GCSE Psychology

Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1)

GCSE Psychology

Topic Guide 9
Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to
sleep and dream?

CONTENTS
Sleep and dreaming 2
Specification requirements 2
Guidance 3
9.1 Content 3
9.2 Studies 7
Freud (1909) Little Hans: analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy 7
Siffre (1975) Six months alone in a cave 9
9.3 Issues and debates 11
Resources and references 12

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 9 Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to sleep and dream?

Sleep and dreaming – why do you need to sleep and dream?

Specification requirements

This topic is an optional topic and will be examined in Paper 2.

Candidates are expected to demonstrate and apply the knowledge, understanding and
skills described in the content.

To demonstrate their knowledge, candidates should undertake a range of activities,

including the ability to recall, describe and define, as appropriate.

To demonstrate their understanding, candidates should explain ideas and use their
knowledge to apply, analyse, interpret and evaluate, as appropriate.

Candidates may be asked to consider the following issues when evaluating studies:
 validity
 reliability
 generalisability
 ethics
 objectivity
 subjectivity.

Candidates may be required to apply their understanding – for example by responding

to scenarios that are drawn from the topic area and/or associated research – and in
doing this they should use psychological concepts, theories and/or research from within
their studies of sleep and dreaming.

Opportunities for practical activities

Candidates should gain hands-on experience of carrying out ethical, investigative

activities to aid their understanding of this subject. To help centres identify opportunities
for carrying out these activities, studies that can be replicated have been marked with an
asterisk.

Research methods are delivered in Topic 11. However, as a way to aid candidates in
evaluating the studies, centres can encourage them to consider the methodology of the
key studies as they progress through each individual topic. For example, candidates
could consider the generalisability of a single participant sample for testing sleep when
studying Siffre (1975) (9.2.2).

Although candidates will not be directly assessed on practical activities, the experience
they gain will give them a better understanding of this subject and may enhance their
examination performance.

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GCSE Psychology

Guidance

9.1 Content

9.1.1 Understand the functions, features and benefits of sleep, including:

a. the four sleep stages
b. rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
c. the sleep cycle

Candidates should be able to explain the four sleep stages (9.1.1a) and the brain
waves associated with these. Stage 1, which occurs between wakefulness and sleep, and
is sometimes referred to as somnolence, and Stage 2, where consciousness of the
outside world fades and muscle activity decreases, are distinct stages. These are followed
by Stage 3 where a person produces slow brain waves that are interspersed with faster
waves and, finally, Stage 4 where a person is in deep sleep. Often Stages 3 and 4 are
combined when explaining sleep.

Candidates should know that it is in REM sleep (9.1.1b) that dreaming occurs, and that
brain waves reach similar levels of activity to when a person is awake. It may be
interesting for candidates to know that the percentage of REM sleep can differ by age,
with children having more REM sleep than adults. Candidates may also wish to develop
their understanding of the associations between sleep and learning, and sleep and
memory. Centres may wish to teach activation synthesis theory (9.1.5) at this stage
as an explanation of how dreaming is considered to be a result of brain activity during
REM sleep.

The sleep cycle (9.1.1c) is the process by which people will pass through the four
sleep stages (9.1.1a) and REM sleep (9.1.1b) in succession several times during a full
sleep. If a person is missing any of the stages of sleep it can negatively affect their
physiological and psychological functioning. If they are able to, candidates may find it
interesting to use a sleep ‘app’ to track their own sleep cycles. Health and wellbeing
benefits of sleep should be explored with the candidates, for example sleep inertia.

Application of these concepts to stimulus materials would benefit candidates. Centres

could develop scenarios and examples from which candidates can identify the key
features and processes of sleep evident in the scenario and describe them in relation to
the key concepts.

Andy is taking part in a sleep study. His sleep cycle is being monitored by a sleep
specialist using a brain wave monitoring machine. At the moment, the machine is
recording slow, delta waves. What stage of sleep is Andy in?

9.1.2 Understand the internal and external influences on sleep, including

strengths and weaknesses of sleep cycle explanations:
a. bodily rhythms, to include circadian and ultradian rhythms
b. hormones, to include pineal gland and melatonin
c. zeitgebers, to include light

Candidates should know the difference between the types of bodily rhythms (9.1.2a),
for example that an ultradian rhythm takes place over a day, such as a sleep–wake
cycle, whereas a circadian rhythm is an internal process, such as the ‘body clock’. Cues
from external zeitgebers (9.1.2c), such as light, can influence circadian rhythms and
result in sleep problems.

Candidates should understand the role of hormones (9.1.2b) such as melatonin, which
is made in the pineal gland. Candidates should be able to explain that this is often

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 9 Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to sleep and dream?

referred to as the sleep hormone, with levels increasing in late evening and throughout
the night to bring about sleep, and reducing before waking. Candidates could use
examples such as jet-lag, shift-work or seasonal affective disorder (SAD) to aid their
understanding of how melatonin, zeitgebers and bodily rhythms interact.

Candidates may benefit from understanding that there is a need for sleep–wake
homeostasis as a result of the interactions between internal and external influences on
sleep. Therefore if someone has not had enough sleep they will feel tired even if
zeitgebers of light indicate it is not dark enough to sleep. Centres may wish to deliver the
content of the study by Siffre (1975) (9.2.2) as part of the content of this section.

Centres can lead into sleep disorders (9.1.3) at this point, making the connection to
melatonin as a treatment for sleep disorders such as insomnia.

Application of these concepts to stimulus materials would benefit candidates. Centres

could develop scenarios and examples from which candidates can identify the key
features and processes of sleep evident in the scenario and describe them in relation to
the key concepts.

It is 9.00pm and dark outside, so Andy is feeling tired. What will be happening to Andy’s
melatonin levels?

Internal and external influences on sleep can be evaluated by looking at which has a
more lasting effect on sleep; for example, light or the ‘body clock’. Supporting evidence
can be used where available, such as Siffre (1975) (9.2.2). Equally, supporting
evidence can be used where it shows that the theory or explanation may be inaccurate.

Candidates can also judge how useful the theory or explanation is, such as whether there
is an application to society; for example, treatments for sleep disorders that stem from
an understanding of hormones. Some candidates may benefit from being extended by
drawing on the concepts delivered in the ‘issues and debates’ content, where themes
such as how psychology has changed over time could be used to help evaluate
explanations.

9.1.3 Understand symptoms and explanations of sleep disorders, including:

a. insomnia
b. narcolepsy

Candidates should be able to explain the main symptoms of insomnia (9.1.3a) and
narcolepsy (9.1.3b), along with explanations of what these conditions are, how they
affect a person and possible causes. It may be beneficial to make the link to 9.1.2 and
encourage more able candidates to underpin their explanations of these conditions with
knowledge and understanding of the internal and external influences on sleep. Both
disorders are explained well on the NHS website.

For insomnia (9.1.3a), candidates should be aware that this can be a short- or long-
term problem and is a common sleep disorder. Narcolepsy (9.1.3b) is less common and
is a long-term neurological disorder. It is linked to the brain’s inability to control the
sleep–wake cycle, hence causing people to fall asleep unexpectedly and without warning.

Application of sleep disorders to stimulus materials would benefit candidates. Centres

could develop scenarios and examples from which candidates can identify the key
components of sleep disorders evident in the scenario and explain them in relation to the
theory.

Andy has been diagnosed with narcolepsy. What can cause narcolepsy? What symptoms
might Andy have?

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GCSE Psychology

9.1.4 Understand the Freudian theory of dreaming (Freud, 1900), including

strengths and weaknesses of the theory:
a. manifest content
b. latent content
c. dreamwork

Candidates should be able to understand that the Freudian theory of dreaming is

underpinned by the concept that dreams are a result of unconscious thoughts. They
should be able to explain the key features of the theory, for example that manifest
content (9.1.4a) is what can be remembered from a dream, such as the context, people
and so on, and is used to disguise the latent content (9.1.4b) of a dream – the
elements that people cannot usually recall and the symbolism that gives the real
meaning of a dream.

Dreamwork (9.1.4c) is the process by which the ‘hidden wish’ in the latent content of a
dream can be found. Candidates should understand that dreamwork assumes that the
latent content becomes manifest through the processes of condensation, displacement,
representability and secondary elaboration, and dreamwork therefore uses the manifest
content to uncover the latent content that has been adapted through these processes.

Centres may wish to deliver the content of the study Freud (1909) Little Hans (9.2.1)
to highlight how Freud developed his ideas about Little Hans’ phobia of horses, drawing
on, amongst other aspects, the dreams reported by Little Hans to his father.

Application of the Freudian theory of dreaming to stimulus materials would benefit

candidates. Centres could develop scenarios and examples from which candidates can
identify the key components of Freudian dreaming evident in the scenario and explain
them in relation to the concepts in this topic.

Mike woke up and remembered his dream. He had dreamt that he was climbing a
mountain which was covered in snow made out of shredded paper. Every time Mike got
halfway up the mountain, he was pushed down to the bottom again by a large panda
bear. Mike told his friend at work about the dream and she said it didn’t mean anything.
However, Mike believes his dream does have meaning. How would Freudian dream
theory explain what Mike can remember of his dream?

The Freudian theory of dreaming can be evaluated through comparisons to other models,
theories and explanations. For example, in contrast, the activation synthesis theory
suggests that dreams are a product of brain wave activity during REM sleep and not
unconscious processes. Supporting evidence can be used where available, such as Freud
(1909) Little Hans (9.2.1). Equally, supporting evidence can be used where it shows
that the theory or explanation may be inaccurate, such as Hobson and McCarley’s
(1977) activation synthesis theory (9.1.5) of dreaming.

Candidates can also judge how useful the theory or explanation is, such as whether there
is an application to society; for example, therapies to help people with fears, phobias or
anxieties. Some candidates may benefit from being extended by drawing on the concepts
delivered in the ‘issues and debates’ content, where themes such as nature versus
nurture could be used to help evaluate explanations.

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 9 Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to sleep and dream?

9.1.5 Understand activation synthesis theory (Hobson and McCarley, 1977),

including strengths and weaknesses of the theory:
a. random activation
b. sensory blockade
c. movement inhibition

Candidates should understand that Hobson and McCarley (1977) proposed activation
synthesis theory (9.1.5) as a neurobiological explanation of dreaming, claiming dreams
are what happens when people try to make sense of the brain activity that happens
during REM sleep. Centres may wish to deliver this within REM sleep (9.1.1b) or could
deliver this independently as an explanation of dreaming.

In activation synthesis theory, dreaming is considered to be a product of the random

activation (9.1.5a) of brain activity during REM sleep that is then synthesised into a
sequence order to make sense. Candidates should be able to explain that a neuron is
‘randomly activated’, which is said to link to a memory or thought.

During REM sleep a sensory blockade (9.1.5b) prevents any information from the
senses entering through sensory input (sight, sound, taste, touch or smell). Movement
inhibition (9.1.5c) is where the body is unable to make any physical movements.
Candidates should understand that sensory blockade and movement inhibition leave a
person with no external input and no physical output. Candidates should be able to link
these concepts to their understanding of REM brain wave activity.

Application of this explanation of dreaming to stimulus materials would benefit

candidates. Centres could develop scenarios and examples from which candidates can
identify the key components of activation synthesis evident in the scenario and explain
them in relation to the concepts in this topic.

Mike woke up and remembered his dream. He had dreamt that he was climbing a
mountain which was covered in snow made out of shredded paper. Every time Mike got
halfway up the mountain, he was pushed down to the bottom again by a large panda
bear. Mike told his friend at work about the dream and she said it must have some
hidden meaning. However, Mike does not believe his dream has any meaning. How would
activation synthesis theory explain Mike’s dream?

Activation synthesis theory could be evaluated through comparison to the Freudian

theory of dreaming: although it explains how dreams are formed it does not explain what
purpose they serve. Supporting evidence can be used where available and, equally, can
be used where it shows that the theory or explanation may be inaccurate, for example
evidence from lucid dreaming.

Candidates can also judge how useful the theory or explanation is, such as whether there
is an application to society. Some candidates may benefit from being extended by
drawing on the concepts delivered in the ‘issues and debates’ content, where themes
could be used to evaluate explanations.

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GCSE Psychology

9.2 Studies

Candidates should understand the aims, procedures and findings (results and
conclusions), and strengths and weaknesses of:

9.2.1 Freud (1909) Little Hans: analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy

9.2.2 Siffre (1975) Six months alone in a cave

Study One

Freud (1909) Little Hans: analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy.

This case study has been summarised to highlight the examples of dreamwork. It may benefit candidates to
understand that the case study formulated ideas about the Oedipus complex through methods other than just
dream analysis.

Aim(s)

To describe the course of an illness and the subsequent recovery of a five-year-old boy.

Content
Sample: one child studied as a case study from three to five years old.

First reports on the behaviour and actions of Hans began in 1906 and were recorded by
his father and explained to Freud for his analysis (as is the case throughout the study).
During this time, Hans developed a phobia of horses, which was explored through his
father’s reports to Freud of conversations with Hans, phantasies that Hans had, and his
dreams.

Hans’ dreams are recorded from 1907 onwards – one year into the case study – where
previously recorded data has focussed on the interactions, questions and behaviour of
Hans.

“Today when I was asleep I thought I was at Gmunden1 with Mariedl2.”

As Hans’s father was telling his mother the dream in his presence, she corrected him,
saying: “Not with Mariedl, but quite alone with Mariedl.”
Source: Freud (1909) p.12

Freud interpreted this dream to mean that Hans wanted to go back to the Gmunden
resort and spend time with his female friend Mariedl. It later transpired that there were
horses at Gmunden that Hans talked about, mainly describing his fear of them biting
him.

“I say, last night I thought: some one said; ‘who wants to come to me?’ Then some one
said; ‘I do’. Then he had to make him widdle.”
Further questions made it clear that there was no visual content whatever in this dream,
and that it was of the purely auditory type.
Source: Freud (1909) p.19

Freud believed this was the first dream Hans had shared that was unrecognisable
because of distortion. However, Freud interpreted this (assisted by Hans’s father) to
represent a game of forfeits Hans had been playing. He believed that the speech heard
by Hans derived from speech heard/spoken in the days preceding the dream.

1
Gmunden is a holiday resort in the Austrian lakes.
2
Mariedl is a 13-year-old girl who used to play with Little Hans

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 9 Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to sleep and dream?

Hans (aged four and three-quarters) woke up one morning in tears. Asked why he was
crying, he said to his mother: “When I was asleep I thought you were gone and I had no
Mummy to coax [caress/cuddle] with.”
Source: Freud (1909) p.23

This was interpreted as an anxiety dream, where Hans showed a fear of losing his
mother, highlighting that his affection towards his mother had intensified.

Shortly after this dream, Hans was with his mother when he saw a horse and became
anxious that the horse would bite him. Freud claimed this was Hans’s anxiety about
losing his mother being displaced onto an object (the horse).

Discussion
The dream representing being made to ‘widdle’ expressed a wish that one of his female
friends should help him with his ‘widdler’. This is interpreted to show Hans’s sexual
curiosity developing.

His dream of his mother leaving was interpreted as an expression of his fear of losing his
mother, as he was in the process of resolving the Oedipus complex (where a boy
fantasises about his mother and fears his father will find out and castrate him). Hans
expressed this complex through play and phantasy, for example playing ‘daddy’ and
telling his own father that the children’s ‘mummy’ in the game was his own ‘mummy’.

This fear of losing his mother was displaced as his phobia of horses very soon after this
dream of being left without her. The horse also became a representation of his father
who Hans was believed to fear because of his own affections and sexual curiosity towards
his mother.

Once Hans had resolved the Oedipus complex and passed through his castration fears,
his phobia of horses ended.

Conclusions
Hans’s anxiety and phobia were a result of ‘castration complex’ and were resolved
through phantasies that Hans considered and the dreams he had which led to the
resolution of the Oedipus complex in 1908.

Freud claimed that Hans was not a normal child, that he was prone to neurosis, and
therefore stated that his findings from the analysis might not apply to other children.
However, Hans returned in 1922 to meet with Freud and was a normal, healthy
individual.

Candidates may be asked to consider the following issues when evaluating studies:
● validity
● reliability
● generalisability
● ethics
● objectivity
● subjectivity.

Information for centres

It is recommended that, wherever possible, centres combine the use of the summary of
studies resource with the original study. However, where studies are not freely available
or easily accessible, the summary resource is designed to help provide key starting
points to enable teachers to deliver the content.

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GCSE Psychology

Study Two

Siffre (1975) Six months alone in a cave.

Aim(s)
To investigate the effects of living underground in a cave without external cues on the
24-hour sleep–wake cycle.

Procedure
Sample: one male participant aged 33 years.

Siffre lived in an underground cave in Texas for six months where he was isolated from
the sun and other reminders of the passing of time.

He entered the cave on 14th February and left on 5th September (although the latter
four weeks were not spent in isolation as he was being tested for other physiological and
psychological effects of the study).

Electrodes were used to monitor heart, brain and muscle activity during the time he
spent in the cave.

Each time he awakened, he telephoned a team above ground to let them know he was
awake. To ensure that it was not clear what time of day it was, the telephone
conversations were kept short. There was light from lamps in the cave and these were
switched on and off when Siffre telephoned to say he was awake or feeling sleepy.

During the awake periods, Siffre conducted tests on himself.

These included:
 recording blood pressure
 tasks to measure mental acuity
 tasks to measure memory
 tasks to measure physical dexterity, including:
o a cycle machine to cycle 3 miles
o firing a pellet rifle to test coordination
o threading beads on string.

He shaved daily, keeping and weighing the beard trimmings to test for a male hormonal
cycle.

Siffre needed to clean the cave daily to remove a white dust from the decay of the rocks
as it was a risk to his health (causing a pulmonary disease called histoplasmosis).

Result(s)
Several psychological and physiological deteriorations were recorded:
 memory became poor
 confusing thoughts, emotions and panic
 low mood
 poor dexterity.

Siffre’s sleep–wake cycle ranged from 18 to 51¾ hours, although each cycle felt like a
‘day’ to him. A 48-hour sleep–wake cycle was common in two different extended periods
of time. Time spent awake was usually far greater than time spent asleep during most
sleep–wake cycles.

At the end of the sleep component of the study, Siffre believed it to be mid-July,
although it was in fact 10th August.

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 9 Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to sleep and dream?

Conclusion
Siffre experienced lasting effects of his time in the cave away from daylight and sleep–
wake cycle zeitgebers, including memory lapses and weakened eyesight. This highlights
the importance of cues and bodily rhythms.

There is a tendency for the sleep–wake cycle to become a 48-hour cycle rather than the
24-hour cycle that is normal in an environment with zeitgebers and external cues.

The study highlighted potential serious concerns for NASA in regard to long-range space
travel where the effects of disruption to the sleep–wake cycle as a result of isolation from
external cues could result in grave deterioration of manual and mental dexterity.

Candidates may be asked to consider the following issues when evaluating studies:
● validity
● reliability
● generalisability
● ethics
● objectivity
● subjectivity.

Information for centres

It is recommended that, wherever possible, centres combine the use of the summary of
studies resource with the original study. However, where studies are not freely available
or easily accessible, the summary resource is designed to help provide key starting
points to enable teachers to deliver the content.

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GCSE Psychology

9.3 Issues and debates

The issues and debates content delivered in each compulsory topic, including research
methods, is designed to enable candidates to understand the wider issues in psychology
that underpin psychological knowledge and research.

Issues and debates will be specifically assessed in Paper 1 through an extended open-
response question.

The issue of ‘the contribution of psychology to an understanding of the individual’

has been placed within the compulsory topic area of development through morality.

The issue of ‘reductionism/holism’ has been placed within the compulsory topic area
of memory.

The issue of ‘nature/nurture’ has been placed within the compulsory topic area of
psychological problems.

The issue of ‘how psychological knowledge and ideas change over time and how
these inform our understanding of behaviour’ has been placed within the
compulsory topic area of the brain and neuropsychology.

The issue of ‘the contribution of psychology to an understanding of individual,

social and cultural diversity’ has been placed within the compulsory topic area of
social influence.

The issue of ‘develop an understanding of ethical issues in psychology’ has been

placed within the compulsory topic area of research methods because it allows for links
to be made across all research methodology.

Candidates can, however, draw upon issues and debates in their evaluations and
extended open essays across each topic area (compulsory and/or optional), and while
this is not an expected feature of responses, it may – if appropriate, accurate and
relevant – be creditworthy. For example, they may wish to draw upon ethical
considerations when evaluating key studies.

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 9 Sleep and dreaming – Why do you need to sleep and dream?

Resources and references

Studies

9.2.1 Freud (1909) Little Hans: analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy

Freud, S. (1909) translated by Strachey, J. (2001) (ed.) in Volume X: Two Case

Histories: ‘Little Hans’ and ‘Rat Man’. The standard edition of the complete works of
Sigmund Freud. London: Vintage.

http://clearwalksoft.com/society-social-sciences/41053-the-complete-psychological-
works-of-sigmund-freud-two-case-histories-quotlittle-hansquot-and-quotthe-rat-
manquot-v-10.html

http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/Sigmund-Freud-
The-Complete-Works.pdf

http://www.garysturt.free-online.co.uk/freud.htm

9.2.2 Siffre (1975) Six months alone in a cave

Siffre, M. (1975). Six months alone in a cave. National Geographic Magazine. 1975; 147:
426–445.

http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/30/foer.php

Resources for development

Sources suggested here are additional guidance for centres to aid with teaching resources and ideas. These are
not compulsory components and centres should select delivery content as appropriate to their candidates.
Centres can draw upon any research evidence to support evaluations and explanations of topic areas. This list
is not exhaustive.

Sleep and dreaming

https://www.macalester.edu/academics/psychology/whathap/UBNRP/Website_REM_Slee
p/index.html

http://www.sleepdex.org/

http://www.psychteacher.co.uk/biologicalrhythms/circadian_rhythms.html

http://www.slideserve.com/hal/sleep-and-sleep-disorders

https://sophpsych.wordpress.com/2012/03/25/the-role-of-endogenous-pacemakers-and-
exogenous-zeitgebers-in-biological-rhythms/

https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/10576/subtopic/40022/

Allan, H.J. and Robert, M. (1997) The brain as a dream state generator: an activation-
synthesis hypothesis of the dream process. Am J Psychiatr; 134: 1335–1348.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f1af/886bfac2ee058ddaf1a6fb61dabe08e19b08.pdf

Sleep disorders
http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Insomnia/Pages/Introduction.aspx

http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/narcolepsy/Pages/Introduction.aspx

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GCSE Psychology

https://sleepfoundation.org/

https://psychcentral.com/disorders/sleep/

Teacher resource sharing

Further suggested resources can be found in the ‘Getting Started’ publication, where a
scheme of work has been provided.

http://www.psychlotron.org.uk
http://www.psychteacher.co.uk
http://www.resourcd.com

Teacher and student resource sites

http://www.simplypsychology.org/ – this website gives an overview of many of the key

areas.

https://www.psychologytoday.com/ – this is an online magazine (with an option to

subscribe) that brings psychological theories into modern, contemporary issues.

https://play.google.com/store/search?q=psychology%20free%20books&c=books&hl=en
– this site has a number of free short books about key areas of psychology.

http://www.open.edu/openlearn/body-mind/psychology – the ‘OpenLearn’ programme

offers freely accessible resources provided by the Open University.

http://allpsych.com/ – a useful site with books, articles and summaries of some of the
key concepts.

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJY-uHOH9KVU6 –
Psychology ‘Crash Course’ is a YouTube channel that provides 40 short overviews of
psychological issues.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b008cy1j – ‘BBC Mind Changers’ is a series of radio

episodes (that can also be downloaded) about key psychologists, their work, and the
development of psychology over time.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006qxx9 – ‘BBC In the Mind’ is a series of radio

episodes that focus on the human mind using the application of psychological concepts
and theories.

*All weblinks included here have been checked as active at publication, however the nature of online
resources is that they can be removed or replaced by webhosting services and so it cannot be guaranteed that
these sites will remain available throughout the life of the qualification.

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