaged 9.5 percent per annum during 2005 – 06 to 2007 – 08.
3. These were years when the growth rate of investment in real terms averaged around 16 percent. Similarly, the
average growth rate of investment averaging around 16.2 percent in these two years.
4. The rate of growth of GDP was lower in the years when growth rate of investment was low, as was the case in
2008 ‐09 and 2011 – 12.
Revised estimate of CSO

1. As per the First Revised Estimates released by the CSO in January, 2013, gross domestic capital formation as a
ratio of GDP at current market prices (investment rate) is estimated to be 35.0 percent in 201 – 12 as against 3608
percent in 2010 – 11.
2. Both public and private investment declined as a share of GDP, within private investment, investment by the
private corporate sector registered a sharper decline.
3. The reduction in private investment could be attributed to a number of factors, first is the increase in policy
rates (to combat inflation and inflationary expectations).Thus raising the cost the cost of borrowings in a bid to
reduce demand.
4. Another reason for lower private investment could be lower demand for Indian exports from the rest of world,
particularly the advanced countries.
5. A third possible reason for lower corporate investment is policy bottlenecks (such as obtaining environmental
permissions), fuel linkages or carrying out land acquisition.
6. This led to a number of large products becoming stalled, which may in turn have discouraged new investment.
7. Investment in the form of valuables increased by nearly Rs. 80, 000 crore in 2011 – 12 vis – a – vis that in 2010
– 11.
An increase in the investment of valuables

1. Valuable include works of art, precious metals, and jewellery carved out of such metal and stones.
2. At current prices, investment in the form of valuables registered a nearly 4.5 fold increase between 2007 – 08
and 2011 – 12.
3. Their share in total investment increased from 2.8 percent in 2007 – 08 and 2011 – 12. A part of the increase in
share can be explained by the surge I the prices of gold and other valuables.
Conclusion
1. To summarize, overall investment would have slowed further were it not for non – productive investment such
as in valuables.
2. Particularly worrisome is the sharp showing of corporate investment, which is the source of future supply
(needed to quell inflation) and of future growth potential.
3. Policies to remove investment bottlenecks as well as structural reforms to encourage productive investment
and its financing are essential, as is more accommodative monetary policy, as inflation abates.
Domestic Savings
Introduction
1. The volume and composition of domestic savings in India have undergone significant changes over the years.
2. The savings rate (gross domestic savings as percentage of gross domestic product at market prices) averaged
18.6 percent in the 1980s and 23 percent in the 1990s.
3. The savings rate exceeded 30 per cent for the first time in 2004 – 05 and has remained above that level ever
since.
4. It peaked in 2007 – 08 at 36.8 percent and reached an eight – year low of 30.8 per cent in 2011 – 12.
5. Savings come from three sources viz. households, the private corporate sector, and the public sector.
6. On average, households accounted for nearly three – fourths of gross domestic saving during the period 1980
– 81 to 2011 – 12.
Recent trends
1. The share declined somewhat in recent years, and in the period from 2004 – 05 to 2011 – 12 it averaged 70.1
percent of total savings.
2. Savings of the private corporate accounted for 15 per cent of total savings on an average between 1980 – 81
and 2011 – 12.
3. However during the years 2004 – 05 to 2011 – 12, their share increased to 23.2 percent.
4. The public sector accounted for 10 percent of total savings on average between 1980 – 81 and 2011 – 12.
5. It has been progressively declining and during 2004 – 05 to 2011 – 12, public savings as a ratio of total savings
averaged 6.7 percent.
6. Within households, the share of financial savings vis‐ a‐ vis physical savings has been declining in recent years.
7. Financial savings take the form ofJoinbank deposits, life insurance funds, pension and provident funds, shares and
debenture etc.
8. Financial savings accounted for around 55 percent of total household savings during the 1990s.
9. Their share declined to 47 percent in the 2000 – 10 decade and it was 36 percent in 2011 – 12.
Steps to be taken
1. Household savings will also have to be raised; the financial savings of the household sector are likely to
improve with lower inflation, especially as the real rate of return on financial savings rises.
2. A greater variety of reliable financial savings opportunities (such as inflation – indexed bonds) and relative ease
of access to them could also help in rising of share of financial savings.
3. Along with reducing the attractiveness of alternates like gold.
Conclusion –
1. In this context, regulators have to maintain a balance between what is of public importance and what is
prudential.
2. Areas of public importance, such as infrastructure, do deserve substantial support. However, these areas of
activity may also be risky.
3. Support should be given by de – risking the areas (policy to speed up infrastructure projects and ease their
completion), through financial development (creating new financing institutions attracting new investors).
4. Fiscal means (interest subventions, tax breaks) but not by relaxing prudential norms (lower capital
requirements, allowing un – hedged foreign borrowing) or riskier importance builds up greater risk for the country.
5. If these projects fail to take off, they impinge on both growth and the financial system at the same time, at a
time when the government has fewer resources to cope.

CONCISE NOTES ON INIDIAN POLITY
INDEX OF CONCISED NOTES ON INDIAN POLITY:
1. ORIGIN OF RIGHTS
2. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
3. PARLIAMENTS
4. BUDGET
5. LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE
6. GOVERNANCE
7. COMMITTEES
8. PANCHAYATI RAJ
9. PESA
10. MUNUCIPALITIES
CONCISE NOTES ON INIDIAN POLITY HTTPS://T.ME/CIVILSERVICESBOOKS

ORIGIN OF RIGHTS
1. As early as 1895 Dr Annie Besant, founder of the Indian Home Rule League and a leader
of the Indian National Congress, drafted a Constitution of India Bill
2. Envisaging a Constitution that guaranteed to every citizen freedom of expression,
inviolability of one’s house, right to property, equality before the law and in regard to admission
to public offices, right to present claims, petition and complaints and the right to personal property.
3. At a special session at Bombay in 1918 on the Montague‐Chelmsford Report, the Congress
demanded that the new Government of India Act contain a declaration of the rights of the Indians
4. In 1925 a sub‐committee set up by the All‐Parties Conference chaired by
M.K. Gandhi prepared a Commonwealth of India Bill. It demanded rights to liberty, security of
dwelling and property, freedom of conscience and to profess and practise religion, freedom to
express opinion, to assemble peacefully and without arms and to form associations or union.
5. The development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was
inspired by historical examples such as England's Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of
Rights (approved on 17 September 1787, final ratification on 15 December 1791) and France's
Declaration of the Rights of Man (created during the revolution of 1789, and ratified on 26 August
1789).
6. Under the educational system of British Raj, students were exposed to ideas of democracy,
human rights and European political history. The Indian student community in England was further
inspired by the workings of parliamentary democracy and Britisheres political parties.
7. In 1919, the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police, and
allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals, warrant‐less searches and seizures,
restrictions on public gatherings, and intensive censorship of media and publications.
8. The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non‐ violent civil
disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms, and limitations on
government power. Indians, who were seeking independence and their own government, were
particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish
constitution.
9. Also, the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the
people of India as an inspiration for the independent India's government to comprehensively tackle
complex social and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.
10. In 1928, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties
proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and
elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental, representation for
religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the government.
11. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political party of the time)
adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights, as well as socio‐
economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom.
12. Committing themselves to socialism in 1936, the Congress leaders took examples from the
constitution of the erstwhile USSR, which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means
of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges.
13. When India obtained independence on 15 August 1947, the task of developing a
constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India, composing of
elected representatives under the presidency of Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
14. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress leaders appointed
persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and
national laws.
15. Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee,
while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of committees and sub‐
committees responsible for different subjects.
16. A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian
constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member states to adopt these rights
in their respective constitutions.
17. The Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy were included in the
I Draft Constitution (February 1948), the II Draft Constitution (17 October 1948) and the III and
final Draft Constitution (26 November 1949), prepared by the Drafting Committee.
Definition of State
1. According to Art. 12, ‘the State’ includes the government and parliament of India and the
government and the legislature of each of the states and all local or other authorities within the
territory of India or under the control of the Government of India.
2. The judiciary, it is said, though not expressly mentioned in Art. 12 should be included
within the expression ‘other authorities’ since courts are set up by statues, and exercise powers
conferred by the law.
Judicial Review

1. Judicial review is adopted in the constitution of India from the constitution of the United
States of America. In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with under Article 13. Judicial
Review implies that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation and all laws are under its
supremacy.
Article 13 states that:
1. All the post constitutional laws, after the coming into force of constitution, if differ from it
in all or some of its provisions then the provisions of constitution will prevail & the provisions of
that post constitutional law will hide till any amendment in constitution relating to the same matter.
In such situation, the provision of that law will again come into force (the Theory of Eclipse).
2. In a similar manner, laws made after adoption of the Constitution by the Constituent
Assembly must be compatible with the constitution; otherwise, the laws and amendments will be
deemed void‐ab‐initio.
3. In such situations, the Supreme Court or High Court interprets the laws as if they are in
conformity with the constitution. If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency,
and where a separation is possible, the provision that is inconsistent with Constitution is considered
void.
The functions of Judicial review:
1. Judicial review has three functions. First, it allows justice to be served by striking down
erroneous decision by lower courts.
2. Lower courts have an incentive to apply the law correctly if the possibility exists that their
decisions may be overturned. Third, important controversies regarding the law are examined and
resolved for the future guidance of courts and individuals. This third function is the primary
concern of the highest courts, which in most cases agree to hear appeals only at their discretion.
Fundamental Rights in India

1. The Fundamental Rights in India enshrined in the Part III of the Constitution of India
guarantee civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens
of India.
2. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality
before law, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of association and peaceful assembly,
freedom to practice religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil
rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus.
3. Violations of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code,
subject to discretion of the judiciary.

4. The Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms which every Indian citizen
has the right to enjoy for a proper and harmonious development of personality.
5. These rights universally apply to all citizens, irrespective of race, place of birth, religion,
caste, creed, colour or sex. They are enforceable by the courts, subject to certain restrictions.
6. The Rights have their origins in many sources, including England's Bill of Rights, the
United States Bill of Rights and France's Declaration of the Rights of Man.
The six fundamental rights are:
i. Right to equality
ii. Right to freedom
iii. Right against exploitation
iv. Right to freedom of religion
v. Cultural and educational rights
vi. Right to constitutional remedies
7. Rights literally mean those freedoms which are essential for personal good as well as the
good of the community.
8. The rights guaranteed under the Constitution of India are fundamental as They have been
incorporated into the Fundamental Law of the Land and are enforceable in a court of law.
9. However, this does not mean that they are absolute or that they are immune from
Constitutional amendment.
10. Fundamental rights for Indians have also been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre‐
independence social practices.
11. Specifically, they have also been used to abolish untouchability and hence prohibit
discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
12. They also forbid trafficking of human beings and forced labour. They also protect cultural
and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their
languages and also establish and administer their own education institutions.
Significance and characteristics
1. The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered
essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity.
2. The writers of the constitution regarded democracy of no avail if civil liberties, like
freedom of speech and religion were not recognized and protected by the State.

3. According to them, "democracy" is, in essence, a government by opinion and therefore, the
means of formulating public opinion should be secured to the people of a democratic nation.
4. For this purpose, the constitution guaranteed to all the citizens of India the freedom of
speech and expression and various other freedoms in the form of the fundamental rights.
5. Rights all people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have been given the right to
move the Supreme Court and the High Courts for the enforcement of their fundamental rights.
6. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. Poverty stricken
people may not have the means to do so and therefore, in the public interest, anyone can commence
litigation in the court on their behalf.
7. This is known as "Public interest litigation”. In some cases, High Court judges have acted
on their own on the basis of newspaper reports.
8. These fundamental rights help not only in protection but also the prevention of gross
violations of human rights.
9. They emphasize on the fundamental unity of India by guaranteeing to all citizens the access
and use of the same facilities, irrespective of background. Some fundamental rights apply for
persons of any nationality whereas others are available only to the citizens of India.
10. The right to life and personal liberty is available to all people and so is the right to freedom
of religion. On the other hand, freedoms of speech and expression and freedom to reside and settle
in any part of the country are reserved to citizens alone, including non‐resident Indian citizens.
11. Fundamental rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary state actions, but some
rights are enforceable against individuals. For instance, the Constitution abolishes untouchability
and also prohibits beggar.
12. These provisions act as a check both on state action as well as the action of private
individuals.
13. However, these rights are not absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable
restrictions as necessary for the protection of general welfare.
14. They can also be selectively curtailed. The Supreme Court has ruled that all provisions of
the Constitution, including fundamental rights can be amended.
15. However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution. Features such
as secularism and democracy fall under this category.
16. Since the fundamental rights can only be altered by a constitutional amendment, their
inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch, but also on the Parliament and state
legislatures.
17. A state of national emergency has an adverse effect on these rights. Under such a state, the
rights conferred by Article 19 (freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) remain
suspended.
18. Hence, in such a situation, the legislature may make laws which go against the rights given
in Article 19.
19. Also, the President may by order suspend the right to move court for the enforcement of
other rights as well.
20. The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas
citizens of India.
Right to equality
1. The fundamental rights are guaranteed to protect the basic human rights of all citizens of
India and are put into effect by the courts, subject to some limitations.
2. One of such fundamental rights is the Right to Equality. Right to Equality refers to the
equality in the eyes of law, discarding any unfairness on grounds of caste, race, religion, place of
birth sex.
3. It also includes equality of prospects in matters of employment, abolition of untouchability
and abolition of titles. Articles 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the Constitution of India highlight the Right
to Equality in detail.
4. This fundamental right is the major foundation of all other rights and privileges granted to
Indian citizens.
5. It is one of the chief guarantees of the Constitution of India. Thus, it is imperative that
every citizen of India has easy access to the courts to exercise his/her Right to Equality. Various
articles under the Right to Equality are explained as follows:
Equality before Law

1. Equality before law is well defined under the Article 14 of the Constitution which ensures
that every citizen shall be likewise protected by the laws of the country.
2. It means that the State will not distinguish any of the Indian citizens on the basis of their
gender, caste, creed, religion or even the place of birth.
3. The state cannot refuse equality before the law and equal defense of the law to any person
within the territory of India.
4. In other words, this means that no person or groups of people can demand for any special
privileges.

5. This right not only applies to the citizens of India but also to all the people within the
territory of India.
Social Equality and Equal Access to Public Areas
1. The right of Social Equality and Equal Access to Public Areas is clearly mentioned under
the Article 15 of the Constitution of India
2. Stating that no person shall be shown favoritism on the basis of color, caste, creed language,
etc. Every person shall have equal admittance to public places like public wells, bathing ghats,
museums, temples etc.
3. However, the State has the right to make any special arrangement for women and children
or for the development of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or
scheduled tribes.
4. This article applies only to citizens of India. Equality in Matters of Public Employment
1. Article 16 of the Constitution of India clearly mentions that the State shall treat everyone
equally in the matters of employment.
2. No citizen shall be discriminated on the basis of race, caste, religion, creed, descent or
place of birth in respect of any employment or office under the State.
3. Every citizen of India can apply for government jobs. However, there are some exceptions
to this right.
4. The Parliament may pass a law mentioning that specific jobs can only be filled by
candidates who are residing in a particular area.
5. This requirement is mainly for those posts that necessitate the knowledge of the locality
and language of the area.
6. Apart from this, the State may also set aside some posts for members of backward classes,
scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not properly represented in the services under the
State to uplift the weaker sections of the society.
7. Also, a law may be passed which may entail that the holder of an office of any religious
institution shall also be a person professing that specific religion.
8. Though, this right shall not be granted to the overseas citizens of India as directed by the
Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.
Abolition of Untouchability
1. Article 17 of the Constitution of India abolishes the practice of untouchability in India.
Practice of untouchability is declared as a crime and anyone doing so is punishable by law.

2. The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 (and now Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976)
states punishments for not allowing a person to enter a place of worship or from taking water from
a well or tank.
Abolition of Titles
1. Article 18 of the Constitution of India prohibits the State from granting any titles. Citizens
of India are not allowed to accept titles from a foreign State.
2. Titles like Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs given by the British government have also
been abolished.
3. Nevertheless, academic and military distinctions can be conferred upon the citizens of
India.
4. The awards of ‘Bharat Ratna’ and ‘Padma Vibhushan’ cannot be used by the beneficiary
as a title and is not prohibited by the Constitution of India.
5. From 15 December 1995, the Supreme Court has sustained the validity of such awards
Right to freedom
1. The Constitution of India contains the right to freedom, given[20] in articles 19, 20, 21,
21A and 22, with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the
framers of the constitution.
2. It is a cluster of four main laws. The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the following
six freedoms
They are as follows
1. ‘Freedom of speech and expression’ that allows an individual to take part in public
activities. Though the words, "freedom of press" have not been mentioned in Article 19, freedom
of expression also encompasses ‘freedom of press’. However, reasonable limitations can be
imposed to maintain the public order and to protect the decorum and ethics of the State.
2. ‘Freedom to assemble peacefully’ without arms, though again the State can enforce rational
limitations to maintain public order and the autonomy and integrity of India.
3. ‘Freedom to form associations or unions’ along with certain restrictions enforced by the
State in the interest of public order, morality and the sovereignty and integrity of India.
4. Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India’, subject to certain restrictions to
maintain the interest of the general public. For instance, the state can restrict travelling or
commuting during epidemics to prevent it from spreading.

5. ‘Freedom to live and settle in any part of the territory of India’ which is also subject to
certain limitations by the State to maintain the interest of the general public or to safeguard the
rights of the native scheduled tribes and protect them from exploitation and oppression.
6. ‘Freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or businesses –
here the state may impose justified limitations to protect general public.
Thus, nobody according to Indian Constitution has the right to run a business which is hazardous
or corrupt. Again, to practice any profession or carrying out any particular business, professional
or technical qualifications may be prescribed.
The constitution also guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which in turn cites specific
provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced:
1. Protection with respect to conviction for offences is guaranteed in the right to life and
personal liberty.
2. According to Article 20, no one can be awarded punishment which is more than what the
law of the land prescribes at that time.
3. This legal axiom is based on the principle that no criminal law can be made retrospective,
that is, for an act to become an offence, the essential condition is that it should have been an offence
legally at the time of committing it.
4. Moreover, no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against
himself.
5. "Compulsion" in this article refers to what in law is called "Duress" (injury, beating or
unlawful imprisonment to make a person do something that he does not want to do).
6. This article is known as a safeguard against self-incrimination. The other principle
enshrined in this article is known as the principle of double jeopardy, that is, no person can be
convicted twice for the same offence, which has been derived from Anglo Saxon law. This
principle was first established in the Magna Carta.
7. Protection of life and personal liberty is also stated under right to life and personal liberty.
Article 21 declares that no citizen can be denied his life and liberty except by law.

8. This means that a person's life and personal liberty can only be disputed if that person has
committed a crime.
9. However, the right to life does not include the right to die, and hence, suicide or an attempt
thereof, is an offence.
10. (Attempted suicide being interpreted as a crime has seen many debates. The
Supreme Court of India gave a landmark ruling in the year 1994.

11. The court repealed section 309 of the Indian penal code, under which people attempting
suicide could face prosecution and prison terms of up to one year.
12. In the year 1996 however another Supreme Court ruling nullified the earlier one.
13. "Personal liberty" includes all the freedoms which are not included in Article 19 (that is,
the six freedoms).
14. The right to travel abroad is also covered under "personal liberty" in Article 21.
15. In 2002, through the 86th Amendment Act, Article 21(A) was incorporated. It made the
right to primary education part of the right to freedom, stating that the State would provide free
and compulsory education to children from six to fourteen years of age.
16. Six years after an amendment was made in the Indian Constitution, the union cabinet
cleared the Right to Education Bill in 2008.
17. It is now soon to be tabled in Parliament for approval before it makes a fundamental right
of every child to get free and compulsory education.
18. Rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances are laid down in the right to life
and personal liberty.
19. No one can be arrested without being told the grounds for his arrest. If arrested, the person
has the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice.
20. Also an arrested citizen has to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours.
The rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances are not available to an enemy alien.
21. They are also not available to persons detained under the Preventive Detention Act. Under
preventive detention, the government can imprison a person for a maximum of three months.
22. It means that if the government feels that a person being at liberty can be a threat to the law
and order or to the unity and integrity of the nation, it can detain or arrest that person to prevent
him from doing this possible harm.
23. After three months such a case is brought before an advisory board for review.

24. The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights. The government restricts these
freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and integrity of India.
25. In the interest of morality and public order, the government can also impose restrictions.
However, the right to life and personal liberty cannot be suspended.
26. The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or have restrictions imposed on them
during a state of emergency.
Rights against exploitation

1. The right against exploitation, given in Articles 23 and 24, provides for two provisions,
namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Beggar (forced labor), and abolition of
employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories and mines.
2. Child labour is considered a gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution.
3. Beggar, practiced in the past by landlords, has been declared a crime and is punishable by
law. Trafficking in humans for the purpose of slave trade or prostitution is also prohibited by law.
4. An exception is made in employment without payment for compulsory services for public
purposes. Compulsory military conscription is covered by this provision.
Right to freedom of religion

1. Right to freedom of religion, covered in Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28, provides religious
freedom to all citizens of India.
2. The objective of this right is to sustain the principle of secularism in India. According to
the Constitution, all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference
over the other.
3. Citizens are free to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice.
4. Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own. However, activities
in such institutions which are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the
government.
5. Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order,
morality and health.
6. No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion.

7. A State run institution cannot impart education that is pro‐religion. Also, nothing in this
article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any further
law regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may
be associated with religious practice, or providing for social welfare and reform.
Cultural and educational rights

1. As India is a country of many languages, religions, and cultures, the Constitution provides
special measures, in Articles 29 and 30, to protect the rights of the minorities.
2. Any community which has a language and a script of its own has the right to conserve and
develop it.
3. No citizen can be discriminated against for admission in State or State aided institutions.
4. All minorities, religious or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions in order
to preserve and develop their own culture.
5. In granting aid to institutions, the State cannot discriminate against any institution on the
basis of the fact that it is administered by a minority institution.
6. But the right to administer does not mean that the State cannot interfere in case of
maladministration.
7. In a precedent‐setting judgment in 1980, the Supreme Court held that the State can certainly
take regulatory measures to promote the efficiency and excellence of educational standards.
8. It can also issue guidelines for ensuring the security of the services of the teachers or other
employees of the institution.
9. In another landmark judgment delivered on 31 October 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that
in case of aided minority institutions offering professional courses, admission could only be
through a common entrance test conducted by State or a university.
10. Even an unaided minority institution ought not to ignore the merit of the students for
admission.
Right to constitutional remedies

1. Right to constitutional remedies empowers the citizens to move a court of

law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights.

2. For instance, in case of imprisonment, the citizen can ask the court to see if it is according
to the provisions of the law of the country.
3. If the court finds that it is not, the person will have to be freed. This procedure of asking
the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens' fundamental rights can be done in various ways.
4. The courts can issue various kinds of writs. These writs are habeas corpus, mandamus,
prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari. When a national or state emergency is declared, this right
is suspended by the central government.
Right to property – a former fundamental right

1. The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31.
Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property.
2. Article 31 provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of
law."
3. It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been
taken for public purposes.
4. The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The Forty‐
Forth Amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of fundamental rights.
5. A new provision, Article 300‐A, was added to the constitution which provided that "no
person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law".
6. Thus if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, there would be no
obligation on the part of the State to pay anything as compensation.
7. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the
right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right.
8. If the government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of
law by citizens
Critical analysis
1. The fundamental rights have been criticized for many reasons. Political groups have
demanded that the right to work, the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment, old
age, and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and
economic insecurity, though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of
state policy.

2. The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses, and thus has
been criticized for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed "excessive".
3. There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in
times of Emergency.
4. The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) and the
National Security Act (NSA) are a means of countering the fundamental rights, because they
sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross‐border terrorism and political
violence, without safeguards for civil rights.
5. The phrases "security of State", "public order" and "morality" are of wide implication.
People of alternate sexuality are criminalized in India with prison term up to 10 years.
6. The meaning of phrases like "reasonable restrictions" and "the interest of public order"
have not been explicitly stated in the constitution, and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary
litigation.
7. The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised, but in some cases, these
meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non‐ fatal methods.
8. "Freedom of press" has not been included in the right to freedom, which is necessary for
formulating public opinion and to make freedom of expression more legitimate.
9. Employment of child labour in hazardous job environments has been reduced, but their
employment even in non‐hazardous jobs, including their prevalent employment as domestic help
violates the spirit and ideals of the constitution.
10. More than 16.5 million children are employed and working in India.
11. India was ranked 88 out of 159 in 2005, according to the degree to which corruption is
perceived to exist among public officials and politicians worldwide.
12. The right to equality in matters regarding public employment shall not be conferred to
overseas citizens of India, according to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003 Amendments
Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment which has to be passed by
a special majority of both houses of Parliament.
This means that an amendment requires the approval of two‐thirds of the members present and
voting. However, the number of members voting should not be less than the simple majority of the
house — whether the Loksabha or Rajya Sabha.
The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the
Eighty‐Sixth Amendment of 2002[

Parliament
1. The supreme law making body of the country is the parliament. The provisions regarding
the parliament are contained in part V, chapter II and chapter III of the constitution.
2. The Indian constitution has adopted the English pattern in regard the constitution of the
Parliament.
3. Its two characteristics are that the head of state is an integral part of the legislature and that
is it is a bicameral legislature.
4. Article 79 provides for the constitution of parliament according to it there shall be a
parliament for the Union which shall consist of the President and two houses to be known
respectively as the Council of states and the House of the people.
Functions of Parliament
1. In the Indian system, the council of Ministers is also Members of Parliament (that is, there
is an overlap of the legislative and executive functions for several members).
2. For those members who are part of the council of ministers, there is an additional
responsibility of the executive as compared to those who are not in the council on ministers.
The broad functions of parliament can be described as follows:
1. Legislative responsibility: To pass laws
2. Oversight responsibility: To ensure that the executive (i.e. government) performs its duties
satisfactorily
3. Representative Responsibility: To represent the views and aspirants of the voters in
parliament.
4. “Power of the Purse” responsibility: To approve and oversee the revenues and expenditure
proposed by the government.
Role of the president of India with regard to parliament

The president is the constitutional head of republic of India. He is directly elected by an electoral
college that includes elected members of both Houses of parliament and the elected members of
the legislative assemblies of the states.
The president performs certain constitutional functions:
He summons the two Houses of Parliament to meet from time to time
• He has the power to discontinue a session in the two houses and dissolve the Loksabha
• The president has to agree to sign a bill before it can become a law
• If the houses are not in session, the president can enact or promulgate ordinances having
the same validity as a law passed in the parliament.
• The president has the power to appoint speaker of the Loksabha and the Chairman of
Rajyasabha on an interim basis.
• The president has the right to address either or both houses of Parliament.
• The president has the power to call both Houses for a joint sitting in case a dispute arises
over passing a bill. In the joint sitting, the matter is decided by majority vote.
• H nominates 12 members of the Rajyasabha and has the right to nominate two members
from the Anglo Indian community to the Loksabha. If they are underrepresented.
• He invites the leader of the majority party to form the Government after a new Loksabha
is duly elected.
The Legislative Process:
1. Under the Indian political system, the Parliament is the central legislative (or law making)
body.
2. One of its primary functions is to make laws. Any legislative proposal can be brought
before the parliament.
3. The draft of the legislative proposal is known as Bill. No Bill, whether it is introduces by
the government or a private member, can become law or Act of Parliament until it has received
the approval of the president.
Union Legislature
1. India has adopted the parliamentary form of Government, also called the Westminster
Model. The Government of India Act, 1935 established a federation and copied English
2. Parliamentary form of Government ‐ Our Constitution makers thought it prudent to follow
the path laid down by the act of 1935.

3. Parliament consists of the President and the two Houses. The constitution calls the houses,
the council of states and the house of people.
4. During the course of the years they have come to be known as Rajyasabha and Loksabha.
The president is not a member of either house, but he is organically linked with it.
5. At the commencement of the first session of the newly elected Loksabha and the
commencement of first session of first session of the each year
6. The president addresses both the houses assembled together. A bill passed by the Houses
does not become law without the President’s assent.
7. Thus the president is an integral part of the parliament yet he is not a member of any houses.
The Upper Houses

1. The Rajya Sabha is composed of not more than 250 members. Out of these 238 are to be
the representatives of the states and the Union Territories and 12 are to be nominated by the
president.
2. Persons to be nominated are required to have special knowledge or practical experience in
respect of literature, science, art and social service.
3. Actually at present the Rajyasabha has 245 members, 233 are elected and 12 are nominated.
The representatives of the states are elected by elected members of state legislative assemblies in
accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.
4. The manner of election of the representatives of the union territories in the Rajyasabha is
left to the Parliament to provide.
5. The parliament has included in the representation of people act, 1950 the manner of
election. They are to be indirectly elected by members of the Electoral College for that territory in
accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferrable vote.
The Loksabha

1. The constitution prescribes the maximum numbers of seats in Loksabha which are divided
between the states and the Union territories.
2. The allocation of seats in the Loksabha to a particularly state and division of each state into
territorial constituency is done on the recommendation of the delimitation commission which is
appointed after the completion of each census.
3. By the amendment of the constitution in 1976 the allocation and division had been frozen
till the year 2000.
4. In the year 2001 by another constitution amendment (84th) it has been ordained that the
freeze will be continue till 2026.
5. At present the total number of seats allocated to states is 530 and to the union territories
13. The embargo on the number of seats was done as a measure to boost family planning norms.
Functions of Parliament
1. The monitoring function of the parliament brings about a great deal of revision in the
policies and plans of the government and makes them more effective.
2. Both the house of parliament participates in these functions. In the parliamentary system
this crucial and deliberative act of the legislature continues through out every ession.
3. For this reason it is said that parliament makes a daily assessment of the government.
4. The parliament monitors day to day work of the executive. The members are entitled to ask
question addressed to the concerned minister.
5. They can also ask for information from the minister in a number of ways. The power to get
information is an instrument by which the members exercise vigilance.
6. Control over the cabinet is one of the more important functions and duties of the Loksabha
to ensure that the ministry remains in power only as long as it has the support of the majority in
that house (article 75 (3)).
7. Cabinet is a part of the parliament, as it is the parliament which provides the cabinet. No
person can continue to be a minister of more than six months unless he is a member of either house
of parliament.
8. Collectively the cabinet is responsible to the Loksabha. A vote of no – confidence against
the ministry can be moved in Loksabha.
9. In regard to money bills the Loksabha has a predominating role to perform. The
expenditure to be incurred by the Loksabha has a predominating role to perform.

10. The expenditure to be incurred by the government and revenue to be collected by way of
taxes must be approved by the Loksabha.
11. In regard to money bills the Loksabha has a predominating role to perform. The
expenditure to be incurred by the government and the revenue to be collected by way of taxes must
be approved by the Loksabha.
12. In a parliamentary form of government all legislation is initiated by the cabinet. By issuing
a whip it is ensured that the bill will have the support of the majority of members.
13. This important function gets lesser attention these days. The back – benchers participate
only when there is a division.
14. In the parliamentary system of government the ministers have to answer questions, reply
calling to attention motions, move legislation and justify Government’s actions while the working
of different departments of government comes under the scrutiny of parliament.
15. The cabinet of the day has to explain matters to the members of the committees. All
legislation is initiated by the cabinet, but the select and joint committees of the parliament to which
a bill is referred make valuable contribution to the bills
Comparison of power and function of Loksabha and Rajyasabha

Rajya Sabha
1. The council of states or Rajyasabha is a permanent House and it is not subject to

dissolution. After every two years, one third of its members retire and its same numbers of seats
are filled up by new members.
2. The total membership of the Rajyasabha is 250; it is a representative House of States but
the states are not represented equally in the Rajyasabha.
3. Seats in the Rajyasabha are allocated to different states on the basis of population. Out of
total members of the House, twelve members are nominated by the president from amongst the
persons having special knowledge or practical experience in the fields of literature, science, art
and social service.
4. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the legislative assemblies of the respective
states on the basis of proportional representation.
5. The chairman of the Rajyasabha is not a member of this house. The vice – president of
India is the ex – officio chairman of the Rajyasabha.
6. But the deputy – chairman of the Rajyasabha is elected by the members of the Rajyasabha
from amongst its members.

7. The money bills cannot be introduced in the Rajyasabha.

8. With respect to monetary bill, the Rajyasabha can make only recommendations which may
or may not be accepted by the Loksabha.
9. The Rajyasabha is given 14 days time to consider the money bills and if it fails to do
anything within that period, the bill is deemed to have been passed in the manner it was passed by
the Loksabha.
10. The council of ministers is not responsible to the Rajyasabha. Therefore no confidence
motion cannot be introduced in the Rajyasabha.
11. But the Rajyasabha exercises certain powers which are not available to the Loksabha. It
can declare a subject included in the state list as a subject of national importance by passing a
resolution supported by not less than two – third members present and voting.
12. If a subject of state list is declared of national importance, parliament gets power to legislate
upon such a subject.
13. The Rajyasabha has the power to create new all India services by passing a resolution
supported by not less than two – third members present and voting.
14. If and when the Loksabha is dissolved and the declaration of emergency is in force, the
Rajyasabha approves such declaration of emergency.
15. The proposal to remove the vice – president is initiated only in the Rajyasabha not in the
Loksabha.
Loksabha
1. The Loksabha is not a permanent house. It is dissolved after the expiry of its term of five
years. But it can be dissolved before the period of five years by the president on the advice of the
council of ministers.
2. New Loksabha is elected and constituted within the period of 6 months from the date of its
dissolution.
3. The maximum strength of the Loksabha can be 552 members, out of this, 530 members are
elected from the states and 20 members are elected from the union territories.
4. The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo –
Indian community.
5. The members of the Loksabha are elected by the people directly on the basis of secrete
vote and universal franchise.

6. For the purpose of election, the population is divided into various constituencies.
7. The speaker and deputy speaker of the Loksabha are the members of the house and are
elected by the members of the Loksabha themselves.
8. The money bill can be introduced only in the Loksabha.
9. The Loksabha is not bound to accept the recommendations of the Rajyasabha with respect
to money bills. The Loksabha has the real and final authority in respect of money bills.
10. The council of ministers is in fact responsible to the Loksabha. It can remove a government
from office by passing a resolution of no – confidence.
11. The Loksabha does not enjoy have any such power to declare a subject of the state list of
national importance.
12. The Loksabha does not enjoy any such power to create new all India services.
13. Loksabha either approves or rejects such proposal to remove the vice – president, but it
cannot initiate such proposal.
Qualifications and Disqualifications

• No person shall be qualified to be chosen a member of parliament unless; he is a citizen of
India. In case of Rajyasabha is not les than 30 years of age and in case of Loksabha is not less than
25 years of age (Art. 84).
• Parliament has been empowered by art. 84 to prescribe additional qualifications. The
representation of people Act, 1951 lays down additional qualifications for being chosen as a
member of parliament.
The following disqualifies a person if he is:

1. Having an interest in any contract with the government
2. Guilty of corrupt practice in relation to an election
3. Fails to lodge the accounts of election expenses
4. Dismissed from government service

5. Convicted for an offence resulting in imprisonment for two or more years

6. Being director or holding an office of profit in a corporation in which the government has
at least 25% share.
7. The constitution lays down the qualification for membership (Art. 84) as well as
disqualifications for being chosen as and for being a member of parliament (Art. 102). Article 102
states that the following persons are disqualified for being chosen as and for being a member of
parliament
1. A person of unsound mind
2. A person holding any office of profit under the Union or the state government. But the
parliament has the power to declare certain offices which will not disqualify its holder.
3. A person who is an insolvent
4. A person who is disqualified under any law made by parliament
5. A person who is not a citizen of India.
Defection
1. By the 52nd amendment act passed in 1985, a person is disqualified if he attracts
disqualification under tenth schedule
2. A person incurs disqualification under the tenth schedule
3. If he voluntary gives up the membership of the party on whose ticket he was elected.
4. If he votes or abstains from voting contrary to any direction issued by his political party,
without obtaining permission of such party and the party has not condoned such voting or
abstention within 15 days from the date of such voting or abstention.
5. If any nominated members joins a party after the expiry of six months from the date he
takes his seat.
6. A member who has been elected as an independent member shall be disqualified if he joins
any political party.
Exceptions
The disqualification as a consequence of defection does not apply –

• If a person leaves a party as a result of split in the original party. The split takes place when
not less than one third of the members form a new group and party in the house.
• If the original party or a member merges with another party and he either changes his
political party as a consequences of the merger or does not accept merger and opts to function as
separate group.
• A merger is deemed to take place only if not less than two third of members of the
legislative party agree to such merger.
7. If any question arises whether a member has become disqualified under tenth schedule
(defection) the question has to be decided by the chairman or the speaker of the appropriate House.
8. Para – 7 of the 10th schedule states that no court shall have any jurisdiction in respect of
any matter connected with disqualification of a member under that schedule.
9. In kihota Hollohon case the Supreme Court has expressed the view that while applying and
interpreting the anti defection law the speaker functions as a tribunal and his decision is open to
judicial review.
10. The court held the para – 7 of the 10th schedule is invalid on the ground that it seeks to
take away the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the High Courts.
11. Hence the question of disqualification under the 10thSchedule, though to be decided by the
presiding officer, is subject to judicial review.
Session of Parliament
Under the article 85 the president has the power to summon and prorogue either house of
Parliament from time to time and to dissolve Loksabha. It is also provided that six months must
not intervene between the last sittings in one season and the first sitting in the succeeding session.
In other words the interval between two sessions must not exceed six months. This provision also
ensures that there will be at least two sessions of the parliament in a year and the gap between the
date of propagation and the commencement of the next session will not exceed six months.
There are generally three session in a year
The budget session commences in the third week of February The monsoon session begins usually
in the third week of July.The winter session generally starts in early November and ends in the
third week of December.
Speaker
Each house of parliament has its own officers to preside over its meetings. In case of Loksabha the
two officers mentioned in Article 93 are speaker and the deputy speaker.

The speaker and the deputy speaker are chosen by the members from among themselves.
Whenever the office of the speaker or deputy speaker becomes vacant the house effects a member
to fill the vacancy.
After every general election the Loksabha elects the Loksabha elects the speaker on the day fixed
by the president (Rule 7).
The election of deputy speaker takes place on the day fixed by the speaker. On the dissolution of
Loksabha the speaker does not vacate his office.
He continues in office until immediately before the first meeting of the new Loksabha elected after
dissolution.
The office of the speaker and the deputy speaker may terminate earlier in the following
circumstances: Ceasing to be a member of the Loksabha.
The speaker may resign his office by writing under his hand addressed to the deputy speaker.
The deputy speaker can resign in like manner addressing his resignation to the speaker; he may be
removed from his office by a resolution passed by a majority of all then members of the house.
Before moving a resolution for the removal of speaker 14 days notice has to be given of the
intention to move the resolution.
While any resolution for the removal of the speaker is under consideration, he shall not preside but
he shall have the right to speak and otherwise to take part in proceedings.
He is also entitled to vote on the resolution in the first instance. But he will not be able to exercise
his casting vote in the case of equality of votes (Art. 96).
The speaker may be removed if the Loksabha passes a resolution by a majority of the total
members of the house – not by ordinary majority.
The speaker presides over the meetings of the house. In his absence or when the office of the
speaker is vacant the deputy speaker presides over the Loksabha.
The Loksabha in its rules of procedure (rule 9) prepares a panel of maximum 10 members any one
of whom presides, depending upon the availability in the absence of the speaker and the deputy
speaker.
While presiding over a sitting the deputy speaker or other members has the same power as the
speaker.
Pro – Tem Speaker

After each general election the president nominates the senior most members elected as pro – tem
speaker. He performs the duties of office of the speaker till the house elects one.
The speaker is the chief officer of the Loksabha. There are separate secretarial staffs to assist him,
popularly known as the Loksabha secretariat.
The speaker presides over the sittings of the Loksabha and controls its working. He is responsible
for upholding the dignity and the privileges of the house.
When a point of order is raised or any question involving the interpretation of the rules and the
precedents of Loksabha is raised the speaker has to interpret the rule and give his ruling.
The rulings given by previous speakers are regarded as precedents and are generally followed.
It is not subject to annual vote in the parliament. The speaker can be removed, only by a resolution
which must be supported by a majority of all the then members of the house.
He cannot be removed by a resolution passed by a majority of the members present and voting.
Hence there is a security of tenure for the speaker. The speaker may conduct the proceedings in an
impartial manner without remaining in constant fear of being removed.
Article 100 provides that the speaker shall not vote in the first instance, in other words when a
question is raised before the house and a division is called the members may vote for or against
the motion (or may abstain from voting).
The speaker cannot participate at this stage. If after counting votes it is found that the votes in the
favour and against are equal then, the speaker is entitled to cast his vote.
Such vote is called casting vote. Thus the speaker is entitled to vote only when there is a tie.
But the speaker shall cast vote only once and that too in case of equality. The purpose of giving a
casting vote is to resolve dead lock.
The quorum to constitute a meeting of the Loksabha is 1/10 of the total number of members. If the
quorum is not complete it is the duty of the speaker to adjourn the house or to suspend the meeting
until there is quorum.
The speaker also provides over the joint sittings of the two house of parliament.
When a money bill is transmitted to Rajyasabha after being passed by Loksabha the speaker makes
an endorsement on the bill to certify that it is a money bill.
He again certifies the money bill when it is presented to the president for assent. On the question
whether a bill is a money bill or not, the decision of the speaker is final.
If a bill contains an endorsement that it is a money bill then all those provisions which are
applicable to money bill apply to it.

Impartiality of Speaker
1. The following provisions ensure the independence and impartiality of the office of the
speaker:
2. He is provided with a security of tenure. He can be removed only by a resolution passed
by the Loksabha by an absolute majority (i.e., a majority of the total members of the house) and
not by an ordinary majority (i.e. a majority of the total present and voting in house).
3. This motion of removal can be considered and discussed only when it has the support of at
least 50 members.
4. His salaries and allowances are fixed by parliament. They are charged on the con –
solidated fund of India and thus are not subject to the annual vote of parliament.
5. His powers of regulating procedure or conducting business or maintaining order in the
house are not subject to the jurisdiction of any court.
6. His work and conduct cannot be discussed and criticised in the Loksabha except on a
substantive motion.
7. He cannot vote in the first instance. He can only exercise a casting vote in the event of a
tie. This makes the position of speaker impartial.
Deputy Speaker
1. The deputy speaker is a member of the Loksabha who is elected by the house as deputy
speaker. He is elected after the election of the speaker has taken place.
2. In the 11th and subsequent Loksabha there has been consensus that the post of deputy
speaker should be given to the nominee of the opposition party.
3. During earlier years both the speaker and the deputy speaker were members of the ruling
party. The deputy speaker can resign his office by addressing his resignation to the speaker.
4. His office will fall vacant if he ceases to be a member of the Loksabha. He may be removed
from his office by a resolution passed by a majority of all then members of the Loksabha.
5. The deputy speaker presides over the house when the office of speaker is vacant or the
speaker is absent from sitting.

6. He also discharges all the functions and performs all duties attached to the office of the
speaker when the office of speaker is vacant.
7. When the deputy speaker presides over the house he is not entitled to cast vote in the first
instances but will have a casting vote in case of equality of votes.
8. While presiding over the house the deputy speaker has to maintain order and interpret rules.
Power, privileges and immunities of parliament and its members

1. Article 105 deals with the power, privileges and immunities of parliament and its members.
Likewise Art. 194 deals with the power, privileges and immunities of the state legislature and its
members.
2. Originally sub article (3) of these articles made reference to the privileges of the House of
Commons of the English parliament and of its members and committees at the commencement of
the constitution.
3. By these references the parliament and the state legislature were granted the same powers
and privileges as were available to the British parliament and its members.
4. By the constitution 44th amendment act the reference to British parliament has been
deleted. The same article (i.e. Art. 105 (3)) empowers the parliament and state legislature to define
by law their power, privileges and immunities etc.
5. Historically if a person has to ascertain the powers and privileges of the parliament
immediately after 26thJanuary, 1950, he has to find out what were the powers and privileges of
the British parliament.
6. After 1979 in order to ascertain the power and privileges one has to delve into the records
of parliament since its inception.
7. Article 105 (3) contains a suggestion to the parliament to enact a law defining the power,
privileges and immunities of the houses.
8. If such a law is enacted the existence of powers, privileges etc. would be easily
ascertainable from the act itself. Neither the parliament nor any of the 28 state legislatures have
codified their privileges.
Collective Privileges

The privileges of the houses collectively are –

1. Freedom of debates and proceedings – The right was gradually established in England.
Ultimately article 9 of the Bill of Rights, 1688 declared that freedom of speech and debate or
proceedings in parliament are not to be questioned in any court.
2. The Tudor depots have tried to curtail debates in the House of Commons. The House of
Commons even today assert this right by reading a bill for the first time at the beginning of every
session before the Queen’s speech is taken for consideration.
The right to publish debates and proceedings and the right to restrain others from publishing –
1. In India the parliament has amended the constitution and inserted Article 361A. Earlier the
parliament enacted a law for protecting publication of its proceedings.
2. This law was replaced in 1976, during the infamous emergency, as a result of its repeal no
protection was available to persons who are faithfully reproducing in any court in respect of the
publication of substantially true report of any proceedings of either house of parliament or the state
legislature.
3. The privilege of excluding strangers from the house –
4. Originally the power to exclude was a measure to protect itself. The house can always make
its sitting a secret session. Chapter 25 of the Loksabha rules and rule 265 of Rajyasabha expressly
contain the power to order withdrawal of strangers.
5. The right to regulate its internal matters and to decide matters arising within the walls.
The right to punish members and outsiders for breach of privilege ‐
1. Each house claims such power. It includes the power to admonish, reprimand and imprison.
2. The editor of Blitz weekly has called to bar of the house (Loksabha) and reprimanded for
having published an article which was derogatory to the dignity of the members of the house.
3. Smt. Indira Gandhi was expelled from the house (Loksabha) and her seat was rendered
vacant on 19 – 12 – 1978 because her previous conduct had brought disrepute to the house.
4. In 1990 a former minister K.K Tiwari was reprimanded by the Rajyasabha.
The privilege of committing for contempt by a general warrant

1. In Keshav Singh’s case the court recognized that the legislature has the power to commit
for contempt by a general non speaking warrant.

2. In a case of conflict between the fundamental rights and the privileges of the legislature,
harmonious construction is required. General rights must yield to the special privileges of the
legislature.
3. Prohibition to courts inquires into proceedings of parliament (Art. 122).
4. Right of the house to receive immediate information of the arrest, detention, conviction,
imprisonment and release of a member.
5. Prohibition of arrest and service of legal process within the precincts of the house without
the permission of the speaker.
6. Evidence tendered before a parliamentary committee and its report and proceedings cannot
be disclosed or published by anyone until they have been laid on the table of the house.
Introduction
1. A budget is an annual financial statement or an estimate of receipts and expenditure of the

Government of India.
2. It is presented for the ensuing financial year, which at present begins on the 1st of April
every year. The budget includes estimated inflows and outflows of the government for three years.
3. It gives the actual expenditure for the preceding year, the revised estimates for the current
year and the budget estimate for the next year.
4. The pre – budget economic survey is prepared by the finance ministry. The survey studies
the overall economic development in the country.
5. It mainly focuses on areas like banking and capital markets, prices, industry, agriculture
and infrastructure. Other topic includes trends in gross domestic product, demand and supply
factors, and fiscal development to name a few.

6. The overall responsibility of preparing the budget rest with the budget division within the
finance ministry. The division takes cognizance of the availability of funds as well as the proposals
from the numerous departments and ministries.
7. It also consults the comptroller and auditor general. The budget however needs the final
approval of the finance minister before it can be presented in the Loksabha.
8. The president decides on which day the budget is to be presented. By convention, it is
presented on the last day of February.
The speech announcing the general budget is divided into two parts: Part A – Dealing with the
general economic survey of the country
Part B – Containing the taxation proposals for the ensuing financial year.
Following the budget presentation, the annual financial statement relating to the government of
India (duly authenticated by the finance minister) is laid on the table.
Also, the finance bill is introduced at this time. Vote on Account
1. If the budget is not approved by 1st April of the current financial year, the Indian
Constitution allows the Loksabha to grant a vote – on – account.
2. Generally, the passage of the budget crosses the beginning of the financial year and it
becomes necessary for the government to have enough funds to run the administration of the
country.
3. Thus vote on account is a special provision, which empowers the Loksabha to make any
grant in advance for a part of any financial year, pending the completion of the budgetary process.
4. Normally, the vote on account is granted for two months for a sum equivalent to one –
sixth of the estimated expenditure for the entire year under the various demands for grants.
5. During an election year, the vote on account may exceed that time. This provision is
invoked once the general discussion on the budget is over and before the discussion demands for
grants is taken up.
6. In case of railway budget, which is passed before 31stMarch, no vote on account is needed,
except during an election year.
The procedure for approving the budget in the parliament involves many steps: Presentation of the
budget
1. The finance minister introduces the budget in the Loksabha in February with a speech
giving an overview of the budget.

2. A copy of the budget is laid on the table of the Rajyasabha at the conclusion of the finance
minister’s speech in the Loksabha. There is no discussion of the budget on the day in which it is
presented.
Discussion on the budget
1. The parliament allots some time for discussion after the presentation. The budget is
discussed in two stages – the general discussion followed by a detailed discussion and voting on
the demands for grants.
2. Besides there are other opportunities for further discussion on financial proposals during
consideration and passing of appropriation bill and finance bill.
3. The Rajyasabha is restricted to discussing the budget in general terms. Voting on demands
1. After the prescribed period of debate is over, the speaker uses his power to stop all
discussions and put all outstanding demands for grants to vote.
2. This power is known as guillotine. Voting on demands is the exclusive preserve of the
Loksabha. Demands for grants are subjected to cut motions by the members of the Loksabha.
Appropriation bill
1. The bill is introduced after all demands for grants are passed by the Loksabha. The bill
gives the way for the enactment of appropriation act and is certified as money bill.
2. It allows the government to withdraw money from the consolidated fund of India.
Finance bill
1. This bill includes all taxation proposals including any amendments and paves the way for
enacting the finance act.
Demands for grants with regard to the budget
2. Demands for grants can be defined as request made by the executive to the Loksabha for
the authority to spend the amount asked for.
3. Thus, they are related to the expenditure part of the budget. The demands have to be made
in the form of motions.
4. Members may disapprove a policy pursued by the ministry or suggest measures for
economy in the administration or focus attention of the Ministry to specific local grievances.

5. Members can do so by moving subsidiary motions, called cut motions.
Budget in the parliament

1. Article 112 enjoins the president to cause to be laid before both the house of parliament. In
respect of every financial year, a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the
government of India for that year.
2. The constitution refers to it as annual financial statement and it is popularly known as the
budget. The budget also includes the ways and means to meet the expenditure.
3. Expenditure on revenue account is distinguished from other expenditure.
4. The estimates embodied in the budget show respectively
• The sums charged upon the consolidated fund of India and
• The sums required to meet other expenditure out of the consolidated fund of India
The expenditure that is charged upon the consolidated fund of India includes the following –
1. The emoluments and allowances of the president and other expenditure relating to his
office.
2. The salary and allowances of the chairman and deputy chairman of Rajyasabha and the
speaker and the deputy speaker of the Loksabha.
3. Salaries, allowances and pensions and pensions of the judges of the Supreme Court and the
high court.
4. Salary allowances and pension of the comptroller and auditor – general of India.
5. Debt charges for which the government is liable
6. Any sums required to satisfy any judgement, decree or order of court.
7. Any other expenditure which is declared by this constitution or by an act of parliament to
be so charged.
The expenditure that is charged upon the consolidated fund of India is not votable. Article 113
states that such expenditure shall not be submitted the vote of parliament.
All other expenditure is submitted in the form of demands for grants to the Loksabha.

The Loksabha alone has the power to assent, or to refuse to assent, to any demand. It may also
reduce the amount specified in the demand.
The demands that are not charged are votable by the Loksabha. No demand shall be made except
on the recommendation of the president.
The budget is discussed and passed in three stages. In the first stage there is a general discussion.
In the second stage the demands for grants are considered and passed.
In the third stage the appropriation bills are passed.
Article 114 lies down that no money may be drawn from the consolidated fund except by an
appropriation act. Immediately after the demand for the grants have been voted and passed by the
Loksabha a bill is introduced in the Loksabha which specifies the amount to be appropriated out
of the consolidated fund of India and the purpose or service for which the grant is required.
It includes charged and non – charged expenditure. Every appropriation bill is a money bill. It is
passed as a money bill.
But there are some extra restrictions. No amendment shall be proposed to any such bill which will
have the effect of
a) Varying the amount of any grant, or
b) Altering the destination of any grant (i.e. changing the purpose of the grant)
c) Varying the amount of a charged expenditure

This hardly leaves any scope for moving an amendment to an appropriation bill.

Funds
The constitution of India provides for the following three kinds of funds for the central
government:
1. Consolidated fund of India (Article 226)
2. Public account of India (Article 266)
3. Contingency fund of India (Article 267) A brief description of them has been given below:
Consolidated fund of India
1. It is a fund to which all receipts are credited and all payments are debited. In other words,
(a) all revenues received by the government of India: (b) all loans rose by the government by the
issue of treasury bills, loans or ways and means of advances: and (c) all money received by the
government in repayments of loans from the consolidated fund of India.
2. All the legally authorised payments on behalf of the Government of India are made out of
his fund. No money out of this fund can be appropriated (issued or drawn) except in accordance
with a parliamentary law.
Public Account of India
1. All other public money (other than those which are credited to the consolidated fund of
India) received by or on behalf of the government of India shall be credited to the public account
of India.
2. This includes provident fund deposits, judicial deposits, saving bank deposits,
departmental deposits, remittances and so on.
3. This account is operated by executive action, that is, the payments from this account can
be made without parliamentary appropriation. Such payments are mostly in the nature of banking
transactions.
Contingency fund of India
1. The constitution authorised the parliament to establish a contingency fund of India, into
which amounts determined by law are paid from time to time.
2. Accordingly, the parliament enacted the contingency fund of India act in 1950. This fund
is placed at the disposal of the president and he can make advances out of it to meet unforeseen
expenditure pending its authorisation by the parliament.

Devices of parliamentary proceedings Motion

1. A motion is a procedural parliamentary device by which the functions of the House are
sought to be achieved. In simple words, it sets the house in motion.
2. A motion generally suggests a course of action before the house. Resolution
1. A resolution is a motion which is complete in itself. A resolution generally expresses an
opinion and so has a persuasive value.
2. The enacting clause of a bill is worded as a resolution “be it enacted by the
parliament...when this is passed the bill attains the character of an act.”
Question hour
The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. During this time, the members ask
questions and the ministers usually give answers. The questions are of three kinds, namely, starred,
unstarred and short notice.
1. A starred question ‐ (distinguished by an asterisk) requires an oral answer and hence
supplementary question can follow.
2. An unstarred question – on the other hand, requires a written answer and hence,
supplementary questions cannot follow.
3. A short notice question – is one that is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is
answered orally.
A brief description of various types of motions has been given below:

1. Closure Motion
It is a motion moved by a member to cut short the debate on a matter before the house. If the
motion is approved by the house, debate is stopped forthwith and the matter is put to vote. There
are four four kinds of closure motions:
a) Simple Closure: it is one when a member moves that the matter having been sufficiently
discussed be now put to vote’.
b) Closure by compartment: In this case, the clauses of a bill or a lengthy resolution are
grouped into parts before the commencement of the debate. The debate covers the part as a whole
and the entire part is put to vote.
c) Kangaroo Closure: Under this type, only important clauses are taken up for debate and
voting and the intervening clauses are skipped over and taken as passed.
d) Guillotine Closure: It is one when the undiscussed clauses of a bill or a resolution are also
put t vote along with the discussed ones due to want of time (as the time allotted for the discussion
is over).

No – Confidence Motion:
1. Article 75 of the constitution says that the council of ministers shall be collectively
responsible to Loksabha. It means that the ministry stays in office so long as it enjoys confidence
of the majority of the members of the Loksabha.
2. In other words, the Loksabha can remove the ministry from office by passing a no –
confidence motion. The motion needs the support of 50 members to be admitted.
Privilege Motion
1. It is considered with the breach of parliamentary privileges by a minister. It is moved by a
member when he feels that a minister has committed a breach of privilege of the house or more of
its members by withholding facts of a case or by giving wrong or distorted facts. Its purpose is to
censure the concerned minister.
Motion of thanks
2. The first session after each general election and the first session of every fiscal year is
addressed by the president.
3. In this address, the president outlines the policies and programmes of the government in
the preceding year and ensuing year.
4. This address of the president, which corresponds to the speech from the throne in Britain,
is discussed in both the houses of parliament on a motion called the ‘motion of thanks’. At the end
of discussion, the motion is put to vote.
5. This motion must be passed in the house. Otherwise, it amounts to the defeat of the
government. This inaugural speech of the president is an occasion available to the members of
parliament to raise discussions and debates to examine and criticise the government and
administration for its lapses and failures.
Calling attention motion
1. It is introduced in the parliament by a member to call the attention of a minister to a matter
of urgent public importance, and to seek an authoritative statement from him on that matter.
2. Like the zero hour, it is also an Indian innovation in the parliamentary procedure and has
been in existence since 1954. However, unlike the zero hour, it is mentioned in the rules of
procedure.

No – day – yet Named Motion

1. It is a motion that has been admitted by the speaker but no date has been fixed for its
discussion. The speaker, after considering the state of business in the house and in consultation
with the leader of the house or on the recommendation of the business advisory committee, allots
a day or days or part of a day for the discussion of such a motion.
Censure Motion
1. It should state the reasons for its adoption in the Loksabha. It can be moved against an
individual minister or a group of ministers or the entire council of ministers.
2. It is moved for censuring the council of ministers for specific policies and actions. If it is
passed in the Loksabha, the council of ministers need not resign from the office.
Half – an – hour discussion
1. It is meant for discussing a matter of sufficient public importance, which has been subjected
to a lot of debate and the answer to which needs elucidation on a matter of fact.
2. The speaker can allot three days in a week for such discussions. There is no formal motion
or voting before the house.
Short duration discussion
1. It is also known as two – hour discussion as the time allotted for such a discussion should
not exceed two hours. The members of the parliament can raise such discussion on a matter of
urgent public importance.
2. The speaker can allot two days in a week for such discussions. There is neither a formal
motion before the house nor voting. This device has been in existence since 1953.
Point of order
1. A member can raise a point of order when the proceedings of the house do not follow the
normal rules of procedure. A point of order should relate to the interpretation or enforcement of
the rules of the house or such articles of the constitution that regulate the business of the house and
should rise that is within the cognizance of the speaker.
2. It is usually raised by an opposition member in order to control the government. It is an
extraordinary device as it suspends the proceedings before the house. No debate is allowed on a
point of order.

Special mention
1. A matter which is not a point of order or which cannot be raised during question hour, half
– an hour discussion, short duration discussion or under adjournment motion, calling attention
notice or under any rule of the house can be raised under the special mention in the Rajyasabha.
2. Its equivalent procedural device in the Loksabha is known as ‘Notice (Mention) under rule
377’.
Adjournment motion
1. When there is an urgent matter of public importance then a member may propose that the
business of the house be adjourned for discussing that matter.
2. This motion can be moved only with the consent of the speaker. Generally such motions
are discussed in the afternoon at 4.00 p.m.
Lame – duck session
1. It refers to the last session of the existing Loksabha, after a new Loksabha has been elected.
Those members of the existing Loksabha who could not get re‐ elected to the new Loksabha are
called lame – ducks.
2. Motions in regard to the budget
3. The most popular and well known motions which are used by members in connection with
the budget are three. The demand for grants are considered and passed by Loksabha. Hence these
motions can be moved only in Loksabha.
Policy cut
• The members move that the demand be reduced to one rupee. The member moving this
motion in fact wants to discuss the policy behind the demand in detail and gives alternative policy
suggestions.
Economy cut
• In this motion the reduction in the amount of demand is substantial. The amount to be
reduced is clearly stated and the object is to bring about economy in the expenditure.
Token cut
• In this motion the demand is sought to be reduced by Rs.100/‐ the object of the motion is
to ventilate a specific grievances within the sphere of responsibility of the government.
Private member’s resolution
• A resolution may be moved by a minister or by a private member. For private members
generally afternoons are reserved on alternate Fridays. Resolutions are selected by ballot.

• Resolution may be brought under rule 200 of the Loksabha for the removal of the speaker
or the deputy speaker
The legislative procedure

1. The most important function of the parliament is to enact laws. Though now
– a – days much less time is devoted to this function.
2. In the modern age legislation is becoming complex. A large section of the members find
themselves unable to participate meaningfully in the discussion.
3. The legislative process may be divided into a 4 types depending on the content of the bill.
Type of procedure
1. Ordinary bill
2. Money bill as defined in Art. 10.
3. Financial bill (Art. 117)
4. Constitution amendment bill
Ordinary bills
1. Any bill which is not constitution amendment bill or a money bill is classified as an
ordinary bill.
2. Classifications are
3. Original bills (embodying new proposals, ideas or policies)
4. Amending bills (to consolidate existing law on a particular subject)
5. Expiring laws (continuance) bills (to continue an expiring act)
6. Bills to replace ordinances issued by the president

Introduction
1. A bill that does not fall in category (b), (c) or (d) above is called an ordinary bill. Such a
bill may originate in either house of parliament (Art. 107).
2. A bill may be introduced either by a minister or by any other member. When a bill is
introduced by a member other than a minister then it is called a private member bill.
3. If a private member desires to introduce a bill he has to give notice of his intention to seek
leave of the house to introduce the bill.
4. The prescribed period of notice is one month. For ministers notice is not required. If a bill
has been published in the official gazette before introduction, no motion for leave to introduce is
necessary.
5. A bill which has not been published prior to its introduction is published after introduction.
The motion for leave to introduce is rarely opposed.
Post introduction motions

1. Any time after the bill has been introduced or on any subsequent occasion, the member in
– charge of the bill may take one of the following motions in regard to his bill namely –
2. That it be taken into consideration; or
3. That it be referred to a select committee; or
4. That it be referred to joint committee of the houses; or
5. That it be circulated for eliciting opinion.
6. (Rule 69 of the Rajyasabha and rule 74 of Loksabha)
Discussion of principles
1. On the day on which any of the above motions is made or on any subsequent day to which
the discussion is postponed the principles of the bill and its provision may be discussed generally.
2. At this stage no amendments to the bill may be moved. In the House of Commons, this is
called the first reading.

Reference to a committee
1. When a motion for referring the bill to a committee is carried, the committee considers the
bill clause by cause and suggest omission, insertions and additions to the bill.
2. When the report of the committee is presented to the house the member in
– charge of the bill moves that the bill as reported by the committee be taken into
consideration.
3. After the member in – charge has moved that the bill be taken into consideration or where
it had been referred to a committee that the bill as reported by the committee be taken into
consideration.
4. The clause by clause consideration opens up and amendment to clause is admitted. The
presiding officer has the power to submit the bill clause by clause.
5. He calls each clause separately. When the amendments relating to the clause have been
dealt with he puts the question ‘that clause….stand part of the bill’. This stage is called the second
reading.
Passing of bill
1. When a bill is passed by one house it is translated to the other house for concurrence. On
receipt by the other house it is laid on the table.
2. Any time after that, any minister in the case of a government bill may give notice of the
intention to move that the bill be taken into consideration.
3. In the second house the bill passes through all the stages except introduction.
• It may pass the bill without amendments
• It may pass the bill with amendments
4. If the originating house accepts the bill as amended it is presented to the president for
assent. If the originating house does not conur with in the amendments and the disagreement is not
resolved the president may summon a joint sitting to resolve the deadlock (Art. 108).
• It may reject the bill. This creates a deadlock and the president may summon a joint sitting
to resolve it (Art. 108).
• It may keep the bill lying and take no action. This may happen rarely because the
government which has passed a bill in one house will not allow it to be kept that away, but if it so

happens and more than six months elapse from the date of reception of the bill the president may
resort to summoning a joint sitting.
5. When a bill has been passed by both the houses the presiding officer (speaker or chairman)
signs the bill.
6. If there are patent errors or by reasons of some amendments being accepted the bill requires
consequential amendments
7. The presiding officer has the power to correct such errors and make such amendments.
8. The bill duly authenticated by the speaker or the chairman is presented to the president for
his assent.
The president may –

1. Assent to the bill. The bill then becomes the act.
2. Withhold his assent. The bill then ends and does not become act.
3. Return the bill for reconsideration. If the houses again pass the bill with or without
amendments and it is presented to the president he is obliged to give his assent (art. 111).
Money Bill
1. Article 110 states that a bill is deemed to be money bill if it contains provisions dealing
with all or any of the following matters namely –
2. The imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax; the regulation of
the borrowing of money or the giving of any guarantee by the government of India or the
amendment of the law with respect to
3. Any financial obligations undertaken or to be undertaken by the government of India; the
custody of the consolidated fund or the contingency fund of India
4. The payment of moneys into or the withdrawal of moneys from any such fund; the
appropriation of moneys out of the consolidated fund of India
5. The declaring of any expenditure to the expenditure charged on the consolidated fund of
India or the increasing of the amount of any such expenditure
6. The receipt of money on account of the consolidated fund of India or the public account of
India or the custody or issue of such money or the audit of accounts of the Union or of a state

7. Or any matter incidental to any of the matters specified in sub – clauses (a) to (f).
8. A bill is not treated as a money bill by reason only that it provides for imposition of fines
or penalties, fees for licences or for services, imposition, abolition or regulation of tax by any local
authority.
Procedure of money bill –

1. A money bill may be introduced only in Loksabha. Article 117 prohibits introduction of
money bill in the Rajyasabha.
2. A money bill shall not be introduced or moved except on the recommendation of the
president (Art. 117).
3. A money bill after being passed by Loksabha is transmitted to the Rajyasabha. All other
bills are taken up by the Rajyasabha for consideration and passing.
4. Money bills are taken up for consideration and returned. In ordinary bills the Rajyasabha
may make amendments.
5. In case of money bill the amendments made by Rajyasabha are only recommendations.
Article 109 (2) mentions that a money bill is transmitted to the Rajyasabha for its
recommendations.
6. The Rajyasabha must return the bill within a period of 14 days from the date of the receipt
of the bill.
7. If the bill is not returned within 14 days it is deemed to have been passed by both houses
at the expiration of the said period in the form in which it was passed by Loksabha (Art. 109).
8. If the Rajyasabha returns the bill with recommendations the Loksabha may –
• Accept any or all of the recommendations
• Not accept any or all of the recommendations
9. In case the Loksabha accepts the recommendations the money bill is deemed to have been
passed by both houses in the form in which it has been accepted by the Loksabha.
10. In case the Loksabha does not accept the recommendations the money bill is deemed to
have been passed by both houses in the form in which it was passed by Loksabha.
11. Thus Rajyasabha cannot amend or reject a money bill. It can only make recommendations
to the Loksabha.
12. Loksabha may either accept or reject all or any of the recommendations suggested by the
Rajyasabha.

13. The Rajyasabha can detain or delay bill for 14 days.

14. In the matter of a money bill the supremacy of Loksabha is secured by the constitution.
The provisions of the constitution relating to money bill are modelled on the Parliament act. 1911
and the Parliament act, 1949 passed by the British Parliament.
Assent
1. A money bill passed in the manner stated above is presented to the president for his assent.
The president may either give assent or without assent.
2. The president acts in this case on the advice of the council of ministers. The president,
before the bill was introduced gives his recommendation as required under article 117.
3. Hence it is inconceivable that the ministry would advice the president to veto the bill. The
president is not allowed to return a money bill for reconsideration (Art. 111).
4. While presenting the bill to the president the speaker endorses on it a certificate stating that
the bill is a money bill.
The steps involved in the passage of an ordinary bill
A bill passes through different stages before it becomes an act. It goes through three readings in
both houses.
First reading
1. During the first reading. The bill is introduced by the minister in charge after the speaker
grants permission to do so.
2. The bill is then published in the gazette of India. If the bill has already been published in
the gazette with speaker’s assent, the stage of introducing the bill in the house can be bypassed.
Second reading
The second reading is the most vital stage for the bill because it is scrutinized thoroughly during
this period. This reading is divided in two stages.
The first stage
1. At this stage, only the principles of the bill are discussed. There is no in‐ depth discussion
about the details of the bill.
2. The bill may be referred to a select committee of Loksabha to a joint committee of the
houses with the concurrence of Rajyasabha and / or it may be circulated for the purposes of
eliciting opinion.

3. These committees are appointed on a temporary basis in order to consider particular bills
referred to them.
4. At this time, either of the two houses might refer the bill to departmentally related joint
standing committee of both houses.
5. This committee also consider the bill clause by clause and its members can move
amendments to various clauses.
6. The committee can also take evidence of experts, associations or public bodies who are
interested in the subject.
7. After each clause and schedule have been considered and adopted by the committee. The
Loksabha secretariat prepares a report. This report is presented to the house for its consideration.
Eliciting opinion
1. If a motion is passed in the parliament that a bill should be circulated to elicit opinions of
local bodies, associations, individuals or institutions, the secretariat of the house circulates letters
to all the state governments and union territories asking them to publish the bill in their respective
local gazettes.
2. The period for eliciting opinion is generally mentioned in motion. If no mention is made,
the state governments have to send the opinions within three months of adopting the motion.
3. The opinions are then tabled in parliament. The bill again passes through the committee
stage. At this point, the house can debate on the bill as reported by the committee. The debate is
confined to the bill as reported by the committee.
The second stage
1. After the house decides to debate the bill as reported by the committee the members discuss
each clause of the bill separately.
2. They can also amend the clause. This is a long process where each clause and amendments
is discussed, adopted or rejected by the house.
3. If an amendment is accepted, it becomes a part of the bill.
Third reading
1. At this stage, the bill is discussed solely to determine whether to approve or reject it. Only
certain verbal, formal and consequential amendments are allowed to move at this stage in order to
pass an ordinary bill.
2. The simple majority of members present and voting is required.

3. Once the bill has been approved by the originating house, it is sent to the other house. It
goes through all the three stages again.
4. In case a bill is passed by the originating house but rejected by the other house, the president
has the power to call a joint sitting of the two houses.
5. The decision to accept or reject a bill is taken by the majority of the total number of
members of both houses present and voting.
6. After both houses of parliament passes a bill. It is presented to the president for his assent.
If the president does not agree to sign the bill, it is rejected.
7. However the president generally acts on the advice of the council of ministers, so he
generally does not withhold consent against the advice of the ministers.
8. He has the right to seek information and clarification about the bill. If the president gives
his assent, the bill becomes an act.
Comparison between an ordinary bill vs. Money bill

Ordinary bill
1. It can be introduced either in the Loksabha or the Rajyasabha.

2. It can be introduced either by a minister or by a private member.
3. It is introduced without the recommendation of the president.
4. It can be amended or rejected by the Rajyasabha.
5. It can be detained by the Rajyasabha for a maximum period of six months.
6. It does not require the certification of the speaker when transmitted to the Rajyasabha (if it
has originated in the Loksabha).
7. It is sent for the president’s assent only after being approved by both houses. In case of a
deadlock due to disagreement between the two houses, a joint sitting of both the houses can be
summoned by the president to resolve the deadlock.
8. Its defeat in the Loksabha may lead to the resignation of the government (if it is introduced
by a minister)
9. It can be rejected, approved or returned for reconsideration by the president.

Money bill
1. It can be introduced only in the Loksabha and not in the Rajyasabha.
2. It can be introduced only by a minister.
3. It cannot be amended or rejected by the Rajyasabha. The Rajyasabha should return the bill
with or without recommendations, which may be accepted or rejected by the Loksabha.
4. It can be considered by the Rajyasabha for a maximum period of 14 days only.
5. It requires the certification of the speaker when transmitted to the Rajyasabha.
6. It is sent for the president’s assent even it is approved by only Loksabha. There is no chance
of any disagreement between the two houses and hence, there is no provisions of joint sitting of
both houses in this regard.
7. Its defeat in the Loksabha leads to the resignation of the government.
8. It can be rejected or approved but cannot be returned for reconsideration by the president.
Financial bill
1. The constitution employs the term financial bill in a technical sense. In common parlances
a financial bill is any bill dealing with fiscal matters.
2. A money bill has been defined in Art. 110 as a bill dealing only with any or all of the
matters mentioned in clauses (a) to (g) of that article.
3. A financial bill is a bill which contains provisions of general legislation along with one or
more matters mentioned in Art.110 [Art.117 (1)].
4. But this is a more or less a theoretical proposition. The determining factor is the speaker’s
certificate. The annual finance bill contains many provisions but is treated as money bill because
it is so certified and endorsed by the speaker.
5. A financial bill shares two different attributes with a money bill (a) both of them can
originate in the Loksabha and (b) they cannot be introduced without the recommendation of the
president.
6. Two types of financial bills do not receive the speaker’s certificate stating that they are
money bills. Examples of the two types are as follows:
• A bill which does not solely deal with matters enumerated in Art. 110 and contains other
matters also. An act that deals with iron ore and also imposes a cess on such ore is a Financial Bill
[Art. 117 (1)].
• A bill which contains provisions involving expenditure from consolidated fund of India
[Art. 117 (3)}.

7. A financial bill of the first type falling under Art. 117 (1) (containing matters enumerated
in Art. 110 and some other provisions) cannot be introduced in Rajyasabha and also cannot be
introduced without the recommendations of
President.
8. As stated above these two features are applicable to money bills also.
9. A financial bill of the second type involving expenditure from the consolidated fund of
India [falling under Art. 117 (3)] may be introduced in either house and does not require the
president’s recommendation for introduction.
10. But it requires president recommendation for consideration in both the houses and shall not
be passed without it.
11. The Rajyasabha has the same power in regard to a financial bill as it has in regard to an
ordinary bill. It can reject or amend such a bill.
12. In case of a bill falling under Art. 117 (3) involving expenditure from the consolidated fund
the bill cannot be passed unless the president has recommended to the Rajyasabha the
consideration of the financial bill.
13. The supremacy of Loksabha is limited to money bills. Financial bills have to be passed by
the Rajyasabha and in case of final disagreement the provision of Art. 108 in regard to joint sitting
would be attracted. For money bill there is no joint sitting.
President’s Role:
In case of financial bill the president has three options
(a) To declare his assent
(b) To withhold his assent
(c) To refer back for reconsideration
1. The same as in the case of an ordinary bill. A money bill can only be assented or vetoed. It
cannot be sent back for reconsideration.
2. Article 225 of the constitution provides a cure and saves legislation from invalidity. The
recommendations and previous sanctions required under the constitution are to be regarded as a
matter procedure.
3. If the president gives his assent to the bill passed without his recommendation then the
assent has the effect of curing the irregularity. The bill after assent becomes a valid act. The non –
compliance is of no consequence. The difference between a money bill and a financial bill
1. The difference between a money bills and a financial bills is merely technical. All financial
bills are not money bills.

2. A financial bill is considered to be a money bill solely when it contains matters specified
in the constitution for a money bill.
3. Only those financial bills would be considered as money bills, which are certified by the
speaker.
4. A financial bill, which contains any matters specified for a money bill but does not deal
exclusively with such matters, has two features in common with a money bill:
5. It cannot be introduced in the Rajyasabha
6. It cannot be introduce the Rajyasabha
7. It cannot be introduced except on the recommendation of the president
8. But, if the bill is not classified as a money bill, the Rajyasabha has full powers to reject or
amend it as it does in the case of ordinary bill.
9. In case of disagreement over a bill between the houses, the president can call for a joint
sitting to resolve the deadlock.
10. A financial bill, which involves expenditure from the consolidated fund of India, is treated
in the same manner as an ordinary bill.
11. Hence it can be introduced in both the house and the Rajyasabha has the full power to reject
or amend it.
12. It also does not require the recommendation of the president for its introduction. However
the president’s recommendation is necessary before the bill can be passed by both the houses.
Constitution amendment bill

1. There are provision of the constitution which may be amended by an ordinary bill because
the constitution itself declares that no such law shall be deemed to be an amendment of the
constitution e.g. Arts. 4, 244A.
2. Here we shall deal in brief with that constitution amending acts which are covered by Art.
368.
3. A bill to amend the constitution may be introduced in either house of parliament. Prior
recommendation of president is not required.
4. Constitution bills are to be passed by each house separately with special majority at every
stage i.e. all the three readings.

5. The special majority is in fact a double requirement. Firstly, it must be by a majority of the
total membership of the house and secondly by a majority of not less than two third of members
present and voting.
6. If the amendment seek to make any change in certain parts mentioned in Art. 368, e.g. in
regard to the supreme court and the high courts, relation between the union and the states etc. The
bill requires ratification by legislatures of not less than one – half of the states.
7. A constitution amendment bill is presented to the president who shall give his assent to the
bill. The president has no option but to assent.
8. Prior to the constitution (24th Amendment) Act. 1971 the president had a choice but after
the amendment it is obligatory for the president to give his assent.
9. A constitution amendment bill must be passed by each house by special majority prescribed
by Art. 368. There are no provisions for joint sitting.
Lapsing of bills
1. Article 107 enumerates certain situation in which a bill lapses. A bill which has lapsed is
no more before the parliament.
2. It has to introduce again and all steps are required to be taken again. Our constitution has
made a departure from the British practice.
3. Prorogation has no effect on a pending bill, in India. In England a bill lapses on the
prorogation of the House of Commons.
4. A bill pending in the Loksabha lapses on its dissolution. The bill may have originated in
the Loksabha or may have been transmitted to it by the Rajyasabha.
5. A bill passed by the Loksabha and pending in the Rajyasabha lapses on the dissolution of
the Loksabha.
6. A bill originating in the Rajyasabha which has not been passed by the Loksabha and which
is still pending in the Rajyasabha does not lapse.
7. A bill which has been passed by both the houses has been presented to the president for
assent does not lapse.
8. A bill returned by the president for reconsideration does not lapse.
9. A bill in regard to which the president has notified his intention to summon the house to a
joint sitting does not lapse by dissolution of the Loksabha.
10. All motions, resolutions, amendments etc. Pending in the Loksabha lapse on its dissolution.

GOVERNANCE
1. Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decision that define expectations, grant
power, or verify performance.
2. It consist of either a separate process or part of decision – making or leadership processes.
In modern nation – states, these processes and systems are typically administered by a government.
3. When discussing governance in particular organisations, the quality of governance within
the organisation is often compared to a standard of good governance.
4. In the case of a business or of a non – profit organization, governance relates to consistent
management, cohesive policies, guidance, process and decision – rights for a given area of
responsibility.
5. For example, managing at a corporate level might involve evolving policies on privacy, on
internal investment and on the use of data.
6. To distinguish the governance from government: “governance” is what a “governing body”
does.
7. It might be a geo – political entity (nation ‐ state), a corporate entity (business entity), and
a socio – political entity (chiefdom, tribe, family, etc.).
8. Or any number of different kinds of governing bodies, but governance is the way rules are
set and implemented.
ASPECTS OF GOVERNANCE
1. Participation: All men and women should have a voice in decision – making, either directly
or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests.
2. Such broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities
to participate constructively.
3. Rule of law: Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the
laws of human rights.
4. Transparency: Transparency is built on the tree flow of information. Processes institutions
and information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is
provided to monitor them.
5. Responsiveness: Institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders.
6. Consensus orientation: Good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad

consensus on what is in the best interest of the group and where possible, on policies and
procedures.

7. Equity: All men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well – being.
8. Effectiveness and efficiency: Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs
while making the best use of resources.
9. Accountability: Decision – makers in government, the private sector and civil society
organisations are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders.
10. This accountability differs depending on the organisations and whether the decision is
internal or external to an organisation.
11. Strategic vision: Leaders and public have a broad and long term perspective on good
governance and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development.
12. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which
that perspective is grounded.
Creating the conditions for good governance

Given the characteristics of good governance, its implications and the relevance to public sector
reform within small developing nations, governments must create and sustain the condition
necessary for good governance within their respective territories.
Conditions for good governance
1. Create and adapt basic legislation and institutions that guarantee political and economic
freedoms as well as strive to meet a broader range of basic human needs (food, housing, health
and Medicare, education etc.)
2. Relax regulations in order to remove obstacles to economic participation.
3. Improve financial management
4. Build infrastructure to ensure that organizational capacity is available to handle the
growing needs for services, increasing demands for better and more responsive services and
creating conditions for economic progress and social cohesion.
5. Train public officers, business people and entrepreneurs. With the improvements in access
to education brings the challenges of rapid changes in many knowledge areas therefore government
must institute
6. An ongoing development programme for its human resources to ensure that they are
equipped with necessary skills.
7. Reform public management practices to address issues such as budget deficits, external
pressure on competitiveness (globalization), adequate work procedures, excessive centralization,
and inflexibility, lack of efficiency and perceived lack of public confidence in government.

8. Freedom from distortionary incentives through corruption, nepotism, patronage or capture

by narrow private interest groups.
9. Accountability of politicians and civil servants to ensure that the power given to them
through the laws and regulations they implement.
10. Resources they control and the organizations they manage is used appropriately and in
accordance with the public interest.
Accountability and Transparency

1. The term accountable came into usage in the English language in 1583, the oxford
dictionary defines it as liable to be called to account, responsible (to, for).
2. Similarly, the Webster’s dictionary defines it as liable to be called on to render an account.
3. Thus the concept of accountability connotes the obligation of the administrators to give a
satisfactory account of their performance and the manner in which they have exercised power
conferred on them.
4. Its main aim is to check wrong and arbitrary actions and increase efficiency and
effectiveness of administrative process.
5. The two terms administrative accountability and administrative responsibility are very
often used interchangeably.
6. Responsibility refers to the public servant’s responsiveness to public will, whereas
accountability denotes the specific methods and procedures to enforce the public servant’s
responsibility.
7. In a constitution and democratic system government, administrative responsibility cannot
be allowed to depend solely on the personal responsibility procedural basis.
8. This basis of enforcing responsibility is known accountability.
Control
1. Administrative accountability is enforced by means of various controls. In other words, it
involves devising control mechanism to keep the administrative under a close watch and in check.
2. Thus, the public servants are made accountable to different agencies which exercises
control over them.
3. The purpose of control is to ensure that the public servants exercise their powers and
discretion in accordance with laws, formal rules and established procedures and conventions.
The external control over administration is exercised by the following four agencies:

a) Legislature
b) Executive
c) Judiciary
d) Citizen Legislative control
1. In any representative democratic government, whether Parliamentary or Presidential, the
legislature is the supreme organs of the government as it consist of the representatives of the
people.
2. It reflects the will of the people and acts as a custodian of the representative people.
3. Hence it exercise control over administration to hold it accountable and responsible.
4. The parliamentary system of government prevalent n India is based on principle of
collective responsibility.
5. It means that the ministers are responsible to the parliament for their policies and actions.
6. Thus the legislative control over administration under such a system is only indirect, that
is through ministers.The various techniques/methods/tools of parliamentary control are as follows:
Law making
1. It is the primary function of the Parliament; the parliament lays down the policies of the
government by making (enacting) or changing (amending) or cancelling (repealing) the laws.
2. Parliamentary laws determine and condition the organisation and condition the
organisation, structure, powers, functions and procedures of the administration.
Question Hour (Interpellations)
1. The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. During this time, the MPs
ask questions and the ministers usually give answers.
2. The questions are of three kinds, viz. Starred, unstarred and short notice.
• A starred question is one which is distinguished by an asterisk. It requires an oral answer
hence supplementary questions can follow.
• An unstarred question, on the other hand is one which is not distinguished by an asterisk.
It requires a written answer and hence, supplementary questions cannot follow.
• A short notice question is one which is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is
answered orally.

3. Questions (or interpellations) are effective tools of legislative control over administration
and keeps the civil service alert and on its toes.
Zero Hour –
1. Unlike the question Hour, the zero hour is not mentioned in the rules of procedure. Thus it
is an informal device available to the members of the Parliament to raise matters without any prior
notice.
2. The zero hour starts immediately after the question hour and lasts until the agenda for the
day (i.e. regular business of the house) is taken up.
Half – an – Hour Discussion –

1. It is meant for raising a discussion as the time allotted for such discussion on a matter of
sufficient public importance which has been subjected to a lot of debate and the answer to which
needs elucidation on a matter of fact.
Short duration discussion –
1. it is also known two hour discussion as the time allotted for such a discussion should not
exceed two hours.
2. The members of the parliament can raise such discussion on a matter of urgent public
importance.
Calling Attention –
1. It is a notice introduced in the Parliament by a member to call the attention of a minister to
a matter of urgent public importance and to seek an authoritative statement from him on that
matter.
Adjournment Motion –
1. It is introduced in the Parliament to draw attention of the house to a matter of urgent public
importance.
2. This motion needs the support of 50 members to be admitted. As it interrupts the normal
business of the House. It is regarded as an extraordinary device.
No Confidence Motion –
1. Article 75 of the Constitution states that the Council of Ministers shall be collectively
responsible to the Loksabha.

2. It means that the ministry stays in office so long as it enjoys confidence of the majority of
the members of the Loksabha.
3. In other words, the Loksabha can remove the ministry from office by passing the No
Confidence Motion. The motion needs the support of 50 members to be admitted.
Budgetary System –
1. The parliament controls the revenues and expenditures of the government through
enactment of the budget.
2. It is the ultimate authority to sanction the raising and spending of government funds. It can
criticise the policies and actions of the government and point out the lapse and failures of
administration during the process of enactment of the budget.
Audit System –
1. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), on behalf of the Parliament, audits
the accounts of government and submits n annual Audit Report about the financial transactions of
the government.
2. The report of CAG highlights the improper illegal, unwise, uneconomical and irregular
expenditure of the government.
Public Account Committee –
1. The committee was set up first in India in 1921 it consist of 22 members (15 from Loksabha
and 7 from the Rajyasabha).
2. The members are elected by the Parliament every year from amongst its members
according to the principle of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.
3. The function of the committee is to examine the annual audits reports of the CAG which
are laid before the parliament by the President.
4. In this function, the committee is assisted by the CAG.
Estimates Committee –
1. The first estimate committee in the post – independence era was constituted in 1950 on the
recommendation of John Mthai the then finance Minister.

2. Originally, it had 25 members but in 1956 its membership as raised to 30. All the thirty
members are from Loksabha only.
3. The function of the committee is to examine the estimates included in and suggest
economies in public expenditure.
Committee on Public Undertakings –
1. This Committee was in 1964 on the recommendation of the Krishna Menon Committee.
2. Originally it had 15 members (10 from the Loksabha and 5 from the Rajyasabha). But in
1974, its membership was raised to 22 (15 from the Loksabha and 7 from the Rajyasabha).
The functions of Committee are:
• To examine the reports and accounts of public undertakings
• To examine the reports, if any, of the CAG on public undertakings.
• To examine in the context of autonomy and efficiency of public undertakings, whether the
affairs of the public undertakings are being managed in accordance with sound business principles
and prudent commercial practices.
• To exercise such other functions vested in the Committee on public Accounts and the
Committee on Estimates in relation to public undertakings as may be allotted to the committee by
speaker from time to time.
Departmental Standing Committees
The functions each of the standing committees are:
• To consider the demands for grants of the concerned ministries/ departments and make a
report on the same to the Houses.
• The report shall not suggest anything of the nature of cut motions.
• To examine bills pertaining to the concerned ministries/ departments and make report
thereon.
• To consider annual reports of ministries/departments and make reports thereon.
• To consider national basic long term policy documents presented to the Houses, and make
reports thereon.

Executive Control
1. It means the control exercised by the chief executive (political executive) over the
functioning of bureaucracy. Such control in the USA is exercised by the president and his
secretaries
2. In India and Britain by the cabinet and ministers (individually).
3. In parliamentary government the cabinet is collectively responsible to the parliament for
its policies and actions.
4. Each minister is also individually responsible for the acts of omission and commission in
his Ministry/department.
5. In other words, ministerial responsibility is the basic features of the parliamentary
government.
6. For this very reason the political executive (cabinet and ministers) exercise control over
administration.
Political Direction (policy ‐ making)
• In India, the cabinet formulates administrative policies and enjoys the power of direction,
supervision and coordination with regards to its implementation.
• Through political direction, the minister controls the operations of administrative agencies
working under his ministry/departments.
• The departmental officials are directly and totally responsible to the minister.
Budgetary System
• The executive controls the administration through budgetary system. It formulates the
budget, gets it enacted by the parliament.
• It also allocates the necessary funds to the administrative agencies to meet their
expenditure.
Appointment and Removal (Personnel Management and Control)
• This is the most effective means of executive control over administration. The executive
plays an important role in personnel management and control and enjoys the power of appointment
and removal of top administrators.
Delegated Legislation
• The parliament makes laws in skeleton forms and authorise the executive to fill in minor
details. Therefore, the executive makes rules, regulations and byelaws
• These have to be observed by the administrators in execution of the law concerned.

Ordinances
• The constitution of India authorise the chief executive, that is, the President to promulgate
ordinances during the recess (interval) of Parliament to meet situation demanding immediate
action.
• An ordinance is as authoritative and powerful as an act of Parliament and hence, governs
the functioning of administration.
Civil Service Code
• The executive has prescribed a civil service code to be observed and followed by the
administrators in the exercise of their official powers.
• It consists of a set of conduct rules which prevent the administrators from arbitrary use of
their powers for their personal ends.
Staff Agencies
• The executive also exercise control over administration through staff agencies. The
important staff agencies in India are the Department of administrative Reforms, the Cabinet
Secretariat and the Prime Minister’s Office.
JUDICIAL COTROL
1. The controls exercised by the courts over the administrative acts are called judicial control.
In other words t means the power of the courts to keep the administrative acts within the limits of
law.
2. It also implies the right of an aggrieved citizen to challenge the wrongful acts of
administrators in a court of law.
3. The primary objective of judicial control over administration is the protection of the rights
and liberties of citizen by ensuring the legality of administration.
Basis
• The judicial control over administration emanates from the concept of rule of law which is
a cardinal feature of British Constitution as well as the Indian Constitution.
Scope (Grounds)
• The Judiciary can intervene in the administrative acts under the following circumstances

• Lack of jurisdiction, that is, when the administrator acts without authority or beyond the
scope of his authority or outside the geographical limits of his authority. It is technically called
overfeasance (excess authority).
• Error of law, that is, when the administrator misinterprets the law and thus imposes upon
the citizen, obligations which are not required by the content of law. It is technically called
misfeasance.
• Error in fact finding, that is, when the administrator makes a mistake in the discovery of
facts and acts on wrong presumptions.
• Abuse of authority that is when the administrator uses his authority (or power or discretion)
vindictively to harm some person. It is technically called malfeasance.
• Error of procedure that is when the administrator does not follow the laid down procedure.
The citizens who are affected by the above cases can seek the intervention of judiciary in the
administrative acts.
• The judiciary exercise control over administration through the following methods or
techniques.
Judicial Review
• It is the power of courts to examine the legality and constitutionality of administrative acts.
• On examination, if they are found to be violative of the constitution (ultra vires), they can
be declared as illegal, unconstitutional and invalid by the courts.
Statuary Appeal
• The parliamentary statue (i.e. law or act) may itself provide that in a specific type of
administrative act, the aggrieved citizen will have the right of appeal to the courts.
Suits against Government
• In India, article 300 of the constitution governs the suitability of the state. It states that the
Union Government and State Government can be sued, subject to the provisions of the law made
by the Parliament and the state legislature respectively.
• The state is suable in contracts, this means that the contractual liability of the Union
Government and the state governments is same as same that of an individual under the ordinary
law of contract.

• However, in case of torts the position is different (a tort is wrongful action or injury for
which a suit for damages lies) in this regard, a distinction is made between the sovereign and non
sovereign functions of the state.
• The state, for the tortuous acts of its servants, can be sued only in case of its non ‐ sovereign
functions but not in case of its sovereign functions.
Suits against Public Officials
• In India the president and the state governors enjoy personal immunity from legal liability
for their official acts.
• During their term of office, they are immune from any criminal proceedings, even in
respects of their personal acts.
• They cannot be arrested or imprisoned. However, after giving two months notice civil
proceedings can be instituted against them during their term of office in respect of their personal
acts.
• The ministers do not enjoy such immunities such immunities and hence they can be sued
in ordinary courts like common citizens for crimes as well as torts.
• The civil servants are conferred personal immunity from legal liability for official contracts
by article 299 of the constitution of India.
• In other cases, the liability of the official is the same as any ordinary citizen.
• Civil proceedings can be instituted against them for anything done in their official capacity
after giving a two months notice.
• As regards criminal liabilities, proceedings can be instituted against them for acts done in
their official capacity with prior permission from the government.
Extraordinary Remedies
These consist of the following six kinds of writs issued by the courts Habeas Corpus –
1. A writ of habeas corpus directs a person, usually a prison warden, to produce the prisoner
and justify the prisoner's detention.
2. If the prisoner argues successfully that the incarceration is in violation of a constitutional
right, the court may order the prisoner's release.
3. Habeas corpus relief also may be used to obtain custody of a child or to gain the release of
a detained person who is insane, is a drug addict, or has an infectious disease.

4. It literally means “to have the body of.” It is an order issued by the court to person who has
detained another person, to produce the body of the latter before it.
5. The court will set the imprisoned person free if the detention is illegal. This writ is a
bulwark of individual liberty against arbitrary detention.
Mandamus
1. A writ or order that is issued from a court of superior jurisdiction that commands an inferior
tribunal, corporation, Municipal Corporation, or individual
2. To perform, or refrain from performing, a particular act, the performance or omission of
which is required by law as an obligation.
Prohibition
1. It literally means ‘to forbid’. It is issued by a higher court to a lower court when the latter
exceeds its jurisdiction.
Certiorari
1. It literally means ‘to be certified’. It is issued by a higher court to a lower court for
transferring the records of proceedings of a case pending with it.
2. For the purpose of determining the legality of its proceedings or for giving fuller and a
more satisfactory effect to them than could be done in the lower court.
3. Thus unlike the Prohibition which is only preventive, the Certiorari is both preventive as
well as curative. Like Prohibition, it can be issued only against judicial and quasi – judicial
authorities and not against administrative authorities.
Quo Warranto
1. It literally means ‘by what authority or warrant.’ It is issued by the courts to enquire into
the legality of claim of a person to a public office.
2. Therefore, it prevents illegal assumption of public office by a person. Injunction
1. It is issued by the court asking a person to do a thing or refrain from doing it.

Citizen and administration

2. Modern democratic states are characterised by welfare orientation. Hence, the government
has come to play an important role in the socio – economic development of the nation.
3. This resulted in the expansion of bureaucracy and multiplication of administrative process,
which in turn increased the administrative power and discretion enjoyed by the civil servants at
different levels of the government.
4. The abuse of this power and discretion by the civil servants opens up scope for harassment,
malpractices, maladministration and corruption.
5. Such a situation gives rise to citizen’s grievances against administration. Different
countries have evolved various institutions to deal with such situations.
Some important are:
• The Ombudsman System
• The Administrative Courts System
• The Procurator System
6. The institution of ombudsman was first created in Sweden in 1809. ‘Ombud’ is a Swedish
term and refers person who acts as the representative or spokesman of another person.
7. According to Donald C. Rowat. Ombudsman refers to an officer appointed by the
legislative to handle complaints against administrative and judicial action.
8. Another unique institutional device created for the redressal of citizens grievances against
administrative authorities is the French system of Administrative courts.
9. Due to its success in France, the system has gradually spread too many other European and
African countries like Belgium, Greece and Turkey.
Anti Corruption
The existing legal and institutional framework to check corruption and redress citizen’s grievances
in India consist of the following:
1. Public Servants (Enquiries) Act, 1850
2. Indian Penal Code, 1860
3. Special Police Establishment Act, 1946
4. Prevention of Corruption Act, 1947

5. Commission of Inquiry Act, 1952 (against political leaders and eminent public men)
6. All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1954
7. Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1955
8. Railways Services (Conduct) Rules, 1955
9. Vigilance organisations in ministries/ departments attached and subordinate offices and
public undertakings
10. Central Vigilance Commission, 1964
11. State Vigilance Commissions, 1964
12. Anti corruption bureaus in States
13. Lokayukta (Ombudsman) in states
Central Bureau of Investigation

1. The central bureau of investigation was set up in 1963 by a resolution of theministry of
Home Affairs.
2. The CBI is the investigating agency of the central government. It plays an important role
in preventing corruption and maintaining integrity in administration.
3. It also provides assistance to the central vigilance commission. The functions of CBI are:
1. Investigating cases of corruption, bribery and misconduct of the Central government
employees.
2. Investigating cases relating to infringement of fiscal and economic laws that is breach of
laws concerning export and import control.
3. Customs and central excise, income tax, foreign exchange regulations and so on. However,
such cases re taken up either in consultation with or at the request of the department concerned.
4. Investigating serious crimes committed by organised gangs of professional criminals,
having national and international ramifications.
5. Coordinating the activities of the anti – corruption agencies and the various state police
forces.
6. Taking up, on the request of a state government, any case of public importance for
investigation.

7. Maintaining crime statistics and disseminating criminal information. Central Vigilance

Commission
1. The central vigilance commission is the main agency for preventing corruption in the
Central Government. It was established in 1964 by an executive resolution of the Central
Government.
2. Its establishment was recommended by the Santhanam Committee on prevention of
Corruption (1962 ‐64).
3. The CVC is a multi – member body consisting of a central vigilance commissioner
(chairperson) and not more than two vigilance commissioners.
The functions of the CVC are

1. To inquire or cause an inquiry or investigation to be conducted on a reference made by the
central government wherein it is alleged that a public servant being an employee of the central
government
2. Or its authorities, has committed an offence under the Prevention of
Corruption Act, 1988.

3. To inquire or cause an inquiry or investigation to be conducted into any complaint against
any official belonging to the below mentioned category of officials wherein it is alleged that he
has committed an offence under the prevention of corruption act, 1988.
• Members of all – India services serving in the union and Group A officers of the Central
government
• Specified level of officers of the authorities of the central government.
4. To exercise superintendence over the functioning of Delhi Special Police Establishment
(which is part of central bureau of Investigation) in so far as it relates to the investigation of
offences alleged to have been committed under the prevention of corruption act, 1988.
5. The Delhi Special police establishment is required to obtain the prior approval of the
Central government before conducting any inquiry or investigation into an offence committed by
the officers of the rank of joint secretary and above in the Central government and its authorities.
6. The central government is required to consult the CVC in making rules and regulations
governing the vigilance and discrepancy matters relating to the members of central cervices and
All – India Services.

Lokpal
1. The administrative reforms commission (ARC) headed by Moraji Desai submitted a special
interim report on problems of redressal of Citizen’s Grievances in 1966.
2. In this report, the ARC recommended the setting up of two special authorities designate as
Lokpal and Lokayukta for the redressal of citizen’s grievances.
3. These institutions were to be set up on the pattern of the institution of Ombudsman in
Scandinavian countries and the parliamentary commissioner for investigation in New Zealand.
4. The lokpal would deal with complaints against ministers and secretaries at central and state
levels, and the Lokayukata (one at the centre and one in every state) would deal with complaints
against other specified higher officials.
Appointment of Chairmen
1. The chairmen of all the parliamentary committees serviced by the Loksabha secretariat are
appointed by the speaker from amongst the members of the committee.
2. In case the speaker is a member of the committee, he is ex – officio chairman of that
committee. In case the speaker is not a member of the committee but the deputy speaker is, then
the latter is appointed as chairman of committee.
3. The joint committee on salaries and allowances of members of parliament elects its own
chairman at their first sitting.
4. In case of the committee on public accounts, as per established convention, a member
belonging to major opposition parties/groups is appointed chairman of the committee by rotation.
Term of office
1. Parliamentary committees hold office for a period of one year as prescribed in the rules or
for a period specified by the speaker/by the motion or until a new committee is nominated.
2. The members, nominated to the joint committee on salaries and allowances of members of
parliament, hold office for a period of one year from the date of their nominations.
3. Quorum--One third of the total numbers of members of the committee is required for the
quorum to constitute a sitting of the committee.
5. In the absence of the required quorum, the chairman either suspends the sitting until there
is a quorum or adjourns the sitting to some future day.

6. In the event of a committee being adjourned for two successive sittings on account of lack
of quorum, the chairman has to report the fact to the speaker when the committee has been
appointed by him or else to the house.
General
1. The sittings of a committee are held on such days and at such hour as fixed by the chairman
of the committee. If the chairman is not readily available, the secretary – general may fix the date
and time of a sitting and in the case of select or joint committee on a bill he may consult the
minister concerned.
2. Sittings of parliamentary committees are held in private. It is not permissible for a member
of the committee or anyone who has access to proceedings of the committee, to communicate,
directly or indirectly, to the press any information regarding its proceedings etc., before the report
has been presented to the house.
3. All questions at any sitting of a committee should be determined by a majority of votes of
the members present and voting.
4. In the case of an equality of votes on any matter, the chairman, or the person acting as such,
shall have a second or casting vote.
5. Report of the committee is presented to the house by the chairman or in his absence by any
member of the committee. The parliamentary committees may appoint sub – committees, take
evidence or call for documents, send for persons, papers and records and make special reports to
the house.
6. They can make suggestions on procedure. They can make detailed rules for their internal
working. The members of the committee enjoy the same rights and powers in regard to the freedom
of speech, arrest etc. As are enjoyed by the members of the house.
7. When a member of a committee has a personal, pecuniary or direct interest in any matter
which is to be considered by the committee, he is required to state his interest therein to the speaker
through the chairman of the committee. The parliamentary committees cease to exist on the
dissolution of Loksabha.
Committees of parliament
1. Parliament finds it convenient to constitute committees to conduct in depth studies and
make recommendations. In regard to bills, as discussed earlier, a house may resolve to refer the
bill to a select committee constituted exclusively of its members or it may with the concurrence of
the other house refer the bill to a joint committee of both the houses.
2. But there are certain other purposes for which there are standing committees of the houses.
But there are certain other purposes for which there are standing committees of the houses.

3. The Loksabha has 33 such committees. Some of the committees are elected by the members
on the basis of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote e.g. the public
accounts committee and the committee on public undertakings.
4. In 1989 the Loksabha rules were amended to provide for department related parliamentary
standing committees. Seventeen such committees have been constituted.
5. They cover all the departments of the government of India. The purpose of these
committees is to promote intelligent participation of the members of parliament in the working of
different departments of the government.
6. It provides the members an insight into the functioning of the executive and enables them
to understand and appreciate the problems faced by the executive.
Public accounts committee

1. The function of this committee is to examine the annual accounts of the government and
the accounts showing appropriation of different sums granted by the Loksabha.
2. The committee in particular scrutinizes the report of the comptroller and auditor general
(C.A.G) in regard to the appropriation accounts of the government.
3. The committee has to satisfy itself that the sum expanded was spent on the services or
purpose for which it was made available or for which it was charged.
4. It must also see that the expenditure is according to the authorization and if any re –
appropriation was done it was made by a competent authority.
5. The committee may also look into the profit and loss accounts and balance sheets of
government corporations, the accounts of different projects and institutions and consider the report
of the C.A.G in regard to such accounts.
6. The committee also peruses the report of the C.A.G in regard to autonomousand semi –
autonomous bodies.
Constitution
1. The committee consist of not more than 22 members, 15 of which are drawn from the
Loksabha. They are elected on the basis of the principle of proportional representation by means
of single transferable vote.

2. 7 members nominated by Rajyasabha are co – opted in the committee. No minister may be

elected to the committee.
3. If a member elected to committee subsequently becomes a minister then he will cease to
be a member from the date of his appointment.
4. The term of the members is not more than one year. During the past year a convention has
developed to appoint a member from the opposition benches as the chairman of the committee.
5. The chairman is generally re – elected for another year. This committee came into lime
light when report of the C.A.G pertaining to purchases of Bofors guns was discussed.
The estimate committee

1. The government of the day formulates the economic policies and present demands to the
parliament for carrying out of the policies.
2. In order to scrutinize the expenditure proposed by the government in an informal
atmosphere disregarding party lines
3. An estimate committee is constituted after the budget is presented before the Loksabha.
This committee of the Loksabha examines the estimates in order to make suggestion in regard to
‐
a) Economy and improvement in organizational efficiency or administrative reform
consistent with policies underlying the estimates.
b) Suggest alternative policies for bringing efficiency and economy in administration.
c) Examine whether the money is well laid out within the limits of the policy.
d) To suggest the form in which the estimates are to be presented to the parliament.
4. The committee functions would not include a government undertakingwhich has been
referred to the committee on public undertakings.
Constitution
1. The committee shall not have more than 30 members. The members are elected by
proportional representation by means of single transferrable vote.
2. A minister cannot be elected to the committee and if after election a person is appointed a
minister, he ceases to be a member of the committee.

3. The members are appointed for a period not exceeding one year. The report of the
committees is not debated in the house.
4. The committee keeps on working throughout the year and places its views before the house.
The demands for grants made by the government do not wait for the report of the estimates
committee.
5. The estimates committee makes useful suggestion and checks government’s extravagance
in making demand for the next financial year.
Committee on public undertakings The functions of the committee are, ‐

a) To examine the reports and accounts of the public undertakings specified in the rules of
the Loksabha e.g. Damodar Valley Corporation etc.
b) To examine the reports of the C.A.G. in regard to a government undertaking.
c) To examine whether the government undertakings are being run according to appropriate
mercantile principles and prudent commercial norms.
d) To examine other matters which may be referred by the speaker to the committee.
Constitution
1. The committee consists of more than 22 members. 15 are elected by the Loksabha in
accordance with the principle of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.
2. 7 members nominated by Rajyasabha are co – opted in the committee. As in case of other
committees a minister is not qualified to be elected to the committee.
3. A member appointed as a minister, ceases to be a member. The term of the members does
not exceed one year.
Committee on welfare of scheduled tribes and schedule castes The committee’s functions are
1. To consider the reports submitted by the commissioner for scheduled castes (SC) and
Scheduled tribes (ST).
2. To report on the action taken by the union government on the measures proposed by the
committee.
3. To examine the representation of SC and ST in the services and posts under the union to
ensure the implementation of Art.335.

4. To review the working of the welfare programmes for SC and ST in the union territories.
5. To consider any other matter which the committee may deem fit or which may be
specifically referred to it by the speaker.
Constitution
1. The committee consist of not more than 30 members. 20 are elected by the Loksabha in
accordance with the principle of proportional representation by single transferrable vote.
2. 10 members are nominated by the Rajyasabha are co – opted in the committee. Like the
committees a minister is barred from becoming a member.
3. The term of office of the members may not exceed one year.
Department – related parliamentary standing committees

1. These are 17 departmental standing committees. Each committee is related to one or more
departments. The large departments like defence and railways have their own standing committees
while in some cases two or more departments are within the purview of one committee.
The functions of the committees are
1. To consider the demands for grants of the related ministries/ departments and report to the
grants. The report shall not suggest any cuts.
2. To examine bills pertaining to the related ministries/departments referred to the committee
by the chairman of the Rajyasabha or the speaker.
3. To consider the annual reports of the ministries/departments and report thereon.
4. To consider national basic long – term policy documents presented to the house and repot
on them (if referred by the chairman or the speaker).
5. Committees are expressly prohibited from considering matters of day – to – day
administration.
Constitution
1. Each committee consist of not more than 45 members, 30 members are nominated by the
speaker from the Loksabha and 15 are nominated by the chairman from the Rajyasabha.
2. A member who is a minister shall not be nominated or continue as a member. The chairman
of 6 of these committees viz. Commerce, home affairs, human resources development, industry,
science and technology and transport and tourism are appointed by the chairman.
3. Chairman of the remaining 11 committees are appointed by the speaker.

Importance of standing committee

1. They promote intelligent participation of the members in the functioning of the executive.
The members come close enough to the department to understand and appreciate the problems and
difficulties that the department has to face.
2. They tend to enhance the effectiveness of parliamentary control. They are able to go deep
into the demand and discuss them in detail.
3. They can effect better examination of the annual report and assess the performance of the
ministry. At the same time it is ensured that the report and assess the performance of the ministry.
4. At the same time it is ensured that the reports are submitted within the time fixed for it and
that there is no interference in day to day administration of the department.
5. In this way the demands of each ministry are subjected to discussion by a committee.
6. Prior to the adoption of this system the demands for 3 or 4 ministries only could be
discussed in the Loksabha. The rest were guillotined for want of time.
7. The 17 standing committees and the ministries/departments placed under their jurisdiction
are:
Business advisory committee
1. It regulates the programme and time table of the house. It allocates time for the transaction
of legislative and other business brought before the house by the government.
2. The Loksabha committee consist of 15 members including the speaker as its chairman. In
the Rajyasabha, it has 11 members including the chairman as its ex – officio chairman.
Committee on private members bills and resolutions
1. Id classifies the bills and allocates time for the discussion of bills and resolutions
introduced by the private members (other than ministers).
2. This is a special committee of Loksabha and consists of 15 members including the deputy
speaker as its chairman.
3. The Rajyasabha does not have such a committee. The same function in the Rajyasabha is
performed by the business advisory committee of that house.
Committee on governmental assurances
1. It examines the assurances, promises and undertakings given by ministries from time to
time on the floor of the house and reports on the extent to which they have been implemented.

2. In the Loksabha, it consists of 15 members and in the Rajyasabha, it consist of 10 members,

it was constituted in 1953.
Committee on subordinate legislation
1. It examines and reports to the house whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub –
rules and bye – laws delegated by the parliament or conferred by the constitution to the executive
are being properly exercised by it.
2. In both the houses, the committee consist of 15 members, it was constituted in 1953.
Committee on welfare of SCs and STs
1. It consists of 30members (20 from Loksabha and 10 from Rajyasabha). Its functions are:
(i) to consider the reports of the National Com – mission for the SCs and STs; (ii) to examine all
matters relating to the welfare of SCs and STs like implementation of constitutional and statutory
safeguards, working of welfare programmes etc.
Committee on absence of members

1. It considers all applications from members for leave of absence from the sittings of the
house; and examines the cases of members who had been absent for a period of 60 days or more
without permission.
2. It is a special committee of the Loksabha and consists of 15 members. There is no such
committee in the Rajyasabha and all such matters are dealt by the house itself.
Rule committee
1. It considers the matters of procedure and conduct of business in the house and recommends
necessary amendments, or additions to the rules of the house.
2. The Loksabha committee consists of 15 members. Including the speaker as its ex – officio
chairman. In Rajyasabha, it consists of 16 members including the chairman as its ex – officio
chairman.
General purposes committee
1. It considers and advices on matters concerning affairs of the house, which do not fail within
the jurisdiction of any other parliamentary committee.
2. In each house, the committee consists of the presiding officer (speaker/chairman) as its ex
– officio chairman, deputy speaker (deputy chairman in the case of Rajyasabha)
3. Members of panel of chairpersons (panel of vice – chairpersons in the case of Rajyasabha),
chairpersons of all the departmental standing committees of the house, leaders of recognised
parties and groups in the house and such other members as nominated by the presiding officer

Committee of privileges
1. Its functions are semi – judicial in nature in nature. It examines the cases of breach of
privileges of the house and its members and recommends appropriate action. The Loksabha
committee has 15 members, while the Rajyasabha committee has 10 members.
2. Joint committee on salaries and allowances of members
3. It was constituted under the salary, allowances and pension of members of parliament act,
1954.
4. It consists of 15 members (10 from Loksabha and 5 from Rajyasabha). It frames rules for
regulating payment of salary, allowances and pension to members of parliament.
House committee
1. It deals with residential accommodation of members and other amenities like food, medical
aid, etc. Accorded to them in their houses and hostels in Delhi.
2. Both the house have their respective house committee, in the Loksabha, it consist of 12
members.
Committee on Petitions
1. It examines petitions on bills and on matters of general public importance. It also entertains
representations from individuals and associations on matter pertaining to union subjects.
2. The Loksabha committee consist of 15 members, while the Rajyasabha committee consist
of 10 members.
Library committee
1. It considers all matters relating to library of parliament and assists the members in utilising
the library services. It consists on nine members (six from Loksabha and three from Rajyasabha).
Ethics committee
1. It was constituted in Rajyasabha in 1997 and in Loksabha in 2000. It enforces the code of
conduct of members of members of parliament.
2. It examines the cases of misconduct and recommended appropriate action. Thus it is
engaged in maintaining discipline and decorum in parliament.
Committee on Empowerment of Women
1. It was constituted in 1997 and consist of 30 member & (20 from Loksabha and 10 from
Rajyasabha).

2. It consist the reports of the national commission for women and examines the measures
taken by the union government to secure status, dignity and equality for women in all fields.
Committee on papers lay on table

1. It was constituted in 1975. The Loksabha committee has 15 members, while Rajyasabha
committee has 10 members.
2. It examines all papers laid on the table of the house by ministries to see whether they
comply with the provisions of the constitution, Act or rule.
3. It does not examine statuary notifications and orders that fall under the jurisdiction of the
committee on subordinate legislation.
Joint committee on offices of profit
1. It examines the composition and character of committees and other bodies appointed by
the central, state and union territory governments and recommends whether the persons holding
these offices should be disqualified from being elected as members of parliament or not.
2. It consist of 15 member (10 from Loksabha and 5 from, Rajyasabha)
Committees of Rajyasabha
Apart from the depart6ment – related standing committee in which both Loksabha and Rajyasabha
participate the Rajyasabha has some exclusive committees. They are –
• Committee on subordinate legislation
• Committee on government assurances

• Committee on papers lay on the table
• Rules committee
• House committee
• General purpose committee The committee on subordinate legislation
1. The committee scrutinise each rule, regulation, bye – law etc. Framed in pursuance of the
constitution or the legislative functions delegated by parliament to a subordinate authority and
which is required to be laid before parliament.
2. Constitution
3. The committee consist of 15 members who are nominated by the chairman. Casual
vacancies are filled by the chairman.
4. The quorum is five members. The committee holds the office until a new committee is
constituted.
Languages in parliament
1. Article 120 lies down that the business in parliament shall be transacted in Hindi or in
English. It was further enacted in sub. Art. (2) that unless parliament by law otherwise provides
this article shall after the expiration of period of 15 years from the commencement of the
constitution have effect as if the words or in English have been omitted.
2. It was contemplated that after 15 years only Hindi will be used in the parliament. But
parliament has by enacting the official languages act, 1963 allowed English to continue along with
Hindi.
3. This article authorizes the presiding officer to permit any member who cannot adequately
express himself in Hindi or English to address the house in his mother – tongue.
4. In fact the houses have made arrangements for simultaneous translation. If a member
speaks in Hind or English his speech is simultaneously translated into other language.
5. If a members desires to speak in any Indian language other than Hindi he has to give prior
notice to the chairman or the speaker.
6. Arrangements are made for translation from the floor language. Such arrangements are
available for most of the Indian languages contained in the 8th schedule of the constitution.

Parliamentary privileges and contempt of the house

1. Parliamentary privilege can be defined as the set of special rights enjoyed by each house
of parliament and its committees collectively as a constituent part of parliament and by members
of each house individually.
2. For example: a member has immunity from any proceedings in any court in respect of
everything said or any vote given by him in parliament.
3. When any of these rights and immunities are disregarded or attacked by any individual or
authority, the offence is called a breach of privilege, and is punishable under any law. However
the privileges have not been codified by law.
4. If any obstructs either house of parliaments or its committee from discharging their duties,
it might amount to contempt of the house. For example, offering bribes to members to influence
them in their parliamentary conduct is also a form of contempt of parliament.

73rd Amendment Act of 1992

1. This act corresponds to part IX of constitution of India.
2. It is entitled as the panchayats and consists provision of Articles – 243 to 243
– Q.
3. The act has also added the eleventh schedule to the constitution of India.
4. It contains 29 functional items of the panchayats and deals with Article 243 – G.
5. The act has given a practical shape to article 40 of the constitution.
6. The act gives a constitutional status to the panchayat raj institutions.
7. The state governments are under the constitutional obligation to adopt the new panchayati
raj system in accordance with the provision of the act.
8. Neither the formation of the panchayats nor the holding of elections at regular intervals
depends on the will of the state government.
9. The provisions of the act can be grouped into two categories – compulsory and voluntary.
10. The compulsory provisions on the other hand, may be included at the discretion of the
states.
11. It transforms the representative democracy into the participatory democracy.
The salient features of the act

1. The three tire system: the act provides for a three – tier system of the panchayati raj in the
states, that is panchayats at the village, the intermediate and the district level.
2. The act defines all the terms in the following manner:
3. Panchayat means an institution (by whatever name called) of local self –government for
rural areas.
4. Village means a village specified by the governor through a public notification to be a
village for this purpose, and includes a group of villages so specified.
5. Intermediate level between the village and district specified by the governor through a
public notification for this purpose.
6. The act brings about uniformity in the structure of the panchayati raj throughout the country
7. A state having population not exceeding 20 lakh may not constitute panchayat at the
intermediate level.

Gram Sabha
1. The act provides for a Gram Sabha as the foundation of the panchayati raj system.
2. It is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls of the village comprised
within the area of the panchayat at the village level.
3. It is a village assembly consisting of all the registered voters in the area of a panchayat.
4. It shall exercise such powers and powers and perform such functions at the village level as
the state level legislatures determines.
Duration of panchayats
1. The act provided for a five – year term of office to the panchayat at every level.
2. However, it can be dissolved before the completion of its term.
3. Fresh election to constitute a panchayat shall be completed:
• Before the expiry of its term: or
• In case of dissolution, before the expiry of a period of six months from the date of its
dissolution.
Disqualification
1. A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as or for being a member of the panchayat
if he is so disqualified:
• Under any law for the time being in force for the purposes of elections to the legislature of
the state concerned, or
• Under any law made by the state legislature
2. No person shall be disqualified on the grounds that he is less than 25 years of age if he had
attained the age of 21 years.
3. All questions of disqualifications shall be referred to state legislature. Reservation of seats
1. The act provided for the reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and the schedules
tribes in every panchayat (at all levels) in proportion of their population in the panchayat area.
2. The state legislature shall provide for the reservation of offices of the chairpersons in the
panchayat at the village or any other level for the SCs and STs.

3. The act provides for the reservation of not less than one – third of the total number of seats
for women (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the SCs and the STs).
4. Not less than one – third of the total number of offices of the chairpersons in the panchayats
at each level shall be reserved for women.
5. The act authorizes the legislature of a state to make any provision for the reservation of
seats in any panchayat of offices of the chairperson in the panchayat at any level in favour of the
backward classes.
Election of the members and the chairpersons

1. All members of the panchayats at the village, intermediate and the district levels shall be
elected directly by the people.
2. The chairpersons of the panchayats at the intermediate and district level shall be elected
indirectly by and from amongst the elected members thereof.
3. The chairperson of a panchayat at the village level shall be elected in such a manner as the
state legislature determines.
Powers and functions

1. The state legislature may endow the panchayats, with such powers and authority as may be
necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self government.
2. Such a scheme may contain provisions for the devolution of powers and responsibilities
upon panchayats at the appropriate level with respect to
• Preparation of plans for economic development and social justice
• The implementation of schemes for the economic development and social justice as may
be entrusted to them, including those in relation to the 29 matters listed in the eleventh schedule.
State election commission
1. The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the
conduct of all elections to the panchayats shall be vested in the state election commission.
2. It consists of a state election commissioner who is to be appointed by the governor.
3. His conditions of service shall not be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.
Finances

The state legislature may

1. Authorize a panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees;
2. Assign to a panchayat taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected fund of the state;
3. Provide for constitution of funds for crediting all the financial requirements of the
panchayats.
State finance commission

1. The governor of a state shall, after every five years, constitute a finance commission to
review the financial position of the panchayats.
2. It shall make the following recommendations to the governor.
3. The principles which should govern the distribution between the states and the panchayats
of the net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied by the state.
4. The principles which should govern the determination of taxes, duties, tolls and fees which
may be assigned to the panchayats.
5. The principles which should govern the grants – in – aid to the panchayats from the
consolidated fund of state.
6. The measures needed to improve the financial position of the panchayats.
7. Any other matter returned to the finance commission by the governor in the interest of
sound finance of the panchayats.
8. The state legislature may provide for the composition of the commission, the required
qualifications of its members and the manner of their selection.
9. The governor shall place the recommendations of the commission along with the action
taken report before the state legislature.
10. The central finance commissioner shall also suggest the measures needed to augment the
consolidated fund of state to supplement the resources of the panchayats in the states (on the basis
of the recommendations made by the finance commission of state).
11. The president of India may direct that the provisions of this act shall apply to any (union
territory) subject to such exceptions and modification as may specify.
12. The act does not apply the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Meghalaya and
Mizoram and certain other areas.

13. These areas include the scheduled areas and the tribal areas referred to in Article 244 of
the constitution, the hilly areas of Manipur for which a district council exists and Darjeeling district
of West Bengal for which Dargeeling Gorkha hill council exists.
14. The state legislature may take provisions with respect to the maintenance of the accounts
by the panchayats and the auditing of such accounts.
15. The date of commencement of this act was 24th April, 1993.
Problems in the working of Panchayats

• Panchayati raj in India faces problems at political, economic and social levels. These
problems have stood in the way of efficient functioning of the panchayat raj institutions
At political level and administration level
1. Though the constitution provides elections after every five years, some of the states have
tasted election after decades and in some election yet to take place.
2. Groupism, caste, class etc play a dominant role in the election and working of the
representatives.
3. Political interference from the state governments and the administrative agencies has
become a common phenomenon.
4. There is absence of clear functional jurisdiction of panchayats
5. There is absence of administrative autonomy to the panchayats.
6. There is absence of in – built structural and organizational strength to force the
administrators to follow the decision.
7. Use of manpower, money power and muscle power in elections to panchayati raj system.
At social level
1. Caste, class, religion and other sectarian interest are playing a dominant role in the working
of panchayati raj institutions.
2. The policy of reservation for weaker section has not been much use due to ignorance and
illiteracy of people and the representatives.
3. Anti – social and economically powerful people run the institution from backdoor.
At economic level
1. Paucity of funds and resources to the panchayati raj institutions.
2. There is absence of coherence between the responsibilities and resources.
3. Dependence upon the doles of the state government.

4. Lack of financial autonomy and power to impose taxes and charges.
5. Diversion of funds by the state governments which were embarked for development of
panchayati raj institutions.
6. State government’s apathy towards local needs and demands for development.
243G. Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats

1. Subject to the provision of this constitution, the legislature of a state may, by law, endow
the panchayats with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as
institutions of self‐ government
2. And such law may contain provisions for the devolution of powers and responsibilities
upon panchayats at the appropriate level, subject to such conditions as may be specified therein,
with respect to –
3. The preparation of plans for economic developments and social justice
4. The implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice as may be
entrusted to them including those in relation to the matters listed in the eleventh schedule.
243H. Powers to impose taxes by and funds of the panchayat
1. The legislature of a state may by law
2. Authorise a panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties, tolls and fees in
accordance with such procedure and subject to such limits
3. Assign to a panchayat such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected by the state
government for such purposes and subject to such conditions and limits
4. Provide for making such grants – in – aid to the panchayats from the consolidated fund of
state
5. Provide for the constitution of such funds for crediting all moneys received, respectively,
by or on behalf of the panchayats and also for the withdrawal of such moneys there from, as may
be specified in the law.
243I Constitution of finance commission to review financial position
1. The governor of a state shall, as soon as may be within one year from the commencement
of the constitution 73rd amendment act, 1992, and thereafter atthe expiration of every fifth year,
constitute a finance commission to review the financial position of the panchayats and to make
recommendations to the governor as to –

a) The principles which should govern –

• The distribution between the state and the panchayats of net proceeds of the taxes, duties,
tolls and fee leviable by the state, which may be divided between them
• Under this part and the allocation between the panchayats at all levels of their respective
shares of such proceeds.
• The determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be assigned to or appointed
by the panchayats.
• The grants in aid to the panchayats from the consolidated fund of the state
b) The measures needed to improve the financial position of the panchayat;
c) Any other matter referred to the finance commission by the governor in the interests of
sound finance of the panchayats.
2. The legislature of a state may, by law, provide for the composition of the commission, the
qualifications which shall be requisite for appointment as members thereof and the manner in
which they shall be selected.
3. The commission shall determine their procedure and shall have such powers in the
performance of their functions as the legislature of the state may by law, confer on them.
4. The governor shall cause every recommendation made by the commission under this article
together with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken thereon to be laid before the
legislature of the state.
243J Audit of accounts of Panchayats
1. The legislature of a state may by law make provision with respect to the maintenance of
accounts by the panchayats and the auditing of such accounts.
2. 243K Elections to the Panchayats
3. The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for and the
conduct of all elections to the panchayats shall be vested in a state election commission consisting
of a state election commissioner to be appointed by the governor.
4. Subject to the provisions of any law made by the legislature of a state, the conditions of
service and tenure of office of the state election commissioner shall be such as the governor may
by rule determine.
5. Provide that the state election commissioner shall not be removed from his office except
in like manner and on the like grounds as a judge of a high court and the conditions of service of
the state election commissioner shall not be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.

6. The governor of a state shall, when so requested by the state election commission, make
available to the state election commission such staffs as may be necessary for the discharge of the
functions conferred on the state election commission by clause (1).
7. Subject to this provision of the constitution, the legislature of a state may by law, make
provision with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with, elections to the panchayats.
243L Application to union territories

1. The provision of this part shall apply to the union territories and shall, in their application
to a union territory, have effect as if the references to the governor of a state were references to the
administrator of the union territory appointed under article 239 and references to the legislature or
the legislative assembly of a state were references, in relation to a union territory having a
legislative assembly, to that legislative assembly.
2. Provided that the president may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this
part shall apply to any union territory or part thereof subject to such exceptions and modifications
as he may specify in the notification.
243M Part not to apply to certain areas
1. Nothing in this part shall apply to the scheduled areas referred to in clause (1), and the
tribal areas referred to in clause (2), of article 244.
2. Nothing in this part shall apply to
a) The states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram:
b) The hill areas in the state of Manipur for which district councils exist under any law for the
time being in force.
3. Nothing in this part
a) Relating to panchayats at the district level shall be apply to the hill areas of the district of
Darjeeling in the state of West Bengal for which
Darjeeling Gorkha hill Council exists under any law for the time being in force.
b) Shall be construed to affect the functions and powers of the Darjeeling Gorkaha Hill
Council constituted under such law.
c) 210A [(3A) Nothing in article 243D relating to reservation of seats for the scheduled castes,
shall apply to the state of Arunanchal Pradesh].
4. Notwithstanding anything in this constitution

a) The legislature of a state referred to in sub clause (2) may, by law, extend this part to that
state, except the areas, if any, referred to in clause (1). If the legislative assembly of that state
passes a resolution to that effect by a majority of total membership of that house present and voting.
b) Parliament may by law extend the provisions of this part to the scheduled Areas and the
tribal areas referred to in clause (1) subject to such exceptions and modifications as may be
specified in such law and no such law shall be deemed to be an amendment of this constitution for
the purposes of article 368.
243N Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats
1. Notwithstanding anything in this part, any provision of any law relating to panchayats in
force in a state immediately before the commencement of the constitution 73rd Amendment Act,
1992.
2. Which is inconsistent with the provisions of this part, shall continue to be in force until
amended or replaced by a competent legislature or other competent authority or until the expiration
of one year from such commencement, whichever is earlier.
3. Provided that all the panchayats existing immediately before such commencement shall
continue till the expiration of their duration, unless sooner dissolved by a resolution passed to
effect by the legislative assembly of that state or, in case of a state having a legislative council, by
each house of the legislature of that state.
243O Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters Notwithstanding anything in this
constitution
a) The validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the allotment of
seats to such constituencies, made or purporting to be made under article 243K shall not be called
in question in any court.
b) No election to any panchayat shall be called in question except by an election petition

presented to such authority and in such manner as is provided by or under any law made by the
legislature of a state.

1. The term panchayat raj in India signifies the system of rural local self government. It is
created in all states in India by the acts of concerned state legislature to establish democracy at
grass root level.
2. It is entrusted with duties and the responsibility in the field of rural development. It was
constitutionalized through 73rd amendment act of 1992.
3. At the central level, the ministry of rural development looks after the matters relating to
the panchayati raj bodies.
• Local government is a subject of the state list
• The fifth entry of the state list in the seventh schedule of the constitution of India deals
with the local government.
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
1. In January 1957, the government of India appointed a committee to examine the
functioning of the community development programme (1952) and the national extension service
(1953) and to suggest measures for their better performance.
2. The committee submitted its report in November 1957 and recommended the establishment
of the scheme for democratic decentralization which ultimately came to be known as the Panchayat
Raj.
The specific recommendations made by Balwant Rai Mehta committee are

1. Establishment of a three tier panchayati raj system which includes Zila Parishad at the
District level, Panchayati Samiti at the block level and Gram Panchayat at the village level.
2. These tires should be organically linked together through a device of indirect elections.
3. The village panchayat should be constituted with directly elected representatives, whereas
the Panchayat Samiti and the Zila Parishad should be constituted with indirectly elected members.
4. All the planning and developmental activities should be entrusted to these bodies.
5. The panchayat Samiti should be the executive body while the Zila Parishad should be the
advisory, coordinating and supervisory body.
6. The district collector should be the chairman of the Zila Parishad.
7. There should be a genuine transfer of power and responsibility to these democratic bodies.
8. Adequate resources should be transferred to these bodies to enable them to discharge their
functions and fulfil their responsibilities.
9. A system should be evolved to effect further devolution of authority in future.

10. These recommendations were accepted by the National Development Council in January,
1958.
11. The council did not insist on a single rigid pattern and left it to the states to evolve their
own patterns suitable to the local conditions.
12. But the basic principles and the broad fundamentals should be identical throughout the
country.
13. Rajasthan was the first state to establish the institution of panchayati raj.
14. The scheme was inaugurated by the then prime minister Pt Jawahar Lal Nehru on October
2, 1959 in Nagaur District.
15. Rajasthan was followed by Andhra Pradesh which also adopted the system in 1959.
16. Rajasthan adopted a three – tier system. Exceptions
1. Tamil Nadu adopted a two – tier system
2. West Bengal adopted a four – tier system
Ashok Mehta Committee

1. In December 1977, the Janta Government appointed a committee on panchayat raj
institutions under the chairmanship of Ashok Mehta.
2. It submitted its report in August 1978 and made 132 recommendations to revive and
strengthen the declining panchayati raj system in the country.
Its main recommendations are
1. The three tier system of the panchayat raj should be replaced by two tier system, that is the
Zila Parishad at the district level, and below it, the Mandal panchayat consisting of a group of
villages comprising a population of 15000 to 20000.
2. A district should be the first point for the decentralisation under the popular supervision
below the state level.
3. The Zila Parishad should be the executive body and be made responsible for responsible
for planning at the district level.
4. There should be an official participation of the political parties at all the levels of panchayat
elections.

5. The panchayati raj institutions should have compulsory powers for taxation to mobilise
their own financial resources.
6. There should be a regular social audit by a district level agency and a committee of
legislators to check whether the funds allotted for the venerable social and economic groups are
actually spent on them.
7. The state government should not supersede the panchayati raj institutions. In case
imperative super session, election should be held within six months from the time of super session.
8. The Nyaya panchayats should be kept as separate bodies from that of development
panchayats. They should be presided over by a qualified judge.
The panchayati raj elections

1. Development functions should be transferred to the Zila Parishad and all the development
staffs should work under its control and supervision.
2. The voluntary agencies should play an important role in mobilising the support of the
people for the panchayati raj.
3. A minister for the panchayati raj should be appointed in the state council of ministers to
look after the affairs of the panchayati raj institutions.
4. Seats for the SCs and STs should be reserved on the basis of their population.
5. Due to collapse of the Janta Government before the completion of its term, no action could
be taken on the recommendations of Ashok Mehta committee at the central level.
6. The three states of Karnataka, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh took steps to revitalize the
panchayati raj, keeping in view some of the recommendations of the Ashok Mehta Committee.
GVK Rao Committee

1. In this respect, the G.V.K Rao committee report (1986) different from the Dantwala
Committee report on Block – level planning (1978) and the Hanmantha Rao Committee report on
the District Planning (1984).
2. The Hanumantha Rao committee differed in respect from the Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee Administrative reforms commission of India.
3. The Ashok Mehta Committee and finally the G.V.R Rao committee which recommended
reduction in the developmental role of district collector and assigned a major role to the panchayati
raj in development administration.

LM Singhvi Committee
1. In 1986 Rajiv Gandhi Government appointed a committee on the revitalisation of the
panchayati raj institutions for democracy and development under the chairmanship of L.M.
Singhvi.
Its major recommendations are:
2. The panchayati raj institutions should be constitutionally recognized, protected and
preserved. For this purpose a new chapter should be added in the constitution of India.
3. It also suggested some constitutional provisions to ensure regular, free and fair elections to
the Panchayati raj bodies.
4. Nyaya Panchayats should be established for a cluster of villages.
5. The villages should be organized to make the gram panchayats more viable. It also
emphasized the importance of the gram Sabha and called it as the embodiment of direct democracy.
6. The village panchayat should have more financial resources.
7. The judicial tribunals should be established in each state to eradicate controversies about
election to the panchayati raj institutions, their dissolution and other matters related to their
functioning.
Constitutionalization
1. The Narsimha Rao Government introduced the Constitutional Amendment Bill in the
Loksabha in September 1991.
2. It was passed by the Loksabha on December 22, 1992 and by the Rajyasabha on December
23.
3. Later it was approved by the 17 state assemblies and received the assent of the president of
India on April 20, 1993.

Critical Evaluation of Local Self Government

1. Panchayati Raj was indeed one of the most remarkable social and political reforms since
independence.
2. However, PRIs today face a number of daunting challenges. Across all states there is a lack
of genuine devolution of funds, functions and functionaries in Panchayati Raj.
3. Added to that are social challenges that work against the emergence of leadership from
marginalized sections of society, such as women, Dalits and tribals. Further, there is a lack of role
clarity among Gram Panchayats, Block Panchayats and District Panchayats.
4. The socio‐political changes expected by the introduction of Panchayati Raj system
remained largely unfulfilled for long.
5. Particularly the objectives like social equality, gender equity and the change at grass‐root
level leadership envisaged as the main among the objectives of Panchayati Raj were not fulfilled
in a meaningful manner.
6. In this regard it was felt that the marginalized groups like the women and other backward
castes in the society continue to face many hurdles and found it difficult to participate at the grass‐
root level developmental process.
I. Some of the shortcomings of the system identified by various studies are as follows:
II. Uniformity of PR system undermines each state’s unique history, traditions and consequent
structures of local government.
III. Representation of members of parliament and state legislatures are often became
counterproductive.
IV. There are clash of interest between the legislatures and PR representatives particularly for
getting votes.
V. The Act does not define role of political parties clearly. It doesn’t mention that political
parties can enter the election arena in their formal capacity.
VI. The Act is silent about the relationship between
PRIs and local bureaucracy.

VII. The Act doesn’t spell out specific grounds for dissolution of PRIs by states. This gives
scope for the states to dissolve PRIs on political considerations.
7. Though the PRI system has so many positive features, yet the elite control over the system,
apprehensions of state level leaders of challenge to their power and the lukewarm attitude of the
bureaucracy have not yet allowed the PRIs to function as real democratic institutions with people’s
participation.

8. Studies from different states in India clearly proves that even though some states have
shown political activism to implement PRIs the unequal social structure and rigid caste system
prevalent in Indian villages coupled with power‐hungry local bureaucracy kill the spirit of the
system.
Success of Local Self Government comparative study
1. After the 73 rd Constitutional Amendment Act all states in India initiated the process of
radical democratic decentralization.
2. However the experience of PRIs shows that success of PRIs in India is not uniform
throughout the country.
3. In some states the system has played a vital role in changing traditional power structure
dominated by local elite‐ bureaucratic network.
4. In other states the new system has lead to empowerment of hitherto marginalized sections
of society like women, SC and SC. Unfortunately in some other states
5. Lack of political will and administrative apathy killed the real devolution of power. Using
the conventional classification of ‘political, administrative and fiscal decentralization,’
6. The World Bank’s three‐volume study of Indian decentralization ranks India ‘among the
best performers’ internationally in terms of political decentralization, but ‘close to the last’ in terms
of administrative decentralization.
7. Most States have held at least one round of elections since 1993. Reservations allowing the
participation of women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been respected. Finally,
voter participation has been high.
8. In its study of 53 villages in Rajasthan and MP, for instance, the World Bank found that
voter turnout in Panchayat elections was well over 90% for all categories (defined in terms of
gender, class and caste).
9. This is significantly higher than the (still high) turnout for the most recent
(1998) round of Lok Sabha elections, which was 61% for women and 65.9% for men.
10. In its assessment of Indian decentralization, the Task Force on Devolution of Powers and
Functions upon Panchayati Raj Institutions (MoRD, 2001) found that ‘most of the States’ had
satisfied only the basic requirements relating to the transfer of functions, functionaries, funds and
financial autonomy to the Panchayats.
11. These findings upheld three important limitations, which are commonly associated with
Indian decentralization.
I. The government bodies that operate within their jurisdiction are part of a federal system,
in which powers are defined by a written Constitution, and divided among Union, State and sub‐
State bodies.

Conclusion
II. The institutions empowered by Indian decentralization are situated in a long‐ standing
structure of public administration, whose interests and nature are not necessarily consistent with
the provisions outlined in the 73rd Amendment.
III. Finally, this process has happened in a context of political transition, in which customs of
discrimination and inequality in rural areas are thought to have been challenged by forces arising
from the green revolution and other forms of guided intervention.
1. The experience of different states show that though the PRIs has so many positive features,
yet the elite control over the system has not permitted them to work as per the objectives enshrined
in Indian Constitution.
2. The need is to evolve a comprehensive concept of PRI system .For this the PRIs has to play
three important roles:
I. It should bring about decentralization of administrative powers in the sense that it has to
encourage self‐governance and mass participation in its working
II. The PRIs have to contribute towards strengthening the planning process at the micro level
and overall rural development
III. It has to improve the access of the masses to the highest level of decision‐making process.
IV. The PRI should ensure the empowerment of the poor and marginalized people and protect
them from exploitation of dominant class.
V. PRI members have to be trained for their new role. This is because they have limited
knowledge about the Panchayat Act and its provisions, objectives and functions of PR bodies, the
dynamics of rural society and the growth potential of their areas. Bureaucracy has to become more
committed to PRIs
VI. Since political interference and over politicization of PRIs lead to dysfunctional, effort
should be made to encourage unanimous election to the PRI bodies without affecting village
harmony.
3. In several states PRI election lead to violence and local tensions. This kind of disharmony
and politicization affects the legitimacy and spirit of democratic decentralization.
4. Hence there is an urgent need to encourage non‐partisan elections and procedures of PRIs.
Otherwise it will lead to friction and violence. Some states have already initiated this welcoming
custom.

THE PROVISIONS OF THE PANCHAYATS (EXTENSION TO THE SCHEDULED

AREAS) ACT, 1996No.40 OF 1996
An Act to provide for the extension of the provisions of Part IX of the Constitution relating to the
Panchayats to the Scheduled Areas.Be it enacted by Parliament in the Forty‐ seventh Year of the
Republic of India as follows:‐
Definition
1. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, “Scheduled Areas” means the Scheduled
Areas as referred to in Clause (1) of Article 244 of the Constitution.
2. The provisions of Part IX of the Constitution relating to Panchayats are hereby extended
to the Scheduled Areas subject to such exceptions and modifications.
Other Provisions
Notwithstanding anything contained under Part IX of the Constitution, the Legislature of a State
shall not make any lawunderthat Part which is inconsistent with any of the following features,
namely
a) A State legislation on the Panchayats that may be made shall be in consonance with the
customary law, social and religious practices and traditional management practices of community
resources;
b) A village shall ordinarily consist of a habitation or a group of habitations or a hamlet or a
group of hamlets comprising a community and managing its affairs in accordance with traditions
and customs;
c) Every village shall have a Gram Sabha consisting of persons whose names are included in
the electoral rolls for the Panchayat at the village level;
d) Every Gram Sabha shall be competent to safeguard and preserve the traditions and customs
of the people, their cultural identity, community resources and the customary mode of dispute
resolution;
e) Every Gram Sabha shall‐
i. Approve of the plans,programmes and projects for social and economic development
before such plans, programmes and projects are taken up for implementation by the Panchayat at
the village level;
ii. Be responsible for the identification or selection of persons as beneficiaries under the
poverty alleviation and other programmes;
f) Every Panchayat at the village level shallbe required to obtain from the Gram Sabha a
certification of utilisation of funds by that Panchayat for the plans, programmes and projects
referred to in clause(e);

g) The reservation of seats in the Scheduled Areas at every Panchayat shall be in proportion
to the population of the communities in that Panchayat for whom reservation is sought to be given
under Part IX of the Constitution;
h) Provided that the reservation for the Scheduled Tribes shall not be less than one‐half of the
total number of seats;
i) Provided further that all seats of Chairpersons of Panchayats at all levels shall be reserved
for the Scheduled Tribes;
j) The State Government may nominate persons belonging to such Scheduled Tribes as have
no representation in the Panchayat at the intermediate level or the Panchayat at the district level:
k) Provided that such nomination shall not exceed one‐tenth of the total members to be elected
in that Panchayat;
l) The Gram Sabha or the Panchayats at the appropriate level shall be consulted before
making the acquisition of land in the Scheduled Areas for development projects and before re‐
setling or rehabilitating persons affected by such projects in the Scheduled Areas; the actual
planning and implementation of the projects in the Scheduled Areas shall be coordinated at the
State level;
m) Planning and management of minor water bodies in the Scheduled Areas shall be entrusted
to Panchayats at the appropriate level;
n) The recommendations of the Gram Sabha or the Panchayats at the appropriate level shall
be made mandatory prior to grant of prospecting licence or mining lease for minor minerals in the
Scheduled Areas;

VARIOUS ARTICLES OF MUNUCIPALITIES
243X. Power to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Municipalities.‐ The Legislature of a State
may, by law,‐
a) Authorise a Municipality to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties, tolls and fees
in accordance with such procedure and subject to such limits;
b) Assign to a Municipality such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected by the State
Government for such purposes and subject to such conditions and limits;
c) Provide for making such grants‐in‐aid to the Municipalities from the Consolidated Fund of
the State; and
d) Provide for constitution of such Funds for crediting all moneys received, respectively, by
or on behalf of the Municipalities and also for the withdrawal of such moneys there from as may
be specified in the law.
243 Y. Finance commission‐

1. The Finance Commission constituted under article 243‐I shall also review the financial
position of the Municipalities and make recommendations to the Governor as to‐
a) The principles which should govern‐
i. The distribution between the State and the Municipalities of the net proceeds of the taxes,
duties, tolls and fees leviable by the State, which may be divided between them under this Part
and the allocation between the Municipalities at all levels of their respective shares of such
proceeds;
ii. The determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be assigned to, or
appropriated by, the Municipalities;
iii. The grants‐in‐aid to the Municipalities from the Consolidated Fund of the State;
b) The measures needed to improve the financial position of the Municipalities;
c) Any other matter referred to the Finance Commission by the Governor in the interests of
sound finance of the Municipalities.
2. The Governor shall cause every recommendation made by the Commission under this
article together with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken thereon to be laid before
the Legislature of the State.

243Z. Audit of accounts of Municipalities.‐

1. The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provisions with respect to the maintenance
of accounts by the Municipalities and the auditing of such accounts.
243ZA. Elections to the Municipalities.‐
1. The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the
conduct of, all elections to the Municipalities shall be vested in the State Election Commission
referred to in article 243K.
2. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the Legislature of a State may, by law, make
provision with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with, elections to the
Municipalities.
243ZB. Application to Union territories.‐
1. The provisions of this Part shall apply to the Union territories and shall, in their application
to a Union territory, have effect as if the references to the Governor of a State were references to
the Administrator of the Union territory appointed under article 239 and references to the
Legislature or the Legislative Assembly of a State were references in relation to a Union territory
having a Legislative Assembly, to that Legislative Assembly:
2. Provided that the President may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this
Part shall apply to any Union territory or part thereof subject to such exceptions and modifications
as he may specify in the notification.
243ZC. Part not to apply to certain areas.‐
1. Nothing in this Part shall apply to the Scheduled Areas referred to in clause (1), and the
tribal areas referred to in clause (2), of article 244.
2. Nothing in this Part shall be construed to affect the functions and powers of the Darjeeling
Gorkha Hill Council constituted under any law for the time being in force for the hill areas of the
district of Darjeeling in the State of West Bengal.
3. Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law, extend the
provisions of this Part to the Scheduled Areas and the tribal areas referred to in clause (1) subject
to such exceptions and modifications as may be specified in such law, and no such law shall be
deemed to be an amendment of this Constitution for the purposes of article 368.
243ZD. Committee for district planning.‐

1. There shall be constituted in every State at the district level a District Planning Committee
to consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and the Municipalities in the district and to
prepare a draft development plan for the district as a whole.
2. The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provision with respect to‐

a) The composition of the District Planning Committees;

b) The manner in which the seats in such Committees shall be filled:
c) Provided that not less than four‐fifths of the total number of members of such Committee
shall be elected by, and from amongst, the elected members of the Panchayat at the district level
and of the Municipalities in the district in proportion to the ratio between the population of the
rural areas and of the urban areas in the district;
d) The functions relating to district planning which may be assigned to such Committees;
e) The manner in which the Chairpersons of such Committees shall be chosen.
3. Every District Planning Committee shall, in preparing the draft development plan,‐
a) Have regarded to‐
i. Matters of common interest between the Panchayats and the Municipalities including
spatial planning, sharing of water and other physical and natural resources, the integrated
development of infrastructure and environmental conservation;
ii. The extent and type of available resources whether financial or otherwise;
b) Consult such institutions and organizations as the Governor may, by order, specify.
4. The Chairperson of every District Planning Committee shall forward the development plan,
as recommended by such Committee, to the Government of the State.
243ZE. Committee for Metropolitan planning.‐
1. There shall be constituted in every Metropolitan area a Metropolitan Planning Committee
to prepare a draft development plan for the Metropolitan area as a whole.
2. The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provision with respect to‐
a) The composition of the Metropolitan Planning Committees;
b) The manner in which the seats in such Committees shall be filled:
c) Provided that not less than two‐thirds of the members of such Committee shall be elected
by, and from amongst, the elected members of the Municipalities and Chairpersons of the
Panchayats in the Metropolitan area in proportion to the ratio between the population of the
Municipalities and of the Panchayats in that area;
d) The representation in such Committees of the Government of India and the Government of
the State and of such organisations and institutions as may be deemed necessary for carrying out
the functions assigned to such Committees;
e) The functions relating to planning and coordination for the Metropolitan area which may
be assigned to such Committees;
f) The manner in which the Chairpersons of such Committees shall be chosen.

3. Every Metropolitan Planning Committee shall, in preparing the draft development plan,‐
a) Have regarded to‐
i. The plans prepared by the Municipalities and the Panchayats in the Metropolitan area;
ii. Matters of common interest between the Municipalities and the Panchayats, including
coordinated spatial planning of the area, sharing of water and other physical and natural
resources, the integrated development of infrastructure and environmental conservation;
iii. The overall objectives and priorities set by the Government of India and the Government
of the State;
iv. The extent and nature of investments likely to be made in the Metropolitan area by agencies
of the Government of India and of the Government of the State and other available resources
whether financial or otherwise;
b) Consult such institutions and organisations as the Governor may, by order, specify.
4. The Chairperson of every Metropolitan Planning Committee shall forward the
development plan, as recommended by such Committee, to the Government of the State.
243ZF. Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities.‐
1. Notwithstanding anything in this Part, any provision of any law relating to Municipalities
in force in a State immediately before the commencement of THE CONSTITUTION (Seventy‐
fourth Amendment) Act, 1992, which is inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall continue
to be in force until amended or repealed by a competent Legislature or other competent authority
or until the expiration of one year from such commencement, whichever is earlier:
2. Provided that all the Municipalities existing immediately before such commencement shall
continue till the expiration of their duration, unless sooner dissolved by a resolution passed to that
effect by the Legislative Assembly of that State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative
Council, by each House of the Legislature of that State.
243ZG. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.‐ Notwithstanding anything in this

Constitution,‐
a) The validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the allotment
of seats to such constituencies, made or purporting to be made under article 243ZA shall not be
called in question in any court;
b) No election to any Municipality shall be called in question except by an election petition
presented to such authority and in such manner as is provided for by or under any law made by the
Legislature of a State.

NOTES ON MUNUCIPALITIES
243P. Definitions – In this part, unless the context otherwise requires

1. Committee means a committee constituted under article 243S
2. District means a district in state
3. Metropolitan area means an area having a population of ten lakhs or more, comprised in
one or more districts consisting of two or more municipalities or panchayat of other contiguous
areas.
4. Specified by Governor by public notification to be a metropolitan area for the purposes of
this part
5. Municipal area means the territorial area of municipalities as is notified by the governor
6. Municipalities’ means an institution of self government constituted under article 243Q
7. Panchayat means a panchayat constituted under article 243B.
8. Population means the population as ascertained at the last preceding census of which the
relevant figures have been published.
243Q. Constitution of Municipalities

1. There shall be constituted in every state
a) A Nagar Panchayat (by whatever name called) for a transitional area, that is to say, an area
in transition from a rural area to an urban area
b) A municipal council for a smaller urban areas and
c) A municipal corporation for a larger area, in accordance with the provisions of this part
Provided that a municipality under this clause may not be constituted in such urban area or part
thereof as the governor may, having regard to the size of the area and the municipal services being
provided or proposed to be provided by an industrial establishment in that area and such other
factors as he may deem fit, by public notification, specify to be an industrial township.
2. In this article a territorial area a smaller urban area or a larger urban area means such area
as the governor may, having regard to the population of the area.
3. The density of the population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the
percentage of employment in non agricultural activities, the economic importance or such other
factors as he may deem fit, specify by public notification for the purposes of this part.

243R. Composition of Municipalities

1. Says as provided in clause, all the seats in a municipality shall be filled by persons chosen
by direct election from the territorial constituencies in the municipal area and for this purpose each
municipal area shall be divided into territorial constituencies to be known as wards.
2. The legislature of a state may, by law provide
a) For the representation in a municipality of
I. Persons having special knowledge or experience in Municipal administration
II. The members of the house of the people and the members of the legislative Assembly of
the state representing constituencies which comprise wholly or partly the municipal area
III. The members of the council of states and the members of the legislative council of the state
registered as electors within the municipal area
IV. The chairpersons of the committees constituted under clause (5) of article 243S; provided
that the persons referred to in paragraph (i) shall not have the right to vote in the meetings of the
municipality;
b) The manner of election of the chairperson of a municipality 243S. Constitution and
composition of wards committees etc.‐
1. There shall be constituted wards committees, consisting of one or more wards, within the
territorial area of a municipality having a population of three lakhs or more
2. The legislature of a state may, by law, make provision with respect to
a) The composition and the territorial area of a wards committee
b) The manner in which the seats in a wards committee shall be filled
3. A member of a municipality representing a ward within the territorial area of the wards
committee shall be a member of that committee.
4. Where a wards committee consist of
a) One ward, the member representing that ward in the municipality; or
b) Two or more wards, one of the members representing such wards in the municipality
elected by the members of the wards committee, shall be the chairperson of that committee.
5. Nothing in this part shall be deemed to prevent the legislature of a state from making any
provision for the constitution of committees in addition to the wards committees.

243T. Reservation of seats

1. Seats shall be reserved for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes in every
municipality and the number of seats so reserved shall bear, as nearly as may be.
2. The same proportion to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that
municipality as the population of the scheduled caste in the municipal area of the scheduled tribes
in the municipal areas bears to be the total population of that area and such seats may be allotted
by rotation to different constituencies in a municipality.
3. Not less than one third of the total number of seats reserved under clause
(1) shall be reserved for women belonging to the scheduled castes or, as the case may be, the
scheduled tribes.
4. Not less than one third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the
scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election
in every municipality shall be reserved for women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to
different constituencies in a municipality.
5. The offices of chairpersons in the municipalities shall be reserved for the scheduled castes,
the scheduled tribes and women in such manner as the legislature of state may, by law provide.
6. The reservation of seats under clauses (1) and (2) and the reservation of offices of
chairpersons (other than the reservation for women) under clause (4) shall cease to have effect on
the expiration of the period specified in article 334.
7. Nothing in this part shall prevent the legislature of state from making any provision for
reservation of seats in any municipality or offices of chairpersons in the municipalities in favour
of ward class of citizens.
243U. Duration of Municipalities etc.
1. Every municipality unless sooner dissolved under any law for the time being in force, shall
continue for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer.
2. Provided that a municipality shall be given a reasonable opportunity of being heard before
its dissolution
3. No amendment of any law for the time being in force shall have the effect of causing
dissolution of a municipality at any level, which is functioning immediately before such
amendment, till the expiration of its duration specified in clause (1)
4. An election to constitute a municipality shall be completed
a) Before the expiry of its duration specified in clause (1);
b) Before the expiration of a period of six month from the date of its dissolution:

c) Provided that where the remainder of the period for which the dissolved municipality have
continued is less than six months, it shall not be necessary to hold any election under this clause
for constituting the municipality for such period.
5. A municipality constituted upon the dissolution of a municipality would have continued
under clause (1) had it not been so dissolved.
243V. Disqualification for membership
1. A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as, and for being a member of a
municipality –
a) If he is also disqualified by or under any law for the time being in force for the purpose of
elections to the legislature of the state concerned:
b) Provided that no person shall be disqualified on the ground that he is less than twenty five
years of age, if he has attained the age of 21years.
c) If he is so disqualified by or under any law made by the legislature of the state.
2. If any question arises as to whether a member of a municipality has become subject to any
of the disqualification mentioned in clause (1). The question shall be referred for the decision of
such authority and in such manner as the legislature of a state may, by law provide.
3. 243W.Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.
Subject to the provision of this constitution, the legislature of a state may, by law, endow
a) The municipalities with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to
function as institutions of self-government and such law may contain provisions for the devolution
of powers and responsibilities upon municipalities, subject to such conditions as may be specified
therein, with respect to‐
I. The participation of plans for economic development and social justice;
II. The performance of functions and the implementation of schemes as may be entrusted to
them including those in relation to the matters listed in the twelfth schedule;
b) The committees with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to
carry out the responsibilities conferred upon them including those in relation to the matters listed
in the twelfth schedule.

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CONCISE NOTES ON INDIAN GEOGRAPHY.

1. India is located in the northern hemisphere

1. An area of 3.28 million square km.

India shares its land boundaries with

Two island countries

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

4. The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF INDIA

India can be divided into six physiographic regions.

1) The Northern Mountains (The North and North-eastern Mountains)

2) The Peninsular Plateau

3) Indo Gangetic Plains

5) The Coastal Plains (East & West)

1) The Northern Mountains (The North and North-eastern Mountains)

1. The Himalayas consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges.

(i) Kashmir or North-western Himalayas

(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas

(iii) Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

(iv) Arunachal Himalayas

(v) Eastern Hills and Mountains

(i) Kashmir or North-western Himalayas

Comprise a series of ranges such as

Figure (1) - Western Himalaya

Some Important facts of this region

Important passes of the region are

1. Zoji La on the Great Himalayas

Important fresh lakes

Salt water lakes such as

1. The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region.

(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas

Great Himalaya or Himadri

Himachal or lesser Himalaya

1. The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks.

Some of the important hill stations

The cantonment towns and health resorts

The two distinguishing features of this region

Some important duns

(iii) The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

(iv) The Arunachal Himalayas

(v) The Eastern Hills and Mountains

Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas

Peak Country Height in metres

Mt. Everest Nepal 8848

Kanchenjunga India 8598

Makalu Nepal 848

Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172

Nanga Parbat India 8126

Annapurna Nepal 8078

Nanda Devi India 7817

Kamet India 7756

Namcha Barwa India 775

Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728

THE HIMALAYAS AND OTHER PENINSULAR MOUNTAINS

3. Resulting in the development of faults, folds and thrust plains.

5. Various landforms like (are indicative of these stages)

2) The Peninsular Plateau

(i) The Deccan Plateau

(ii) The Central Highlands

(iii) The Northeastern Plateau